Lecture 6

GB in 18th century

King George I, 1714-1727, House of Hanover

 Second cousin of Queen Anne – her closest Protestant relative (50 Roman Catholics
were more closely related)

 German Prince, House of Hanover

 Barely spoke English

 Rarely involved in government

 Main interests: food, horses, & women

He was the first British monarch of the House of Hanover. George inherited the titles and lands
of from his father and uncles. After the deaths of his second cousin Anne, Queen of Great
Britain, George ascended the British throne as Anne's closest
living Protestant relative. Jacobites attempted, but failed, to depose George and replace him
with James Francis Edward Stuart, Anne's Catholic half-brother.

George arrived in England aged 54 speaking only a few words of English, with 18 cooks and two
mistresses one very fat and the other thin and tall who became nicknamed ‘Elephant and
Castle’. His marriage was not happy because George had several mistresses, and his wife Sophia
eloped with Swedish Count.

Sir Robert Walpole, 1676-1745

Sir Robert Walpole, was a British politician who is generally regarded as the de facto first Prime
Minister of Great Britain.

 Leader of Whigs – party which supported George of Hanover becoming King

 Chief minister; took control of council

 Considered Britain’s first Prime Minister

In Hanover king George I was absolute ruler but in England found that he had to work with
Parliament and his Whig ministers particularly Robert Walpole. The king grew frustrated in his
attempts to control Parliament and because of this George rarely attended meetings with his
ministers, and particularly Walpole became powerful and effectively Britain’s first Prime
Minister.
During George's reign, the powers of the monarchy diminished and Britain began a transition to
the modern system of cabinet government led by a prime minister. Towards the end of his
reign, actual political power was held by Robert Walpole, now recognized as Britain's first de
facto prime minister.

Constitutional Monarchy

 Britain only constitutional monarchy in world at this time

 Main principles:

1. King could not be a Roman Catholic

2. King could not suspend laws

3. King depended on Parliament for money & army

4. King’s ministers answer to Parliament

5. Power with Parliament, not with King

King George II, 1727-1760

 Succeeded father George I

 Put down last attempt of Stuarts to regain throne, 1745

 Seven Years’ War laid foundation of empire in India & Canada

 England grew in wealth & political stability

George was the last British monarch born outside Great Britain: he was born and brought up
in northern Germany. George II was born in Hanover. His father’s treatment of his mother
whom he had imprisoned left son George with a hatred of his father and they regularly
quarrelled. When his father died in 1727 he became King George II and set about changing his
father’s policies. Walpole was expected to be dismissed but survived on the intervention of
Queen Caroline (wife of George II).

In 1745 supporters of James Francis Edward Stuart, the last of Stuarts and Catholic claimant to
the British throne, attempted and failed to depose (overthrow) George in the last rebellion
called Jacobite rebellion. Jacobites are the supporters of the Roman Catholic claimant to the
British throne, James Francis Edward Stuart The uprisings had the aim of returning James II of
England and Scotland, the last Catholic British monarch, and later his descendants of the House
of Stuart, to the throne of Great Britain. The Jacobite Rebellion in landed in Scotland and
marched with the army into England, but it was defeated at Culloden in 1746 by the army of
king George II.
Frederick, the son of George II, died unexpectedly in 1751, nine years before his father, so
George II was succeeded by his grandson, George III.

7-years war began in the colonies (in the North America) between GB and France for the
spheres of their influence, but all great powers of Europe of that time were involved in the
conflict. The result of this war was that Britain was left as the dominant world power, Britain
received Florida in the North America. It also got all French lands in North America east of the
Mississippi. Britain also gained much of the West Indies, Senegal, Minorca and land in India.

George II's contemporaries and later historians tended to view him with disdain (contempt,
disregard), concentrating on his mistresses, short temper, and rudeness. But later, historians
reassessed his legacy and came to conclusion that during his reign England grew in wealth &
political stability.

Industrial Revolution

 C. 1750-1850

 Made Britain into world superpower

 Began with spinning and weaving machines

 James Watt, steam engine, 1760s: factories can now be built anywhere – not only near
rivers & waterfalls

 Cotton gin, 1790s, provided cheap cotton for industrial machines

IR took place between 1750 – 1850 and turn GB into the world superpower. IR first began in the
textile industry with spinning and weaving machines. But these machines were driven by water
power and then by steam. But the invention of larger machines new sources of power were
needed, water and steam could no longer satisfy growing demands. So in 1765 James Watt
invented steam engine. This invention brought a revolution in textiles, a cotton gin was
invented to separate fiber from seeds and this made British textile industry develop even more
rapidly.

James Watt, 1736-1819

 Scottish engineer

 Improved design which made steam power practical

 Led to growth of modern industry

 Steam engines no longer used only to pump water from mines

 Engines now used to power machines so factories could be located anywhere

The factory system replaced the domestic system, in which individual workers used hand
tools or simple machinery to fabricate goods in their own homes or in workshops attached to
their homes.

Mill (industrial) towns grew all over England

The location of work also changed. The factory system concentrated workers in cities and
towns, because the new factories had to be located near waterpower and transportation
(alongside waterways, roads, or railways).

The introduction of new machines caused wide-spread unemployment. Many workers blamed
their trouble on the new machines. Some radicals started to destroy the hated machines. It was
believed they were under leadership of a mysterious person named Luddite (/ˈlʌd.aɪt/) . These
radicals were called the Luddites.

Machines replaced workers: Luddites responded by smashing looms

William Pitt the Elder, 1708-1778

 Opponent of Walpole & later Prime Minister

 Founder of British Empire

 Two goals: English supremacy at sea & capture of French trading posts

William Pitt ‘the Elder’ dominated British politics in the middle of the eighteenth century,
although was only prime minister for 2 years. He was the Opponent of Walpole & later Prime
Minister.

HE was a popular politician with great influence.

He chose his military campaigns to increase national trade. Conquering India, Canada, the West
Indies and West Africa were all immensely beneficial to Britain’s merchants.

He gained England the most territory of any modern war England has fought in, and established
it as the dominant world power through the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. secured the
transformation of his country into an imperial power.

British Empire

 1756-1763: Seven Years’ War against France

 1759: British capture Quebec, Canada

 1760: British capture Montreal, Canada

  British victories in India

 Attack on Manila in Philippines led to British control of tea trade with China

 Peace of Paris, 1763: Britain controlled Canada, India – beginnings of great empire

7 years’ war is called French and Indian war, it was the first truly global war, Winston Churchill
called it the First World War. Prussia and BG fought France and Austria and Austrian Hapsburgs
wanted to win back Silesia but failed to do that. It began in 1756 and ended in 1763. It was
mainly fought between the British and the French. British colonists wanted to expand to the
west, but the war was more about trade than land. The British wanted to export goods to
Americas and get their goods in turn. So more colonists meant more trade, and that meant
more wealth. And the French thought that the British might take over their French colonies in
the Caribbean. BG sent there their British troops. The most famous commander of British
troops was George Washington. Real action took place in New York and Canada. The British
defeated the French and captured the city of Quebec in Canada. Native Americans were more
likely to support the French. The n the British captured Montreal in Canada. The interesting fact
of this war is that the war was undertaken not by the governments, but by the corporations
who had armies. The British East India company was the most successful, it was commanded by
Robert Clive, who won a very important battle in Bengal, thereafter the British had control of
the trade in Bengal and the French were excluded from it. It gave the British a great advantage
over the French and this allowed the British to control all of India. In October 1762 the British
captured Manila in Philippines. The British fought against the Spanish assisted by native Indians.
The Spanish had there their own colony. The capture of Manila led to British control of tea
trade with China.

King George III, 1760-1820

 Succeeded grandfather George II

 Lost colonies in America due to American war of Independence

 Suffered from disease which made him appear mad

 Viewed as tyrant ['taɪərənt] by American colonists

Frederick, the son of George II, died unexpectedly in 1751, nine years before his father, so
George II was succeeded by his grandson, George III.

He was the third British monarch of the House of Hanover, but unlike his two predecessors, he
was born in Great Britain, spoke English as his first language, and never visited Hanover.

Early in his reign, Great Britain defeated France in the Seven Years' War, becoming the
dominant European power in North America and India. However, many of Britain's American
colonies were soon lost in the American War of Independence.
In the later part of his life, George had permanent, mental illness. the cause of his illness
remains unknown. His eldest son, George, Prince of Wales, ruled as Prince Regent until his
father's death, when he succeeded as George IV.

British policy toward colonies

 Philosophy of mercantilism: colonies exist to provide cheap raw materials and markets
for mother country

 British Navigation Acts regulated trade & led to smuggling

 Seven Years’ War left Britain with large debts

 Britain tried to pay part of costs of war by taxing colonies

 British taxes provoked American colonies to revolution

The British had an empire to run. The prevailing economic philosophy of seventeenth and
eighteenth century empires was called MERCANTILISM. In this system, the colonies existed to
enrich the mother country - Britain. Restrictions were placed on what the colonies could
manufacture, whose ships they could use, and most importantly, with whom they could trade.
British merchants wanted American colonists to buy British goods, not French, Spanish, or
Dutch products. In theory, Americans would pay DUTIES on imported goods to discourage this
practice. The NAVIGATION ACTS are examples of British attempts to restrict colonial
trade. SMUGGLING is the way the colonists ignored these restrictions. Distance and the size of
the British Empire worked to colonial advantage. When smugglers were caught, they were
often freed by sympathetic American juries. Smuggling became commonplace.

Seven Years’ War left Britain with large debts. Britain imposed taxes on American colonists to
help pay those debts. The British even taxed essentials such as paint, paper, glass, lead and tea.
Colonists felt it was wrong for Britain to impose taxes on them. The TAXES asked of the
American colonists were lower than those asked of mainland English citizens. But British taxes
provoked American colonies to revolution.

Boston Tea Party, December 16 1773, protested British tax on tea

That night a large group of American colonists boarded the docked ships and threw 342
chests of tea into the water.

It took nearly three hours for more than 100 colonists to empty the tea into Boston
Harbor. The chests held more than 45 tons of tea, which would cost nearly $1,000,000
dollars today.

The result was Britain tried to punish colonists for this act but later it repealed the tea
tax.
Battle of Lexington, 1775: war began when British troops tried to arrest Colonial leaders &
take their guns

The Battles of Lexington, fought on April 19, 1775, kicked off the American
Revolutionary War (1775-83). The British Army set out from Boston to capture rebel leaders
in Lexington as well as to destroy the Americans store of weapons and ammunition in Concord.
The colonists were warned that the British Army was approaching. Rebels were able to escape
and the local militia was able to hide much of their ammunition and weapons. American
colonists made the British troops retreat. With these two battles, the American Revolution had
officially begun.

American Declaration of Independence, 1776

in U.S. history, document that was approved by the Continental Congress on July 4, 1776, and
that announced the separation of 13 North American British colonies from Great Britain. It
explained why the Congress on July 2 “unanimously” by the votes of 12 colonies (with New
York abstaining) had resolved that “these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be Free and
Independent States.

Adam Smith, 1723-1790

 Founder of modern economics

 Wrote The Wealth of Nations, 1776

 Opposed English mercantile theory

 Advocated free trade & economic liberalism

The Wealth of Nations

 Government must preserve law & order, enforce justice, defend nation, & provide a few
social needs

 “Hands off” policy toward business

 Foundation for modern capitalism & free markets

Thomas Malthus, 1766-1834

 English economist

 1798: Essay on the Principle of Population

 Influenced Darwin’s ideas on evolution and survival of the fittest

Malthusian Principles

 Thomas Malthus argued that Population increases faster than food supplies

 Wars & disease will kill off extra population unless people limited number of their
children

 Predictions failed to come true

 Improved methods of agriculture provided food for increased population

 Neo-Malthusians in 20th century revived ideas on population to promote birth control

 Ideas still very controversial

William Pitt the Younger, 1759-1806

 Son of William Pitt the Elder

 Youngest Prime Minister at age 24

 Greatest challenge: French Revolution & rise of Napoleon Bonaparte

French Revolution, 1789-1799: Traditional View

 France’s costly involvement in the American Revolution, Economic crisis from

Seven Years’ War and extravagant spending by King Louis XVI and his predecessor,
had left the country on the brink of bankruptcy.

 Also two decades of poor harvests, drought, cattle disease and high bread prices
had provoked unrest among peasants and the urban poor. Many expressed their
desperation and resentment toward a regime that imposed heavy taxes. Paris
working class was inspired by democratic ideals, liberty & equality.

 Soon degenerated into mob rule & tyranny

 Executed king & queen (Louis 16 and Marie Antoinette)

 Thousands more executed in Reign of Terror (he darkest period of the French
Revolution is called the Reign of Terror which lasted from 1793 to 1794. During this
time, Robespierre wanted to eliminate any opposition to the revolution, so he called
for a rule of "Terror." Laws were passed that said anyone suspected of treason could be
arrested and executed by guillotine. Thousands of people were executed including King
Louis 16 and Queen Marie Antoinette and many of Robespierre's political rivals. )

 1793: France at war with England & other nations

French Revolution, 1789-1799: Digging deeper into “Why?”

 Most historians answer the question, “What happened?”

 Fewer answer the question, “Why?”

 They usually follow the “official view”

 Most of the time they do not understand the forces that actually create history

 Wars, revolutions, and economic depressions rarely happen by accident

 They are usually planned

Understanding the Real Story

 Rich and powerful people conspire (plan) to increase their wealth and power

 If you want to know who actually is planning the historical events, “follow the money
trail”

 At this time in history we see the rise of powerful international banking families

 They are responsible for many (or all) of the wars which follow

 They finance both sides of the wars

Understanding the Real Story

 Bankers want nations to go to war

 Nations borrow money for the war from these banks

 The borrower becomes the servant to the lender

 So the bankers gain control of the countries and determine much of the history which
follows

 But they never want their role to be known

 This is how the modern world works

The French Revolution

 The French peasants were hungry because people planning the revolution had bought
up most of the food and hid it or sent it out of the country

 Many of the Paris mob were paid to riot against the government and start the
revolution

 Secret societies planned much of the revolution

  This is exactly how the current riots in America work: billionaire George Soros pays
people to riot against America to overthrow the President and destroy the middle class,
capitalism, & religion

Napoleon Bonaparte, 1769-1821

Napoleon Bonaparte was a French military leader and emperor who conquered much of
Europe in the early 19th century. Born on the island of Corsica, Napoleon rapidly rose
through the ranks of the military during the French Revolution.

Military genius

Promoted to general in 1793

After seizing political power in France in a 1799, he crowned himself emperor in 1804.
Shrewd, ambitious and a skilled military strategist, Napoleon successfully waged war
against various countries of European nations and expanded his empire. The emperor’s
greatest mistake was the invasion of Russia in 1812. The great distances and severe cold of
Russia caused the loss of most of his army.

After his defeat in Russia Napoleon abdicated the throne two years later and was exiled
to the island of Elba. In 1815, he briefly returned to power in his Hundred Days
campaign. After a crushing defeat at the Battle of Waterloo, he abdicated once again
and was exiled to the remote island of Saint Helena, where he died at 51.

Horatio [hə'reɪʃɪəu] Nelson

British naval commander in the wars with Revolutionary and Napoleonic France, who won
crucial victories in the battle of Trafalgar (1805), where he was killed by enemy fire on the HMS
(Her majesty ship) Victory. In private life he was known for his love affair with Emma, Lady
Hamilton, while both were married.

 Destroyed Napoleon’s navy at Trafalgar, 1805

 Gave Britain control of seas & saved England from Napoleonic invasion

 Napoleon’s response: Berlin & Milan Decrees closed Europe to British trade

Battle of Trafalgar, 1805

In The Battle of Trafalgar of Napoleon Bonaparte's plans to invade Britain were defeated,
Admiral Lord Nelson was killed by a French sniper. The result of this battle
established British naval supremacy for more than 100 years; it was fought west of Cape
Trafalgar, Spain, between Cádiz and the Strait of Gibraltar. A fleet of 33 ships (18 French and 15
Spanish) fought a British fleet of 27 ships under Admiral Horatio Nelson.
 This victory guaranteed Britain's control of the oceans, the basis of her global power for over a
century.

Soon after this Napoleon designed Berlin and Milan decrees to paralyze BG through destruction
of British trade, the decrees proclaimed a blockade: neutrals and French allies were not to trade
with the British. England responded to this with Orders in Council that subjected France and all
countries in alliance with Napoleon to a counterblockade. These orders were one of the main
causes of the Anglo-American War of 1812.

British fight Americans on Great Lakes

The War of 1812, was caused by British restrictions on U.S. trade and America’s desire to
expand its territory. The tensions arose from the French revolutionary (1792–99)
and Napoleonic Wars (1799–1815). During this conflict between France and Britain, American
interests were injured by each of the two countries’ endeavours to block the United States
from trading with the other.
Later Britain cancelled the restrictions on trading with the U.S. but although one of the main
causes for war had vanished, fighting began anyway. The American army was poorly trained
and the only considerable American successes occurred in September, when the Americans
won a major naval battle on Lake Erie.

British burn Washington, D.C., 1814

British force burned down multiple buildings, including the White House, the Capitol building,
as well as other facilities of the U.S. government. The Burning of Washington marks the only
time since the American Revolutionary War that a foreign power has captured and
occupied the United States capital.

British fail to capture Baltimore

The defenses at Baltimore were stronger than those of Washington. American forces defeated
the British when they attempted to capture Baltimore. When Francis Scott Key saw the British
failed to conquer Baltimore, he wrote down the first verse of what was to become the Star
Spangled Banner.

Battle of New Orleans, 1815, great American victory

On January 8, 1815, the British marched against New Orleans, hoping that by capturing
the city they could separate Louisiana from the rest of the United States. British soldiers
under Sir Edward Pakenham were unable to penetrate the U.S. defenses. In half an hour,
the British had retreated. This victory elevated national pride and was the last armed
engagement between the US and Britain.
War of 1812: Britain vs. United States

 Main causes: interference with U.S. neutrality & shipping rights & kidnapping of U.S.
seamen

 Napoleonic War far more important to Britain

 Final American victory at New Orleans 3 weeks after war ended by treaty

 Led to spirit of American nationalism & pride in having defeated Britain twice (but
Americans overlook French aid in Revolution & British preoccupation with Napoleon in
1812)

Troubles in Ireland

 Irish hated English rule & oppression

 1798: rebellion in Ireland

 British response: Act of Union, 1801

 Ireland joined with Great Britain to form United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland

 Ended Irish Parliament & put British Parliament in control of all British Isles

 But Roman Catholics still forbidden to hold office or serve in Parliament until 1829

Retreat from Moscow, 1812: great French disaster & beginning of the end

In 1810, Russia withdrew from the Continental System. In retaliation (to revenge),
Napoleon led a massive army into Russia in the summer of 1812. The Russians adopted a
strategy of retreating whenever Napoleon’s forces attempted to attack. As a result,
Napoleon’s troops trekked deeper into Russia despite being ill-prepared for an extended
campaign. In September, both sides suffered heavy casualties in the Battle of Borodino.
Napoleon’s forces marched on to Moscow, only to discover almost the entire population
evacuated. Russians set fires across the city in an effort to deprive enemy troops of
supplies. After waiting a month for a surrender that never came, Napoleon, faced with
the onset of the Russian winter, was forced to take his starving, exhausted army out of
Moscow. During the disastrous retreat, his army suffered continual harassment from a
suddenly aggressive and merciless Russian army. Of Napoleon’s 600,000 troops who
began the campaign, only an estimated 100,000 made it out of Russia.

Battle of Waterloo, 1815

Battle of Waterloo, (June 18, 1815) was Napoleon’s final defeat, The battle marked the end of
the Napoleonic Wars. (ending 23 years of recurrent warfare between France and the other
powers of Europe). It was fought near Waterloo in Belgium, between Napoleon’s 72,000 troops
and the combined forces of the duke of Wellington’s allied army of 68,000 (with British, Dutch,
Belgian, and German units) and about 45,000 Prussians, the main force of Gebhard Leberecht
von Blücher’s command. The defeat at Waterloo ended Napoleon's rule as Emperor of the
French.

Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington

 Britain’s great general of Napoleonic Wars

 Led Peninsular Campaign in Spain

 Led Britain in final victory at Waterloo, 1815

Battle of Waterloo, 18 June, 1815

 Wellington beat Napoleon at Waterloo in Belgium

 Prussian army arrived at end of day to finish off remainder of Napoleon’s army

 Napoleon spent rest of life in exile on island prison

Waterloo and International Bankers

 Nathan Rothschild controlled a major bank in London

 His 4 brothers controlled major banks in France, Italy, Germany, & Austria

 They financed both sides of the Napoleonic Wars

 Their messengers were allowed to travel across enemy lines all over Europe

 After the Battle of Waterloo, Rothschild messengers brought the first word of the
outcome

 Nathan Rothschild was probably the first man in England to know the English had won
the battle

 Nathan went to the bond market and sat there with a very sad look on his face

 Other bankers assumed England had lost

 They began to sell their government bonds

 Whenever large numbers of bonds are sold at once, the price falls

 Unknown to anyone else, Rothschild agents began to secretly buy the bonds at very low
prices

 When word arrived that England won the war, the bonds suddenly became much more
valuable

 The Rothschild Bank became extremely wealthy

  Nathan Rothschild pretty much “owned England” after the Battle of Waterloo

Results of war

 After 20 years of war, Britain emerged as strongest, richest, & most powerful country in
world

 But in 1815 Britain seemed on edge of bankruptcy & social revolution

 Starvation drove poor to destroy machines which they thought was the cause of their
misery

 Government responded with brutal repression

 Britain in 1815: fear, envy, greed, and little hope for most British people

GREAT BRITAIN IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

King George IV, 1820-1830

 Regent for father George III, 1811-1820 (during the period of his father insanity)

 Disgraceful private life (he had several mistresses and secretly married a Catholic
widow, later he married Princess Caroline, but he detested her and they say poisoned
her and she died)

 Had no part in reforms of era

 Artistic taste: persuaded government to buy paintings which became National Gallery

 Commissioned many beautiful buildings (he built the Royal Pavilion at Brighton, and
transformed Windsor Castle and Buckingham Palace), George's fondness for
pageantry (magnificent ceremony) helped to develop the ceremonial side of
monarchy.

King William IV, 1830-1837

 Son of George III who succeeded his brother George IV

 Three of England’s greatest reforms passed during his reign (The First Reform Act is
passed, extending votes and redistributing Parliamentary seats on a more equitable
basis. Abolition of slavery throughout the British Empire. Factory Act passed prohibiting
children aged less than nine from work in factories, and reducing the working hours of
women and older children. Poor Law Act is passed, creating workhouses for the poor.
Births, marriages and deaths must be registered by law)

 He & brother brought much discredit to British Monarchy (because of their disgraceful
private life, William lived with an actress)
Queen Victoria, 1837-1901

 Succeeded uncle King William IV who died without heirs

 Her 63-year reign was the longest in English history until Elizabeth II in 2015 beat it

 During her reign The British Empire was at the height of its power and she ruled over
450 million people, one quarter of the world’s population

 Colonial empire & industrial expansion Britain stretched around the globe from Canada
to the Caribbean, Africa, India, Australia and New Zealand. The Victorian era was a time
of immense industrial, political, trade, scientific and military progress for Great Britain.

 The period of Quinn Victoria reign is called Victorian Age

Victorian Age

 Restored prestige of Monarchy after reigns of two irresponsible kings

 She was a hard-working queen concerned with welfare of her people – gained their
affection & admiration

 Britain became richest nation in world & controlled largest empire in history

 British Empire controlled ¼ of world’s land & people

Queen Victoria

 Wise & capable monarch

 Accepted change from active rule to symbolic rule

 Probably reason British monarchy has survived while most other monarchies have not

 Married cousin, Prince Albert, of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, 1840

 4 sons & 5 daughters and 42 grandchildren grandmother of Europe (grand-daughter

Alexandria was the wife of Nicholas II Emperor and last Tzar of Russia)

 Prince loved & respected by people

 Set standard for domestic virtues

 Albert died 1861

 Victoria never recovered from her loss – dressed in black for many years (was deeply
attached to her husband and she sank into depression after he died, aged 42, in
1861. She had lost a devoted husband and her principal trusted adviser in affairs of
state. For the rest of her reign she wore black.)
  Example of polite society (her time was called “the polite society” because she set
standards of decency and morality)

 Emphasis on high morality

 Strong family values

 Era of imperialism

Industrial Revolution – continued to develop in spite of the problems it has caused.

 The invention of steam engine allowed steam power to spread across British industries
including Cotton mills in textile industry

 Steam engines needed coal, so miners had to extract more of coal (Coal mines)

 Blast furnaces & iron & steel industry were invented

 The invention of locomotive caused the construction of Railways in 1830, also

railroads &

 Canals &

 Roads were used for transportation of goods

 Machine tools: machines which make other machines

Contradictions in Victorian England

 In spite of Great wealth

 There was Harsh labor conditions & inhuman exploitation (people worked 14 or 16
hours a day 6 days a week, low wages, dirty working conditions)

 Appalling slum conditions & immense human misery ( living conditions in the cities and
towns were miserable and characterized by: overcrowding, poor sanitation, spread of
diseases, and pollution)

 Authorities were dreaming about Ideal of political democracy & universal happiness

 But the Reality showed economic distress & oppression

 But many saw these problems & sought to fix them through peaceful means

Era of Reform

 Dissenters & Roman Catholics were granted political equality by stages throughout 19 th
century
  Slavery was outlawed throughout British Empire in 1833

 Local government overhauled (reformed) and made more responsible to people

 New police force was created to replace military

 Free trade thought led to economic growth

 Brutal prison conditions & harsh punishments for minor crimes corrected in 1820s

 Some 220 offenses punishable by death – many ended

 1824: Parliament removed laws forbidding workers to form trade unions

 1833 Factory Act said no child under 9 could work in factory; no child under 18 could
work more than 12 hours a day

 Parliamentary reform greatest issue

Reform Bill of 1832 - known as Great Reform Bill

 Lowered property qualifications so most of middle class could vote

 But only 5% of people could vote because working class was ignored

 Provided model for later reforms

Chartist Movement: early1800s

 First Nationwide working class movement to fight for equal political and social rights

 The People’s Charter of 1838 demanded:

 1. Votes for all males

 2. Secret voting (to avoid bribery and intimidation)

 3. No property qualifications for members of Parliament so that a worker could seek to

be elected

 4. Salaries for members of Parliament so that poor men could take part in political
activities

 5. Annual elections instead of general elections every 7 years

 6. Equal electoral districts

 Movement did not achieve these goals, but all except #5 were later adopted

 But Chartist meetings frequently provoked confrontation & violence and it was a
glorious page in the history of the workers’ struggle for liberation.


Results of 19th century reforms

 Beginnings of modern forms of:

1. Representative parliamentary government

2. Party system

3. Cabinet system

4. Ministerial political responsibility

5. Permanent civil service

6. Reforms were made to give more power to the people

Britain sent Macartney diplomatic mission to China, 1793

The Macartney Embassy, also called the Macartney Mission, was the first British diplomatic
mission to China in 1793. It is named for its leader, George Macartney, Great Britain's first
envoy to China. The goals of the mission included the opening of new ports for British trade in
China, the establishment of a embassy in Beijing, and the relaxation of trade restrictions on
British merchants in Guangzhou. Macartney's delegation met with the Qianlong Emperor, who
rejected all of the British requests. Although the mission failed to achieve its official objectives,
it was later noted for the extensive cultural, political, and geographical observations its
participants recorded in China and brought back to Europe.

Opium War 1839-1842

 Macartney Mission was seen in China as barbarians bringing tribute

 Second mission of Amherst ignored; British insulted

 Britain wanted Chinese products, especially tea

 China didn’t need British products

 Opium was something British could sell to China

 Chinese Emperor tried to end opium trade which destroyed millions of lives

Opium was a significant item in the developing worldwide market. Britain was selling opium to
China. This caused an epidemic in China, which led to the Chinese government shutting down
the opium trade. This caused the anger in Britain and made it open the trade back up through
military force (and the signing of the Treaty of Nanjing. This first war with Britain was a
humiliating experience for China and marked the beginning of modern history for China. )

The British were much stronger militarily. They defeated the Chinese, and imposed a penalty
that gave Western powers special privileges to trade with China.
The demand for Chinese luxury goods (particularly silk, porcelain, and tea) created a trade
imbalance between China and Britain. European silver flowed into China. To counter this
imbalance, the British East India Company began to grow opium in Bengal, in present-
day Bangladesh, and allowed private British merchants to smuggle it into China illegally. The
influx of narcotics drained the economy of silver, and increased the numbers of opium addicts
inside the country, outcomes that seriously worried Chinese officials. They tried to close opium
shops and stop opium trade, Lin Zexu wrote a letter t Quinn Victoria, but they never got the
response. So China confiscated chests of opium from foreign ships, around 1200 tons. The
British government responded by sending military force to China and defeated China. the Qing
dynasty was forced to sign the Treaty of Nanking which opened five ports to foreign
merchants, and transferred Hong Kong Island to the British Empire.

British technological superiority

 Great Britain was the first nation to benefit from the Industrial Revolution

 British Empire was the result of Industrial Revolution

 British victory in China in 1842 was due to Britain’s technological superiority resulting
from the Industrial Revolution

 Second Opium War fought in part over insult to British flag

Arrow War (Second Opium War) 第二次鴉片戰爭

 Britain wanted more trading privileges

 British excuse for war: 1856 Chinese police boarded Chinese opium smuggling boat
Arrow & lowered the British flag

 French joined after missionary executed for being in the area of the Taiping Rebellion
(that area was not open for foreigners at that time)

 Early 1858: British captured Canton (Guangzhou) - European military technology proved
too much for the Chinese. The British quickly destroyed the Chinese fleet at Canton and
took the city. European forces crushed the Chinese forts and inland armies with superior
fire power and moved to Peking.

 Forces went to Tianjin in June & got treaties

 Treaties allowed ministers of Britain, France, Russia and the US to reside at Beijing and

 opened 11 more ports to Western trade

 Americans & Russians went as “neutrals” & got similar treaties

  Qing Court decided that permanent diplomatic missions at Beijing made Emperor lose
face

 June 1859: British & French ministers arrived at Tianjin to ratify treaty

 China refused to let them proceed

 They tried to force their way up river

 4 British gunboats sunk with many casualties

 1860: British & French returned with stronger force

 British forces: 41 warships, 143 troop transports, & 10,500 troops

 French forces: over 60 ships & 6300 troops

 They crushed the much larger Chinese forces

 Emperor fled north of Wall to Jehol

 Chinese seized Chief British negotiator Lord Elgin while under flag of truce

 They executed 20 of Elgin’s men

 Reprisal: destruction of Qianlong Summer Palace

Crimean War, 1853-1856

Crimean War fought to prevent Russian expansion in Black Sea

It was fought by an alliance of Britain, France, Turkey and Sardinia against Russia. It broke out in
October 1853– and ended in February 1856.

Britain, France, Ottoman Empire, & Sardinia fought Russia

Crimean War result of religious, commercial, & strategic rivalries

Russia was expanding into the Danube region – Romania today. This was under Turkish control.
Therefore, Turkey and Russia went to war in 1853, and the following year Britain and France –
fearful of Russian expansion – became involved.

Britain and France did not like to see Russia pushing down into the Danube region. They feared
Russia would continue pushing down, and eventually come into British India through
Afghanistan.

Religious tensions also played a part. Russia made an issue of the fact that the holiest sites in
Christianity – Jerusalem, Bethlehem etc – were under Turkish control.
Balaclava: site of major battle

It was fought on the Crimean peninsula, and also on the Black Sea. There were three main
battles: the battle of the Alma on 20 September 1854, the battle of Balaclava on 24 October,
and a major Russian attack at the Inkerman, in November. The Battle of Balaklava took place in
October 1854. Russians attacked the allied base of Balaklava while two British units held out
against the Russians. One of the Brigades was sent on an almost suicidal mission against the
heavily armed Russian forces. Of the 700 men, 278 were killed or wounded. Their purpose was
to frighten the Russians and to scatter them.. This failed campaign was followed by another
bloody encounter, the Battle of Inkerman in November with the allies coming in victorious.

Crimean War first to be covered by reporters & photographers at the front

Crimean soldiers were the first to be photographed at front lines

Florence Nightingale, the “lady with the lamp” -

 Born into wealthy family in Britain

 Studied medicine to help the sick & needy

 Took over nursing care in Crimea - Florence Nightingale heard about the poor medical
conditions in the Crimea region, and went there as a civilian to help. She became a big
news story.

 Cleaned up filthy conditions & saved countless lives

 Founder of modern nursing profession

Charles Darwin, 1809-1882

 British naturalist who developed theory of evolution based on natural selection

 Theory sometimes called survival of the fittest

 Learned theory from grandfather Erasmus Darwin

HMS Beagle in Straits of Magellan on British scientific voyage, 1831-6

HMS Beagle in Sydney Harbor: Darwin served as naturalist on that voyage

The Origin of Species, published 1859, shocked people who believed God created the world

Consequences of Darwin’s Views

 Major controversy in religion & science

 Survival of fittest applied to human activity

 Led to theories of racial superiority – some races more highly evolved than others
 Used to justify imperialism & colonialism

 Used in 20th century as justification for genocide (by Hitler, for example)