CN Unit 1
CN Unit 1
CN Unit 1
Computer Networks
Introduction
Types of Networks
A local area network is generally called as LANs; these are privately-owned networks
within a single Building or campus of up to a few kilometers in size.
LANs are widely used to connect personal computers and work stations in company
Offices and factories to share resources like printers, and to exchange information.
LANs are different from other networks by three characteristics (1).With their size,
(2).With their transmission technology. (3).their topology.
LANs run at a speed of 10 to 100 Mbps (mega bits/sec)
LANs use a transmission Technology consisting of a single cable to which all the
systems are attached, Like a telephone lines.
Here it uses IEEE 802.3 popularly known as Ethernet, and IEEE 802.5 IBM Token ring
Various Topologies are used for broadcasting the LANs. The most common LAN
topologies are bus, ring, and star.
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a network with a size between a LAN and a WAN.
Both the buses contain Head-End which initiates the tran*smission. The traffic of right
Side of the sender uses upper bus. And to send left side uses lower one.
It is designed for customers who need a high-speed connectivity.
The range of MAN is 100M to 10KM
These are private and public owned networks
The job of the subnet is to carry messages from system to the system, just like a
Telephone which carries Words from speaker to speaker in most wide area networks
the subnet consists of two distinct components transmission lines and switching
elements. Transmission lines are also called as circuits, channels or trunks move bits
between machines. The switching elements are specialized computers used to connect
two or more transmission lines connecting multiple networks known as routers.
Network Topologies
Topology: The Physical arrangement of computers which are connected to each other
through via communication channel is called topology.
Bus Topology:
Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is
connected to single cable. When it has exactly two endpoints, then it is
called Linear Bus topology.
2. RING Topology
3. STAR Topology
In this type of topology all the computers are connected to a single hub through a
cable.
This hub is the central node and all others nodes are connected to the central
node.
Reference model
It describes how information from a software application in one computer moves
through a physical medium to the software application in other computer.
Reference models are two types 1. OSI 2.TCP/IP
OSI Reference Model
It stands for open system inter connection. It was developed by International standard
organization in 1984.It consist of 7 layers.
1. Application Layer 2.Presentation Layer 3.Session Layer 4.Transport Layer 5.Network
Layer 6.Data Link Layer 7.Physical Layer
Layers 1, 2, and 3-physical, data link, and network layers are known as
Networksupport layers
Layers 5, 6, and 7-session, presentation, and application layers are known as the
Usersupport layers
1. Physical Layer
The main functionality of the physical layer is to transmit the individual bits from
one node to another node.
It is the lowest layer of the OSI model.
It establishes, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
It transmit the raw bits over a communication channel
If system at one side sends one bit and other side receive one bit
Framing: It divides the stream of bits received from network layer into data units
called Frame. It contains header, Data and trailer.
Physical addressing: The data link layer adds a header to the frame that
consists of a destination address.
Flow control: It is the main function of the data link layer. The constant data
rate is maintained on both sender and receiver so no data get corrupted.
Error Control: It is achieved by adding calculated value CRC (Cycle Redundancy
Check) it is placed to data link layer. The trailer which is added to message to
frame before it is sending to physical layer. if any error seems to occur the
receiver sends acknowledgement to retransmit of the corrupted frame.
Access Control: When two or more devices are connected to the same
communication channel then the data link layer protocols are used to determine
which device control over the link at has given time.
3. Network Layer:
4. Transport Layer:
The Transport layer is a fourth layer of OSI reference model.
The main responsibility of the transport layer is to transfer the data completely.
It receives the data from the upper layer and converts them into smaller units
known as segments.
This layer can be termed as an end-to-end layer as it provides a point-to-point
connection between source and destination to deliver the data reliably. This
layer used two protocols are TCP and UDP
Functions of a Transport Layer:
Segmentation: When the transport layer receives the message from the upper
layer, it divides the message into multiple segments, and each segment is
assigned with a sequence number that uniquely identifies each segment. When
the message has arrived at the destination, then the transport layer reassembles
the message based on their sequence numbers.
Connection control: Transport layer provides two services Connection-oriented
service and connectionless service. A connectionless service treats each segment
as an individual packet, and they all travel in different routes to reach the
destination. A connection-oriented service makes a connection with the transport
layer at the destination machine before delivering the packets. In connection-
oriented service, all the packets travel in the single route.
Flow control: The transport layer also responsible for flow control but it is
performed end-to-end rather than across a single link.
Error control: The transport layer is also responsible for Error control. The
sender transport layer ensures that message reach at the destination without
any error.
5. Session Layer:
Dialog control: Session layer acts as a dialog controller that creates a dialog
between two processes or we can say that it allows the communication between
two processes which can be either half-duplex or full-duplex.
6. Presentation Layer:
A Presentation layer is mainly concerned with the syntax and semantics of the
information exchanged between the two systems.
7. Application Layer
It is the 7th and top most layer of OSI reference model
It handles issues such as network transparency, resource allocation, etc.
This layer provides the network services to the end-users.
Disadvantages
The OSI model is a theoretical model. Sometimes it can be a difficulty if the
appropriate technology is not available.
The OSI restricts its practical implementation.
The OSI model is a very complex model.
The initial implementation of the OSI model is slow.
The initial implementation of the OSI model is costly.
There is inter dependence among the OSI layers. OSI layers cannot work in
parallel. Each upcoming layer needs to wait to receive the data from its
predecessor layer. For an example the application layer receives the data from
the presentation layer and the presentation layer needs to wait to receive the
data from the session layer and so on.
The duplication of services in various layers is a problem in the OSI model. Some
Services are offered by multiple layers. Some of these services are mentioned
below;
Flow control
Error control
Addressing etc.
OSI TCP/IP
The OSI model was developed first, and The protocols were created first and
then protocols were created to fit the then built the TCP/IP model.
network architecture’s needs.
The OSI model represents defines It does not mention the services,
administration, interfaces and interfaces, and protocols.
conventions. It describes clearly which
layer provides services.
The smallest size of the OSI header is 5 The smallest size of the TCP/IP header
bytes. is 20 bytes.
Twisted pair:
.
It is used for transmitting either analog or digital signals
The brand with depends upon the thickness of the wire and the distance
travel
Twisted cables are two types 1.Unshield Twisted Pair
2. Shied twisted pair
Unshield Twisted Pair
It is one of the most popular LAN cables
It consist of 4 twisted pair of copper wires
Optical Fiber
A fiber optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the
structure of light signals. In fiber optics, semiconductor lasers transmit
data in the form of light along with hair-thin glass (optical) fibers at the
speed of light (186,000 miles second) with no significant loss of intensity
over very long distances. The system includes fiber optic cables that are
made of tiny threads of glass or plastic.
Fiber optic cable support two modes of propagating light ,They are
Multimode: In this mode many beams from a light source traverse along
multiple paths and multiple angles.
Single mode: The beams propagate almost horizontally LED or Laser acts
as the source converting electric pulse to light pluses and photodiode acts
as receiver doing vice versa.
Core: The optical fiber consists of a narrow strand of glass or plastic known as a
core. A core is a light transmission area of the fiber. The more the area of the
core, the lighter will be transmitted into the fiber.
Cladding: The concentric layer of glass is known as cladding. The main
functionality of the cladding is to provide the lower refractive index at the core
interface as to cause the reflection within the core so that the light waves are
transmitted through the fiber.
Large Bandwidth − As the light arrays have a very high frequency in the
GHz range, the optical fiber bandwidth is vast. This allows the
transmission of more numbers of channels. Therefore, the information-
carrying capacity of an optical fiber is much higher than that of a Co-axial
cable.
High Cost − The cable and the interfaces are associatively more expensive than
those of other guided media.
Unidirectional light propagation − since the optical transmission is inherently
unidirectional two-way communication requires either two fibers or two
frequency bands on one fiber.
Installation and Maintenance − Fiber is different technology requiring skills
most engineers do not occupy.
Radio Waves:
Terrestrial Transmission:
Terrestrial microwave transmission is a method of transmitting a
concentrated and focused beam of a radio signal from one ground-based
microwave transmission antenna to another.
Microwaves are electromagnetic waves with frequencies ranging from 1GHz
to 1000GHz.
Microwaves are unidirectional because the transmitting and receiving
antennas must be aligned, resulting in narrowly focused waves produced
by the sending antenna.
Antennas are installed on towers in this example to deliver a beam to
another antenna located kilometers distant.
It is based on line-of-sight transmission, which means that the antennas
installed on the towers are in direct sight of each other.
Satellite Transmission
A satellite is a physical entity that orbits the Earth at a fixed altitude.
Satellite communication is more dependable now a day since it is more
adaptable than cable and fiber optic technologies.
Using satellite communication, we can connect with any location on the
planet.
Advantages of Satellite Microwave Transmission:
A satellite microwave has a larger coverage area than a terrestrial
microwave.
The satellite’s transmission cost is independent of the distance from the
centre of the coverage region.
In mobile and wireless communication applications, satellite
communication is employed.
It is simple to set up.
It is utilized in many different applications, including weather forecasting,
radio/TV signal transmission, mobile communication, and so on.
Disadvantages of Satellite Microwave Transmission:
Satellite design and development need more time and money.
The satellite must be monitored and operated on a regular basis in order
to remain in orbit.
The satellite has a lifespan of 12-15 years. As a result, another launch of
the satellite is required before it becomes inoperable.
Infrared Waves