HISTORICAL BACKGROUND, IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGIES AND PERSONALITIES OF

THE STUDY OF FINGERPRINT

IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGIES

Important Terms

1. Fingerprint- as an impression is the reproduction on some smooth surface of the pattern or design

formed by the ridges on the inside of the end joint of the fingers and thumb, through the medium of

ink or any coloring substance capable of producing visibility.

2. Fingerprint as a science- is the identification of person by means of the ridges appearing on the

fingers, on the palms and on the soles of the feet.

3. Palm print- the impression or reproduction left on any material by the friction skin of the palms.

4. Footprint/Toe print- the impression or reproduction left on any material by the friction skin of the

foot/feet and toe/toes.

5. Friction skin- the skin on inner hands and fingers, and on the bottom of the feet and toes, which is

characterized by alternating strips of raised ridges and furrows arranged in a variety of patterns.

6. Furrow- the portion of the skin lower and between the ridges.

7. Friction ridge- the raised portion of the skin that leaves the impression or reproduction.

8. Dactyloscopy- is the identification of a person through the examination and comparison of

fingerprints. It is also the classification of fingerprints. It came from two Greek words “dactyl”

means finger and “copy” study.

It is the identification of a person through the examination and comparison of fingerprints.

It is the study of fingerprints as means of identification. A Greek term that translates as “to view

the fingers”.

9. Dactylography- is the process of analyzing fingerprints. It is the study of identification by means of

fingerprint. A Greek term that translates as “finger writing”.

10. Dermatoglyphics- it is the study of lines, tracing the designs of the ridges of the papillary skin. A

Latin term that translates as “skin carving”.

11. Forensic Science- this includes relating to or dealing with the application of scientific knowledge to

legal problems. The application can be in one or more of many specific fields of the study or branch of
 specialized knowledge such as science, technology, medicine or other area of knowledge used to assist

courts to resolve disputes, whether criminal, civil, or administrative.

It is the scientific investigation into matters pertaining to law in the course of a crime. The practice

of matching people to people, or people to places, during the investigation of a crime.

12. Identification- in forensic science is simply answering the question “what is it?” while individualization

is the uniqueness of an object to the execution of all other objects like itself. E.g. “What kind of salt

is it?”

13. Exemplars- these are the objects that are commonly encountered in investigations or the possible

real object that created the evidence.

E.g. If a tire tread is found at the scene, it becomes evidence. If a suspected car is uncovered in the

investigation, the tires on the car can serve as exemplars, and each produced will be tested and

measured to see if it could have produced the tire tread from the scene.

14. Criminalistics- it is the application of forensic science to criminal matters.

Fingerprint Division

1. Comprehensive compilation of all fingerprint records (criminal or non-criminal) and latent impressions

or crime scene prints.

2. Personal identification and detection of wanted persons.

3. Identification of illegal entrance and undesirable aliens.

4. Identification of persons suffering from amnesia, victims of calamities/accidents and unidentified

cadavers.

5. Prevent impersonation.

6. Aids the judiciary in penal treatment.

7. To provide technical assistance on matters pertaining to a conclusive and positive criminal/personal

identification.

8. To examine and identify various kinds of fingerprint evidence collected from the crime scene.

9. To update and maintain system of keeping of fingerprint records.

The primary function of the fingerprint identification division is the collection and scientific examination of

fingerprint evidence of criminal in nature and the compilation of laboratory report, preparation of expert

testimonies in court trials.

 The secondary function is the maintenance of fingerprint file, criminal and non-criminal, classification,

searching and filing of fingerprint cards submitted from the different police stations throughout the country.

General Classification of Dactyloscopy

Personal Identification

1. Civil identification of the newly born.

a. Serve to give evidence

b. Serve in the establishment of rules as applied to the penitentiary system

2. Anthropology- deals with the comparative study of human and animal prints

a. Prints of quadro- pedal animals

b. Prints of two-legged animals

3. Clinical dactyloscopy- effect if any on the appearance of fingerprints especially those with illness that

disturbed as to appearance by their component characteristic remain.

Example: Leprosy, cancer of the skin/skin diseases

The Anatomy of Fingerprint

Fingerprint can be regarded as a special category of mark evidence. The skin is the largest organ of the body.

It provides our first line of defense to infection and the mechanism for our sense of touch. Friction skin

provides grip to the hands and feet. In fact, the same friction skin ridges that allow you to hold on an object.

“You do not always leave fingerprints”. People with every dry skin may not make fingerprints when they pick up

an object. The same is true for someone who recently wasted or dried his or her hands. (Fisher, Tilstone,

Woytocicz, 2009)

HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF FINGER PRINTING

PRIMITIVE KNOWLEDGE

Egypt

The earliest evidence of ridge detail on the hands and feet of humans was seen in the 4,000 years old

mummies of ancient Egypt. The hands and feet of mummies have been examined on numerous occasions and

they confirmed the presence of ridge detail on the mummies’ digits. China
 It was a common practice for the Chinese to use inked fingerprints on official documents, land scales,

contracts, loans and acknowledgements of debt. The oldest existing documents so endorsed date from the 3 rd

century B.C. and it was still an effective practice until recent times. Emperor Ts-In-She (246-210 B.C.) is

reported as being the first Chinese Emperor to use clay finger seals for sealing documents. The documents of

the time were wooden tablets or whittled pieces of bamboo bound together with strings. The seal itself was a

small dollop of clay. A carved stamp with fingerprint was embossed on the other to prove authenticity.

With the advent of silk and paper “hand prints” became the most common method of ensuring the genuineness

of a contract. The right hand was simply traced or stamped onto a document. The anthropometric values of

hand size and shape, along with a signature, were often enough to ensure authenticity.

During 1975 in Yven Ming Country in China, bamboo strips were found describing a trial reported to have taken

place during Qin Dynasty (300 B.C.). During a theft trial, handprint were entered as evidence.

Another anthropometric method used in early China was the “Deed of Hand Mark.” This method involved

marking of flexion crease location of each phalangeal joint of the right hand onto a document. In some cases,

the whole hand was traced and the flexion creases of the fingers added to the tracing.

Other methods of identification used in ancient times are still used today. The Chinese put notches randomly

along the sides of the writing tablets of duplicate contracts. The notches could be physically matched by

holding the tablets together of some future time to ensure authenticity. This was described by the Chinese

historian Kia-kung Yen in 650 A.D. While writing about an earlier time, he said: “Wooden tablets were inscribed

with the terms of the contract and notches were cut into sides at the identical places so that the tablets

could later be matched; thus proving them genuine; the significance of the notches was the same as that of the

fingerprint of the present time.” The comparison of the use of notches on tablets to the use of fingerprints

established that fingerprints were used to identify people in 650 A.D.

Early in the 12th century in the novel, “The Story of the River Bank,” fingerprinting found itself already in the

criminal procedure of China; and in the 16 th century, a custom prevailed in connection with the sale of children.

Palm and sole impressions were stamped on deeds of sale to prevent impersonation.

Japan

Legal papers were marked in ink using the top of the thumb and nail. While nail stamping cannot be considered

a method of friction ridge identification. A Japanese Historian, Kamagusu Minakata further commented about
blood stamping. Apparently, contracts were accompanied by a written oath confirmed with a blood stamp. The

bold stamp was a print of the ring finger in blood drawn from that digit.

Another Japanese Historian, Churyo Katsurakwawa (1754) wrote, “According to the Domestic Law (enacted in

702 A.D.), to divorce a wife, the husband must give her a document stating which of the seven reasons was

assigned for action. All letters must be in husband’s handwriting, but in case he does not understand how to

write, he should sign with a fingerprint.” The main points of the Japanese Domestic Laws were borrowed and

transplanted from the Chinese Laws of Yung Hui (650-655 A.D.). This fact illustrates how Chinese customs,

laws and practices spread to other countries.

France

The most famous ancient stone carvings were found in the L’lle de Gavrinis off the coast of France. Here a

burial chamber, or dolman, was discovered dating back to Neolithic times. The Dolman, constructed of slabs of

stones, is a gallery leading into an enlarged chamber, the structure being imbedded into a low mound of earth.

Its inner walls are covered with incised designs – systems of horse-shoe form, more or less circular concentric

figures, spiral, arching lines sinuous and straight lines and other markings occurring in various combinations.

Many anthropologists interpret these lines as representing finger or palm print patterns.

Nova Scotia

An outline of a hand was scratched into slate rock beside Kejimkujik Lake by an aboriginal Indian. The carving

is an outline of a hand and fingers. Within the outline, the flexion creases of the palm and fingers are

depicted. This carving has considerable historical significance. Although it does not demonstrate knowledge of

the individuality of friction ridges or palmar flexion creases, it clearly illustrates an early awareness of the

presence of those formations.

Babylonia

References by ancient historians have been found describing how finger seals were used on legal contracts

from 1855-1913 B.C. The finger impressions of the parties involved in a contract agreement were apparently

pressed into the clay surface along with the script. This practice identified the author and protected against

forgery.

References dating from the rule of Hammurabi (1792-1750 B.C.) indicated that law enforcers were authorized

to secure the fingerprints of arrested persons. Also, fingerprints were found on the 300 years old clay slabs in
King Tue-En Khamin’s tomb in Egypt. Fingerprints were pressed into the walls of the tomb creating intricate

designs.

Palestine

William Frederick Bade, director of the Palestine Institute of Archeology, conducted excavations at various

sites in Palestine and at one place found finger imprints on many pieces of broken pottery. These

“identifications” permitted the confused debris to dated accurately to the 4 th century A.D. Commenting on this

case, Fingerprint Magazine (1973) stated that “these impressions were obviously intentional and no doubt,

represented the workman’s individual trade mark.”

Holland and Ancient China

Identification of individuals were by means of branding, tattooing, mutilation and also manifested by wearing

of clothes of different designs.

In earlier civilization, branding and even maiming were used to mark the criminal for what he was. The thief

was deprived of the hand which committed the thievery. The Romans employed the tattoo needle to identify

and prevent desertion of mercenary soldiers.

Constantinople

In treaty ratification, the Sultan soaked his hand in a sheep’s blood and impressed it on the document as his

seal. (The sheep’s blood is the substitute for printer’s ink).

Evans, Captain William K.

In 1916, he founded the first home study course in fingerprint identification. Located in

Chicago, Illinois and originally named “Evans University,” the name was changed to the University of Applied

Science, which was later changed to Institute of Applied Science. This institute was the first private school

to install laboratories for instruction purposes in Dactyloscopy.

EARLY KNOWLEDGE OF FRICTION RIDGE INDIVIDUALITY

Early pioneers of this friction ridge identification science were government workers, police officers, or people

who dabbled in friction ridge identification while employed in related scientific fields. They advanced our

knowledge of friction ridges, applied the friction ridge identification system to various uses, and devised a

coherent classification system.

Thomas Bewick (1753-1828)

A British author, naturalist and engraver became England’s finest engraver who made fingerprint stamps. He

made wooden engravings of fingerprints and published their images in his books where he used an engraving of

his fingerprints as a signature. The engraving demonstrate familiarity with the construction of skin ridge. In

two of the books he added, “Thomas Bewick, his mark” under the impressions.

Sir William J. Herschel

He is credited as being the first European to recognize the value of friction ridge points and to actually use

them for identification purposes. He became a member of the Civil Service of India, where he was put in

charge of a subdivision of Jungepoor on the Upper Hoogly River.

During his first year at Jungepoor, he entered into a contract on behalf of the Civil Service with a local

native, Radyadhar Konai, to supply road building material. Herschel had observed a local practice of putting a

friction ridge print of the hand finger beside a signature or mark on contracts. Contracts having signatures

accompanied by a friction ridge print appeared to command more respect from the locals and disputes were

less frequent.

On the back of the road contract, Herschel asked Konai to apply his right palm print in ink. Later, he claimed

to have been the first to use friction ridge prints for personal identification purposes. His claim was based on

the use of palm print on the Konai contract.

In 1860, he was sent to Nuddea as Magistrate and Collector at Hoogly. He controlled the criminal courts, the

prison, registration of deeds, and payment of government pensions. He implemented the use of fingerprinting in

any area under his control.

Herschel’s experiments with friction ridges resulted in the first demonstration of friction ridge persistency.

He first fingerprinted himself in 1859. Over the following years, he reprinted himself and compared those

prints with previously taken prints to ascertain if they had changed. Dr. J.C.A. Mayer (1788) of Germany

He published the following statements in his anatomical atlas: “Although the arrangement of skin ridges is

never duplicated in two persons, nevertheless, the similarities are closer among some individuals. In others, the

differences are marked, yet in spite of their peculiarities of arrangement, all have a certain likeness.” This

deduction was published 100 years before the Konai contract.

Dr. Henry Faulds (1843-1930)

In 1875, Faulds had opened a missionary hospital, and a year later started a medical school in Japan

where he may have been exposed to fingerprints. He wrote a letter to Charles Darwin telling him of his studies

and requesting assistance. He mentioned that fingerprints can be classified easily and that the ridge detail is

unique. He pointed out the value of fingerprinting as being in “medico legal studies” and commented that the

photographs of people change over the years but rugae (friction ridges) never change.

Faulds also mentioned apprehending criminals by locating fingerprints at crime scenes. Both Herschel and

Faulds published letters in “Nature.” Herschel claimed he had used fingerprints for years in India and offered

the “Hoogly Letter” as documented proof. Faulds claimed careful study in Japan and to be the first person to

publish notice on the subject in English literature.

Thomas Taylor (1877)

A microscopist of the Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. who also suggested that fingerprints could

be used to solve a crime. The July 1877 issue of “The American Journal of Microscopy and Popular Science”

contained the text from the part of a lecture by Taylor. The note stated:

“Hand Marks Under the Microscope- exhibited on a screen view of the markings of the palms of the hands, and

the tips of the fingers, and called attention to the possibility of identifying criminals, especially murderers, by

comparing the marks of the hands left upon any object with impressions in wax taken from the hands of

suspected persons. In the case of murderers, the marks of bloody hands would present a very favorable

opportunity. This is a new system of palmistry.”

Alphonse Bertillon (1853-1914)

He devised the first truly scientific method of criminal identification in Paris, France called anthropometry or

Bertillonage. He conceived the idea of using anatomical measurements to distinguish one criminal from another.

He decided to use various body measurements such as head length, head breadth, length of left middle finger,

length of the left cubit (forearm)/length of left foot, body height, face breadth, face height and other

descriptions including features such as scars and hair and eye color to distinguish criminals.

As time went by, he eventually included fingerprints on the near end of his anthropometric cards as a final

check of identification.

The Bertillon system was generally accepted for thirty years but it never recovered from the events of 1903

when a man named Will West was sentenced to the U.S Penitentiary at Leavenworth, Kansas. There was already
a prisoner at the penitentiary at the time, whose Bertillon measurements were nearly exact, and his name was

William West.

Upon investigation, there were indeed two men. They looked exactly alike, but were allegedly not related.

Their names were Will and William West respectively. Their Bertillon measurements were close enough to

identify them as the same person. However, a fingerprint comparison quickly and correctly identified them as

two different people. The West were apparently identical twin brothers per indications in later discovered

prison records citing correspondence from the same immediate family relatives.

Will and William West

From 1870 to 1900, the Bertillon System or Anthropometric System of identification based on measurements

of height, head and other parts of the body was accepted by the police department as means of identification.

But it so happened in 1903 that one Will West was arrested by the police and was identified as having previous

conviction, but Will West denied the same. When his measurement was taken, it was found out that they were

the same as that of one Mr. West who was serving a life sentence in jail for murder. Further inquiries revealed

that there was one Mr. West in prison having the same resemblance and also body measurements. In this case,

there was a coincidence of the similarity of names and body measurement according to Bertillon system and

similar photo features. It was fingerprints only that proved that West in prison and suspect West were

different individuals. The importance of fingerprints came to light from this noble case of Wests who were

twin brothers.

Sir Francis Galton (1822-1911)

He has been described as one of the greatest scientists in the 19 th century. He was an anthropologist.

He recorded various anthropological data and took measurements recording such things as keenness of sight

and hearing, color sense, visual judgment, breathing power, reaction time, strength of pull and squeeze, and

force of blow.

Galton was of the opinion that fingerprinting might be a better method of identification.

He added fingerprinting to his presentation of Bertillonage and entitled the lecture “Personal Identification

and Description.”

On October 2, 1983, the Home Secretary of England appointed a Committee under Charles Troup of the Home

Office. The committee was charged with inquiring into:

1. The method of registering and identifying habitual criminals now in use of England.
 2. The Anthropometric system.

3. The suggested system of identification by means of a record of finger mark and to report which

system should be used and how it would be implemented.

After extensive inquiries, including testimony and demonstration by Galton, the committee decided that

fingerprints should be added to the files at Scotland Yard but Anthropometry would remain as the primary

method of identification. In 1901, as the result of another committee, anthropometry was abandoned and

fingerprinting was published as the primary means of

identification.

Dr. Henry P. De Forest

He utilized the first official municipal use of fingerprints for non-criminal registration on December 19, 1902

in the Municipal Civil Service Commission in the City of New York. He required civil service applicants to be

fingerprinted to prevent them from having better qualified persons take tests for them and put the system

into practice.

Captain James I. Parke

He advocated the first state and penal use of fingerprint which was officially adopted in Sing-sing Prison on

June 5, 1903 and later at Auburn, Napanoch and Clinton Penitentiaries.

Sgt. Kenneth Perrier

An Englishman and first fingerprint instructor at the St. Louis Police Department, Missouri. He was

one of the pupils of Sir Edward Richard Henry and through personal contact during the World’s Fair Exposition

held in St. Louis, a fingerprint bureau was established on April 12, 1904.

Maj. R. McCloughry

McCloughry was the Warden of the Federal Penitentiary of Leavenworth when the office of the Atty.

General of the US granted permission to establish a fingerprint bureau thereon on November 2, 1904. It was

the first official National Government use of fingerprints.

Mary K. Holland

She was the first American instructor in dactyloscopy.

Harry Mayers II

In 1925, he installed the first official foot and fingerprint system for infants at the Jewish

Maternity Hospital, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA, the first system in the state.

Juan (Ivan) Vucetich (1855-1925)

The fast pace of the advancement of fingerprinting in England was due to the ingenuity of Juan Vucetich, who

was employed as a statistician with the Central Police Department at La

Plata, Argentina. In July, 1891, the Chief of Police assigned Vucetich to set up a bureau of Anthropometric

Identification.

He started experimenting with fingerprints and set up his own equipment for taking

criminal’s prints.

Rojas Murders

In June 19, 1892, two children were murdered on the outskirts of the town of Necochea on the coast of

Argentina. The victims were illegitimate children of a 26-year old woman named Francisca Rojas. Rojas blamed

Velasquez, an older man who worked at a nearby ranch. However,

Velasquez claimed his innocence. On July 8, 1892, the report reached La Plata. Police Inspector Alvarez of the

Central Police was sent to Necochea to assist the local police with the investigation.

Alvarez examined the scene and he noticed a brown stain on the bedroom door. Careful examination

revealed that it was fingerprint. Alvarez had received basic training in fingerprint identification from

Vucetich. Remembering what he had been taught, he cut out the piece of the door with fingerprint on it. He

returned to Necochea and requested that Rojas be fingerprinted.

Alvarez compared the fingerprints under a magnifying glass. With his minimal instruction in fingerprinting, he

could plainly see that the print was Rojas’ right thumb. When this evidence was presented to her, she admitted

that she had killed the children. The children had stood in the way of her marriage to the other man.

When Alvarez returned to La Plata with the piece of door with Rojas’ fingerprint, Vucetich’s faith in

fingerprints was proven. This case was reported as the first murder solved by fingerprints.

In 1894, Vucetich published a book entitled, “General Introduction to the Procedures of Anthropometry and

Fingerprinting.” In 1896, Argentina became the first country in the world to abolish anthropometry and file

criminal records solely by fingerprint classification.

Sir Edward Henry (1850-1931)

At the same time that Vucetich was experimenting with fingerprinting in Argentina, another classification

system was being developed in India. The system was called, “The Henry Classification System.”

In 1891, he was appointed Inspector General of Police for Bengal Province. Upon taking his new post, Henry

found out that the anthropometric system was being used to identify criminals. He developed some doubts

about the accuracy of the anthropometric measurements that were being stored in files. He also found that

close supervision during the collection of data was very difficult.

In India, his course of action was to instruct that all ten fingers of each prisoner be printed and added to the

anthropometric cards. He assigned two Bengali police officers to study the classification problem. Henry’s

team was eventually successful in setting up a classification system with 1024 primary positions and secondary

breakdowns.

In 1899, Henry was invited by the British Association for the advancement of science to present a

paper at Dover. He returned to England and presented a paper entitled, “Fingerprints and the Detection of

Crime in India.” He also described the successes and uses of fingerprinting in India. He published a book

entitled, “Classification and Uses of Fingerprints.”

In 1918, the Henry Classification System started what is considered the modern era of fingerprint

identification which is the basis for most of the classification presently used.

FINGERPRINTING IN NORTH AMERICA (1877-1900)

Isaiah West Taber (1880)

In 1880, a photographer in San Francisco who suggested that fingerprinting be adopted for the registration

of Chinese immigrant laborers.

Gilbert Thompson (1882)

He used his thumbprint to ensure that the amounts were not changed or altered on payroll cheques. When

issuing a payroll cheque, he would put an inked thumbprint over the amount.

This is to prevent fraudulent cheque alterations.

Mark Twain (1894)

An American author and lecturer. Twain enhanced the position of fingerprints when he included their use in

the plot of a novel entitled, Pudd’n Head Wilson. In the novel, a bloody fingerprint is found on the murder
weapon and Pudd’n Head, the defense attorney, has the whole town fingerprinted. He lectures the court and

jury on the basics of fingerprinting, how fingerprints are immutable, and that two fingerprints will never be

the same. He also commented on how identical twins can be indistinguishable in appearance, at times even by

their parents, but their fingerprints will always be different.

New York State (1903)

The New York City Civil Service Commission was using fingerprints to prevent impersonations during

examinations. During the same year, fingerprinting was introduced into the New York Prison System and at

Leavenworth Penitentiary. By 1906, there were six (6) police departments in the U.S. that were known to be

taking fingerprints for identification purposes.

Fingerprinting in Canada (1904-1920)

In 1904, St. Louis, “MO”, was the site of World’s Fair. A chance meeting took place that was to bring

fingerprinting to Canada and eventually spell the end of the Bertillon Signaletic System. Detective John

Ferrier of the Scotland Yard was at the fair to guard a display of British crown jewels. Ferrier and New York

State both had displays illustrating fingerprint identification.

During the fair, the International Association of Chiefs of Police also had a convention and invited Ferrier to

present a paper on fingerprints.

Edward Foster (1863-1956)

Foster, a Canadian constable of the Dominion Police attended the World’s Fair to guard a display of gold.

Having attended Ferrier’s presentation at the convention, and was intrigued by the possibilities that

fingerprinting had to offer, he felt that a bureau would be effective than an anthropometry bureau. He also

felt that a national organization in Canada, similar to the International Association of Chiefs of Police, would

encourage cooperation among Canadian police departments and be an ideal body to promote a national interest

in fingerprinting.

Upon returning to Canada, he presented his new-found knowledge and in July 21, 1908, an Order-in-Council was

passed sanctioning the use of fingerprint system and that the provisions of “The Identification of Criminal

Act” were applicable.

During 1911, the Chicago Police Department arrested a man named Thomas Jennings for murder. Jennings had

murdered a man when he had been caught attacking the man’s daughter. The evidence against Jennings was slim

except for fingerprint evidence. The prosecution wanted to ensure the fingerprint evidence would be admitted
before the Illinois Supreme Court, which had not previously ruled on the issue. To strengthen the case, the

prosecution called several recognized fingerprint experts as witnesses, including Edward Foster.

During the cross examination, Foster was asked by the defense if he could raise

fingerprints on various surfaces. He took the paper and developed a fingerprint on it. The Jennings trial is

considered a “landmark case” in the courts. Jennings was convicted and sentenced to hang on December 22,

1911.

The first conviction in Canada based on fingerprint evidence took place in 1914. Peter Caracatch and

Gregory Parachique broke into the CPR Station in Petawawa, Ontario. They left fingerprints on glass at the

point of entry. Edward Foster gave expert evidence at their trial.

SCIENTIFIC RESEARCHERS

Nehemiah Grew (1641-1712)

Grew, an English botanist, physician and microscopist. In 1684, he published a paper in the Philosophical

Transactions of the Royal Society of London describing his observations of the “Innumerable little ridges of

equal big ness on the ends of the first joints of the fingers.” He described sweat pores, epidermal ridges, and

their various arrangements. Included in his paper was a drawing of the configurations of the hand displaying

the ridge flow on the fingers and palms.

Govard Bidloo (1685)

Bidloo, an anatomist in Amsterdam, Holland, published a book on a human anatomy

illustrating friction ridges and pore structure on the underside of the fingers. His comments were

morphological in nature and he did not refer to or mention the individuality of friction ridges.

Marcello Malpighi (1628-1694)

A professor in 1685 at the University of Bologna, Italy, published the results of his examination of the

friction skin with the newly invented microscope. He has been credited with being the first to use a microscope

in medical studies. His work was received with such enthusiasm that one of the layers of the skin was named in

his honor. He was a professor of anatomy. His paper dealt mainly with the function, form, and structure of the

friction skin as a tactile organ, and its use in the enhancement of traction for walking and grasping.

He was known as the “Grandfather of Dactyloscopy” according to Dr. Edmond Locard, the

“Father of Poroscopy.” He originated the terms “loops and spirals.”

Edmond Locard (1877-1966)

In 1912, Locard established poroscopy. Due to his other writings, his ideas about the unintentional transfer of

different minute materials between objects, became known as Locard’s Exchange Principle which states that

when any two objects come into contact, there is always transference of material from each object onto the

other.

JCA Mayer (1788)

A German doctor and anatomist whose paper on fingerprint clearly addressed the

individuality of the friction ridges. (Refer to the Early Knowledge of Friction Ridge Individuality).

Johannes (Jean) Evangelista Purkinje (1787-1869)

A professor at the University of Breslau, Germany, published a thesis that contained his studies on the eye,

fingerprints and other skin features entitled, “Commentatio de Examine Phisiologico Organi Visus et

Systematis.” He classified nine principal configuration groups of fingerprints and assigned each a name. He was

known as the “Father of Dactyloscopy.”

Arthur Kollman (1883)

The first researcher to address the formation of friction ridges in embryos and the topographical physical

stressors that may have been part of their growth. He identified the presence and locations of the volar pads

on the human hand and foot. He is from Germany.

H. Klaatsch (1888)

From Germany who examined the walking pads and eminences of several pentadactylous of five fingered

mammals. He was credited being the first researcher to examine the walking surfaces of other mammals. He

also referred to the arrangement of the fundamental limits of the friction ridges as the reason why all ridge

formations are different.

David Hepburn (1895)

He is connected with the University of Edinburgh, Scotland, published a paper on the similarity in appearance

of the eminences or walking surfaces of primates entitled, “The Papillary Ridges on the Hands and Feet of

Monkeys and Men.” He was the first to recognize that ridges assist gripping by creating friction and that they

had a function other than increasing tectile stimulus.

Inez Whipple (1871-1929)

In 1904, he published a paper, “The Vential Surface of the Mammalian Chiridium – With Special

Reference to the Conditions Found in Man.” His survey into mammalian palm and sole configurations has formed

an important part of the modern scientific knowledge on the subject and is considered a landmark in the fields

of genetics and ridgeology. The development of the surfaces of the hand and feet of all mammals are similar to

some degree was learned from paper.

Harris Hawthorne Wilder (1864-1928)

A professor of zoology at Smith College, Massachusetts that in 1896, while he was studying monkeys, he was

struck by the resemblance of their volar friction ridges to man’s. He became very interested in

dermatoghyphics and in 1897 published his first paper on the subject entitled “On the Disposition of the

Epidermic Folds Upon the Palms and Soles of Primates.”

He was the first to suggest that the centers of disturbance of primate friction ridge formations actually

represented the locations of volar pads.

In 1918, he published a book, “Personal Identification,” where the quantitative –

qualitative analysis of friction ridges can be found.

In this passage, Wilder describes the anatomical formation of the friction ridges. He further describes how

ridge units are subjected to differential growth and, as a result, all areas of friction ridge are unique. He was

considered the leading American fingerprint expert of the day.

Harold Cummins (1893-1976)

Cummins, a Ph.D. professor of anatomy and Assistant Dean of the School of Medicine at Tulane University,

Louisiana who spent a great deal of his life studying dermatoglyphics. In 1943, he co-authored a book,

“Fingerprint, Palms and Soles – An Introduction to Dermatoglyphics,” with Charles Midlo.

In 1929, he published a paper, “The Topographic History of the Volar Pads in the Human Embryo.” He

described the formation and development of volar pads on the human fetus. He concluded that the physical

aspects of the volar pads such as location, growth differential, and configuration variances affected friction

ridge development and overall pattern configuration.

Alfred Hale (1952)

A Ph.D. from Tulane University, an associate of Cummins, published a thesis in 1952 entitled,

“Morphogenesis of the Volar Skin in the Human Fetus.” Hale’s paper not only describes the formation of

friction ridges of human fetus but also describes the development of friction ridge identification.

SAMPLE CASES OF THE USE OF FINGERPRINT EVIDENCE

Daubert vs. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals (1993)

The Federal Court decision on the admissibility of scientific evidence and testimony in a Court of Law. A judge

must ensure that any and all scientific testimony or evidence admitted is not only relevant, but reliable. Many

considerations may be applied including, but not limited to:

A science is considered valid if:

1. The theory and technique has been tested.

2. The theory and technique has been published and peer reviewed.

3. It has a known error rate in applying the theory and technique.

4. It is generally accepted in the relevant scientific community.

Thomas Jennings

Thomas Jennings was the first person to be convicted of murder in the US based on fingerprint evidence. In

1911, Jennings appealed his conviction to the Illinois Supreme Court, questioning the admissibility of

fingerprint evidence. The Illinois Supreme Court upheld his conviction concluding that fingerprint evidence is

admissible and a reliable form of identification. Thomas Jennings was sentenced to death and executed on Feb.

16, 1912 for the murder of Clarence B. Hiller.

Robert J. Pitts (Known as Roscoe Pitts)

A career criminal noted for altering his fingerprints in 1941. He had a doctor remove the skin from his first

joints and replace it with skin from his chest.

The SPA Murders (State of Florida vs. Stephen William Beattie, 1978)

The SPA murders occurred on July 23, 1978 in North Miami Beach, Florida. This case was the first

case on record where a latent fingerprint developed from a homicide victim’s skin was identified with an

offender and introduced as evidence in court.

On January 31, 1979, Stephen William Beattie was found guilty of three counts of first degree murder. On

February 1, 1979, he was sentenced to three consecutive death sentences.

Beattie committed suicide within three years of his sentence in prison while awaiting execution.

He maintained his innocence even to the end.

State of New York vs. Crispi (1911)

Charles Crispi, aka Cesare J. Cella, was the defendant. This was noted as the first case that fingerprint

evidence was the sole evidence. Fingerprint expert, Joseph Faurot testified to the identification process.

After hearing Faurot’s testimony, Crispi pled guilty.

State of Ohio vs. Betts (1917)

The Betts case may have been the first conviction based solely on palm prints. In 1917, Betts was arrested

and charged with burglary based on the fact that his palm print was found on a windowpane.

State of Virginia vs. Robert Douglas (1991)

The first case to establish a precedence for the acceptance of digitally enhanced evidence in American

criminal proceedings. This 1991 murder case involved the enhancement of bloody fingerprint found on a

pillowcase at the crime scene. A company called Hunter Graphics was contacted by the Henrico County Police

Department to assist in the enhancement process. The fingerprint was subsequently identified as belonging to

Robert Knight. After being charged with the crime, Knight’s attorney moved for a Kely-Frye Hearing to

determine the scientific validity and acceptance of the enhancement process. The determination of the court

was that the techniques used were essentially photographic processes. Knight pleaded guilty and was sentenced

to four times life terms.

United States vs. Plaza (2002)

Plaza was one of the four people charged as being a hit man. There were latent prints in the case and

the defense decided to challenge the fingerprint evidence. A Daubert hearing was held. Federal Judge Louis

Pollak ruled that fingerprint experts could not tell juries that two fingerprints matched. It was noted that

fingerprints were unique and permanent but the science did not meet the Daubert test. Judge Pollak reversed

his decision two months later.

PHILIPPINE SETTING

Mr. Jones was the first to teach fingerprints in the Philippine constabulary sometime in the year 1900.
The Bureau of Prisons, in the year 1918, records show that fingerprints already existed in the “carpetas”

(commitment and conviction records).

L. Asa N. Darby, under his management during the re-occupation of the Philippines by the American Forces, a

modern and complete Fingerprint Files has been established in the Philippine Commonwealth.

Mr. Generoso Reyes was the first Filipino Fingerprint Technician employed by the Philippine Constabulary.

Capt. Thomas Dugan of New York Police Department and Mr. Flaviano G. Guerrero of the

Federal Bureau of Investigation, Washington, gave the first examinations for Fingerprint in 1937.

People of the Philippines vs. Medina, 59, Phil. 330 of December 23, 1933 was the first conviction based on

fingerprints and led to the judicial decision in the Philippine Jurisprudence.

Plaridel Education Institute (PEI), now PCCr, Manila is the first governmental recognized school to teach

the science of fingerprints and other police sciences.

PRINCIPLES INVOLED IN THE STUDY OF FINGERPRINTS

Principles Involved in the Study of Fingerprints

1. Principle of Individuality- There are no two fingerprints that are exactly alike.

2. Principle of Permanency- The configuration and details of individual ridges remain constant and

unchanging.

Friction Skin Histology

A. Epidermal Layer

a. Stratum corneum consist of 25 to 30 layers of stratified (layered) squamous

(flattened) dead keratinocytes (skin cells) that are constantly shred.

b. Stratum lucidum is present in thick skin (lips, soles of feet, and palms of hands). Little or no cell

detail is visible.

c. Stratum granulosum consists of 3-4 layers of cell thick consisting of flattened keratinocytes. At

this level, the cells are dying.

d. Stratum spinosum are several layers thick, consisting mostly of keratinocytes. Together with the

stratum basale, it is sometimes referred to as the Malpighian layer (living layer).

 e. Stratum basale is a single layer of cell in contact with the basement membrane. These cells are

mitotically active- they are alive and reproducing – the reason why it is often referred to as

generating layer.

1. Keratinocytes (90%) is responsible for waterproofing and toughening the skin.

2. Melanocytes (8%) synthesize the pigment melanin which absorbs and disperses

ultraviolet radiation.

3. Tactile cells are very sparse and function in touch reception.

4. Nonpigmented granular dendrocytes are cells that ingest bacteria and foreign debris.

B. Dermis- matrix of loose connective tissue composed of fibrous proteins. It is transversed by numerous

blood vessels, lymphatic, various glands and tactile nerve. It serves the function of feeding nutrients

to the outer layer of friction skin as well as giving physical protection to the internal body.

a. Dermal papillae- covers the surface of the dermis with blunt peg-like formations.

Meissner Corpuscles are contained in the dermal papillae.

Importance of Knowing the Two Layers of the Skin

Damage to the epidermis alone does not result to permanent ridge destruction, while damage to the dermis will

result to permanent ridge destruction.

Can fingerprints be effaced or erased?

John Dellinger, a notorious gangster and a police character attempted to erase his fingerprints by burning

them with acid, but as time went by, the ridge were again restored to their natural feature. The acid he

applied temporarily destroyed the epidermis of the bulb of the finger.

As long as the dermis of the bulbs of the fingers are not completely destroyed, the fingerprints will always

remain unchanged and indestructible.

Can fingerprint be forged?

Various experiments were conducted by authorities and although they could almost make an accurate

reproduction, still there is no case on record known or have been written that forgery of fingerprints has been

a complete success. The introduction of modern scientific equipment, new techniques, and up-to-date

knowledge in crime detection will always fail the attempt.

A patch of ridged skin may be removed and successfully grafted in the same individual. In a skin graft of

sufficient thickness to include the epidermis and at least the more superficial portion of the dermis the ridges

retain all their original qualities. The first recorded case is that of a man who inadvertently sliced off a patch

of skin from the thenar eminence. Immediately, he restored this piece to the raw surface and applied bandage.

The slip of skin engrafted itself and the ridges preserved. A more remarkable case is that of a patient in whom

grafts were made to correct distortions and contraction of a hand, following severe burns. The surgeon

interchanged patches of skin of a fingertip and an area of the palm. Both grafts “took” and in consequence the

distal phalanx of the finger now bears a pattern which originally had been on the palm, and the palm carries a

finger pattern, both unchanged except in the marginal zones of scar.

3. Principle of Infallibility- fingerprint evidence is reliable reasons why fingerprint is one of the

infallible means of personal identification.

a. Fingerprints are already formed about 3 to 4 months of intra-uterine life and remain unchanged

throughout life until the final decomposition of the body after death.

b. The pattern formation formed by the papillary ridges contains peculiar characteristics upon which

a person can always be identified by fingerprint examiners.

c. Almost every police and law enforcement agencies throughout the world accept, adopt, and utilize

fingerprint system as a means of absolute identification of a person.

d. The courts and other authorities had since time immemorial taken cognizance of its importance as

a means of identification.

Admissibility of Fingerprint Expert Testimony

Expert testimony as to the identity of thumb marks or fingerprints is admissible. The method of identification

of a person by correspondence of fingerprints has been widely recognized as a relatively accurate system of

establishing identity and it is well settled that the evidence of the correspondence are lack of correspondence

of fingerprints, when testified by a qualified witness is admissible to establish the identity of the accused in

criminal prosecution as the person committing the crime charged.

This method of identification of persons has become a fixed method of our system of jurisprudence. Proof of

fingerprints corresponding to those of the accused found at the crime scene under such circumstances that

could only have impressed at the time the crime was committed, may be sufficient proof of identity to sustain

a conviction.
Steps in Fingerprint Examination (ACE-V Method). This was introduced by Asbaugh.

1. Analysis- The unknown area of friction ridge structure (latent impression) must be examined. The

specific area of the finger, palm or sole of the foot suspected of making the impression is determined.

The clarity of the impression and the variety of details present are established.

2. Comparison- The friction ridge structure is then compared to the exemplars.

3. Evaluation- The result of the comparison is the evaluation process or making a conclusion. The general

fingerprint community refers to the conclusions drawn as being one of the choices. First, the two

impressions (latent fingerprint and the known fingerprint) were made by the same finger of the same

person.

4. Verification- The opinion of the forensic examiner must be verified by another examiner.

Constancy of Ridges and their Configurations

Epidermal ridges are developed in fetus in what may be accepted as their fixed and permanent characters.

Observation of ridges in the same individual over long periods of time make it certain that in postnatal life,

there is no significant alternation in the details of ridges or in their configuration arrangement. During the

period of growth of the body, the ridges enlarge, keeping pace with the growth of hand and foot.

Wentworth and Real wilder illustrated a series of six (6) prints of the right thumb of a child, taking at

intervals beginning at an age of nearly 5 years, the last print being made at 14 ½ years. During this period of

rapid bodily growth, the ridges grew, as did the pattern as well as whole, but without changing morphologically.

Herschel first made his own fingerprints in 1859, at the age of twenty-six (26). He made them again at the

age of forty-four (44) and for the last time at eighty-three (83). The successive prints show no alternations of

ridges and patterns. A similar demonstration was presented by Welcker on prints of his own fingers and palms,

first made in 1856 at the age of 34, and repeated in 1897. Another case is that of Jennings who made prints of

his palm in 1887, when he was 27 years old: prints repeated 50 years later display no alternations.

The prints of dish-washers, scrub-woman and workers in time, plaster and similar substances usually show

effects of prolonged exposure of the hands to alkali and water. The ridges appear only faintly and are

discontinuously printed, yet the pattern may be recognized by direct inspection of a finger, and clearly defined

impressions may be made after these occupations are abandoned. Comparison with earlier prints show that no

alternation of the pattern of ridge details has resulted.

Leprosy may produce cutaneous disintegration of greater or lesser degree. When the damage is slight and

superficial, the original characteristics of the skin may be restored. Deeper invasion of the disease process

permanently effaces dermatoglyphics in the region involved. Excessive exposure of the hand to the action of

X-rays may lead to similar damage of the skin.

Burns, caustic agents and wounds produce no permanent effect if the injury is not deep enough to destroy the

papillae. Cuts and abrasions lead to varying degrees of damage to the ridges. An extremely shallow linear cut

may leave no perceptible permanent defect. Should a wound be deep and extensive, or should active infection

occur, the ridges exhibit permanent interruptions and distortions associated with scarring. As a rule, even

slight injuries may be readily distinguished from the skin creases which in prints appear as “white lines”.

Total destruction of fingerprints obviously would result in loss of their identifying characteristics. The loss

may not be total even when an individualities to destroy these evidence of identity.

Use of Fingerprints and Its Application to Law Enforcement

1. Identification of criminals whose fingerprints are found at the crime scene.

2. Identification of fugitives through comparison of fingerprints.

3. Assistance to prosecutors in defending their cases in the light of defendants’ previous records.

4. Furnishing identification data to probation or parole officers and to parole boards for their

enlightenment in decision making.

5. Exchanging of criminal identifying information with identification bureaus of foreign countries in

cases of mutual interests.

6. Means of personal identification.

7. Identification of unknown deceased.

8. Prevention of hospital mistakes in the identification of infants (in some countries).

9. Identification of persons from amnesia whose fingerprints are on file.

10. Identification of missing persons.

11. Personal identification in disaster work.

12. Licensing procedures to automobiles, firearms, aircrafts and other equipment.

Purpose

The ultimate purpose of fingerprints is to provide the most positive means of personal and criminal

identification.

Allied Sciences of Fingerprint

1. Poroscopy- the science which deals with the study of the pores found on the papillary or friction

ridges of the skin for the purpose of identification.

2. Chiroscopy- the science of palm print identification.

3. Podoscopy- the science of footprint/footwear identification.

Friction Ridges or Papillary Ridges

1. Friction ridge breath- The width of the friction ridges varies in different areas as well in different

people. In general, they are narrower in females and wider in males.

2. Ridge units and pores- Pore ducts open along the top of the friction ridges. Each ridge unit has one

sweat gland and a pore opening randomly somewhere on its surface. Eccrine gland contains

approximately 99% water and 1 % solid.

3. Specific ridge path- The friction ridges have been compared to corduroy, but unlike corduroy they

are not continuous in nature. The path taken by the ridges may branch, start or stop, turn, twist, or

thicken and narrow independently.

4. Incipient friction ridges- Narrow and often fragmented ridges may appear between normal friction

ridges. These are called incipient, rudimentary, or nascent ridges. They differ from the typical

ridge by being thinner and fragmented.

5. Friction ridge imbrications- In some areas of the volar surfaces, the friction ridges all tend to lean

on the same direction. Imbrications ridges vary among individuals and even the regions of volar areas

where they are found.

6. Overall friction ridge pattern- The friction ridges form patterns on the volar surface. The most

common are concentric, looping, or arching formations. Friction ridges patterns also enhance the

ability of volar skin to resist slippage. The pattern also enhances tactile sensitivity due to the

increased friction.
Levels in Ridgeology

The term ridgeology was introduced by Sergeant David R. Ashbaugh (1946present). He was a key witness to

the Daubert Hearing. In 1999, he authored the book,

“Quantitative-Qualitative Friction Ridge Analysis: An Introduction to Basic and Advanced Ridgeology.” He

coined the term ridgeology and created the terms level 1, level 2, and level 3:

Level 1 detail= Friction ridge flow and general morphological information. General

overall pattern shape, i.e. circular, angular, arching or straight.

Level 2 detail= Individual friction ridge paths and friction ridge events, i.e. bifurcations, ending ridge, dots.

Level 3 detail= Friction ridge dimensional attributes, i.e. width, edge shapes and pores. Ridge Characteristics

Identification of fingerprints relies on pattern matching followed by the detection of certain ridge

characteristics, also known as Galton details, points of identity, or minutial points with a reference print,

usually an inked impression of a suspect’s print. The light areas of fingerprints are called ridges while the dark

areas are called valleys.

COMPONENTS OF FRICTION SKIN

1. Ridge Surface

 Ridge- the elevated or hill-like structure/the black lines with white dots.

 Furrows- the depressed or canal-like structure/the white space between ridges. 2. Sweat

Pores

 The tiny opening/the tiny white dot.

3. Sweat Duct

 The passage way.

4. Sweat Gland

FRICTION RIDGES OR PAPILLARY RIDGES

1. Friction ridge breath- the width of the friction ridges varies in different areas as well as in

different people. In general, they are narrower in females and wider in males.

2. Ridge units and pores- pore ducts open along the top of the friction ridges. Each ridge unit has one

sweat gland and a pore opening randomly somewhere on its surface. Eccrine gland contains

approximately 99% water and 1% solid.

3. Specific ridge path- the friction ridges have been compared to corduroy, but unlike corduroy they

are not continuous in nature. The path taken by the ridges may branch, start or stop, turn, twist, or

thicken and narrow independently.

4. Incipient friction ridges- narrow and often fragmented ridges may appear between normal friction

ridges. These are called incipient, rudimentary, or nascent ridges. They differ from the typical ridge

by being thinner and fragmented.

5. Friction ridge imbrications- in some areas of volar surfaces, the friction ridges all tend to lean on

the same direction. Imbrication ridges vary among individual and even the regions of volar areas where

they are found.

6. Overall friction ridge pattern- the friction ridges form pattern on the volar surface. The most

common are concentric, looping, or arching formations. Friction ridges patterns also enhance the

ability of volar skin to resist slippage. The pattern also enhances tactile sensitively due to the

increased friction.