INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL

in

INTRODUCTION TO
PSYCHOLOGY

Contributors;

Agos, Charlon Guinto, Adrian Romero, Krisette

Bien, Jonna Karla Manda, Aimee Rose Santos, Geraldine
Decin, Zaila Morales, Timothy Samaniego, Elfie
Entienza, Christ Michael Nachor, Ariane Nicole

0
 INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL
INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY

COURSE OBJECTIVES

• To explore the subject matter of the field and to become familiar with the vocabulary and concepts
of the field and with some of the research findings upon which our knowledge of human thought
and behavior is based.
• To emphasize development of critical thinking skills and to prepare to be a cautious and analytical
consumer of information that is proclaimed scientific or based on research.
• Understanding and acceptance of yourself and others that will enrich your personal relationships.
• Explore the historical roots of different theories of psychology and understand its importance.
• Identify the differences in theories of psychology and its application to everyday situation.
• Demonstrate the use of various theories to understand individual differences through analysis of
various cases presented in class.
• Appreciate and respect the individual differences among peoples through this course.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

UNIT 1 The Nature of Psychology ........................................................... 2-13

UNIT 2 Psychological Research ........................................................... 14-21
UNIT 3 Biological Bases of Behavior ............................................... 22-29
UNIT 4 Human Development ........................................................... 30-40
UNIT 5 Sensation and Perception ........................................................... 40-51
UNIT 6 States of Consciousness ........................................................... 51-58
UNIT 7 Learning and Memory ........................................................... 59-67
UNIT 8 Thinking, Language and Intelligence ................................... 67-83
UNIT 9 Motivation and Emotion ........................................................... 84-93
UNIT 10 Personality .................................................................................. 94-116
UNIT 11 Stress, Health and Adjustment ............................................... 116-125
UNIT 12 Abnormal Behavior ...................................................................... 125-147
UNIT 13 Methods of Therapy ...................................................................... 147-157
UNIT 14 Social Psychology ...................................................................... 157-164

*Read this Material from Up Down, Left to Right.

1
UNIT 1: The Nature of Psychology specialization. The last part will prove that its
goals will provide how this program is the best
I. LEARNING OBJECTIVE/OUTCOMES choice for you.
1. Understand the historical background of
Psychology. Now brace yourself because you are about to
2. Identify the traditional schools of learn and enjoy this very interesting topic-
Psychology. Psychology.
3. Determine the different fields of III. LESSON PROPER
specialization in Psychology.
4. Identify the goals of Psychology: to Lesson 1: History of Psychology
describe, explain, predict and control.
What is Psychology?
II. INTRODUCTION Psychology derived from two Greek words
“psyche”, means mind, spirit or soul and “logos
“What made you decide to take up this course?” “means science, study or discipline.
To the Greeks, psychology is simply a study of
This question may prompt you to pause and go the soul.
back to the time when you were contemplating In 1590, the word psychology was coined by a
on what program you will get in college. German scientist, Rudolf Glocenius.
Certainly, you based your decision on a lot of While In 1693, it was originally spelled as P-s-y-
factors that made you finally say to yourself that c-o-l-o-g-y that first appeared in the dictionary.
Psychology is the one. And what makes Psychology unique?
Its basic definitions explained that:
Like everyone else, you probably have so many
questions to yourself that still unanswered. Psychology is the scientific study of the
These curiosities start as you grew and observe behavior of individuals and their mental
people around including the environment you processes
were in. You might be wondering why some •The Scientific Method
people became mentally challenge; how others
became very successful and yet extremely It consists of a set of orderly steps used
unhappy; How life has become more to analyze and solve problems
complicated now when it was very simple back •Behavior
then during your childhood years? Sometimes The means and actions by which
you think it is not fair. Oftentimes you find it organisms, including both animals and
difficult to understand yourself when in fact to humans, adjust to their environment.
some it seems very easy? While there may be a It is everything we do that can be directly
lot of “why’s and how’s” running to your mind, observed. It was previously interpreted
luckily, someone had mentioned this course to as the movements of the body that could
you. Or while you are browsing the internet, you be seen or observed. Recently, it has
came across about Psychology… this may be broadened to include feelings, attitudes
the reason why you are here, hoping to find relief and mental process that are not directly
to your longed self- queries… observed but can be inferred from
external behavior.
In this chapter, you will be toured in how •Mental Processes
Psychology was developed and its significance The private, internal workings of the
as an academic discipline and mental health human mind.
profession. You will also know that Psychology These are internal subjective
has different schools of thought and fields of experiences inferred from behavior – the
sensations, perception, dreams,

2
 thoughts, beliefs, and feelings. It is an D. 19th Century/ Modern Period- beginning of
activity of organism that involves the experimental/ scientific psychology.
mind like cognition, memory, learning, E. 20th Century- flourished of psychology in
problem solving etc. different parts of the world.

So it is formally defined as the scientific study VERY IMPORTANT PERSONS:

of behavior and mental processes (Hilgard &
Atkinson). This definition usually included the The Greek Philosophers
investigation of animal as well as human
Aristotle (4th Century B.C., 384-322 BC) is
behavior on the assumption that:
regarded as the Father of Psychology.
1. Information obtained from experiments According to him, knowledge is not inborn;
with subhuman species could be instead it is acquired through experiences. He
generalized to human beings. postulates that the mind at birth was a blank
2. Animal behavior was of interest in its sheet (tabula rasa) and that experiences an
own right. individual encounters in his lifetime are
impressed on his mind. He distinguished 3
It also reflects psychology’s concern with the functions of the soul; vegetative (basic
objective study of observable (overt) behavior, maintenance of life); appetitive (motives and
while recognizing the importance of desires); and rational (the governing functions)
understanding mental processes and behavior which is located in the heart.
that cannot be directly observed (covert).
Plato (427-347 B.C.) conceived the existence of
Silvermann defines Psychology as the study of soul in the body, which is God-given. He divided
human beings– how they behave, how they feel, the human mind into three parts: the rational
how they think, how they adjust or how they part, the will, and the appetites. Ideally the will
get along with one another and how they supports the rational element, which in turn
become the individuals that they are. controls the appetites. If the rational element is
not developed, the individual behaves immorally;
❖ HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF hence immorality is a consequence of ignorance.
PSYCHOLOGY He described knowledge as a higher form of
Psychology has both a traditional and a scientific awareness, because it is gained from reason
history. Traditionally, the earliest speculation rather than from sense experience.
concerning the relationship of events was in Hippocrates (0460-377 B.C.) is an ancient
terms of causal agents. Gods or spirits Greek physician; he is called the Father of
(supernatural agents) were believed to direct Medicine. He was regarded as the greatest
man’s activities. This idea is called animism. As physician of his time. He based his medical
an experimental science, it dates back from practice on observations and on the study of the
about 1875 and Psychology’s birth was set in human body. He held the belief that illness had
1879 through Wilhelm Wundt. a physical and rational explanation. He rejected
DIFFERENT PERIODS: the views of his time that considered illness to be
A. Ancient Period- prevalence of belief in caused by superstitions and by possession of
supernatural to cause people’s activities. evil spirits and disfavor of the gods.
B. Greek Period- Greek philosophers laid down
Medieval Period
the earliest foundations of psychology.
C. Medieval Period- Merging of science of The church father, St. Augustine (1227-1274)
mind and religion to explain fate of man. had an interesting idea about mind. He said that

3
the human mind couldn’t gain knowledge from Gustav Fechner and Ernst Weber founded a
sense perception alone. He also rejected Plato’s new discipline, Psychophysics, which is
theory of ideas. Instead, according to Augustine, concerned with the measurement of
knowledge is acquired on account of divine psychological effects of sensation
illumination. His insightful descriptions of
Psychology in Different Parts of the World
subjective events begin the tradition of
(20th Century)
introspection (process of mental self- analysis)
and phenomenology (study of subjective o Psychology in America
experience) in psychology.
William James was considered as the Dean of
An interesting overall explanation provided by American psychologists and one of the founders
Saint Thomas Aquinas (354 430 B.C.) was that of Functionalism. He stressed the importance of
God created human beings so that God had observing and quantifying behavior. He
someone who loved him/her. Also, that man advocated the use of animals in psychological
should live to enjoy their existence in God. research.
Aquinas also believed that the human person is
a soul-body unity. The soul is immortal. He Stanley Hall pioneered in child study
combined the science of mind and religion to movement, wrote on child, adolescent and
explain the idea of immortality. senescent psychology. He was considered as the
Father of Child Study Movement.
The Pre-Modern Period
James McKeen Cattell was considered as the
Rene Descartes (1649) is recognized as the Father of Mental Testing Movement. He
founder of modern philosophy. He formulated the developed intelligence tests for use in America
theory of mind/body interaction. He proposed a
mechanism for automatic reaction in response to o Psychology in France
external events. It was Descartes’ articulation of Philippe Pinel provided psychological
this mechanism for automatic, differentiated interpretation of insanity.
reaction that led to his generally being
credited with the founding of reflex theory. He Anton Mesmer developed hypnotism for cure of
stated that mind like machine can be studied. behavior disorder.

John Locke (1690) introduced the idea that Alfred Binet developed intelligence test to
all experiences that be analyze. He conceived identify between mentally retarded children
the idea of tabula-rasa of which at birth the mind from normal ones. He is the Father of
is like a blank sheet that gathers its contents from Intelligence Testing
experiences that an individual encounters during o Psychology in Vienna
his lifetime
Sigmund Freud founded psychoanalysis, which
Modern or Scientific Psychology (2nd Half of is a branch of Mental Psychology. He concluded
that mental disorder might be caused purely by
the 19th Century)
psychological factor rather than organic factors.
• German Scientists: He proposed that dreams are the disguised
expressions of unconscious wishes. He
Wilhelm Wundt founded the first psychological emphasized libidinal (sex) urges of a person
laboratory in 1879 at Leipzig, Germany. He was
considered as the Father of Experimental Carl Jung was a Swiss psychologist but a
Psychology. follower of Freud’s psychoanalytic theory. He is
one of the best known contemporary contributors

4
to dream analysis and symbolization. He particularly feelings and sensations. The
develops his theory the origin of neurosis. He structuralists attempted to give a scientific
established Analytic Psychology analysis of conscious experience by breaking it
down into its specific components or structures.
Karen Horney was a German psychoanalyst
They primarily used a method of research called
who practiced in the United States during her
introspection. In this technique, subjects were
later career. She was a Neo-Freudian but
trained to observe and report as accurately as
questioned some traditional Freudian views,
they could their mental processes, feelings, and
particularly her theory of sexuality. She
experiences.
disagreed with Freud about inherent differences
in the psychology of men and women, and Findings/ Results of their study were:
traced such differences to society and culture 1. Mental states are responsible for man’s
rather than biology. She rejected his concept of behavior.
penis envy, declaring it to be both inaccurate and 2. Psychology is described as man and his
demeaning to women. She instead proposed the experiences.
concept of womb envy in which men experience 3. There are 8 kinds of sensation: visual,
feelings of inferiority because they cannot give auditory, gustatory, olfactory, and cutaneous
birth to children, thus founding Feminist (external sensation), organic, vestibular, and
Psychology. kinesthetic (internal sensation).
4. Complex experiences are made of elements
o Psychology in England
such as images.
Charles Darwin made the theory of evolution
which established the continuity between man FUNCTIONALISM was formed as a reaction to
and animals. He made Comparative Psychology the structuralism and was heavily influenced by
important. the work of William James and the evolutionary
theory of Charles Darwin. Functionalists sought
Sir Francis Galton devised the earliest test to to explain the mental processes in a more
determine hereditary influences to intelligence. systematic and accurate manner. Functionalists
He devised statistical technique (correlation) to focused on the purpose of consciousness and
determine relationship of one variable (first trait) behavior, instead on the elements of
to another variable (second trait). He used the consciousness
technique to compare the intelligence of parents
to their offspring. Findings/ Results of their study were:
1. Learning is a means of man’s adjustment to
Lesson 2: SCHOOLS OF his surroundings.
PSYCHOLOGY 2. Mental states influences man’s behavior.
Psychologists have opposing viewpoints and 3. Stimulus- response (SR) explains man’s
theories on the nature and functions of behavior.
psychology. When a large number of
psychologists support a certain viewpoint, they BEHAVIORISM was introduced in 1913 by John
are called a “school”. Between 1879 and 1930, B. Watson, an American psychologist.
several important schools of psychology Behaviorist believed that observable behavior,
developed. not inner experience, was the only reliable
source of information. This concentration on
STRUCTURALISM grew out of the works of observable events was a reaction against the
James, Wundt, and their associates. The chief structuralists' emphasis on introspection. They
purpose of this psychology was to describe, stressed the importance of the environment in
analyze, and explain conscious experience, shaping an individual's behavior. They chiefly

5
looked for connections between observable 3. The unconscious attempt of an individual to
behavior and stimuli from the environment. overcome inferiority is a stronger driving force.
Findings/ Results of their study were: PURPOSIVISM contends that mental life is
1. Behavior is explained in terms of reflex and hormic or goal-seeking. William McDougall, the
conditioned reflex. foremost Purposivist, maintains that the driving
2. Man’s conduct is not due to consciousness forces for consciousness are innate urges or
but to stimulus. tendencies, chief of which are the submissive
3. Objective method not introspection should be and self-assertive tendencies. Which are
used in overt behavior. exercised in goal-seeking. James' preoccupation
with instincts brought the subject to the fore. But
GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY was founded about it was McDougall who made instincts central in
1912 by Max Wertheimer, a German behavior. His definition of conduct is pointed
psychologist. Like behaviorism, it developed as toward a clearly defined purposiveness.
a reaction against structuralism. Gestalt
Findings/ Results of their study were:
psychologists believed that human beings
1. Striving is the cause of all behavior.
perceive the external world as an organized
2. Ductless glands produce hormones in life.
pattern, not as individual sensations. The Gestalt
3. Objects, movements and behavior have
is a German word meaning pattern, form, or
definite purposes.
shape. The Gestaltists believed that behavior
should be studied as an organized pattern rather
than as separate incidents of stimulus and Lesson 3: FIELDS OF PSYCHOLOGY
response.
The Subfields of Psychology: Psychology’s
Findings/ Results of their study were:
Family Tree
1. The whole experience is more than the sum
of its parts (Gestalt principle). As the study of psychology has grown, it has
2. A change in any element changes the whole. given rise to a number of subfields which can
3. The mind functions as a whole unit. be likened to an extended family, with assorted
PSYCHOANALYSIS was founded by the nieces and nephews, aunts and uncles, and
Austrian doctor Sigmund Freud in 1800. cousins who, although they may not interact on
Psychoanalysis was based on the theory that a day-to-day basis, are related to one another,
behavior is determined by powerful inner forces, because they share a common goal:
most of which are buried in the unconscious understanding behavior. One way to identify the
mind. According to Freud and other key subfields is to look at some of the basic
psychoanalysts (Carl Jung, Karen Horney, and questions about behavior that they address.
Alfred Adler), from early childhood, people
repress (force out of conscious awareness) any
desires or needs that are unacceptable to
themselves or to society which can cause
personality disturbances, self-destructive
behavior, or even physical symptoms.
Findings/ Results of their study were:
1. LIBIDO THEORY: Sex urges are responsible
for man’s behavior.
2. Personality is a stronger force in determining
human behavior (extroversion – introversion).

6
WHAT ARE THE BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS
OF BEHAVIOR?
In the most fundamental sense, people are
biological organisms. Behavioral neuroscience is
the subfield of psychology that focuses on how
the brain and the nervous system, as well as
other biological aspects of the body, determine
behavior.

HOW DO PEOPLE SENSE, PERCEIVE,

LEARN, AND THINK ABOUT THE WORLD?
If you have ever wondered why you are
susceptible to optical illusions, how your body
registers pain, or how to make the most of your
study time, an experimental psychologist can
answer your questions. Experimental
psychology is the branch of psychology that
studies the processes of sensing, perceiving,
learning, and thinking about the world. (The term
experimental psychologist is somewhat
misleading: Psychologists in every specialty
area use experimental techniques.)

WHAT ARE THE SOURCES OF CHANGE AND

STABILITY IN BEHAVIOR ACROSS THE LIFE
SPAN?
A baby producing her first smile . . . taking his
first step . . . saying her first word. These
universal milestones in development are also
singularly special and unique for each person.
Developmental psychology studies how people
grow and change from the moment of conception
through death. Personality psychology focuses
on the consistency in people’s behavior over
time and the traits that differentiate one person
from another.

HOW DO PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS

AFFECT PHYSICAL AND MENTAL HEALTH?
Frequent depression, stress, and fears that
prevent people from carrying out their normal
activities are topics that interest a health
psychologist, a clinical psychologist, and a

7
counseling psychologist. Health psychology EXPANDING PSYCHOLOGY’S FRONTIERS
explores the relationship between psychological Evolutionary Psychology. Evolutionary
factors and physical ailments or disease. psychology considers how behavior is influenced
Clinical psychology deals with the study, by our genetic inheritance from our ancestors.
diagnosis, and treatment of psychological The evolutionary approach suggests that the
disorders. Clinical psychologists are trained to chemical coding of information in our cells not
diagnose and treat problems that range from the only determines traits such as hair color and race
crises of everyday life, such as unhappiness over but also holds the key to understanding a broad
the breakup of a relationship, to more extreme variety of behaviors that helped our ancestors
conditions, such as profound, lingering survive and reproduce.
depression. Some clinical psychologists also Behavioral Genetics. Another rapidly growing
research and investigate issues that vary from area in psychology focuses on the biological
identifying the early signs of psychological mechanisms, such as genes and chromosomes
disturbance to studying the relationship between that enable inherited behavior to unfold.
family communication patterns and Behavioral genetics seeks to understand how we
psychological disorders. might inherit certain behavioral traits and how the
Counseling psychology focuses primarily on environment influences whether we actually
educational, social, and career adjustment display such traits (Moffi tt & Caspi, 2007;
problems. Almost every college has a center Rende, 2007; Maxson, 2013).
staffed with counseling psychologists. This is Clinical Neuropsychology. Clinical
where students can get advice on the kinds of neuropsychology unites the areas of
jobs they might be best suited for, on methods of neuroscience and clinical psychology: It focuses
studying effectively, and on strategies for on the origin of psychological disorders in
resolving everyday difficulties, such as problems biological factors. Building on advances in our
with roommates and concerns about a specific understanding of the structure and chemistry of
professor’s grading practices. the brain, this specialty has already led to
promising new treatments for psychological
HOW DO OUR SOCIAL NETWORKS AFFECT disorders as well as debates over the use of
BEHAVIOR? medication to control behavior (Boake, 2008;
Our complex networks of social Holtz, 2011).
interrelationships are the focus for many
subfields of psychology. For example, social Lesson 4: GOALS OF PSYCHOLOGY
psychology is the study of how people’s
thoughts, feelings, and actions are affected by As you consider the many topics and
others. Social psychologists concentrate on such perspectives that make up psychology, ranging
diverse topics as human aggression, liking and from a narrow focus on minute biochemical
loving, persuasion, and conformity. influences on behavior to a broad focus on social
Cross-cultural psychology investigates the behaviors, you might find yourself thinking that
similarities and differences in psychological the discipline lacks cohesion. However, the field
functioning in and across various cultures and is more unified than a first glimpse might
ethnic groups. For example, cross-cultural suggest. For one thing, no matter what topical
psychologists examine how cultures differ in
area a psychologist specializes in, he or she will
their use of punishment during child rearing.
rely primarily on one of the five major

8
perspectives. For example, a developmental Psychology aim to understand. First is the issued
psychologist who specializes in the study of on Nature vs Nurture. A psychologist’s take on
children could make use of the cognitive this issue depends partly on which major
perspective or the psychodynamic perspective perspective he or she subscribes to. For
or any of the other major perspectives. example, developmental psychologists whose
focus is on how people grow and change
Psychologists also agree on what the key issues throughout the course of their lives may be most
of the field are. Although there are major interested in learning more about hereditary
arguments regarding how best to address and influences if they follow a neuroscience
resolve the key issues, psychology is a unified perspective. In contrast, developmental
science, because psychologists of all psychologists who are proponents of the
perspectives agree that the issues must be behavioral perspective are more likely to focus
addressed if the field is going to advance. As you on environment (Rutter, 2002, 2006; Barrett,
contemplate these key issues, try not to think of 2011). However, every psychologist would agree
them in “either/or” terms. Instead, consider the that neither nature nor nurture alone is the sole
opposing viewpoints on each issue as the determinant of behavior; rather, it is a
opposite ends of a continuum, with the positions combination of the two. In a sense, then, the real
of individual psychologists typically falling controversy involves how much of our behavior
somewhere between the two ends. is caused by heredity and how much is caused
by environmental influences.

A second major question addressed by

psychologists’ concerns conscious versus
unconscious causes of behavior. How much of
our behavior is produced by forces of which we
are fully aware, and how much is due to
unconscious activity—mental processes that are
not accessible to the conscious mind? This
question represents one of the great
controversies in the field of psychology. For
example, clinical psychologists adopting a
psychodynamic perspective argue that
psychological disorders are brought about by
unconscious factors, whereas psychologists
employing the cognitive perspective suggest that
psychological disorders largely are the result of
faulty thinking processes.

The next issue is observable behavior versus

internal mental processes. Should psychology
concentrate solely on behavior that can be seen
by outside observers, or should it focus on
The figure above shows the issues that unseen thinking processes? Some

9
psychologists, particularly those relying on the but what does the future hold for the discipline?
behavioral perspective, contend that the only Although the course of scientific development is
legitimate source of information for psychologists notoriously difficult to predict, several trends
is behavior that can be observed directly. Other seem likely:
psychologists, building on the cognitive
perspective, argue that what goes on inside a • As its knowledge base grows,
person’s mind is critical to understanding psychology will become increasingly
behavior, and so we must concern ourselves specialized and new perspectives will
with mental processes. evolve. For example, our growing
understanding of the brain and the
Free will versus determinism is another key nervous system, combined with scientific
issue. How much of our behavior is a matter of advances in genetics and gene therapy,
free will (choices made freely by an individual), will allow psychologists to focus on
and how much is subject to determinism, the prevention of psychological disorders
notion that behavior is largely produced by rather than only on their treatment
factors beyond people’s willful control? An issue (Cuijpers et al., 2008).
long debated by philosophers, the free- • The evolving sophistication of
will/determinism argument is also central to the fi neuroscientific approaches is likely to
eld of psychology (Cary, 2007; Nichols, 2011; have an increasing influence over other
Vonasch & Baumeister, 2013). branches of psychology. For instance,
social psychologists already are
The last of the key issues concerns individual increasing their understanding of social
differences versus universal principles.
behaviors such as persuasion by using
Specifically, how much of our behavior is a
brain scans as part of an evolving field
consequence of our unique and special qualities,
the individual differences that differentiate us known as social neuroscience.
from other people? Conversely, how much Furthermore, as neuroscientific
reflects the culture and society in which we live, techniques become more sophisticated,
stemming from universal principles that underlie there will be new ways of applying that
the behavior of all humans? Psychologists who knowledge, as we discuss in
rely on the neuroscience perspective tend to look Neuroscience in Your Life (Bunge &
for universal principles of behavior, such as how Wallis, 2008; Cacioppo & Decety, 2009).
the nervous system operates or the way certain • Psychology’s influence on issues of
hormones automatically prime us for sexual
public interest also will grow. The major
activity. Such psychologists concentrate on the
problems of our time—such as violence,
similarities in our behavioral destinies despite
vast differences in our upbringing. In contrast, terrorism, racial and ethnic prejudice,
psychologists who employ the humanistic poverty, and environmental and
perspective focus more on the uniqueness of technological disasters—have important
every individual. They consider every person’s psychological components (Zimbardo,
behavior a reflection of distinct and special 2004; Hobfoll, Hall, & Canetti-Nisim,
individual qualities. 2007; Marshall, Bryant, & Amsel, 2007).
• The public’s view of psychology will
Psychology’s Future
become more informed. Surveys show
We have examined psychology’s foundations, that the public at large does not fully

10
 understand the scientific underpinnings study of racial, ethnic, linguistic, and cultural
of the field. However, as the field itself factors—will become more important to
embraces such practices as using psychologists providing services and doing
research. The result will be a field that can
scientific evidence to choose the best
provide an understanding of human behavior in
treatments for psychological disorders,
its broadest sense (Chang & Sue, 2005;
psychology’s reputation will grow Quintana et al., 2006).
(Lilienfeld, 2012).

Finally, as the population becomes more

diverse, issues of diversity—embodied in the

IV. ACTIVITIES/EXERCISES
TITLE: WHAT PSYCHOLOGISTS DO?
Objective: To determine the services performed by psychologists
Instruction: Psychologist can work in a wide variety of settings. Find out what they do in the different
work settings and areas of specialization in psychology. Use this table to write your answers. Refer to
psychology book or psychology internet website. Give at least 2 functions of psychologist in each setting.
Write your references.
Work Setting Typical Activities Specialization
A. Educational
1. __________________ ___________________________ ___________________________
2. _
___________________________

B. Industrial
1. __________________ __________________________ ___________________________

2. ___________________________ ___________________________

C. Clinical
1. __________________________ ___________________________

2. ___________________________ ___________________________

References: ___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________

11
V. ASSESSMENT
Write the letter of your answer on the space provided. Choose from below.

______1. Joan, a college freshman, is worried about her grades. She needs to learn better
organizational skills and study habits to cope with the demands of college.
______2. At what age do children generally begin to acquire an emotional attachment to their fathers?
______3. It is thought that pornographic films that depict violence against women may prompt
aggressive behavior in some men.
______4. What chemicals are released in the human body as a result of a stressful event? What are
their effects on behavior?
______5. Luis is unique in his manner of responding to crisis situations, with an even temperament and
a positive outlook.
______6. The teachers of 8-year-old Jack are concerned that he has recently begun to withdraw
socially and to show little interest in schoolwork.
______7. Janetta’s job is demanding and stressful. She wonders if her lifestyle is making her more
prone to certain illnesses, such as cancer and heart disease.
______8. A psychologist is intrigued by the fact that some people are much more sensitive to painful
stimuli than others are.
______9. A strong fear of crowds leads a young man to seek treatment for his problem.
______10. What mental strategies are involved in solving complex word problems?
______11. What teaching methods most effectively motivate elementary school students to
successfully accomplish academic tasks?
______12. Jessica is asked to develop a management strategy that will encourage safer work practices
in an assembly plant.

a. behavioral neuroscience g. clinical psychology

b. experimental psychology h. counseling psychology
c. cognitive psychology i. educational psychology
d. developmental psychology j. school psychology
e. personality psychology k. social psychology
f. health psychology l. industrial psychology

12
VI. SUMMARY

o There are three important elements in the definition of psychology: science, behavior, and mental
processes.
o The history of psychology has both a traditional and scientific history. During the ancient times,
belief about cause of behavior was by supernatural agents. Greeks provided the early explanation
of behavior, the founding of psychological laboratory by Wilhelm Wundt marked the beginning of
scientific psychology.
o There are differing viewpoints/theories of psychology. Schools of psychology are formed
emphasizing their different concern in the study of behavior. There were six schools of
psychology: structuralism, functionalism, behaviorism, gestalt, purposivism and psychoanalysis.
o The study of psychology can be approached from several perspectives namely; biological,
behavioral, cognitive, psychoanalytic and humanistic.
o There are different branches of psychology and many new areas of inquiry are emerging at this
present time.
o Psychology is a science because it is objective and systematic in its study of how people behave
and think. It has 4 goals which are to understand and explain, to predict, control behavior and to
improve the quality of life.
o Psychologists may engage in teaching research, and professional practice in psychology related
settings as in mental health clinics, government, and industry.
o Psychologists are concerned in resolving some key issues and controversies in psychology,
depending on their area of expertise

VII. REFERENCES

• Baucum, D. (2006). Psychology (2nd ed.). Barron's

• Feldman, R.S. (2015). Understanding Psychology (12th ed.) New York: McGraw-Hill.
• Kalat, J. (2007) Introduction to Psychology (8th Edition)
• Lahey, B. (2012). Psychology An introduction. McGraw Hill Higher Education
• Myers, D. G. (2011). Exploring Psychology (8th ed.). Worth Publishers.
• Myers, D. G., & DeWall, C. N. (2016). Exploring psychology (10th ed.). Worth Publishers,
Macmillan Learning.
• Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Atkinson, R. L. (2012). Atkinson & Hilgard's introduction to psychology
(15th ed.). Wadsworth Cengage Learning.

13
Unit 2: PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH Psychologists—as well as scientists in other
disciplines—meet the challenge of posing
appropriate questions and properly answering
LEARNING OBJECTIVE them by relying on the scientific method. The
• Explain the scientific method and the scientific method is the approach used by
roles of theories and hypotheses in psychologists to systematically acquire
psychological research. knowledge and understanding about behavior
• Demonstrate different research methods and other phenomena of interest. The figure
• Explain what a correlation coefficient tells below illustrates the four main steps of scientific
us about the relationship between
method, they are: (1) identifying questions of
variables.
• Recognize that correlation does not interest, (2) formulating an explanation, (3)
indicate a cause-and-effect relationship carrying out research designed to support or
between variables refute the explanation, and (4) communicating
• Discuss our tendency to look for the findings.
relationships between variables that do
not really exist.
• Explain random sampling and
assignment of participants into
experimental and control groups.
• Discuss how experimenter or participant
bias could affect the results of an
experiment.
• Identify independent and dependent
variables.
• Discuss the major issues psychologists
confront while conducting research

The Scientific Method

“Birds of a feather flock together”... or

“Opposites attract”? “Two heads are better than
Figure 3.1
one”... or “If you want a thing done well, do it The scientific method, which encompasses the
yourself”? “The more the merrier”... or “Two’s process of identifying, asking, and answering
company, three’s a crowd”? questions, is used by psychologists, and by
researchers from every other scientific
If we were to rely on common sense to discipline, to come to an understanding about
understand behavior, we’d have considerable the world.
difficulty—especially because commonsense
views are often contradictory. In fact, one of the
major undertakings for the field of psychology is
to develop suppositions about behavior and to
determine which of those suppositions are
accurate.

14
Theories: Specifying Broad Explanations example, one theory might seek to explain and
In using the scientific method, predict a phenomenon as broad as emotional
psychologists start by identifying questions of experience. A narrower theory might attempt to
interest. We have all been curious at some time explain why people display the emotion of fear
about our observations of everyday behavior. If nonverbally after receiving a threat (Guerrero, La
you have ever asked yourself why a particular Valley, & Farinelli, 2008; Waller, Cray, &
teacher is so easily annoyed, why a friend is Burrows, 2008; Anker & Feeley, 2011).
always late for appointments, or how your dog
understands your commands, you have been Hypotheses: Crafting Testable Predictions
formulating questions about behavior.
Although theories as to how and why do
Psychologists, too, ask questions about things work or why different situations happen
the nature and causes of behavior. They may make sense, it only represents the beginning of
want to explore explanations for everyday the investigative process. The next step was to
behaviors or for various phenomena. They may devise a way to test theories. A hypothesis is a
also pose questions that build on findings from prediction stated in a way that allows it to be
their previous research or from research carried tested. Hypotheses stem from theories; they
out by other psychologists. Or they may produce help test the underlying soundness of theories.
new questions that are based on curiosity,
In the same way that we develop our own
creativity, or insight.
broad theories about the world, we also construct
After a question has been identified, the hypotheses about events and behavior. Those
next step in the scientific method is to develop a hypotheses can range from trivialities (such as
theory to explain the observed phenomenon. why our English instructor wears those weird
Theories are broad explanations and shirts) to more meaningful matters (such as what
predictions concerning phenomena of interest. is the best way to study for a test). Although we
They provide a framework for understanding the rarely test these hypotheses systematically, we
relationships among a set of otherwise do try to determine whether they are right.
unorganized facts or principles. Perhaps we try comparing two strategies:
cramming the night before an exam versus
All of us have developed our own spreading out our study over several nights. By
informal theories of human behavior, such as assessing which approach yields better test
“People are basically good” or “People’s performance, we have created a way to compare
behavior is usually motivated by self-interest.” the two strategies.
However, psychologists’ theories are more
formal and focused. They are established on the A hypothesis must be restated in a way
basis of a careful study of the psychological that will allow it to be tested, which involves
literature to identify earlier relevant research and creating an operational definition. An
previously formulated theories, as well as operational definition is the translation of a
psychologists’ general knowledge of the field. hypothesis into specific, testable procedures that
can be measured and observed.
Growing out of the diverse approaches
employed by psychologists, theories vary both in There is no single way to go about
their breadth and in their level of detail. For devising an operational definition for a

15
hypothesis; it depends on logic, the equipment shared by all the bystanders. Thus, the greater
and facilities available, the psychological the number of bystanders in an emergency
perspective being employed, and ultimately the situation, the smaller the share of the
creativity of the researcher. For example, one responsibility each person feels—and the less
researcher might develop a hypothesis that uses likely that any single person will come forward to
as an operational definition of “fear” an increase help.
in heart rate. In contrast, another psychologist
might use as an operational definition of “fear” a Latané and Darley’s hypothesis was a
written response to the question “How much fear straightforward prediction from their more
are you experiencing at this moment?” general theory of diffusion of responsibility: The
more people who witness an emergency
Psychologists rely on formal theories and situation, the less likely it is that help will be given
hypotheses for many reasons. For one thing, to a victim. They could, of course, have chosen
theories and hypotheses allow them to make another hypothesis (try to think of one!), but their
sense of unorganized, separate observations initial formulation seemed to offer the most direct
and bits of information by permitting them to test of the theory.
place the pieces within a coherent framework. In
addition, theories and hypotheses offer APPROACHES TO RESEARCH
psychologists the opportunity to move beyond Clinical or case studies
known facts and make deductions about
unexplained phenomena and develop ideas for • In observational research,
future investigation (Cohen, 2003; Gurin, 2006; scientists are conducting a
van Wesel, Boeije, & Hoijtink, 2013). In short, the clinical or case study when
they focus on one person or
scientific method, with its emphasis on theories
just a few individuals.
and hypotheses, helps psychologists pose
appropriate questions. With properly stated • This approach is often used
questions in hand, psychologists then can when studying individuals
choose from a variety of research methods to who are interesting to
find answers. researchers because they
have a rare characteristic.
Theory of Diffusion of Responsibility by Bibb
Latane and John Darley: An Example of Generalizing
Scientific Method and Theory Development • Refers to the ability to apply
the findings of a particular
Psychologists Bibb Latané and John
research project to larger
Darley, responding to the failure of bystanders to
segments of society.
intervene when Kitty Genovese was murdered in
New York, developed what they called a theory Naturalistic Observation
of diffusion of responsibility (Latané & Darley,
• If you want to understand how
1970). According to their theory, the greater the
behavior occurs, one of the
number of bystanders or witnesses to an event best ways to gain information
that calls for helping behavior, the more the is to simply observe the
responsibility for helping is perceived to be behavior in its natural context.

16
Surveys Longitudinal and Cross-Sectional Research

• Lists of questions to be • Longitudinal research is a

answered by research research design in which
participants, and can be data-gathering is
delivered as paper-and-pencil administered repeatedly over
questionnaires, administered an extended period of time.
electronically, or conducted
• Cross-sectional research, is
verbally.
a researcher compares
Sample and Population multiple segments of the
population at the same time.
• A sample is a subset of
individuals selected from a Correlational Research
population, which is the
• From word “correlation” which
overall group of individuals
means there is a relationship
that the researchers are
between two or more
interested in. Researchers
variables but relationship
study the sample and seek to
does not necessarily imply
generalize their findings to the
cause and effect.
population.
Does not indicate causation, since it is useful
Archival Research
because we can identify the strength and
• Relies on looking at past directions of variables, but no too much in cause
records or data sets to look for and effect.
interesting patterns or
Correlational Coefficient
relationships.
• A numeric number from -1 to
+1 to indicate the strength of
relationship.

2 TYPES

• Positive Correlations

Variables move at same

direction (eg. Ice cream crime
rate increases as temperature
gets warmer.)

• Negative Correlations

Variables move at opposite direction.

17
CAUSALITY: CONDUCTING EXPERIMENTS
BY USE OF DATA

The Experimental Hypothesis

▪ Can be formulated through direct

observation or after careful review of
previous research.

Designing an Experiment

❖ Basic design comes in two groups

• Control Group

• Experimental Group

Operational Definition Critical Research Issues

• Description on how we will You are probably knowledgeable now of

measure the variable. the basic steps for psychological research. It
includes making choices of the type of study to
• It is important because it allows
others understand how and what conduct, discerning what measures to take and
researcher measures in particular what ways of analyzing the results is can be most
experiment. effective. Now, even after all these important
decisions are made, psychologists still have to
Two Types of Study consider several critical issues. We go first to the
• Single Blind Study- most fundamental of these issues: ethics.
participants are unaware on
The Ethics of Research
which group they belong and
the researcher knows which
Most psychologists argue that deception
participants are in each is sometimes necessary to prevent participants
group. from being influenced by what they think a
• Double Blind Study- study’s true purpose is. An example of this would
be an experiment conducted by Latané and
Researcher and participants
Darley to examine the helping behaviour of
are both unaware to the group
bystanders, in which another “bystander”
assignment. simulates a seizure who happened to be a
Independent and Dependent Variables confederate of the experimenters (Latané and
Darley 1970).
▪ Dependent Variable- Is what
researcher measures, to see how much If you knew that Latané and Darley were
actually studying your helping behavior, wouldn’t
effect the independent variable had.
you automatically have been tempted to
▪ Independent variable- Variable that is intervene in the emergency? To avoid such
controlled by experimenter. outcomes, a small proportion of research
involves deception. Nonetheless, because
research has the potential to violate the rights of

18
participants, psychologists are expected to One of the most common forms of experimental
adhere to a strict set of ethical guidelines aimed bias is experimenter expectations: An
at protecting participants (APA, 2002). Those experimenter unintentionally transmits cues to
guidelines involve the following safeguards: participants about the way they are expected to
behave in a given experimental condition. The
• Protection of participants from
danger is that those expectations will bring about
physical and mental harm.
an “appropriate” behavior—one that otherwise
• The right of participants to
privacy regarding their behavior. might not have occurred (Rosenthal, R., 2002,
• The assurance that participation 2003).
in research is completely A related problem is participant
voluntary.
expectations about appropriate behavior. If you
• The necessity of informing
participants about the nature of have ever been a participant in an experiment,
procedures before their you probably developed guesses about what
participation in the experiment. was expected of you. In fact, participants often
• All experiments must be develop their own hypotheses about what the
reviewed by an independent experimenter hopes to learn from the study. If
panel before being conducted participants form their own hypotheses, and then
(Fisher et al., 2002; Fisher, 2003; act on their hunches, it may be their
Smith, 2003). expectations, rather than the experimental
manipulation, that produce the results
(Rutherford et al., 2009). To guard against
One of psychologists’ key ethical principles is
participant expectations biasing the results of an
informed consent. It is a document signed by experiment, the experimenter may try to disguise
participants affirming that they have been told the true purpose of the experiment. Participants
the basic outlines of the study and that they are who do not know that helping behavior is being
aware of what their participation will involve. It studied, for example, are more apt to act in a
also informs them of the fact that their “natural” way than they would if they knew.
participation is purely voluntary and that they Sometimes it is impossible to hide the actual
may terminate it any time. After the participation, purpose of research; when that is the case, other
a debriefing or receiving an explanation of the techniques are available to prevent bias.
Suppose you were interested in testing the ability
study and procedures that were involved shall be
of a new drug to alleviate the symptoms of
given to the participants. However, informed
severe depression. If you simply gave the drug
consent and debriefing can be eliminated in to half your participants and not to the other half,
experiments when risks are minimal, as in done the participants who were given the drug might
in a purely observational study such as in a report feeling less depressed, merely because
public place (Koocher, Norcross, & Hill, 2005; they knew they were getting a drug. Similarly, the
Fallon, 2006; Barnett, Wise, & Johnson-Greene, participants who got nothing might report feeling
2007; Nagy, 2011). no better, because they knew that they were in a
no-treatment control group. To solve this
Threats to Experimental Validity: Avoiding problem, psychologists typically use a procedure
Experimental Bias in which all the participants receive a treatment,
but those in the control group receive only a
Even the best-laid experimental plans
placebo —a false treatment, such as a pill,
are susceptible to experimental bias —factors
“drug,” or other substance that has no significant
that distort the way the independent variable
chemical properties or active ingredient.
affects the dependent variable in an experiment.

19
Because members of both groups are kept in the b) Self-report, experiments, correlations
dark about whether they are getting a real or a
c) Behavioural, self-report, experimental
false treatment, any differences in outcome can
be attributed to the quality of the drug and not to d) Behavioural, self-report, physiological
the possible psychological effects of being
administered a pill or other substance e) (a) and (d)
(Rajagopal, 2006;Crum & Langer, 2007; 2. Which of the following is NOT a widely used
Justman, 2011). research method in modern experimental
However, there is one more safeguard psychology?
that a careful researcher must apply in an a) The (true) experimental method.
experiment such as this one. To overcome the
possibility that experimenter expectations will b) The quasi-experimental method.
affect the participant, the person who
c) The introspective method.
administers the drug shouldn’t know whether it is
actually the true drug or the placebo. By keeping d) The case study method.
both the participant and the experimenter who
interacts with the participant “blind” to the nature 3. Experimental groups, treatment groups, and
of the drug that is being administered, control groups represent ways to ____________
researchers can more accurately assess the outcome variables.
effects of the drug. This method is known as the a) Manipulate
double-blind procedure.
b) Correlate
EVALUATE
c) Attract
I. Identification
d) Validate
1. An explanation for a phenomenon of
interest is known as a e) Generalise
_____________________.
4. In psychological research, the process of
2. To test this explanation, a researcher using multiple research methods to tackle the
must state it in terms of a testable question same issue is referred to as:
known as _______________.
a) Experimentation
3. An experimenter is interested in
b) Revision
studying the relationship between hunger and
aggression. She decides that she will measure c) Manipulation Check
aggression by counting the number of times a
participant will hit a punching bag. In this case, d) Measurement
her ______________ definition of aggression is e) Triangulation
the number of times the participant hits the bag.
5. Which of the following is true?
II. Multiple Choice
a) The dependent variable is manipulated by the
1. What are the main types of assessment experimenter.
measures used by psychologists to study the
outcomes of mental activity? b) Experimental control involves making every
condition different in every respect except the
a) Theories, hypotheses, tests treatment (i.e. the independent variable).

20
 c) In a between-subjects experiment, control is refute the explanation, and
typically achieved by a process of carefully communicating the findings.
assigning participants to the right conditions. • Research in psychology is guided by
d) In a properly designed experiment, we can theories (broad explanations and
infer that an observed difference must be due to predictions regarding phenomena of
our manipulation of the independent variable. interest) and hypotheses (theory-based
predictions stated in a way that allows
III. them to be tested).
1. Ethical research begins with the concept of • To test a hypothesis, researchers must
informed consent. Before signing up to formulate an operational definition, which
participate in an experiment, participants should translates the abstract concepts of the
be informed of: hypothesis into the actual procedures
used in the study.
a. the procedure of the study, stated • Research methods are generalized and
generally. established ways of approaching
b. the risks that may be involved. research questions.
• Research data comes in many different
c. their right to withdraw at any time. formats and is gathered using a wide
variety of methodologies.
d. all of these. • One of psychologists’ key ethical
2. List three benefits of using animals in principles is informed consent. An
informed consent is a document signed
psychological research.
by participants affirming that they have
3. Deception is one means experimenters can been told the basic outlines of the study
use to try to eliminate participants’ expectations. and that they are aware of what their
True or false? participation will involve.
• Experiments are subject to a number of
4. A false treatment, such as a pill that has no biases, or threats. Experimenter
significant chemical properties or active expectations can produce bias when an
ingredient, is known as a _________. experimenter unintentionally transmits
cues to participants about her or his
5. A study has shown that men differ from expectations regarding their behavior in
women in their preference for ice cream flavors. a given experimental condition.
This study was based on a sample of two men Participant expectations can also bias
and three women. What might be wrong with this an experiment. Among the tools
study? experimenters use to help eliminate bias
are placebos and double-blind
procedures.
• Placebo is a false treatment, such as a
Chapter Summary pill, “drug,” or other substance, without
any significant chemical properties or
• The scientific method is the approach active ingredient.
psychologists use to understand
behavior. It consists of four steps:
identifying questions of interest, Contents lifted from Understanding Psychology
formulating an explanation, carrying out by Robert S. Feldman, 12th edition
research that is designed to support or

21
UNIT 3: BIOLOGICAL BASES OF BEHAVIOR

I. LEARNING OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES

At the end of this lesson, you should be able

to:
• Identify basic processes and systems in the
biological bases of behavior, including parts
of the neuron and the process of III. LESSON PROPER
transmission of a signal between neurons.
• Discuss the effect of the endocrine system NEURONS
on behavior.
Neurons are the central
• Describe the nervous system and its
building blocks of the nervous
subdivisions and functions.
system, 100 billion strong at birth.
Like all cells, neurons consist of
II. INTRODUCTION
several different parts, each
Behavior depends on the integration of serving a specialized function.
numerous processes within the body. This A neuron’s outer surface
integration is provided by the nervous is made up of a semipermeable
system, with the help from the endocrine membrane. This membrane
system. allows smaller molecules and
Many aspects of behavior and mental molecules without an electrical
functioning can be better understood with charge to pass through it, while
some knowledge of the underlying biological stopping larger or highly charged
processes. Our nervous system, sense molecules.
organs, muscles, and glands enable us to be
aware of and adjust to our new environment. The nucleus of the neuron is located in the
Our perception of events depends on how soma, or cell body. The soma has
our sense organs detect stimuli and how our branching extensions known as dendrites.
brain interprets information coming from the The neuron is a small information processor,
senses. Much of our behavior is motivated and dendrites serve as input sites where
by such needs as hunger, thirst, and the signals are received from other neurons.
avoidance of fatigue or pain. Our ability to These signals are transmitted electrically
use language, to think, and to solve across the soma and down a major
problems depends on a brain that is extension from the soma known as the axon,
incredibly complex. Indeed, the specific which ends at multiple terminal buttons. The
patterns of electrical and chemical events in terminal buttons contain synaptic vesicles
the brain are the very basis of our most that house neurotransmitters, the chemical
intricate though processes. messengers of the nervous system.

Experiences and behaviors are based on Axons range in length from a fraction of an
the activation of our nervous system, and inch to several feet. In some axons, glial
that an understanding of its functioning is cells form a fatty substance known as the
important for the study of psychology. myelin sheath, which coats the axon and
acts as an insulator, increasing the speed at
which the signal travels. The myelin sheath

22
 is crucial for the normal operation of the must have a sufficient electrocal value which
neurons within the nervous system: the loss will reduce the negativity of the nerve cell to the
of the insulation it provides can be threshold of the action potential. In this manner,
detrimental to normal function. there are subthreshold, threshold, and
Information moves along a neuron in the suprathreshold stimuli. Subthreshold stimuli
form of a neural impulse called an action cannot cause an action potential. Threshold
potential – an electrochemical impulse that stimuli are of enough energy or potential to
travels from the cell body down to the end of produce an action potential (nerve impulse).
the axon. Each action potential is the result Suprathreshold stimuli also produce an action
of movements by electrically charged potential, but their strength is higher than the
molecules, known as ions, in and out of the threshold stimuli.
neuron.
ACTION POTENTIAL So, an action potential is
generated when a stimulus changes the
membrane potential to the values of threshold
potential. The threshold potential is usually
around -50 to -55 mV. It is important to know
that the action potential behaves upon the all-
or-none law. This means that any subthreshold
stimulus will cause nothing, while threshold and
suprathreshold stimuli produce a full response
of the excitable cell.

Is an action potential different

depending on whether it’s caused by threshold
or suprathreshold potential? The answer is no.
The length and amplitude of an action potential
are always the same. However, increasing the
stimulus strength causes an increase in the
frequency of an action potential. An action
potential propagates along the nerve fiber
without decreasing or weakening of amplitude
and length. In addition, after one action
An action potential is defined as a
potential is generated, neurons become
sudden, fast, transitory, and propagating
refractory to stimuli for a certain period of time
change of the resting membrane potential. Only
in which they cannot generate another action
neurons and muscle cells are capable of
potential.
generating an action potential; that property is
called the excitability.
From the aspect of ions, an action
potential is caused by temporary changes in
But what causes the action
membrane permeability for diffusible ions.
potential? From an electrical aspect, it is
These changes cause ion channels to open
caused by a stimulus with certain value
and the ions to decrease their concentration
expressed in millivolts [mV]. Not all stimuli can
gradients. The value of threshold potential
cause an action potential. Adequate stimulus

23
depends on the membrane permeability, intra-
and extracellular concentration of ions, and the NERVOUS SYSTEM
properties of the cell membrane.

An action potential has several

phases; hypopolarization, depolarization,
overshoot, repolarization and
hyperpolarization.
Hypopolarization is the initial
increase of the membrane potential to the value
of the threshold potential. The threshold
potential opens voltage-gated sodium channels
and causes a large influx of sodium ions. This
phase is called the depolarization. During
depolarization, the inside of the cell becomes
more and more electropositive, until the
potential gets closer the electrochemical
equilibrium for sodium of +61 mV. This phase
The term nervous system refers to all neural
of extreme positivity is the overshoot phase.
tissue. This system is divided into the central
nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral
After the overshoot, the sodium
nervous system (PNS). The central nervous
permeability suddenly decreases due to the
system includes the brain (the part of the
closing of its channels. The overshoot value of
nervous system that resides in the skull) and
the cell potential opens voltage-gated
the spinal cord.
potassium channels, which causes a large
potassium efflux, decreasing the cell’s
The peripheral nervous system includes the
electropositivity. This phase is the
remainder of the neural tissue in the rest of the
repolarization phase; whose purpose is to
body. Afferent nerves carry signals from the
restore the resting membrane potential.
body to the CNS, whereas efferent nerves carry
Repolarization always leads first to
signals from the CNS to the body. The PNS
hyperpolarization, a state in which the
consists of the somatic system, which carries
membrane potential is more negative than the
messages to and from the sense receptors,
default membrane potential. But soon after
muscles, and the surface of the body (for
that, the membrane establishes again the
conscious sensory functions and voluntary
values of membrane potential.
motor functions), and the autonomic system,
which connects with the internal organs and
❖ To gain more knowledge about
glands (for automatic and involuntary functions,
Neurons and how they communicate
watch these videos: such as the beating of the heart). The sensory
o Structure and function of Neuron - nerves of the somatic system transmit
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O2 information about external stimulation from the
kuU2mZzeU4 skin, muscles, and joints to the central nervous
o How Neurons Communicate - system. That is how we become aware of pain,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hG pressure, and temperature variations. The
DvvUNU-cw motor nerves of the somatic system carry

24
 impulses from the central nervous system to At the most basic level, the function of the
the muscles, where they initiate action. The nervous system is to control movement of the
nerves of the autonomic system run to and from organism and to affect the environment (e.g.,
the internal organs, regulating processes such through pheromones). This is achieved by
as respiration, heart rate, and digestion. sending signals from one cell to others, or from
one part of the body to others. The output from
the nervous system derives from signals that
travel to muscle cells, causing muscles to be
activated, and from signals that travel to
endocrine cells, causing hormones to be
released into the bloodstream or other internal
fluids. The input to the nervous system derives
from sensory cells of widely varying types, which
transmute physical modalities such as light and
sound into neural activity. Internally, the nervous
system contains complex webs of connections
between nerve cells that allow it to generate
patterns of activity that depend only partly on
sensory input. The nervous system is also
capable of storing information over time, by
dynamically modifying the strength of
connections between neurons, as well as other
mechanisms.

❖ This video offers an in-

depth discussion of the Nervous
System and its divisions -
Nervous systems are found in almost all https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NGGU
multicellular animals, but vary greatly in -fGGycA
complexity. The only multicellular animals that
have no nervous system at all are sponges and
microscopic bloblike organisms called ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
placozoans and mesozoans. The nervous
systems of ctenophores (comb jellies) and
cnidarians (e.g., anemones, hydras, corals and
jellyfishes) consist of a diffuse nerve net. All
other types of animals, with the exception of
echinoderms and a few types of worms, have a
nervous system containing a brain, a central cord
(or two cords running in parallel), and nerves
radiating from the brain and central cord. The
size of the nervous system ranges from a few
hundred cells in the simplest worms, to on the
order of 100 billion cells in humans.

25
 The endocrine system acts more slowly, deal with stress and emergencies: epinephrine
indirectly affecting the activities of cell groups (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline).
throughout the body. It does so by means of Gonads. In females, the ovaries produce
hormones, chemicals secreted by the endocrine hormones that regulate sexual development,
glands into the bloodstream and transported to ovulation, and growth of sex organs. In males, the
other parts of the body, where they have specific testes produce hormones that regulate sexual
effects on cells that recognize their message development, production of sperm, and growth of
sex organs.
Hormones act in various ways on cells of
different types. Each target cell is equipped with
❖ To understand how Hormones work,
receptors that recognize only the hormone
watch this video:
molecules that act on that cell. The receptors pull
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-
those molecules out of the bloodstream and into SPRPkLoKp8
the cell. Some endocrine glands are activated by
the nervous system, and others are activated by IV. SAMPLE SITUATION
changes in the internal chemical state of the
body.
NEURODEGENERATIVE DISORDERS
In many ways, the hypothalamus, which
Neurodegenerative disorders are
is located in the lower middle part of the brain,
illnesses characterized by a loss of nervous
controls much of the endocrine system by system functioning that are usually caused by
regulating the pituitary gland, which is located neuronal death. These diseases generally
directly below and outside the brain. The worsen over time as more and more neurons
hypothalamus is often called the control center die. The symptoms of a particular
of the endocrine system. One of the major neurodegenerative disease are related to where
endocrine glands is the pituitary gland. This in the nervous system the death of neurons
gland is partly an outgrowth of the brain and lies occurs. The death of these neurons causes
just below the hypothalamus. The pituitary has problems in balance and walking.
been called the ‘master gland’ because it Neurodegenerative disorders include
produces the most different hormones and Huntington’s disease, amyotrophic lateral
controls the secretion activity of other endocrine sclerosis (ALS), Alzheimer’s disease, other
glands. One of the pituitary hormones, growth dementia disorders, and Parkinson’s disease. In
this section, Alzheimer’s disease will be
hormone, has the crucial job of controlling the
discussed in more depth.
body’s growth.
Alzheimer’s Disease
The Pancreas is the organ regulates the level of
sugar in the bloodstream by secreting insulin. The
Thyroid is the gland, which is located in the neck,
regulates metabolism through the secretion of
hormones. The outside part) secretes hormones
that regulate sugar and salt balances and help the
body resist stress; they are also responsible for
growth of pubic hair, a secondary sexual
characteristic. The adrenal medulla (inside part)
secretes two hormones that arouse the body to

26
Alzheimer’s disease is the most common cause probability of developing the disease. Many
of dementia in the elderly. In 2012, an estimated other genes have been identified that may be
5.4 million Americans suffered from Alzheimer’s involved in the pathology. Unfortunately, there
disease. Payments for their care are estimated is no cure for Alzheimer’s disease. Current
at $200 billion. Roughly one in every eight people treatments focus on managing the symptoms of
age 65 or older has the disease. Due to the aging the disease. Because decrease in the activity
of the baby-boomer generation, there are of cholinergic neurons (neurons that use the
projected to be as many as 13 million
neurotransmitter acetylcholine) is common in
Alzheimer’s patients in the United States in the
Alzheimer’s disease, several drugs used to
year 2050. Symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease
treat the disease work by increasing
include disruptive memory loss, confusion about
time or place, difficulty planning or executing acetylcholine neurotransmission, often by
tasks, poor judgement, and personality changes. inhibiting the enzyme that breaks down
Problems smelling certain scents can also be acetylcholine in the synaptic cleft. Other clinical
indicative of Alzheimer’s disease and may serve interventions focus on behavioral therapies
as an early warning sign. Many of these such as psychotherapy, sensory therapy, and
symptoms are also common in people who are cognitive exercises. Since Alzheimer’s disease
aging normally, so it is the severity and longevity appears to hijack the normal aging process,
of the symptoms that determine whether a research into prevention is prevalent.
person is suffering from Alzheimer’s.
Alzheimer’s disease was named for Alois IV. ACTIVITIES/EXERCISES
Alzheimer, a German psychiatrist who published
a report in 1911 about a woman who showed A. DRAW-IT-YOURSELF
severe dementia symptoms. Along with his
colleagues, he examined the woman’s brain In the box below, draw a nerve cell and label all
following her death and reported the presence of the parts and provide a short description for
abnormal clumps, which are now called amyloid each.
plaques, along with tangled brain fibers called
neurofibrillary tangles. Amyloid plaques,
neurofibrillary tangles, and an overall shrinking
of brain volume are commonly seen in the brains
of Alzheimer’s patients. Loss of neurons in the
hippocampus is especially severe in advanced
Alzheimer’s patients. Many research groups are
examining the causes of these hallmarks of the
disease.
One form of the disease is usually caused
by mutations in one of three known genes. This
rare form of early-onset Alzheimer’s disease
affects fewer than five percent of patients with
the disease and causes dementia beginning
between the ages of 30 and 60. The more
prevalent, late-onset form of the disease
probably also has a genetic component. One
particular gene, apolipoprotein E (APOE) has a
variant (E4) that increases a carrier ‘s

27
A. FILM REVIEW B. VOCABULARY
Watch the movie The Female Brain and write a 1) The nervous system is divided into 2 major
REACTION PAPER divisions called the: _______________ and the
_______________
Answer the following questions in your output: 2) The central nervous system includes the
1. What are some differences between the _________ (the part of the nervous system that
structure of the female brain compared to the resides in the skull) and the _________.
male brain (state 3) 3) ___________ carry signals from the body to the
CNS, whereas efferent nerves carry signals from
2. What biological processes occur only in the
the CNS to the body.
female brain?
4) Nervous systems are found in __________
3. Do you notice these differences in real life?
multicellular animals, but vary greatly in complexity
Cite 2 specific situations. 5) The nervous system is also capable of
4. What did you realize after watching the ________ information over time, by dynamically
movie? modifying the _________ of connections between
5. How does knowledge about these differences neurons, as well as other mechanisms
affect your way of understanding the human 6) In many ways, the _____________, which is
brain? located in the lower middle part of the brain,
controls much of the endocrine system
7) One of the major endocrine glands is the
ASSESSMENT ______________.
8) The _____________ is the organ regulates the
A. IDEAS AND CONCEPTS level of sugar in the bloodstream by secreting
Fill in the blanks in the diagram insulin.
below to show the overall to
show the overall organization of V. SUMMARY
the nervous system.
• All human (and animal) behavior is a
product of biological structures and processes,
highly organized on multiple interconnected
levels. Understanding these biological
precursors of behavior can lead to treatments
_________
for psychological disorders, such as drugs that
influence neurotransmitter function.
• The nervous system is highly specialized
_________ _________ and hierarchical in its structure, but
neuroplasticity gives the brain some flexibility to
adapt its structure and function.
_________ _________ _________ _________
• Though interconnected with and
regulated by the nervous system, the endocrine
system produces effects on behavior in a
distinct way: endocrine glands secrete
_________ _________ hormones into the bloodstream, allowing
hormones to reach and interact directly with
target organs.
• While many behaviors are learned as a
result of experience within a particular

28
environment, the very capacity to learn such hormones, chemicals secreted by the endocrine
behaviors has a genetic basis, and such glands into the bloodstream and transported to
capacities only persist because they contribute other parts of the body, where they have specific
to the fitness of organisms. effects on cells that recognize their message
• The endocrine system acts more slowly,
indirectly affecting the activities of cell groups
throughout the body. It does so by means of
REFERENCES https://bio.libretexts.org/B
AP PSYCHOLOGY: ookshelves/Introductory_
BIOLOGICAL BASES OF and_General_Biology/Bo
BEHAVIOR NOTES. ok%3A_General_Biology
(n.d.). Retrieved July _(Boundless)/35%3A_Th
2020, from Kaplan: e_Nervous_System/35.6
https://www.kaptest.com/ %3A_Nervous_System_
study/ap-psychology/ap- Disorders/35.6A%3A_Ne
psychology-biological- urodegenerative_Disorde
bases-of-behavior-notes/ rs

Atkinson, R. L. (n.d.). Plotnik, R. K. (2011). Introduction

Introduction to to Psychology (9th ed.).
Psychology (11th ed.). Wadsworth.
San Diego: Harcourt Vaskovic, J. (n.d.). Action
Brace College Publisher. Potential. Retrieved July
Furtak, S. (2020). Neurons. 2020, from Ken Hub:
Retrieved July 2020, from https://www.kenhub.com/
Noba Project: en/library/anatomy/action
http://noba.to/s678why4 -potential

Hoekema, S. F. (2009).
Introduction to
Psychology (15th ed.).
Wadsworth.

Neurodegenerative Disorders.
(2019, July). Retrieved
July 2020, from Biology
Libretexts:

29
Unit 4: Human Development ▪ Life course - The term used by
sociologists to refer to the normal,
expected set of events that take place
I. LEARNING OBJECTIVE/OUTCOMES
over an individual’s life, determined in
• Describe the developmental changes many ways by the society’s norms
that occur from pre-natal to adulthood.
THEORIES OF LIFE SPAN DEVELOPMENT
• Identify the different theories of
development. A. Psychoanalytic Theories - theories that
• Understand the biological theories of describe development as primarily unconscious
aging. and heavily colored by emotion.

II. INTRODUCTION 1. Freud’s Theory - suggests that a person’s

problems were the result of his experiences early
Life is sexually transmitted. It starts from in life. He thought that when children grow up,
the moment of fertilization where conception their focus of pleasure and sexual impulses shifts
begins, a journey from womb to tomb. What from the mouth to the anus and eventually to the
leads one individual, so full of promise, to commit genitals.
brutal acts of violence and another to turn
poverty and trauma into a rich literary harvest? If
you have ever wondered why people turn out the
way they do, you have asked yourself the central
question we will be exploring in this chapter.
III. LESSON PROPER
WHAT IS DEVELOPMENT?
▪ Development is the pattern of change
that begins at conception and continues 2. Erikson’s theory - the eight stages of human
through the life span. Most development development wherein each stage consists of a
involves growth, although it also includes unique developmental task that confronts
decline brought on by aging and dying. individuals with a crisis that must be resolved.
Basic Terms: 1. Basic trust versus basic mistrust (0 –
18 months): Children must establish a
▪ Life span - The biological limits to life’s sense of being able to rely on the
length, determined by species-specific environment (and caregivers) to take
hereditary factors. care of them.
▪ Life-span perspective - the perspective 2. Autonomy versus shame and doubt
that development is lifelong, (18 months –3 years): Children learn
multidimensional, multidirectional, ways to be able to act independently from
plastic, multidisciplinary, and contextual; their parents without feeling afraid they
involves growth, maintenance, and will venture too far off on their own.
regulation; and is constructed through 3. Initiative versus guilt (3 –5 years): This
biological, sociocultural, and individual is the play stage in which children learn
factors working together. to express themselves creatively without
▪ Life expectancy - The average length of fear they will engage in activities that will
get them in trouble.
time that a given age-based cohort is
4. Industry versus inferiority (5 –12
expected to live years): During this stage, children learn

30
 to identify with the world of work and problems and develop their cognitive abilities
develop a work ethic. more generally.
5. Identity versus identity diffusion (12 –
21 years): Adolescents establish a sense 3. Information processing: The information
of who they are and develop processing approach to cognitive development
commitments in the areas of work and proposes that children develop their cognitive
values. abilities in an incremental manner, in some
6. Intimacy versus isolation (21 –30/40 cases corresponding to the development of the
years): Young adults are able to brain. Two concepts important in the information
experience psychologically close processing approach are:
relationships with others and develop 1. Metacognition: Children become better
long-term commitments. at solving problems because they
7. Generativity versus stagnation (40–65 develop more conscious awareness of
years): Middle-age adults feel a sense of their cognitive activities and can use this
caring and concern for the younger awareness to select or change
generation and determine what their strategies, including better knowledge
legacy will be after they are gone. about how to direct their attention and
Ego integrity versus despair (65 years till effectively use their short-term/working
memory and long-term memory.
death): In later adulthood, individuals come to
2. Development is continuous: Children
grips with mortality and with achieving a sense of
do not experience discrete changes or
acceptance about the life they have lived. move from one stage to another.
C. Psychosocial Theories
1. Lawrence Kohlberg expanded on
Piaget’s cognitive development theory
by proposing that children’s cognitive
abilities influence the growth of their
ability to make moral judgments.
1. Preconventional (young
children): Right and wrong are thought
of in terms of their immediate effects of
pleasure versus pain. No moral
principles are invoked.
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Cognitive Theory - 2. Conventional (middle school
emphasizes how culture and social interaction children): Moral decisions are made in
guide cognitive development. terms of laws or general rules about what
is right and what is wrong. In this law and
a. Zone of proximal development (ZPD) is the order stage, for example, people base
area of knowledge just beyond a child’s abilities. their judgments on whether a law is
According to Vygotsky, children learn best when broken or not.
they encounter information at this level and can 3. Postconventional (adolescents and
interact with a more skilled person. adults): Decisions about right and wrong
are based on the notion of moral
b. Scaffolding is the kind of support adults and relativity. A law should be violated if that
teachers present when they provide law violates basic principles of valuing
progressively more difficult problems or ask human life above all else.
children to explain their reasoning for learning
(within the ZPD) that enables children to work 2. Attachment theory: According to British
independently but with help so they can solve psychologist John Bowlby, children develop an

31
inner representation of their relationship with c. exosystem - consists of links between a
their primary caregivers. This inner social setting in which the individual does
representation, or working model, becomes the not have an active role and the
basis for their subsequent adult relationships. individual’s immediate context.
d. macrosystem - involves the culture in
3. Bowlby’s work became the basis for the which individuals live.
research by American psychologist Mary Salter e. chronosystem - consists of the
Ainsworth, who devised an experimental patterning of environmental events and
situation to assess a child’s attachment style. In transitions over the life course, as well as
this experiment, called the strange situation, sociohistorical circumstances.
young children play in a room with their mother.
The mother leaves the room and then returns. 2. Baltes: Life span developmental psychologist
The experimenter rates the child’s reaction both Paul Baltes identified three social influences on
when she leaves the room and when she returns. the course of development. These interact in
The attachment styles are as follows: ways that result in the patterning of specific life
events:
a. Securely attached: The child seems
disturbed but not distressed when the a. Age-graded normative influences: The
mother leaves and greets her happily expectations associated with specific
when she returns. ages reflected in a given culture.
b. Insecurely attached: The child may or b. History-graded normative influences:
may not become anxious or distressed The effects of living in a given time and
when the mother leaves the room and place that have similar influences on
may either ignore her or be ambivalent people within that society.
about physical contact when she returns. c. Nonnormative influences: Random,
unpredictable influences that are
4. Harry Harlow showed the importance of idiosyncratic to each individual
maternal attachment bonds in his work with
infant monkeys. Raised with wire monkeys that
fed them or cloth monkeys that provided physical
stimulation, the monkeys preferred the cloth
mothers. This research, though controversial,
was vital in establishing the importance of early
bonding through contact comfort with caregivers
D. Sociocultural Theories
1. Urie Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory -
development reflects the influence of several
environmental systems.
The theory identifies five environmental systems:
a. microsystem - setting in which the
individual lives (person’s family, peers,
school, and neighborhood).
b. mesosystem - involves relations
between microsystems or connections
between contexts (relation of family
experiences to school experiences,
school experiences to religious
experiences, and family experiences to
peer experiences.)

32
PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT AND THE NEWBORN
The three stages are:
a. Zygote: Conception to 2 weeks
b. Embryo: 2 to 8 weeks
c. Fetus: 8 weeks to birth
1st Month: Fertilization occurs
Zygote implants itself in the lining of the uterus ending the zygote period
Rapid cell division occurs
Embryonic stage lasts from end of the 2nd week to end of the 8th week
Cells differentiate into three distinct layers: the ectoderm, the mesoderm, and the
endoderm
Nervous system begins to develop
Embryo is 1/2 inch long
2nd Month: Heart and blood vessels form
Head area develops rapidly
Eyes begin to form detail
Internal organs grow, especially the digestive system
Sex organs develop rapidly and sex is distinguished
Arms and legs form and grow
Heart begins to beat faintly
Embryo is 1 inch long and weighs 1/10 ounce
3rd Month: Head growth occurs rapidly
Bones begin to form rapidly, which marks the transition to the fetal stage
The digestive organs begin to function
Arms, legs, and fingers make spontaneous movements
Fetus is 3 inches long and weighs 1 ounce
4th Month: Lower parts of the body show rapid growth
Bones are distinct in X-ray films
Reflex movement becomes more active
Heartbeat detected by physician
Sex organs are fully formed
Fetus is 7 inches long and weighs 5 ounces
5th Month: Mother begins to feel reflex movements
A fine, downy fuzz covers the entire body
Vernix (a waxy coating) collects over the body
Ears and nose begin to develop cartilage
Fingernails and toenails begin to appear
Fetus shows hiccups, thumb sucking, and kicking
Fetus is 12 inches long and weighs 14 ounces
6th Month: Eyes and eyelids fully formed
Fat is developing under the skin
Fetus is 14 inches long and weighs 2 pounds
7th Month: Cerebral cortex of brain develops rapidly
Fetus is 17 inches long and weighs 3 pounds
8th Month: Subcutaneous fat is deposited for later use
Fingernails reach beyond the fingertips
Fetus is 17 inches long and weighs 5 pounds
9th Month: Hair covering the entire body is shed

33
 Organ systems function actively
Vernix is present over the entire body
Fetus settles into position for birth
Neonate is 21 inches long and weighs 7 pounds

Reflexes, temperaments, and abilities of a. Grasping reflex: Holds a finger or other

newborns object firmly
b. Rooting reflex: Turns head when
A. Motor development milestones or stages touched on cheek
(provided in respective average ages): c. Gag reflex: Clears the throat
a. 1 month: Rolls over d. Startle reflex: Flings out the arms, fans
b. 1 month: Grasps rattle the fingers, and arches the back in
c. 6 months: Sits without support response to a sudden noise
d. 7 months: Stands holding on e. Sucking reflex: Sucks objects placed in
e. 8 months: Grasps with thumb and finger mouth
f. 11 months: Stands well alone f. Babinski reflex: Curls toes when outer
g. 12 months: Walks well alone edge of sole of foot is stroked
h. 15 months: Builds tower of two cubes
i. 17 months: Walks up steps
j. 24 months: Jumps in place
B. Reflexes present at birth (mediated by the
hindbrain and spinal cord):
DEVELOPMENTAL ISSUES

Nature-Nurture Issue Stability-Change issue Continuity-Discontinuity Issue

Involves the extent to Debate about whether we Focuses on the degree to

which development is become older renditions which development
influence by nature and of our early experience involves either gradual,
by nurture. Nature refers (stability) or whether we cumulative change
to an organism's develop into someone (continuity) or distinct
biological inheritance, different from who we stages (discontinuity).
nurture to its were at an earlier point in
environmental development (change).
experiences.

34
INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD directions and to respect their work
and effort. The authoritarian parent
Perceptual abilities and intelligence places firm limits and controls on the
A. Habituation, the decrease in response to a child and allows little verbal
stimulus that occurs after the same stimulus is exchange. Authoritarian parenting is
repeatedly presented, is used to measure an associated with children’s social
infant’s awareness. If the stimulus is changed incompetence.
enough, dishabituation occurs, and the infant b. Authoritative parenting - A
shows an awareness of the change. The parenting style in which parents
processes of habituation and dishabituation can encourage their children to be
be used to study attention, sensory and independent but still place limits and
perceptual discrimination, and memory in controls on their actions. Extensive
infants. verbal give-and-take is allowed, and
parents are warm and nurturing
B. Within a few days of birth, infants can toward the child. Authoritative
recognize their own mother’s voice, can parenting is associated with
distinguish between their own and foreign children’s social competence.
languages, and can discriminate between c. Neglectful parenting - A style of
closely related sounds. parenting in which the parent is
uninvolved in the child’s life; this style
C. By 7 months, infants can discriminate all
is associated with children’s social
sounds relevant to language production. content
incompetence, especially a lack of
outline 22
self-control.
D. Newborns show a preference for sweet d. Indulgent parenting - A style of
tastes. parenting in which parents are highly
involved with their children but place
E. Visual perception proceeds rapidly: few demands or controls on them.
a. 1 month: color perception Indulgent parenting is associated
b. 4 months: focus on near or far objects with children’s social incompetence,
c. 4-5 months: recognition of two- and especially a lack of self-control.
three-dimensional objects ADOLESCENCE AND EMERGING
d. 7 months: different responses to different ADULTHOOD
facial expressions, such as smiles or
frowns Puberty is a brain-neuroendocrine process
occurring primarily in early adolescence that
Childhood: Physical and motor development provides stimulation for the rapid physical
a. In the first 12 months, children triple their changes that take place during this period of
birth weight and double their height. development. It is the most important marker of
b. From age 3 to age 13, children gain the beginning of adolescence.
about 5 pounds and 3 inches’ height per ▪ The search for an identity during
year. However, the proportions of the adolescence is aided by a psychosocial
body also change such that the head moratorium, which is Erikson’s term for
grows at a slower rate than the rest of the the gap between childhood security and
body adult autonomy. During this period,
society leaves adolescents relatively free
Parenting Styles of responsibilities and able to try out
different identities.
a. Authoritarian parenting - A
restrictive, punitive style in which ▪ Adolescents who do not successfully
parents exhort the child to follow their resolve this identity crisis suffer what

35
 Erikson calls identity confusion. The adulthood include arthritis, cardiovascular
confusion takes one of two courses: disease, and diabetes. These are also
Individuals either withdraw, isolating preventable, particularly with control of diet and
themselves from peers and family, or proper exercise.
they immerse themselves in the world of
peers and lose their identity in the crowd. B. Here is a brief summary of the changes that
occur gradually throughout adulthood:
▪ James Marcia (1980, 1994) reasons that
Erikson’s theory of identity development 1. Skin: Changes in elastin and collagen
contains four statuses of identity, or ways lead to wrinkling and sagging.
of resolving the identity crisis: (“Photoaging” refers to sun damage due
to sun exposure.)
1. Identity diffusion is the status of 2. Body build: Body experiences loss of
individuals who have not yet bone mineral content, increase in
experienced a crisis or made any subcutaneous fat around the torso, loss
commitments. Not only are they of height.
undecided about occupational 3. Muscle mass: Body experiences loss of
and ideological choices, they are muscle mass (called “sarcopenia”).
also likely to show little interest in 4. Joints: There can be an increase in
such matters. cartilage outgrowths and loss of articular
cartilage thickness.
2. Identity foreclosure is the status 5. Aerobic capacity: The maximum cardiac
of individuals who have made a output may decrease.
commitment but not experienced 6. Hormone changes: Climacteric involves
a crisis. This occurs most often the diminution of sex hormones; the
when parents hand down complete loss of fertility in women is
commitments to their called menopause.
adolescents, usually in an 7. Nervous system: Changes in circadian
authoritarian way, before rhythms lead to increase in early rising.
adolescents have had a chance There are also decreases in numbers of
to explore different approaches, neurons and synapses.
ideologies, and vocations on their 8. Vision changes: Presbyopia (far
own. sightedness) and cataracts may occur.
3. Identity moratorium is the status 9. Hearing changes: Presbycusis (loss of
of individuals who are in the midst ability to hear high-pitched tones) is
of a crisis but whose another change.
commitments are either absent or 10. Balance: Loss of balance can increase
are only vaguely defined. the risk of falling

4. Identity achievement is the Personality and aging

status of individuals who have A. The midlife crisis is a concept that is
undergone a crisis and made a constantly being discussed in the media, but
commitment researchers do not find that it is a widespread
ADULTHOOD AND AGING phenomenon at all. Most people develop
gradually through adulthood without undergoing
Major physical changes a distinct transition in their 40s. The debate
about whether personality is stable versus
A. Although there are predictable changes in the
whether it can change in adulthood seems to
body associated with adulthood and aging, many
have subsided as researchers investigating
changes are in fact preventable. Normal age-
long-term patterns of personality find that shifts
related changes should be differentiated from
diseases; the major chronic diseases in later

36
can occur even into the decades of the 80s and known as free radicals. The free radicals
beyond. ricochet around the cells, damaging DNA
and other cellular structures.
B. Socioemotional selectivity theory proposes 4. Mitochondrial theory states that aging
that as endings occur, people try to focus on their is due to the decay of mitochondria.
relationships that are most positively fulfilling; Mitochondrial theory views emphasize
consequently, as a theory of aging, the theory that this decay is primarily caused by
proposes that older people prefer to spend time oxidative damage and loss of critical
with people who enhance their wellbeing. micronutrients supplied by the cell.
C. Other personality theories of aging propose 5. Sirtuin theory - Sirtuins are a family of
that as people get older, they are better able to proteins that have been linked to
manage their emotions, cope more effectively longevity, regulation of mitochondria
with stress, and engage in fewer self-defeating functioning in energy, possible benefits of
and acting-out behaviors. calorie restriction, stress resistance, and
lower rates of cardiovascular disease
BIOLOGICAL THEORIES OF AGING and cancer.
6. mTOR pathway theory - The mTOR
1. Evolutionary Theory of Aging - natural
pathway is a cellular pathway that
selection has not eliminated many
involves the regulation of growth and
harmful conditions and non-adaptive
metabolism. TOR stands for “target of
characteristics in older adults because
rapamycin,” and in mammals it is called
natural selection is linked to reproductive
mTOR. Rapamycin is a naturally derived
fitness, which is present only in the
antibiotic and immune system
earlier part of adulthood. For example,
suppressant/ modulator that was
consider Alzheimer disease, an
discovered in the 1960s on Easter Island.
irreversible brain disorder that does not
It has been commonly used and is FDA
appear until late middle adulthood or late
approved for preventing rejection of
adulthood. In evolutionary theory, if
transplanted organs and bone marrow.
Alzheimer disease occurred earlier in
Proposals have been made that the
development, it might have been
mTOR pathway has a central role in the
eliminated many centuries ago.
life of cells, acting as a cellular router for
2. Cellular clock theory is Leonard
growth, protein production/metabolism,
Hayflick’s (1977) theory that cells can
and stem cell functioning.
divide a maximum of about 75 to 80
times, and that as we age our cells Hormonal stress theory argues that aging in
become less capable of dividing. The the body’s hormonal system can lower
answer may lie at the tips of resistance to stress and increase the likelihood
chromosomes, at telomeres, which are of disease. When faced with external challenges
DNA sequences that cap chromosomes. such as stressful situations, the human body
Each time a cell divides, the telomeres adapts by altering internal physiological
become shorter and shorter. After about processes. This process of adaptation and
70 or 80 replications, the telomeres are adjustment is referred to as allostasis.
dramatically reduced, and the cell no Allostasis is adaptive in the short term; however,
longer can reproduce. The consensus of continuous accommodation of physiological
research is that telomere shortening systems in response to stressors may result in
does play a role in aging. allostatic load, a wearing down of body systems
3. A second microbiological theory of aging due to constant activity.
is free-radical theory, which states that
people age because when cells
metabolize energy, the by-products
include unstable oxygen molecules

37
IV. ACTIVITIES/EXERCISES b. temperament tends to remain stable
throughout life.
Chapter Activity: Mixed-up Erikson’s Stages
c. few people change significantly after
Instructions: Identify the stage that seems to be adolescence.
associated with each example and explain why
you chose the stage. d. people tend to undergo greater
personality changes as they age.
Situation #1: A three-year-old is diagnosed with
bone cancer. This shows Ego Integrity versus 2. Body organs first begin to form and function
Despair at ages 3–5 years. The child is during the period of the _________; within 6
confronted with end-of-life issues. months, during the period of the
_____________, the organs are sufficiently
Situation #2: An 80-year-old woman is mugged. functional to allow a good chance of survival.
This shows Basic Trust versus Basic Mistrust in
a. zygote; embryo c. embryo; fetus
later adulthood. The woman must regain a sense
of confidence or faith in the safety of her b. zygote; fetus d. placenta; fetus
environment.
3. Stroke a newborn’s cheek and the infant will
Situation #3: A divorced middle-aged man is root for a nipple. This illustrates ______.
considering remarriage. This shows Intimacy a. a reflex. c. differentiation.
versus Isolation in middle adulthood. The man is
confronted with issues of intimacy. b. nurture. d. continuity.

Situation #4: A 16-year-old has the keys to his 4. Adolescence is marked by the onset of
car taken away by his parents. This shows a. an identity crisis.
Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt in b. Puberty
adolescence. The teenager’s parents have c. separation anxiety
constrained his independence. d. parent-child conflict
Situation #5: A 35-year-old woman enjoys time 5. In Erikson’s stages, the primary task during
with her child when she and her child can play adolescence is
with her child’s blocks. This shows Initiative
versus Guilt in middle age. The woman is a. attaining formal operations
b. forging an identity.
enjoying the opportunity to explore and play.
c. developing a sense of intimacy with
Situation #6: A 64-year-old man is fired from his another person
job and worries about whether he will find d. living independent of parents
another one. This shows Industry versus II. Matching Type. Select from the box below
Inferiority in later adulthood. The man is the correct answer for the following statements.
experiencing issues related to feelings of
competence. ________________1. This is the perspective
that development is lifelong, multidimensional,
V. CHAPTER ASSESSMENT multidirectional, plastic, multidisciplinary, and
contextual; it involves growth, maintenance, and
I. Multiple Choice.
regulation; and is constructed through biological,
1. Although development is lifelong, there is sociocultural, and individual factors working
stability of personality over time. For example, together.

a. most personality traits emerge in ________________2. This is the pattern of

infancy and persist throughout life. change that begins at conception and continues
throughout the life span.

38
________________3. Theories that describe is determined by early versus later
development as primarily unconscious and experiences.
heavily colored by emotion. ▪ Developmentalists describe
development as continuous (gradual, or
_________________4. _______5. is a brain- cumulative change) or as discontinuous
neuroendocrine process occurring primarily in (abrupt, or a sequence of stages). Most
early adolescence that provides stimulation for developmentalists recognize that
the rapid physical changes that take place during extreme positions on the nature-nurture,
this period of development. stability-change, and continuity-
________________ 7. The three major issues discontinuity issues are unwise. Despite
that interest developmental psychologists are this consensus, there is still spirited
nature/nurture, stability/change, and ________ debate on these issues.
/___________. ▪ The nature-nurture issue focuses on
the extent to which development is
mainly influenced by nature (biological
inheritance) or nurture (experience).
Puberty Life-Span Perspective ▪ The stability-change issue focuses on
Psychoanalytic the degree to which we become older
Theories renditions of our early experience or
develop into someone different from who
Emerging Adulthood Continuity we were earlier in development. A
special aspect of the stability-change
Development Stages
issue is the extent to which development
is determined by early versus later
experiences.
VI. SUMMARY ▪ Developmentalists describe
▪ Development is the pattern of change development as continuous (gradual, or
that begins at conception and continues cumulative change) or as
through the human life span. It includes discontinuous (abrupt, or a sequence of
both growth and decline. stages). Most developmentalists
▪ The life-span perspective includes recognize that extreme positions on the
these basic concepts: development is nature-nurture, stability-change, and
lifelong, multidimensional, continuity-discontinuity issues are
multidirectional, and plastic; its study is unwise. Despite this consensus, there is
multidisciplinary; it is contextual; it still spirited debate on these issues.
involves growth, maintenance, and ▪ A psychosocial moratorium during
regulation of loss; and it is a co- adolescence allows the personality and
construction of biological, cultural, and role experimentation that are important
individual factors. aspects of identity development. James
▪ The nature-nurture issue focuses on Marcia proposed four identity statuses—
the extent to which development is identity diffusion, foreclosure,
mainly influenced by nature (biological moratorium, and achievement—that
inheritance) or nurture (experience). are based on crisis (exploration) and
▪ The stability-change issue focuses on the commitment.
degree to which we become older
renditions of our early experience or VII. REFERENCES
develop into someone different from who
we were earlier in development. A Harlow's Classic Studies Revealed the
special aspect of the stability-change Importance of Maternal Contact.
issue is the extent to which development Association for Psychological Science -

39
 APS. (2018, June 20). psychology (15th ed.). Wadsworth
https://www.psychologicalscience.org/pub Cengage Learning.
lications/observer/obsonline/harlows-
classic-studies-revealed-the-importance- Santrock, J. W. (2019). Life-span development
of-maternal-contact.html. (17th ed.). McGraw-Hill Education.

Myers, D. G., & DeWall, C. N. (2016). Exploring Whitbourne, S. K. (2012, December). LIFE
psychology (10th ed.). Worth Publishers, SPAN DEVELOPMENT a six-unit lesson plan for
Macmillan Learning. high school psychology teachers. American
Psychological Association.
Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Atkinson, R. L. (2012). https://www.apa.org/ed/precollege/topss/lesson
Atkinson & Hilgard's introduction to s/.

UNIT 5: SENSATION AND it receives. In order for sensation to occur, there

PERCEPTION are two factors which are necessary, (1) there
must be a stimulus, and (2) there must be
I. LEARNING
receptors that are sensitive to the stimulus.
OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
Kagan defines a stimulus as any form of energy
At the end of this lesson, you should capable of exciting the nervous system like light
be able to: waves, sound waves, and the chemical energy
that causes the sensation of taste and smell. A
1. Identify and explain the different parts receptor is a specialized nerve ending capable of
of sense organs and their functions. responding to energy. The mechanism which
2. Understand the importance of convert stimulus energy into neural energy are
perception and attention called the senses. There are five primary
3. Illustrate the perceptual organization. senses: vision, hearing, smell, taste, and the skin
senses. In addition we have the sense of
II. INTRODUCTION equilibrium, kinesthesis, and organic sense. Let
One of the basic processes in the us now consider and discuss these senses
interaction of man and his environment is that separately.
which governs the reception of information about
the world around him. In order to survive, man The Senses
must be able to sense, interpret, and respond to
the various events and stimulations he receives. Vision: The Visual System, the Eye,
The study of the reception and function of and Color Vision
stimulation may be divided into two parts: (1) that
which considers the mechanisms of receiving In the human visual system, the eye
information called sensation and, (2) that which receives physical stimuli in the form of light and
considers the received information and past sends those stimuli as electrical signals to the
experiences called perception. brain, which interprets the signals as images.
The human visual system gives our bodies the
III. LESSON PROPER ability to see our physical environment. The
system requires communication between its
Sensation major sensory organ (the eye) and the core of
The psychologists is interested in what the central nervous system (the brain) to
sensations the organism can report or what interpret external stimuli (light waves) as images.
discriminations it can make so that it can adjust Humans are highly visual creatures compared to
its behavior according to the sensory messages many other animals which rely more on smell or

40
hearing, and over our evolutionary history we and vice versa; the same is true of vision. The
have developed an incredibly complex sight left hemisphere of the brain processes visual
system. images from the right-hand side of space, or the
right visual field, and the right hemisphere
Sensory Organs processes visual images from the left-hand side
Vision depends mainly on one sensory of space, or the left visual field. The optic chiasm
organ—the eye. Eye constructions vary in
is a complicated crossover of optic nerve fibers
complexity depending on the needs of the
organism. The human eye is one of the most behind the eyes at the bottom of the brain,
complicated structures on earth, and it requires allowing the right eye to “wire” to the left neural
many components to allow our advanced visual hemisphere and the left eye to “wire” to the right
capabilities. The eye has three major layers: The hemisphere. This allows the visual cortex to
sclera, which maintains, protects, and supports receive the same visual field from both eyes.
the shape of the eye and includes the cornea;
The choroid, which provides oxygen and Color Vision
nourishment to the eye and includes the pupil, Human beings are capable of highly
iris, and lens; and The retina, which allows us to complex vision that allows us to perceive colors
piece images together and includes cones and and depth in intricate detail. Visual stimulus
rods. transduction happens in the retina.
Photoreceptor cells found in this region have the
The Process of Sight specialized capability of phototransduction, or
All vision is based on the perception of the ability to convert light into electrical signals.
electromagnetic rays. These rays pass through There are two types of these photoreceptor cells:
the cornea in the form of light; the cornea rods, which are responsible for scotopic vision
focuses the rays as they enter the eye through (night vision), and cones, which are responsible
the pupil, the black aperture at the front of the for photopic vision (daytime vision). Generally
eye. The pupil acts as a gatekeeper, allowing as speaking, cones are for color vision and rods are
much or as little light to enter as is necessary to for shadows and light differences. The front of
see an image properly. The pigmented area your eye has many more cones than rods, while
around the pupil is the iris. Along with supplying the sides have more rods than cones; for this
a person’s eye color, the iris is responsible for reason, your peripheral vision is sharper than
acting as the pupil’s stop, or sphincter. Two your direct vision in the darkness, but your
layers of iris muscles contract or dilate the pupil peripheral vision is also in black and white.
to change the amount of light that enters the eye.
Behind the pupil is the lens, which is similar in
shape and function to a camera lens. Together
with the cornea, the lens adjusts the focal length
of the image being seen onto the back of the eye,
the retina. Visual reception occurs at the retina
where photoreceptor cells called cones and rods
give an image color and shadow. The image is
transduced into neural impulses and then
transferred through the optic nerve to the rest of
the brain for processing. The visual cortex in the
brain interprets the image to extract form,
meaning, memory, and context.
The left hemisphere of the brain controls
the motor functions of the right half of the body,

41
Color vision is a critical component of human The Ear
vision and plays an important role in both
perception and communication. Color sensors The ear is the main sensory organ of the
are found within cones, which respond to auditory system. It performs the first processing
relatively broad color bands in the three basic of sound and houses all of the sensory receptors
regions of red, green, and blue (RGB). Any required for hearing. The ear’s three divisions
colors in between these three are perceived as (outer, middle, and inner) have specialized
different linear combinations of RGB. The eye is functions that combine to allow us to hear.
much more sensitive to overall light and color
intensity than changes in the color itself. Colors
have three attributes: brightness, based on
luminance and reflectivity; saturation, based on
the amount of white present; and hue, based on
color combinations. Sophisticated combinations
of these receptors signals are transduced into
chemical and electrical signals, which are sent to
the brain for the dynamic process of color
perception.

Depth Perception

Depth perception refers to our ability to see the

world in three dimensions. With this ability, we
can interact with the physical world by accurately
gauging the distance to a given object. While
depth perception is often attributed to binocular
vision (vision from two eyes), it also relies heavily
on monocular cues (cues from only one eye) to
function properly. These cues range from the
convergence of our eyes and accommodation of
the lens to optical flow and motion.

Audition: Hearing, the Ear, and Sound

Localization
The outer ear is the external portion of the ear,
The human auditory system allows us to much of which can be seen on the outside of the
perceive and localize sounds in our physical human head. It includes the pinna, the ear
environment. The human auditory system allows canal, and the most superficial layer of the ear
the body to collect and interpret sound waves drum, the tympanic membrane. The outer ear’s
into meaningful messages. The main sensory main task is to gather sound energy and amplify
organ responsible for the ability to hear is the sound pressure. The pinna, the fold of cartilage
ear, which can be broken down into the outer that surrounds the ear canal, reflects and
ear, middle ear, and inner ear. The inner ear attenuates sound waves, which helps the brain
contains the receptor cells necessary for both determine the location of the sound. The sound
hearing and equilibrium maintenance. Human waves enter the ear canal, which amplifies the
beings also have the special ability of being able sound into the ear drum. Once the wave has
to estimate where sounds originate from, vibrated the tympanic membrane, sound enters
commonly called sound localization. the middle ear. The middle ear is an air-filled
tympanic (drum-like) cavity that transmits

42
acoustic energy from the ear canal to the eventually on to the brain stem. The brain
cochlea in the inner ear. This is accomplished by responds to these separate frequencies and
a series of three bones in the middle ear: the composes a complete sound from them
malleus, the incus, and the stapes.
The malleus (Latin for “hammer”) is connected to Sound Localization
the mobile portion of the ear drum. It senses Humans are able to hear a wide variety of sound
sound vibrations and transfers them onto the frequencies, from approximately 20 to 20,000
incus. The incus (Latin for “anvil”) is the bridge Hz. Our ability to judge or estimate where a
between the malleus and the stapes. sound originates, called sound localization, is
The stapes (Latin for “stirrup”) transfers the dependent on the hearing ability of each ear and
vibrations from the incus to the oval window, the the exact quality of the sound. Since each ear
portion of the inner ear to which it is connected. lies on an opposite side of the head, a sound
Through these steps, the middle ear acts as a reaches the closest ear first, and the sound’s
gatekeeper to the inner ear, protecting it from amplitude will be larger (and therefore louder) in
damage by loud sounds. Unlike the middle ear, that ear. Much of the brain’s ability to localize
the inner ear is filled with fluid. When the stapes sound depends on these interaural (between-
footplate pushes down on the oval window in the the-ears) differences in sound intensity and
inner ear, it causes movement in the fluid within timing. Bushy neurons can resolve time
the cochlea. The function of the cochlea is to differences as small as ten milliseconds, or
transform mechanical sound waves into approximately the time it takes for sound to pass
electrical or neural signals for use in the brain. one ear and reach the other.
Within the cochlea there are three fluid-filled
spaces: the tympanic
canal, the vestibular canal, and the middle Gustation: Taste Buds and Taste
canal. Fluid movement within these canals
stimulates hair cells of the organ of Corti, a The gustatory system, including the
ribbon of sensory cells along the cochlea. These mouth, tongue, and taste buds, allows us to
hair cells transform the fluid waves into electrical transduce chemical molecules into specific taste
impulses using cilia, a specialized type of sensations.The gustatory system creates the
mechanosensory. human sense of taste, allowing us to perceive
different flavors from substances that we
The Process of Hearing consume as food and drink. Gustation, along
with olfaction (the sense of smell), is classified
Hearing begins with pressure waves hitting the
as chemoreception because it functions by
auditory canal and ends when the brain
reacting with molecular chemical compounds in
perceives sounds. Sound reception occurs at the
a given substance. Specialized cells in the
ears, where the pinna collects, reflects,
gustatory system that are located on the tongue
attenuates, or amplifies sound waves. These
are called taste buds, and they
waves travel along the auditory canal until they
sense tastants (taste molecules). The taste buds
reach the ear drum, which vibrates in response
send the information from the tastants to the
to the change in pressure caused by the waves.
brain, where a molecule is processed as a
The vibrations of the ear drum cause oscillations
certain taste. There are five main tastes: bitter,
in the three bones in the middle ear, the last of
salty, sweet, sour, and umami (savory). All the
which sets the fluid in the cochlea in motion. The
varieties of flavor we experience are a
cochlea separates sounds according to their
combination of some or all of these tastes.
place on the frequency spectrum. Hair cells in
the cochlea perform the transduction of these
sound waves into afferent electrical impulses.
Auditory nerve fibers connected to the hair cells
form the spiral ganglion, which transmits the
electrical signals along the auditory nerve and

43
Tongue and Taste Buds Taste Traditionally, humans were thought to
have just four main tastes: bitter, salty, sweet,
The sense of taste is transduced by taste and sour. Recently, umami, which is the
buds, which are clusters of 50-100 taste receptor Japanese word for “savory,” was added to this
cells located in the tongue, soft palate, epiglottis, list of basic tastes. (Spicy is not a basic taste
pharynx, and esophagus. The tongue is the main because the sensation of spicy foods does not
come from taste buds but rather from heat and
sensory organ of the gustatory system. The
pain receptors.) In general, tastes can be
tongue contains papillae, or specialized appetitive (pleasant) or aversive (unpleasant),
epithelial cells, which have taste buds on their depending on the unique makeup of the material
surface. There are three types of papillae with being tasted. There is one type of taste receptor
taste buds in the human gustatory system: for each flavor, and each type of taste stimulus
is transduced by a different mechanism. Bitter,
• fungiform papillae, which are mushroom- sweet, and umami tastes use similar
shaped and located at the tip of the mechanisms based on a G protein-coupled
tongue; receptor, or GPCR.
• foliate papillae, which are ridges and
grooves toward the back of the tongue;
• circumvallate papillae, which are circular-
Bitter - There are several classes of bitter
shaped and located in a row just in front of
compounds which vary in chemical makeup.
the end of the tongue.
Evolutionary psychologists believe this to be a
result of the role of bitterness in human survival:
Each taste bud is flask-like in shape and some bitter-tasting compounds can be
formed by two types of cells: supporting cells and hazardous to our health, so we learned to
gustatory cells. Gustatory cells are short-lived recognize and avoid bitter substances in
and are continuously regenerating. They each general.
contain a taste pore at the surface of the tongue
which is the site of sensory transduction. Though Salty - The salt receptor, NaCl, is arguable the
there are small differences in sensation, all taste simplest of all the receptors found in the mouth.
buds, no matter their location, can respond to all An ion channel in the taste cell wall allows
types of taste. Na+ions to enter the cell.

Sweet - Like bitter tastes, sweet taste

transduction involves GPCRs binding. The
specific mechanism depends on the specific
molecule flavor. Natural sweeteners such as
saccharides activate the GPCRs to release
gustducin. Synthetic sweeteners such as
saccharin activate a separate set of GPCRs,
initiating a similar but different process of protein
transitions.

Sour - Sour tastes signal the presence of acidic

compounds in substances. There are three
different receptor proteins at work in a sour taste.
The first is a simple ion channel which allows
hydrogen ions to flow directly into the cell. The
second is a K+ channel which has H+ ions in
order to block K+ ions from escaping the cell.

44
Umami - Umami is the newest receptor to be receptors. These chemical signals are
recognized by western scientists in the family of transformed into electrical signals and sent to the
basic tastes. This Japanese word means brain, where they are perceived as smells. Once
“savory” or “meaty.” It is thought that umami ligands (odorant particles) bind to specific
receptors act similarly to bitter and sweet receptors on the external surface of cilia,
receptors (involving GPCRs), but very little is olfactory transduction is initiated. In mammals,
known about their actual function. olfactory receptors have been shown to signal
via G protein. This is a similar type of signaling
Olfaction: The Nasal Cavity and Smell of other known G protein-coupled receptors
(GPCR). The binding of an odorant particle on
The olfactory system gives humans their sense an olfactory receptor activates a particular G
of smell by collecting odorants from the protein (Gαolf), which then activates adenylate
environment and transducing them into neural cyclase, leading to cAMP production. cAMP then
signals. The olfactory system gives humans their binds and opens a cyclic nucleotide-gated ion
sense of smell by inhaling and detecting channel. This opening allows for an influx of both
odorants in the environment. Olfaction is Na+ and Ca2+ ions into the cell, thus depolarizing
physiologically related to gustation, the sense of it. The Ca2+ in turn activates chloride channels,
taste, because of its use of chemoreceptors to causing the departure of Cl–, which results in a
discern information about substances. further depolarization of the cell.
Perceiving complex flavors requires recognizing
Interpretation of Smells. Individual features of
taste and smell sensations at the same time, an
interaction known as chemoreceptive sensory odor molecules descend on various parts of the
interaction. This causes foods to taste different if olfactory system in the brain and combine to
the olfactory system is compromised. However, form a representation of odor. Since most odor
olfaction is anatomically different from gustation molecules have several individual features, the
because it uses the sensory organs of the nose number of possible combinations allows the
and nasal cavity to capture smells. Humans can olfactory system to detect an impressively broad
identify a large number of odors and use this range of smells. A group of odorants that shares
information to interact successfully with their some chemical feature and causes similar
environment. patterns of neural firing is called an odotope.

The Nose and Nasal Cavity. Olfactory

sensitivity is directly proportional to spatial area Humans can differentiate between 10,000
in the nose—specifically the olfactory epithelium, different odors. People (wine or perfume experts,
which is where odorant reception occurs. The for example) can train their sense of smell to
area in the nasal cavity near the septum is become expert in detecting subtle odors by
reserved for the olfactory mucous membrane, practicing retrieving smells from memory.
where olfactory receptor cells are located. This
area is a dime-sized region called the olfactory
mucosa. In humans, there are about 10 million
olfactory cells, each of which has 350 different
receptor types composing the mucous
membrane. Each of the 350 receptor types is
characteristic of only one odorant type. Each
functions using cilia, small hair-like projections
that contain olfactory receptor proteins. These
proteins carry out the transduction of odorants
into electrical signals for neural processing.
Olfactory transduction is a series of events in
which odor molecules are detected by olfactory

45
Smell and Memory. Odor information is easily Human skin receptors: Mechanoreceptors can
stored in long-term memory and has strong be free receptors or encapsulated. Examples of
connections to emotional memory. This is most free receptors are the hair receptors at the roots
likely due to the olfactory system’s close of hairs, while encapsulated receptors are the
anatomical ties to the limbic system and the Pacinian corpuscles and the receptors in the
hippocampus, areas of the brain that have been glabrous (hairless) skin: Meissner’s corpuscles,
known to be involved in emotion and place Ruffini’s corpuscles, and Merkel’s discs.
memory. Human and animal brains have this in Hairy skin Glabrous skin

common: the amygdala, which is involved in the Papillary Ridges

processing of fear, causes olfactory memories of

Epidermis
threats to lead animals to avoid dangerous Free nerve
ending
Merkel s
receptor
Septa

situations. The human sense of smell is not quite

as powerful as most other animals’ sense of Sebaceous
gland
Meissne r s
corpuscle
Dermis

smell, but smell is still deeply tied to human Ruffini s

corpuscle

memory and emotion. Pheromones are airborne, Hair receptor

often odorless molecules that are crucial to the Pacinian

corpuscle

behavior of many animals. They are processed

by an accessory of the olfactory system. Recent
research shows that pheromones play a role in Somatosensory Systems. The
human attraction to potential mates, the somatosensory system uses specialized
synchronization of menstrual cycles among receptor cells in the skin and body to detect
women, and the detection of moods and fear in changes in the environment. The receptors
others. Thanks in large part to the olfactory collect and convert physical stimuli into electrical
system, this information can be used to navigate and chemical signals through the transduction
the physical world and collect data about the process and send these impulses to the nervous
people around us. system for processing. Sensory cell function in
the somatosensory system is determined by
Somatosensorial: Pressure, Temperature, location.
and Pain The receptors in the skin, also called cutaneous
receptors, tell the body about the three main
The somatosensory system allows the subdivisions mentioned above: pressure and
human body to perceive the physical sensations surface texture (mechanoreceptors),
of pressure, temperature, and pain. The human temperature (thermoreceptors), and pain
sense of touch is known as the somatic or (nociceptors). The receptors in the muscles and
somatosensory system. Touch is the first sense joints provide information about muscle length,
developed by the body, and the skin is the muscle tension, and joint angles.
largest and most complex organ in the
somatosensory system. By gathering external Mechanoreception. Mechanoreceptors
stimuli and interpreting them into useful in the skin give us a sense of pressure and
information for the nervous system, skin allows texture. These receptors differ in their field size
the body to function successfully in the physical (small or large) and their speeds of adaptation
world. Touch receptors in the skin have three (fast or slow). Thus, there are four types of
main subdivisions: mechanoreception (sense of mechanoreceptors based on the four possible
pressure), thermoreception (sense of heat) and combinations of fast vs. slow speed and large vs.
nociception (sense of pain). Receptor cells in the small receptive fields. The speed of adaptation
muscles and joints called proprioceptors also aid refers to how quickly the receptor will react to a
in the somatosensory system, but they are stimulus and how long that reaction will be
sometimes separated into another sensory sustained after the stimulus is removed. Rapidly
category called kinesthesia. adapting cells allow us to adjust grip and force
appropriately. Slowly adapting cells allow us to
perceive form and texture. The receptive field

46
size refers to the amount of skin area that finger and toe joints. All of these receptors
responds to the stimulus, with smaller areas contribute to overall kinesthesia, or the
specializing in locating stimuli accurately. perception of bodily movements.

Thermoreception. Thermoreceptors
detect changes in temperature through their free Additional Sensory Systems
nerve endings. There are two types of Two additional sensory systems are
thermoreceptors that signal temperature proprioception (which interprets body position)
changes in our own skin: warm and cold and the vestibular system (which interprets
receptors. Our sense of temperature is a result balance). No matter what your level of
of the comparison of the signals from each of the experience with psychology is, you have
two types of thermoreceptors. These receptors probably heard of the five basic senses, which
are not good indicators of absolute temperature, consist of the visual, auditory (hearing),
but they are very sensitive to changes in skin gustatory (taste), olfactory (smell), and
temperature. somatosensory (touch) systems. However,
recent advances in science have expanded this
Nociception. Nociceptors use free canonical list of five sense systems to include
nerve endings to detect pain. Functionally, two more: proprioception, which is the sense of
nociceptors are specialized, high-threshold the positioning of parts of the body; and the
mechanoceptors or polymodal receptors. They vestibular system, which senses gravity and
respond not only to intense mechanical stimuli provides balance.
but also to heat and noxious chemicals—
anything that may cause the body harm. Their
Proprioception and Kinesthesia.
response magnitude, or the amount of pain you
Proprioception is the sense of the relative
feel, is directly related to the degree of tissue
positioning of neighboring parts of the body, and
damage inflicted. Pain signals can be separated
sense of the strength of effort needed for
into three types that correspond to the different
movement. It is distinguished
types of nerve fibers used for transmitting these
from exteroception, by which one perceives the
signals. The first type is a rapidly transmitted
outside world, and interoception, by which one
signal with a high spatial resolution, called first
perceives pain, hunger, and the movement of
pain or cutaneous pricking pain. This type of
internal organs. A major component of
signal is easy to locate and generally easy to
proprioception is joint position sense (JPS),
tolerate. The second type is much slower and
which involves an individual’s ability to perceive
highly affective, called second pain or burning
the position of a joint without the aid of vision.
pain. This signal is more difficult to locate and not
Proprioception is one of the subtler sensory
as easy to tolerate. The third type arises from
systems, but it comes into play almost every
viscera, musculature, and joints; it is called deep
moment. This system is activated when you step
pain. This type of signal is very difficult to locate,
off a curb and know where to put your foot, or
and often it is intolerable and chronic.
when you push an elevator button and control
how hard you have to press down with your
fingers. Kinesthesia is the awareness of the
Proprioceptors. Proprioceptors are the position and movement of the parts of the body
receptor cells found in the body’s muscles and using sensory organs, which are known as
joints. They detect joint position and movement, proprioceptors, in joints and muscles.
and the direction and velocity of the movement. Kinesthesia is a key component in muscle
There are many receptors in the muscles, memory and hand-eye coordination. The
muscle fascia, joints, and ligaments, all of which discovery of kinesthesia served as a precursor to
are stimulated by stretching in the area in which the study of proprioception. While the terms
they lie. Muscle receptors are most active in proprioception and kinesthesia are often used
large joints such as the hip and knee joints, while interchangeably, they actually have many
joint and skin receptors are more meaningful to

47
different components. Often the kinesthetic vertigo), you might feel like your entire body was
sense is differentiated from proprioception by spinning in space and be unable to walk for that
excluding the sense of equilibrium or balance reason.
from kinesthesia. An inner ear infection, for
example, might degrade the sense of balance. Perception. Perception defined as the
This would degrade the proprioceptive sense, processes of knowing objects and objective
but not the kinesthetic sense. The affected events by means of senses. This sensory input
individual would be able to walk, but only by consists of nerve impulses. They carry a sort of
using the sense of sight to maintain balance; the raw, undigested information about the
person would be unable to walk with eyes environment. The individual must convert it into
closed. Another difference in proprioception and a meaningful information. Perception, then, is
kinesthesia is that kinesthesia focuses on the the organization of sensory input into meaningful
body’s motion or movements, while experiences. Our choice of texture, our use of
proprioception focuses more on the colors, all tend to express personality traits.
body’s awareness of its movements and
behaviors. This has led to the notion that Perceptual constancy, also
kinesthesia is more behavioral, and called object constancy, or constancy
proprioception is more cognitive. phenomenon, the tendency of animals and
humans to see familiar objects as having
The Vestibular System. The vestibular standard shape, size, color, or location
system is the sensory system that contributes to
regardless of changes in the angle of
balance and the sense of spatial orientation.
Together with the cochlea (a part of the auditory perspective, distance, or lighting. The
system) it constitutes the labyrinth of the inner impression tends to conform to the object as it is
ear in most mammals, situated within the or is assumed to be, rather than to the actual
vestibulum in the inner ear. There are two main stimulus. Perceptual constancy is responsible
components of the vestibulum: the semicircular for the ability to identify objects under various
canal system, which indicates rotational conditions, which seem to be “taken into
movements; and the otoliths, which indicate account” during a process of mental
linear accelerations. Some signals from the reconstitution of the known image. For example,
vestibular system are sent to the neural snow appears white in the low illumination of
structures that control eye movements and moonlight, as well as in sunlight 800,000 times
provide us with clear vision, a process known as as bright. Perceptual constancy is reduced by
the vestibulo-ocular reflex. Other signals are
limited experience with the object and by
sent to the muscles that control posture and
decreasing the number of environmental cues
keep us upright.
that aid in identification of the object.
Proprioception vs. Vestibular System
While both the vestibular system Size Constancy refers to the observation
and proprioception contribute to the “sense of that the size of objects does not appear to
balance,” they have different functions. change in spite of the change in the size of the
Proprioception has to do with the positioning of image reaching the retina. The tendency to see
limbs and awareness of body parts in relation to an object in standard shape regardless of the
one another, while the vestibular system viewing angle is called shape constancy. It is
contributes to the understanding of where the also called form constancy. A plate continues to
entire body is in space. If there was a problem look around even though when viewed from
with your proprioception, you might fall over if certain positions, the image on the retina
you tried to walk because you would lose your
undergoes as variety of changes. Location
innate understanding of where your feet and legs
were in space. On the other hand, if there was a constancy refers to the apparent stability of
problem with your vestibular system (such as

48
objects in space despite the changing location of that we view provides us with a means of
the retinal pattern reaching the eye. determining distance. If we view two objects and
Organization in Perception one is considerably closer to us than the other is,
The perceptual constancies imply the retinal disparity will be relatively large and we
organization within perception. There are will have a greater sense of depth between the
organizing tendencies which help us to achieve two. However, if the two objects are a similar
stability in a world of constantly changing distance from us, the retinal disparity will be
stimulation: minor, and we will perceive them as being a
similar distance from us.
1. Figure and ground. When we
In some cases, certain cues permit us to obtain
perceive an object, usually one part
a sense of depth and distance with just one eye.
tends to stand out while the rest
seems to remain in the background. These cues are known as monocular cues. One
2. Grouping. We are concerned more monocular cue—motion parallax—is the change
with the figure than with the ground. in position of an object on the retina caused by
The principles of group, firs movement of your body relative to the object. For
enunciated by Gestalt psychologist, example, suppose you are a passenger in a
include similarity, proximity, closure moving car, and you focus your eye on a stable
and continuity. object such as a tree. Objects that are closer
than the tree will appear to move backward, and
Depth Perception
the nearer the object is, the more quickly it will
As sophisticated as the retina is, the
appear to move. In contrast, objects beyond the
images projected onto it are flat and two-
tree will seem to move at a slower speed, but in
dimensional. Yet the world around us is three-
the same direction as you are. Your brain is able
dimensional, and we perceive it that way. How
to use these cues to calculate the relative
do we make the transformation from 2-D to 3-D?
distances of the tree and other objects. Similarly,
The ability to view the world in three dimensions
the monocular cue of relative size reflects the
and to perceive distance—a skill known as
assumption that if two objects are the same size,
depth perception—is due largely to the fact that
the object that makes a smaller image on the
we have two eyes. Because there is a certain
retina is farther away than the one that makes a
distance between the eyes, a slightly different
larger image. But it’s not just size of an object
image reaches each retina. The brain integrates
that provides information about distance; the
the two images into one view, but it also
quality of the image on the retina helps us judge
recognizes the difference in images and uses
distance. The monocular cue of texture gradient
this difference to estimate the distance of an
provides information about distance, because
object from us. The difference in the images
the details of things that are far away are less
seen by the left eye and the right eye is known
distinct (Proffitt, 2006). Finally, anyone who has
as binocular disparity (Kara & Boyd, 2009;
ever seen railroad tracks that seem to come
Gillam, Palmisano, & Govan, 2011; Valsecchi et
together in the distance knows that distant
al., 2013). To get a sense of binocular disparity,
objects appear to be closer together than are
hold a pencil at arm’s length and look at it first
nearer ones, a phenomenon called linear
with one eye and then with the other. There is
perspective. People use linear perspective as a
little difference between the two views relative to
mon- ocular cue in estimating distance, allowing
the background. Now bring the pencil just 6
the two-dimensional image on the retina to
inches away from your face, and try the same
record the three-dimensional world (Dobbins et
thing. This time you will perceive a greater
al., 1998; Shimono & Wade, 2002; Bruggeman,
difference between the two views. The fact that
Yonas, & Konczak, 2007).
the discrepancy between the images in the two
eyes varies according to the distance of objects

49
Errors in Perception everything. If links to other perceptual
Sometimes, we make mistakes in the experiences occur, record those as well.
way we perceive. Under certain stimulus
conditions, certain errors of perception occur in Assignment details: Length: 1-3 pages
nearly everybody. Illusion is a term may be
defined as a perception which is common but ASSESSMENT
usually considered mistaken. When we
experience an illusion, we perceive certain 1. If the eye had a second lens that
events which do not correspond to the objective “unreversed” the image hitting the retina,
situations. It should not be confused with do you think there would be changes in
the way people perceive the world?
hallucination or delusion illusion is an error in
2. From an evolutionary standpoint, why
perception which depends on stimulus
might the eye have evolved so that the
conditions and occurs in normal individuals. rods, which we rely on in low light, do not
Hallucination are false perceptions that occur provide sharp images? Are there any
under abnormal conditions. Persons under the advantages to this system?
influence of drugs, or persons suffering from 3. Much research is being conducted on
psychosis or other forms of personality disorders repairing faulty sensory organs through
may experience visual or auditory hallucinations. devices such as personal guidance
systems and eyeglasses, among others.
Some examples of illusion are: Do you think that researchers should
attempt to improve normal sensory
1. Illusions based on relative size capabilities beyond their “natural” range
2. Illusions based on intersecting (for example, make human visual or
lines audio capabilities more sensitive than
3. Ponzo Illusion normal)? What bene- fits might this ability
bring? What problems might it cause?
ACTIVITY / EXERCISES: Activity “watched pot 4. Why might sensitivity to pheromones
never boils” have evolved differently in humans than
in other species? What cultural factors
Paying Attention to Sensory might have played a role?
Information (individual project) Goal: To 5. Why is kinesthetic important?
become more conscious of just how much 6. Define perception. Why is it important?
information is provided by the senses. How 7. Describe the relationship between
much attention do you pay to sensory sensation and perception.
information? This project will require you to
observe normal activities with a twist. SUMMARRY

Despite this saying, we know that The psychologists is interested in what

watched pots do boil and you will demonstrate sensations the organism can report or what
that by watching a pot of water come to a full boil. discriminations it can make so that it can adjust
Select a small pot and using either a stove or an its behavior according to the sensory messages
equivalent (e.g., a hot plate or immersion heating it receives. In order for sensation to occur, there
unit), heat the water to boiling (be sure that are two factors which are necessary, (1) there
whatever heating method you use, it takes must be a stimulus, and (2) there must be
approximately 5 minutes or longer for the water receptors that are sensitive to the stimulus.
to come to a boil). Observe the pot the entire time Kagan defines a stimulus as any form of energy
and note all that you perceive. What do you see, capable of exciting the nervous system like light
hear, smell, feel, taste? Omit no details; record
waves, sound waves, and the chemical energy
that causes the sensation of taste and smell. A

50
receptor is a specialized nerve ending capable of 20Perception-
responding to energy. The mechanism which Activities%20to%20Enhance%20Learni
convert stimulus energy into neural energy are ng.pdf
called the senses. There are five primary
senses: vision, hearing, smell, taste, and the skin
senses. In addition we have the sense of Unit 6: States of Consciousness
equilibrium, kinesthesis, and organic sense. Let
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
us now consider and discuss these senses
• Understand what is meant by
separately. Perception defined as the processes
consciousness
of knowing objects and objective events by • Explain how circadian rhythms are
means of senses. This sensory input consists of
involved in regulating the sleep-wake
nerve impulses. They carry a sort of raw,
cycle, and how circadian cycles can be
undigested information about the environment.
The individual must convert it into a meaningful disrupted
information. Perception, then, is the organization • Discuss the concept of sleep debt
of sensory input into meaningful experiences. • Describe several theories aimed at
Our choice of texture, our use of colors, all tend explaining the function of sleep
to express personality traits. Perceptual • Differentiate between REM and non-
constancy, also called object constancy, REM sleep
or constancy phenomenon, the tendency of • Recognize the symptoms and treatments
animals and humans to see familiar objects as of sleep disorders
having standard shape, size, color, or location
• Describe how different categories of
regardless of changes in the angle of
drugs affect behavior and experience
perspective, distance, or lighting. The ability to
• Understand the similarities and
view the world in three dimensions and to
perceive distance a skill known as depth differences of hypnosis and meditation
perception is due largely to the fact that we have
INTRODUCTION
two eyes. Sometimes, we make mistakes in the
way we perceive. Under certain stimulus Our lives involve regular, dramatic
conditions, certain errors of perception occur in changes in the degree to which we are aware of
nearly everybody. Illusion is a term may be our surroundings and our internal states. While
defined as a perception which is common but
awake, we feel alert and aware of the many
usually considered mistaken.
important things going on around us. Our
REFERENCES experiences change dramatically while we are in
deep sleep and once again when we are
• EZ 101 Study Keys Psycholgoy Second
Edition (2006) Bon Baucum, Ph.D dreaming. This chapter will discuss states of
• General Psychoglogy Fourth Edition consciousness with a particular emphasis on
(2005) Custodiosa A. Sanchez, Ph.D, sleep. The different stages of sleep will be
Paz F. Abad, Ph.D, Loreto Jao, Ed.D identified, and sleep disorders will be described.
• General Psychology Sixth Edition (2012) The chapter will close with discussions of altered
Geraldine E. Tria, Josefina E. Gaerlan, states of consciousness produced by
Delia A. Limpingco. psychoactive drugs, hypnosis, and meditation.
• https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boun
dless-psychology/chapter/sensory- Consciousness describes our awareness of
processes/ internal and external stimuli. Awareness of
• https://teachpsych.org/resources/Docum
internal stimuli includes feeling pain, hunger,
ents/otrp/resources/Sensation%20and%

51
 thirst, sleepiness, and being aware of our Sleep - is distinguished by low levels of physical
thoughts and emotions. Awareness of external activity and reduced sensory awareness. As
stimuli includes seeing the light from the sun, discussed by Siegel (2008), a definition of sleep
feeling the warmth of a room, and hearing the must also include mention of the interplay of the
voice of a friend. circadian and homeostatic mechanisms that
regulate sleep.
Biological rhythms are internal rhythms of
biological activity. A woman’s menstrual cycle is Sleep rebound - refers to the fact that a sleep
an example of a biological rhythm—a recurring, deprived individual will tend to take a shorter
cyclical pattern of bodily changes. One complete time to fall asleep during subsequent
menstrual cycle takes about 28 days—a lunar opportunities for sleep. Sleep is characterized by
month—but many biological cycles are much certain patterns of activity of the brain that can
shorter. be visualized using electroencephalography
(EEG), and different phases of sleep can be
• Circadian Rhythm is a biological rhythm that differentiated using EEG as well.
takes place over a period of about 24 hours. Our
sleep-wake cycle, which is linked to our Evolutionary psychology - is a discipline that
environment’s natural light-dark cycle, is studies how universal patterns of behavior and
perhaps the most obvious example of a circadian cognitive processes have evolved over time as a
result of natural selection. Variations and
rhythm, but we also have daily fluctuations in
adaptations in cognition and behavior make
heart rate, blood pressure, blood sugar, and individuals more or less successful in
body temperature. reproducing and passing their genes to their
• Homeostasis is the tendency to maintain a offspring.
balance, or optimal level, within a biological
Stages of Sleep
system.
• Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN) The brain’s Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep - is
clock mechanism is located in an area of the characterized by darting movements of the eyes
hypothalamus. under closed eyelids. Brain waves during REM
The axons of light-sensitive neurons in the retina sleep appear very similar to brain waves during
provide information to the SCN based on the wakefulness.
amount of light present, allowing this internal
clock to be synchronized with the outside world. non-REM (NREM) sleep - is subdivided into four
Disruptions of normal sleep stages distinguished from each other and from
wakefulness by characteristic patterns of brain
1. Jet Lag - is a collection of symptoms that waves
results from the mismatch between our
internal circadian cycles and our NREM Stages of sleep
environment.
Stage 1 is a transitional phase that occurs
2. Rotating Shift Work - refers to a work between wakefulness and sleep, the period
schedule that changes from early to late during which we drift off to sleep. During this
on a daily or weekly basis time, there is a slowdown in both the rates of
Sleep Debt - A person with a sleep debt does respiration and heartbeat. In addition, stage 1
not get sufficient sleep on a chronic basis. sleep involves a marked decrease in both overall
muscle tension and core body temperature
Why do we sleep?
Stage 2

52
the body goes into a state of deep relaxation. • Caffeine, nicotine and alcohol
Theta waves still dominate the activity of the
brain, but they are interrupted by brief bursts of How to Prevent Insomnia?
activity known as sleep spindles. A sleep spindle
• Keep your bedtime and wake time
is a rapid burst of higher frequency brain waves
consistent from day to day.
that may be important for learning and memory. • Stay active
In addition, the appearance of K-complexes. A • Check your medications to see if they
K-complex is a very high amplitude pattern of may contribute to insomnia.
brain activity that may in some cases occur in • Avoid or limit naps
response to environmental stimuli. • Avoid or limit caffeine and alcohol, and
don't use nicotine.
Stage 3 & stage 4 • Avoid large meals and beverages before
bedtime.
are often referred to as deep sleep or slow-wave • Make your bedroom comfortable for
sleep because these stages are characterized sleep.
by low frequency (up to 4 Hz), high amplitude Create a relaxing bedtime ritual, such as taking
delta waves. During this time, an individual’s a warm bath, reading or listening to soft music.
heart rate and respiration slow dramatically. It is
2. Parasomnias - are disruptive sleep disorders
much more difficult to awaken someone from
that can occur during arousals from REM sleep
sleep during stage 3 and stage 4 than during
or arousals from NREM sleep.
earlier stages. Interestingly, individuals who
have increased levels of alpha brain wave Two Kinds of Parasomnias:
activity.
1. Rapid Eye Movement (REM) - involves
Sleep Problems and Disorders physically acting out dreams.
1. Insomnia - is a common sleep disorder that Type of REM Parasomnias:
can make it hard to fall asleep, hard to stay
asleep, or cause you to wake up too early and • Nightmare - are vivid dreams during
not be able to get back to sleep. sleep that can cause feelings of fear,
terror, and/or anxiety.
How to diagnose Insomnia? • Sleep Paralysis - is a sleep disorder
where individuals are not able to move
For insomnia to be diagnosed, these symptoms the body or limbs when falling asleep or
must be present at least three nights per week waking up due to their muscles being
and the sleep difficulty is present for at least one briefly paralyzed, even though they are
month. awake.
• REM sleep behavior disorder (RBD) -
What Causes Insomnia? is a REM parasomnia where individuals
act out dramatic and/or violent dreams
• Stress during REM sleep.
• Travel or Work Schedule
• Poor sleep habits 2 Non-rapid Eye Movement (NREM) - also
• Eating too much late in evening called disorders of arousal, occur during the
• Medications sleep-wake transition and are initiated during
• Mental health disorders non-rapid-eye-movement sleep or slow-wave
• Medical conditions sleep.

53
Type of NREM Parasomnias: • 2. Central sleep apnea - occurs when
your brain doesn't send proper signals to
• Sleep terrors/night terrors - arouses the muscles that control breathing.
from sleep in a terrified state often
accompanied by crying or screaming, Treatment for Sleep Apnea:
with an increase in heart rate or
breathing, sweating, or flushing of the • Continuous Positive Airway Pressure
skin. (CPAP) - device includes a mask that fits
• Sleepwalking - occurs when a person over the sleeper's nose and mouth,
appears to be awake and moving around which is connected to a pump that pumps
with eyes wide open but is actually air into the person's airways, forcing
asleep. them to remain open.
• Confusional arousals - occur when a
person is awakened from a deep sleep
during the first part of the night. Symptoms of Sleep Apnea:

• Loud snoring
What Causes Parasomnias? • Gasping for air during sleep
• Awakening with a dry mouth
• Personality disorders • Morning headache
• Other stressors • Episodes in which you stop breathing
• Drugs, for example, levodopa, beta- during sleep — which would be reported
adrenergic drugs, and withdrawal of by another person
REM-suppressing medications
• Difficulty staying asleep (insomnia)
• Fever • Excessive daytime sleepiness
• Sleep deprivation (lack of sleep) (hypersomnia)
• Possible hereditary/familial trend • Difficulty paying attention while awake
• Relationship difficulties • Irritability
How to Prevent Parasomnias?
What Causes Sleep Apnea?
• Get a full night of sleep every night
• Keep a regular sleep-wake schedule • Excess weight
• If you use sleeping pills, use the • Being older
medication as directed • Smoking
• Make adjustments to your work schedule • Family history
if you are a shift worker • Nasal congestion
• Avoid alcohol and drug use
How to Prevent Sleep Apnea?
3. Sleep Apnea - is a potentially serious sleep
disorder in which breathing repeatedly stops and • Maintain a healthy weight
starts. • Try yoga
• Alter your sleep position
• Two types of Sleep Apnea: • Use a humidifier
• 1. Obstructive sleep apnea - occurs • Avoid alcohol and smoking
when an individual's airway becomes
blocked during sleep. 4. Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) - an
infant stops breathing during sleep and dies.
What Causes SIDS?

54
SIDS is a mysterious syndrome, and by its very • Stimulant medicines can help you stay
definition the cause cannot be determined. awake during the day.
Children’s researchers have uncovered strong • Antidepressant medicines can help
evidence that SIDS has a biological basis, and reduce episodes of cataplexy, sleep
paralysis, and hallucinations.
are continuing to work towards determining the
• Sodium oxybate (Xyrem) works well to
underlying causes and identifying at-risk babies. control cataplexy. It can also help control
daytime sleepiness.
How to Prevent SIDS?

• place your baby on his back to sleep Substance Use and Abuse. A person who
• keep fluffy blankets and stuffed animals has a substance use disorder often uses more
out of his crib of the substance than they originally intended to
• don’t overheat the baby or his room when and continues to use that substance despite
he sleeps experiencing significant adverse consequences.
• don’t allow anyone to smoke around your In individuals diagnosed with a substance use
baby
disorder, there is a compulsive pattern of drug
• breastfeed your baby
use that is often associated with both physical
5. Narcolepsy - is a sleep disorder and psychological dependence.
characterized by excessive sleepiness.
What Causes Narcolepsy? Experts Keywords: Physical
Dependence/Psychological
don’t know what causes narcolepsy. They think it
Dependence/Tolerance/Withdrawal/Drug
involves multiple things that come together to
Drug Categories:
cause problems in your brain and disturb your
REM sleep.

How to Prevent Narcolepsy?

• Go to bed and wake up at the same time

every day.
• Keep your bedroom dark and at a
comfortable temperature. Make sure
your bed and pillows are comfortable.
• Avoid caffeine, alcohol, and heavy meals
several hours before bedtime.
• Don't smoke.
• Do something relaxing, such as take a
warm bath or read a book before going to
sleep.
• Get regular exercise every day, which
can help you sleep at night. Be sure you
plan exercise several hours before
bedtime.
• Plan naps during the day when you
Alcohol and Other Depressants
typically feel tired. This helps control
daytime sleepiness and reduces the
number of unplanned sleep attacks. - Ethanol, which we commonly refer to as
alcohol, is in a class of psychoactive drugs

55
known as depressants. attention in which minimal attention is given to
external
A depressant is a drug that tends to suppress stimuli.
central nervous system activity. Other
depressants include barbiturates and These steps are conducive to being open to the
benzodiazepines. heightened suggestibility of hypnosis.
• The participant is guided to focus on one
Stimulants are drugs that tend to increase
thing, such as the hypnotist’s words or a ticking
overall levels of neural activity. Many of these
watch.
drugs act as
•The participant is made comfortable and is
agonists of the dopamine neurotransmitter
system. directed to be relaxed and sleepy.
• The participant is told to be open to the
A. Methamphetamine is a type of process of hypnosis, trust the hypnotist and let
amphetamine that can be made from go.
ingredients that are readily available (e.g., •The participant is encouraged to use his or her
medications containing pseudoephedrine, a imagination.
compound found in many over-the-counter cold Meditation is the act of focusing on a single
and flu remedies). target (such as the breath or a repeated sound)
B. The cocaine, amphetamine, cathinones, to increase
and MDMA users seek a euphoric high, awareness of the moment.
feelings of intense elation and pleasure,
especially in those users who take the drug via REFLECTION
intravenous injection or smoking.
C. Caffeine is another stimulant drug. Answer the following questions.
Generally, people use caffeine to maintain
increased levels of alertness and arousal. • What do you do to adjust to the
D. Nicotine is highly addictive, and the use of differences in your daily schedule
tobacco products is associated with increased throughout the week? Are you running a
risks of heart disease, stroke, and a variety of sleep debt when daylight saving time
cancers. begins or ends?
E. Opioid is one of a category of drugs that • Have you (or someone you know) ever
includes heroin, morphine, methadone, and experienced significant periods of sleep
codeine. Opioids have analgesic properties; deprivation because of simple insomnia,
that is, they decrease pain. high levels of stress, or as a side effect
F. Hallucinogen is one of a class of drugs that from a medication? What were the
results in profound alterations in sensory and consequences of missing out on sleep?
perceptual experiences.
• Many people experiment with some sort
G. Medical Marijuana
of psychoactive substance at some point
- While the possession and use of marijuana is
illegal in most states, it is now legal in in their lives. Why do you think people are
Washington and Colorado to possess limited motivated to use substances that alter
quantities of marijuana for recreational use consciousness?
• Under what circumstances would you be
willing to consider hypnosis and/or
Other States of Consciousness
meditation as a treatment option? What
Hypnosis is a state of extreme self-focus and
kind of information would you need

56
 before you made a decision to use these
techniques?

ASSESSMENT
Encircle the most correct answer.
1. ________ cycles occur roughly once every 24 8. ________ is loss of muscle tone or control that
hours. is often associated with narcolepsy.
a. biological a. RBD
b. circadian b. CPAP
c. rotating c. cataplexy
d. conscious d. insomnia
2. ________ is one way in which people can help 9. An individual may suffer from ________ if
reset their biological clocks. there is a disruption in the brain signals that are
a. Light-dark exposure sent to the muscles that regulate breathing.
b. coffee consumption a. central sleep apnea
c. alcohol consumption b. obstructive sleep apnea
d. napping c. narcolepsy
3. ________ appears to be especially d. SIDS
important for enhanced performance on 10.The most common treatment for ________
recently learned tasks. involves the use of amphetamine-like
a. melatonin medications.
b. slow-wave sleep a. sleep apnea
c. sleep deprivation b. RBD
d. growth hormone c. SIDS
4. ________ is(are) described as slow-wave d. narcolepsy
sleep. 11. ________ is another word for sleepwalking.
a. stage 1 a. insomnia
b. stage 2 b. somnambulism
c. stage 3 and stage 4 c. cataplexy
d. REM sleep d. narcolepsy
5. Sleep spindles and K-complexes are most 12. ________ is most effective in individuals that
often associated with ________ sleep. are very open to the power of suggestion.
a. stage 1 a. hypnosis
b. stage 2 b. meditation
c. stage 3 and stage 4 c. mindful awareness
d. REM d. cognitive therapy
6. Symptoms of ________ may be improved by 13. ________ has its roots in religious practice.
REM deprivation. a. hypnosis
a. schizophrenia b. meditation
b. Parkinson’s disease c. cognitive therapy
c. depression d. behavioral therapy
d. generalized anxiety disorder 14. Meditation may be helpful in ________.
7. The ________ content of a dream refers to the a. pain management
true meaning of the dream. b. stress control
a. latent c. treating the flu
b. manifest d. both a and b
c. collective unconscious 15. Research suggests that cognitive processes,
d. important such as learning, may be affected by ________.
a. hypnosis

57
 b. meditation individuals stop breathing during their
c. mindful awareness sleep, and in the case of sudden infant
d. progressive relaxation death syndrome, infants will stop
breathing during sleep and die.
CHAPTER SUMMARY Narcolepsy involves an irresistible urge
to fall asleep during waking hours and is
• States of consciousness vary over the
often associated with cataplexy and
course of the day and throughout our
hallucination.
lives. Important factors in these changes
are the biological rhythms, and, more • Substance use disorder is defined in
specifically, the circadian rhythms. DSM-5 as a compulsive pattern of drug
use despite negative consequences.
• We devote a very large portion of time to
Both physical and psychological
sleep, and our brains have complex
dependence are important parts of this
systems that control various aspects of
disorder. Alcohol, barbiturates, and
sleep. Several hormones important for
benzodiazepines are central nervous
physical growth and maturation are
system depressants that affect GABA
secreted during sleep. While the reason
neurotransmission. Cocaine,
we sleep remains something of a
amphetamine, cathinones, and MDMA
mystery, there is some evidence to
are all central nervous stimulants that
suggest that sleep is very important to
agonize dopamine neurotransmission,
learning and memory.
while nicotine and caffeine affect
• The different stages of sleep are
acetylcholine and adenosine,
characterized by the patterns of brain
respectively. Opiate drugs serve as
waves associated with each stage. As a
powerful analgesics through their effects
person transitions from being awake to
on the endogenous opioid
falling asleep, alpha waves are replaced
neurotransmitter system, and
by theta waves. Sleep spindles and K-
hallucinogenic drugs cause pronounced
complexes emerge in stage 2 sleep.
changes in sensory and perceptual
Stage 3 and stage 4 are described as
experiences. The hallucinogens are
slow-wave sleep that is marked by a
variable with regards to the specific
predominance of delta waves. REM
neurotransmitter systems they affect.
sleep involves rapid movements of the
eyes, paralysis of voluntary muscles, and Hypnosis is a focus on the self that involves
dreaming. Both NREM and REM sleep suggested changes of behavior and experience.
appear to play important roles in learning Meditation involves relaxed, yet focused,
and memory. Dreams may represent life awareness. Both hypnotic and meditative states
events that are important to the dreamer. may involve altered states of consciousness that
• Many individuals suffer from some type of have potential application for the treatment of a
sleep disorder or disturbance at some variety of physical and psychological disorders.
point in their lives. Insomnia is a common
Contents lifted from:
experience in which people have
difficulty falling or staying asleep. Spielman, R. (2017). Psychology. Openstax
Parasomnias involve unwanted motor edition. Retrieved from
behavior or experiences throughout the https://openstax.org/details/books/psychology.
sleep cycle and include RBD,
sleepwalking, restless leg syndrome, and
night terrors. Sleep apnea occurs when

58
UNIT 7: LEARNING AND MEMORY Ivan Pavlov, around the beginning of the
th
20 century, was a Russian physiologist
LEARNING OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES interested mainly in animal digestive processes.
In one aspect of his research, dogs had special
At the end of this lesson, you should
tubes surgically inserted into their throats to
be able to:
1. Learn the meaning of learning and allow measurement of their salivation in
memory. response to being fed. And, as the story goes,
2. Understand the different theories of Pavlov became puzzled by the observation that
learning. the dogs often salivated before the food was
3. Understand the different types of actually placed in their mouths, and even when
learning. lab assistants simply approached the dogs with
4. Understand the phenomenon of or without food. Pavlov dubbed this phenomenon
memory, encoding, storage, retrieval, “psychic secretions,” an illusion to some kind of
and forgetting. covert process. And from there, he and his
colleagues set about discovering how and why
INTRODUCTION they occurred, thereby launching a major line of
research in psychology that is still active today.
Learning may be defined as a process that
brings about a change in an individual’s way of In classical conditioning, the organism
responding as a result of practice or other learns an association between two (or more)
experiences. Learning may also be defined as a stimuli. In essence, the organism learns that one
relatively permanent change in behavior. stimulus is often followed by a second one,
Behavior changes with experience. New based on temporal contiguity and whatever
patterns of behavior take place when the response is appropriate to the second stimulus
organism senses its world, interprets it, responds become appropriate to the first as well. The first
to it, and then responds to the consequences of stimulus, in other words, becomes a “cue” for the
its own responses. Once the organism has second.
passed through this cycle, it is never the same
again. Memory is a term used to label the way For example: In Pavlov’s lab, it appears that the
facts and past experiences are impressed, stimulus features of the lab assistants such as
retained and later recalled. It is the power of their white lab coats had become associated with
remembering past objects and stages of food stimuli. The lab coats cued the dogs that
consciousness. As a by-product of learning, it is food might be on the way, thus eliciting
that which is left over or retained after an interval salivation.
of time. To have a good memory means that the
individual has learned the appropriate Classical conditioning experiments
responses. He has retained these effects of nowadays tend to be quite complex, but the
impression. basic procedures and terms can be illustrated by
LESSON PROPER Pavlov’s early experiments: Ring a bell, then
immediately give the dog a bit of food; the dog
Theories of Learning salivates. Ring the bell again, feed the dog again,
and so on. Eventually, the dog salivates in
Pavlov and Classical Conditioning response to the bell alone. In technical terms,
food is an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) that
Classical conditioning involves the produces an unconditioned response (UCR) of
learning of associations between stimuli, in salivation. The bell is a conditioned stimulus
situations where responses are reflexive or (CS), which eventually produces a conditioned
habitual. response (CR) of salivation after repeated trials
in which the bell and food are paired.

59
 The components of classical pleasant consequences is likely to be repeated,
conditioning. We can divide classical and behavior followed by unpleasant
conditioning into four main components. These consequences is less likely to be repeated.
components are the unconditioned and Skinner introduced a new term into the Law of
conditioned stimuli and the unconditioned and Effect - Reinforcement. behavior which is
conditioned response. If we understand the reinforced tends to be repeated (i.e.,
strengthened); behavior which is not reinforced
relationships between these components, we’ll
tends to die out-or be extinguished (i.e.,
be able to understand classical conditioning weakened).
better. We’re now going to briefly explain each of
these components and the relationship between Skinner (1948) studied operant conditioning by
them: conducting experiments using animals which he
placed in a 'Skinner Box' which was similar to
• Unconditioned stimulus: This is Thorndike’s puzzle box.
the stimulus that is already significant
and meaningful enough for the subject.
By this, we mean that it’s a stimulus that’s
capable of provoking a response on its
own. In Pavlov’s experiment, the
unconditioned stimulus was the food.
• Unconditioned response: This is the
subject’s response in the presence of the
unconditioned stimulus. In the case of the
aforementioned experiment, the
unconditioned response was the
salivation when the dogs saw the food.
• Conditioned stimulus: This is the initially
neutral stimulus which doesn’t generate
Skinner identified three types of responses, or
any significant response in the subject on
operant, that can follow behavior.
its own. However, through association
with the unconditioned stimulus, it’s
• Neutral operants: responses from the
capable of provoking a new response. In
environment that neither increase nor
the case of Pavlov’s experiment, this
decrease the probability of a behavior
stimulus was the sound of the bell.
being repeated.
• Conditioned response: This is
• Reinforcers: Responses from the
the response after introducing the
environment that increase the probability
conditioned stimulus. In the case of this
of a behavior being repeated.
experiment, it was the dogs salivating
Reinforcers can be either positive or
when they heard the sound of the bell.
negative.
Skinner and Operant Conditioning.
• Punishers: Responses from the environment
Operant conditioning involves the learning of that decrease the likelihood of a behavior being
association between responses and repeated. Punishment weakens behavior.
consequences, in situation where behavior is
voluntary. We can all think of examples of how our own
behavior has been affected by reinforces and
punishers. As a child you probably tried out a
Skinner is regarded as the father of Operant number of behaviors and learned from their
Conditioning, but his work was based consequences. For example, if when you were
on Thorndike’s (1898) law of effect. According to younger you tried smoking at school, and the
this principle, behavior that is followed by chief consequence was that you got in with the

60
crowd you always wanted to hang out with, you it did so the electric current would be switched
would have been positively reinforced (i.e., off. The rats quickly learned to go straight to the
rewarded) and would be likely to repeat the lever after a few times of being put in the box.
behavior. If, however, the main consequence The consequence of escaping the electric
was that you were caught, caned, suspended current ensured that they would repeat the action
from school and your parents became involved again and again. In fact Skinner even taught the
you would most certainly have been punished, rats to avoid the electric current by turning on a
and you would consequently be much less likely light just before the electric current came on. The
to smoke now. rats soon learned to press the lever when the
light came on because they knew that this would
Positive Reinforcement. Skinner stop the electric current being switched on.
showed how positive reinforcement worked by These two learned responses are known
placing a hungry rat in his Skinner box. The box as Escape Learning and Avoidance Learning.
contained a lever on the side, and as the rat
moved about the box, it would accidentally knock
the lever. Immediately it did so a food pellet Punishment (weakens behavior)
would drop into a container next to the lever. Punishment is defined as the opposite of
reinforcement since it is designed to weaken or
The rats quickly learned to go straight to the lever eliminate a response rather than increase it. It is
after a few times of being put in the box. The an aversive event that decreases the behavior
consequence of receiving food if they pressed that it follows. Like reinforcement, punishment
the lever ensured that they would repeat the can work either by directly applying an
action again and again. Positive reinforcement unpleasant stimulus like a shock after a
strengthens a behavior by providing a response or by removing a potentially rewarding
consequence an individual finds rewarding. For stimulus, for instance, deducting someone’s
example, if your teacher gives you £5 each time pocket money to punish undesirable behavior.
you complete your homework (i.e., a reward) you
will be more likely to repeat this behavior in the Note: It is not always easy to distinguish between
future, thus strengthening the behavior of punishment and negative reinforcement.
completing your homework. There are many problems with using
punishment, such as:
Negative Reinforcement. The removal
of an unpleasant reinforcer can also strengthen • Punished behavior is not forgotten, it's
behavior. This is known as negative suppressed - behavior returns when
reinforcement because it is the removal of an punishment is no longer present.
adverse stimulus which is ‘rewarding’ to the • Causes increased aggression - shows
animal or person. Negative reinforcement that aggression is a way to cope with
strengthens behavior because it stops or problems.
removes an unpleasant experience. • Creates fear that can generalize to
undesirable behaviors, e.g., fear of
For example, if you do not complete your school.
homework, you give your teacher £5. You will • Does not necessarily guide toward
complete your homework to avoid paying £5, desired behavior - reinforcement tells you
thus strengthening the behavior of completing what to do, punishment only tells you
your homework. what not to do.
Skinner showed how negative
reinforcement worked by placing a rat in his
Skinner box and then subjecting it to an Edward Thorndike: The Law of Effect
unpleasant electric current which caused it some The law of effect principle developed by
discomfort. As the rat moved about the box it Edward Thorndike suggested that: "responses
would accidentally knock the lever. Immediately that produce a satisfying effect in a particular

61
situation become more likely to occur again in behavior that is followed by pleasant
that situation, and responses that produce a consequences is likely to be repeated, and any
discomforting effect become less likely to occur behavior followed by unpleasant consequences
again in that situation. Edward Thorndike (1898) is likely to be stopped.
is famous in psychology for his work on learning
theory that lead to the development of operant Social Cognitive Theory by Albert
conditioning within Behaviorism. Whereas Bandura. Social Cognitive Theory (SCT)
classical conditioning depends on developing started as the Social Learning Theory (SLT) in
associations between events, operant the 1960s by Albert Bandura. It developed into
conditioning involves learning from the the SCT in 1986 and posits that learning occurs
consequences of our behavior. Skinner wasn’t in a social context with a dynamic and reciprocal
the first psychologist to study learning by interaction of the person, environment, and
consequences. Indeed, Skinner's theory of behavior. The unique feature of SCT is the
operant conditioning is built on the ideas of emphasis on social influence and its emphasis
Edward Thorndike. Thorndike studied learning in on external and internal social
animals (usually cats). He devised a classic reinforcement. SCT considers the unique way
experiment in which he used a puzzle box (see in which individuals acquire and maintain
fig. 1) to empirically test the laws of learning. behavior, while also considering the social
environment in which individuals perform the
behavior. The theory takes into account a
person's past experiences, which factor into
whether behavioral action will occur. These past
experiences influences reinforcements,
expectations, and expectancies, all of which
shape whether a person will engage in a specific
behavior and the reasons why a person engages
in that behavior.

Many theories of behavior used in health

promotion do not consider maintenance of
behavior, but rather focus on initiating behavior.
This is unfortunate as maintenance of behavior,
Fig 1: Simplified graph of the result of the puzzle and not just initiation of behavior, is the true goal
box experiment. in public health. The goal of SCT is to explain
how people regulate their behavior through
control and reinforcement to achieve goal-
He placed a cat in the puzzle box, which was directed behavior that can be maintained over
encourage to escape to reach a scrap of fish
time. The first five constructs were developed as
placed outside. Thorndike would put a cat into
part of the SLT; the construct of self-efficacy was
the box and time how long it took to escape. The
cats experimented with different ways to escape added when the theory evolved into SCT.
the puzzle box and reach the fish. Eventually
they would stumble upon the lever which opened 1. Reciprocal Determinism - This is the
the cage. When it had escaped it was put in central concept of SCT. This refers to the
again, and once more the time it took to escape dynamic and reciprocal interaction of
was noted. In successive trials the cats would person (individual with a set of learned
learn that pressing the lever would have experiences), environment (external
favorable consequences and they would adopt social context), and behavior (responses
this behavior, becoming increasingly quick at to stimuli to achieve goals).
pressing the lever. Edward Thorndike put 2. Behavioral Capability - This refers to a
forward a “Law of effect” which stated that any person's actual ability to perform a

62
 behavior through essential knowledge as well as by environmental factors
and skills. In order to successfully (barriers and facilitators).
perform a behavior, a person must know
what to do and how to do it. People learn Other Types of Learning
from the consequences of their behavior,
which also affects the environment in Sign Learning may be defined as an acquired
which they live. expectation that one stimulus will be followed by
3. Observational Learning - This asserts another if a familiar behavior route is taken
that people can witness and observe a
behavior conducted by others, and then Programmed Learning is a method of self-
reproduce those actions. This is often instruction consisting of frames (a series of short
exhibited through "modeling" of steps) and responses. It uses instructional
behaviors. If individuals see successful materials where one works at one’s own rate,
demonstration of a behavior, they can makes active responses to a step-by-step
also complete the behavior successfully. program, and gets immediate knowledge of
4. Reinforcements - This refers to the results. The self-instructional materials can be
internal or external responses to a presented by mechanical devices, called
person's behavior that affect the teaching machines, which come in various
likelihood of continuing or discontinuing forms.
the behavior. Reinforcements can be
self-initiated or in the environment, and Learning to Learn past experiences with similar
reinforcements can be positive or problems increase the likelihood that certain
negative. This is the construct of SCT relationships will be learned and will be applied
that most closely ties to the reciprocal to the solutions. Research conducted on
relationship between behavior and
monkeys (Harlow 1949) demonstrated the
environment.
occurrences of learning sets. In some
5. Expectations - This refers to the
anticipated consequences of a person's circumstances, the monkeys appeared to catch
behavior. Outcome expectations can be on to principles involved in a series of learning
health-related or not health-related. tasks.
People anticipate the consequences of
Multiple-Response Learning is acquired via
their actions before engaging in the
patterns of sequences of movements or words.
behavior, and these anticipated
consequences can influence successful It involves more than one identifiable act, with the
completion of the behavior. Expectations order of events usually fixed by the demands of
derive largely from previous the situation. In complex skills, whether verbal or
experience. While expectancies also motor, patterns of responses are acquired
derive from previous experience, gradually and become organized. A
expectancies focus on the value that is sensorimotor skill, like driving a car or riding a
placed on the outcome and are bicycle, involves muscular movement under
subjective to the individual. sensory control. Separate responses, such as
6. Self-efficacy - This refers to the level of a watching the traffic and other vehicles on the
person's confidence in his or her ability to road, are connected into sequences and
successfully perform a behavior. Self- patterns. Practicing the skills each day
efficacy is unique to SCT although other
(distributed practice) is generally more effective
theories have added this construct at
later dates, such as the Theory of than consecutive practice within one period
Planned Behavior. Self-efficacy is (massed practice).
influenced by a person's specific Associative Learning (Habit Formation) is
capabilities and other individual factors,
behavior learned through habit formation or by

63
associating S (Stimulus) and R (Response). This object quickly, they feel like they take in more
is illustrated in experiments on classical details than they're able to recall later. Next, the
conditioning, operant conditioning, multiple- information is transferred to short-term memory
response learning, and escape and avoidance or working memory, which allows someone to
learning. mull things over and hold key information in their
mind. Finally, people store past events and
Rational Learning knowledge is the outcome
patterns in their long-term memory, also known
sought in this type of learning. Rational learning as episodic or semantic memory.
is intellectual in nature and involves the process
of abstraction by which concepts are formed. Understanding Memory There are many
different types of memory. There's the type of
Motor Learning The outcome sought in this type
memory that you can dredge up without any
of learning is skills, which may be described as
effort at all; and there's the category where you
the adaptation of movement of stimuli resulting
must sweat to imprint facts and knowledge. Here
in speed and precision of performance.
is an overview, from various kinds of long-term
Associational Learning the outcome sought in memory, where you can recall events forever, as
this type of learning is the acquisition and well as short-term, procedural, sensory, among
retention of facts and information. This involves others.
the development of associative patterns of
What is long-term memory? This is how you
learning by which ideas and experiences are
store life-time memories, your first kiss, your
retained, recalled, and reorganized through the
wedding day, and the birth of your baby. The
process of linking together or establishing
more weight you put on the event, the more likely
relationships between and among ideas and
it will be coded into your memory stores. The two
experiences, so that one will serve as the
types of memory stored in long-term are implicit
stimulus for the revival and recall of the other and explicit.
previously experienced.
What is implicit memory? This type of memory
Appreciation Learning the outcome sought in
is trouble-free and unintentional. How do you,
this type of learning is appreciation or aesthetic
after hearing a melody once, recall that melody
improvement. Appreciation involves both
without any effort on your part? Implicit memory
intellectual and emotional elements. It is a is unconscious and involuntary in nature.
sensitive awareness to and perception of the
importance or utility of information in relation to What is explicit memory? This is a type of long-
other fields and in the development of attitudes term memory, and is the opposite of implicit
and tastes. Appreciation learning involves the memory. Trying to study and remember hard
process of acquiring attitudes, ideals, facts for an exam requires intentional and
satisfaction, judgement, and knowledge conscious thinking. Semantic and episodic
concerning values as well as the recognition of memory are two types of explicit memory, also
worth and importance which the learner gains called declarative memory.
from participating in the learning activities.
What is semantic memory? If you are great at
Memory is the faculty by which the brain trivia games and can dredge up, for example, the
encodes, stores, and retrieves information. It is a names of obscure ancient capitals, then you
record of experience for guiding future action. have good semantic memory. This type of recall
Humans process stimuli first with their sensory is used for everyday information such as the
memory; that information is typically held in the meaning of a word, facts, and general
brain for less than a second, which may explain knowledge.
why most people report that when shown an

64
What is episodic memory? When you recollect Three Stages of the Learning/Memory
and recapture particular events from your past, it Process
won’t be the same memory that a friend might
have of that same event. This memory is unique Psychologists distinguish between three
to you. Episodic memory relies on semantic necessary stages in the learning and memory
memory. An example might be the very first process: encoding, storage,
and retrieval (Melton, 1963). Encoding is
movie you ever saw.
defined as the initial learning of information;
What is procedural memory? Once you learn storage refers to maintaining information over
how to ride a bike or play the piano or drive a car, time; retrieval is the ability to access information
your procedural memory takes over. It’s the when you need it. If you meet someone for the
instant recall of skills and actions that you first time at a party, you need to encode her
name (Lyn Goff) while you associate her name
acquire. This general mastery becomes
with her face. Then you need to maintain the
ingrained and automatic. Procedural memory, information over time. If you see her a week
also called motor memory, is a type of implicit later, you need to recognize her face and have it
memory. serve as a cue to retrieve her name. Any
successful act of remembering requires that all
What is sensory memory? This short-term
three stages be intact. However, two types of
memory is related to your ability to retain
errors can also occur. Forgetting is one type: you
impressions from the sensations you see the person you met at the party and you
experience. What you smell, touch, hear, taste, cannot recall her name. The other error is
and see is processed by the brain into sensory misremembering (false recall or false
memories. recognition): you see someone who looks like
Lyn Goff and call the person by that name (false
What is short-term memory? The brain recognition of the face). Or, you might see the
stores short-term memories for about 20 to 30 real Lyn Goff, recognize her face, but then call
seconds. This is why you forget where you put her by the name of another woman you met at
your keys or whether you turned the stove off. the party (misrecall of her name).
Research suggests that we can only store
between five and nine events in short-term
memory. Theories of Forgetting

What is working memory? You Why cannot we recall everything that

need working memory to retain and use happened to us during the fourth, fifth, or tenth
information. This type of memory is needed in year of our life? There are several explanations
learning. A child with good working memory does none of which is completely satisfactory in
well in math and reading, for example. Working itself.
memory may have a short duration, but practice
a. Passive Decay Through Disuse. This
and reusing the memory can encode information
theory assumes that lapse of time is
in long-term storage. responsible for forgetting.
b. Interference Effects. Present learning with
what has been previously learned leads to
forgetting.
c. Absence of Adequate Stimulation. Most
often, we are unable to recall some event in
the past because the appropriating stimuli
are absent.
d. Obliteration of the Memory Trace. This state
occurs because of certain conditions other

65
 than time. One is the effect of emotional 4. What is rational learning? Kindly cite an
shock. example of situation to explain further.
5. Give examples of appreciational learning.
Motivated forgetting. According to this 6. What may be the cause of forgetting?
principle, some of our memories become 7. Give some factors that would affect an
inaccessible to recall because of the individual’s ability to learn.
negative effect on us.
How can I sharpen my memory? SUMMARRY

You can boost memory with proven Learning may be defined as a process
techniques like repeating what you hear out that brings about a change in an individual’s way
loud, writing information down, creating of responding as a result of practice or other
associations, and dividing new information experiences. Learning may also be defined as a
into learnable chunks. Plus, simple relatively permanent change in behavior.
and healthy life choices also help slow Behavior changes with experience. New
memory loss and improve cognition in your patterns of behavior take place when the
later years. organism senses its world, interprets it, responds
to it, and then responds to the consequences of
What foods improve memory? its own responses. Once the organism has
passed through this cycle, it is never the same
There are foods that can again.
improve cognitive function. Fatty fish, for
Classical conditioning involves the
example, contains docosahexaenoic acid,
learning of associations between stimuli, in
an omega-3 fatty acid, which reduces
situations where responses are reflexive or
inflammation and improves the brain. Other
habitual.
foods that protect against memory loss are
blueberries, turmeric, cruciferous Operant conditioning involves the
vegetables like broccoli, nuts, and seeds. learning of association between responses and
consequences, in situation where behavior is
ACTIVITY / EXERCISES voluntary.
Journal Writing The law of effect principle developed by
Edward Thorndike suggested that: "responses
Share your most unforgettable that produce a satisfying effect in a particular
experience during your high school days. situation become more likely to occur again in
What makes it unforgettable? Who are the that situation, and responses that produce a
people involved? And what are your discomforting effect become less likely to occur
learnings and realization from this again in that situation.
experience.
Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) started as
the Social Learning Theory (SLT) in the 1960s by
Albert Bandura. It developed into the SCT in
ASSESSMENT 1986 and posits that learning occurs in a social
Questions: context with a dynamic and reciprocal interaction
of the person, environment, and behavior.
1. What is learning?
The earliest and best-known experiments
2. Differentiate classical from instrumental / on insightful learning were done by Wolfgang
operant conditioning. Kohler (1887 – 1967), a Gestalt psychologist. In
3. What is a reinforcement? observing chimpanzees, Kohler saw that animas

66
are capable of acquiring a new response in one ✓ Understand the meaning of language.
burst of insight, wherein the solution of a problem ✓ Determined and language into different
becomes suddenly clear. cultures.
✓ Understand the meaning of Intelligence
Memory is a term used to label the way ✓ Analyze and evaluate the existing
facts and past experiences are impressed, theories of intelligence.
retained and later recalled. It is the power of ✓ Determine the influences that affect
remembering past objects and stages of intelligence
consciousness. As a by-product of learning, it is
that which is left over or retained after an interval Introduction
of time. To have a good memory means that the
individual has learned the appropriate In this chapter, we now turn to the subject of how
responses. He has retained these effects of
the brains process language as well as how it
impression.
uses information to solve problems and make
Psychologists distinguish between three decisions. Cognitive psychology is the branch of
necessary stages in the learning and memory psychology that focuses on the study of higher
process: encoding, storage, and retrieval mental processes including thinking, language,
memory, problem solving, knowing, reasoning,
judging, and decision making. Although the
REFERENCES realm of cognitive psychology is broad, we will
center on three major topics. The first topic we
• EZ 101 Study Keys Psycholgoy Second consider in this chapter is thinking, reasoning
Edition (2006) Bon Baucum, Ph.D and the different strategies for approaching
problems, means of generating solutions, and
• General Psychoglogy Fourth Edition
ways of making judgments about the usefulness
(2005) Custodiosa A. Sanchez, Ph.D,
and accuracy of solutions. Then we discuss how
Paz F. Abad, Ph.D, Loreto Jao, Ed.D
language is developed and acquired, its basic
• General Psychology Sixth Edition (2012)
characteristics, and the relationship between
Geraldine E. Tria, Josefina E. Gaerlan,
language and thought. Finally, we will tackle
Delia A. Limpingco.
intelligence, its theories and measurement.
• https://exploringyourmind.com/ivan-
pavlov-theory-classical-conditioning/
• McLeod, S. A. (2018, January
Thinking, Reasoning and Decision Making
14). Edward Thorndike. Simply
Psychology.
https://www.simplypsychology.org/edwar
d-thorndike.html What are you thinking about at this moment?
• https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/ba The mere ability to pose such a question
sics/memory underscores the distinctive nature of the human
ability to think. No other species contemplates,
analyzes, recollects, or plans the way humans
UNIT 9: Thinking, Language and do. Understanding what thinking is, however,
Intelligence goes beyond knowing what we think.
Psychologists define thinking as brain activity in
Learning Objectives which we mentally manipulate information,
including words, visual images, sounds, or other
✓ Understand the barriers to problem
data. Thinking transforms information into new
solving. And the significance of finding
solution to the problem. and different forms, allowing us to answer

67
questions, make decisions, solve problems, or this mean that it will take you longer to visualize
make plans. To understand more the a map of the world than a map of the United
fundamental elements involved in thinking, we States? Why or why not? (Source: Adapted from
begin by considering our use of mental images Shepard & Metzler, 1971)
and concepts, the building blocks of thought. Some experts see the production of mental
Mental Images images as a way to improve various skills. For
instance, many athletes use mental imagery in
Think of your best friend. Chances are that you their training. Basketball players may try to
“see” some kind of visual image when asked to produce vivid and detailed images of the court,
think of her or him, or any other person or object, the basket, the ball, and the noisy crowd helping
for that matter. To some cognitive psychologists, them to improve performance through a process
such mental images constitute a major part of they call “getting in the zone” (Fournier, et al.,
2008; Moran, 2009; Velentzas, et al. 2011).
thinking. Mental images are representations in
Similarly, pianists who simply mentally rehearse
the mind of an object or event. They are not just an exercise show brain activity that is virtually
visual representations; our ability to “hear” a tune identical to that of the people who actually
in our heads also relies on a mental image. In practice the exercise manually. Apparently,
fact, every sensory modality may produce carrying out the task involved the same network
corresponding mental images (De Bini, of brain cells as the network used in mentally
Pazzaglia , & Gardini , 2007; Gardini et al., 2009; rehearsing it (Pascual-Leone et al., 1995;
Koçak et al., 2011). Research suggests that our Kensinger & Schacter, 2006; Sanders et al.,
mental images also have the same properties of 2008).
the actual stimuli they represent (i.e. scanning Concepts
smaller objects take a shorter time than scanning
larger objects just as the eyes takes shorter time If someone asks you what is in your
to scan actual smaller objects than actual large refrigerator, you might answer with a detailed list
objects). Similarly, mental images can be of items (a jar of jam, eggs, tomatoes, frozen
manipulated just as we are able in the real world. pork or fish, leftover dishes, bottles of water, etc.)
See Figure 1. Though, you may also categorize items in terms
of “cooked” or “fresh ingredients.” Using such
categories reflects the operation of concepts.
Concepts are mental groupings of similar
objects, events, or people. Concepts enable us
to organize complex phenomena into cognitive
categories that are easier to understand and
remember (Murphy, 2005; Connolly, 2007;
Kreppner et al., 2011). Other concepts—often
those with the most relevance to our everyday
lives are more ambiguous and difficult to define.
When we consider these more ambiguous
concepts, we usually think in terms of examples
called prototypes. Prototypes are typical, highly
representative examples of a concept that
correspond to our mental image or best example
of the concept. For instance, although a robin
Try to mentally rotate one of each pair of patterns and an ostrich are both examples of birds, the
to see if it is the same as the other member of robin is an example that comes to most people’s
that pair. It’s likely that the farther you have to minds far more readily. Consequently, robin is a
mentally rotate a pattern, the longer it will take to prototype of the concept “bird.” Similarly, when
decide if the patterns match one another. Does we think of the concept of a table, we’re likely to

68
think of a coffee table before we think of a
drafting table, making a coffee table closer to our
prototype of a table. Culture shapes our
recognition of prototypes as we will see on
Figure 2.

Figure 3

We link each concept to a variety of other related

concepts. Any stimulus that activates one of
these concepts will also partly activate (or prime)
the ones that are linked to it. (From “A spreading-
activation theory of semantic processing” by A.
M. Collins and E. F. Loftus in Psychological
Prototypes are typical, highly representative Review 1975, pp. 407–428. Reprinted by
examples of a concept. For instance, a highly permission of Elizabeth Loftus.)
typical prototype of the concept “furniture” is a We also link a word or concept to related
chair, whereas a stove is not a good prototype. concepts. Figure 3 shows a possible network of
High agreement exists within a culture about conceptual links that someone might have at a
which examples of a concept are prototypes. particular moment. Suppose this network
(Source: Adapted from Rosch & Mervis, 1975) describes your own concepts. Thinking about
Figure 2 will help you remember that one of the concepts shown in this figure will
prototypes represent “best” or most common activate, or prime, the concepts linked to it
examples of a particular concept. However, the through a process called spreading activation
above figure is limited to that of the Western (A. M. Collins & Loftus, 1975). For example, if
culture and does not best represent us Filipinos. you hear flower, you are primed to think of rose,
Relatively high agreement exists among people violet, and other flowers. If you also hear red, the
in a particular culture about which examples of a combination of flower and red strongly primes
concept are prototypes as well as which you to think of rose. You might think of the word
examples are not. For instance, Filipinos, when spontaneously, and you would recognize it more
asked to consider vehicles, jeepneys or tricycles easily than usual if it were flashed briefly on a
are good examples, whereas sleds are not. screen or spoken very softly. The idea of priming
a concept is analogous to priming a pump: If you
(Sample Situation)Application: Conceptual put some water in the pump to get it started, you
Networks and Priming Try to think about can continue using the pump to draw water from
one word and nothing else. It’s impossible. You a well. Similarly, priming a concept gets it
can’t think about anything without relating it to started. A small reminder of a concept makes it
something else. For example, when you think easier for someone to think of it.
about bird, you link it to more specific terms,
such as sparrow, more general terms, such as
animals, and related terms, such as flight and
eggs.

69
Assessment participants (for instance, 20 color-blind college
students), and then they use the information they
1. ________ are representations in the observe to form a conclusion about the broader
mind of an object or event. population from which the sample is drawn (all
2. ________ are categorizations of objects color-blind college students). If we consistently
that share common properties. used deductive and inductive reasoning, we
3. When you think of the concept “chair,” would make decisions and solve problems quite
you immediately think of a comfortable logically. However, as we’ll see next, that often
easy chair. A chair of this type could be doesn’t happen, leading to less-than-optimal
thought of as a __________ of the results.
category “chair.”
Algorithms and Heuristics
Reasoning When faced with making a decision, we
Professors deciding when students’ often turn to various kinds of cognitive shortcuts,
assignments are due. known as algorithms and heuristics, to help us.
An employer determining who to hire out An algorithm is a rule that, if applied
of a pool of job applicants. appropriately, guarantees a solution to a
The president concluding that it is problem. We can use an algorithm even if we
necessary to send troops to a foreign nation. cannot understand why it works. For example,
you may know that you can find the area of a
What do these three situations have in common? circle by using the formula 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 although you
Each requires reasoning, the process by which may not have the foggiest notion of the
information is used to draw conclusions and mathematical principles behind the formula.
make decisions. On the other hand, a heuristic is a
thinking strategy that may lead us to a solution
Formal Reasoning to a problem or decision, but—unlike
When the (fictitious) Sherlock Holmes algorithms— may sometimes lead to errors.
sought to solve a crime, he carefully observed Heuristics increase the likelihood of success in
the scene of the crime and then made informed coming to a solution, but, unlike algorithms, they
guesses about what those observations meant. cannot ensure it. For example, when I play tic-
For example, in one story, the ever-observant tac-toe, I follow the heuristic of placing an X in
Holmes noted that cuts on the side of a shoe the center square when I start the game. This
suggested that a potential criminal must have tactic doesn’t guarantee that I will win, but
had mud on his shoes that needed to be scraped experience has taught me that it will increase my
off. chances of success. Similarly, some students
The type of reasoning that Holmes used is follow the heuristic of preparing for a test by
known as deductive reasoning. Deductive ignoring the assigned textbook reading and only
reasoning is reasoning from the general to the studying their lecture notes—a strategy that may
specific. Psychologists, like all scientists, use or may not pay off.
deductive reasoning when they start with a
general, broad theory, then derive a hypothesis (Sample Situation)
from the theory, and ultimately test the Application: Availability heuristic and familiarity
hypothesis by collecting data to arrive at a heuristic
conclusion. Although heuristics often help people
The other major class of reasoning is solve problems and make decisions, certain
inductive reasoning. Inductive reasoning is kinds of heuristics may lead to inaccurate
reasoning from the specific to the general. conclusions. For example, the availability
Inductive reasoning is data driven, in that we heuristic involves judging the likelihood of an
accumulate pieces of information and put them event occurring on the basis of how easy it is to
together to form a conclusion. That’s what think of examples. According to this heuristic, we
psychologists do when they study a sample of assume that events we remember easily are

70
likely to have occurred more frequently in the
past—and are more likely to occur in the future— Figure 5.
Steps in Problem Solving.
than events that are harder to remember. For Step 1. Preparation: Understanding and Diagnosing
instance, the availability heuristic makes us more Problems
afraid of dying in a plane crash than in an auto Typically a problem falls into one of the three
accident, despite statistics clearly showing that categories.
airplane travel is much safer than auto travel.
Similarly, although 10 times as many people die Arrangement problems require the
from falling out of bed than from lightning strikes, problem solver to rearrange or recombine
we’re more afraid of being hit by lightning. The elements in a way that will satisfy a certain
reason is that plane crashes and lightning strikes criterion. Just like in anagrams and jigsaw
receive far more publicity, and they are therefore puzzles.
more easily remembered (Oppenheimer, 2004;
Fox, 2006; Kluger, 2006; Caruso, 2008). Example: EFCTA BODUT
We also make use of a familiarity heuristic, in IAENV
which familiar items are seen as superior to
those that are unfamiliar. For example, suppose In problems of inducing structure, a
each time you went to a supermarket you had to person must identify the existing relationships
ponder every type of yogurt to decide which you among the elements presented and then
wanted—as well as every other item on your construct a new relationship among them. In
grocery list. Instead, you see the brand of yogurt such a problem, the problem solver must
you usually buy, and settle for it. Usually it’s a determine not only the relationships among the
good rule of thumb, because it saves a lot of elements but also the structure and size of the
time. On the other hand, it’s not so good if you elements involved.
are an emergency room physician susceptible to Example 1: What number comes next in
the familiarity heuristic. If you simply settle on the the series? 142434445464
first, most obvious diagnosis for a patient
presenting particular symptoms (the ones that Example 2: baseball is to bat as tennis
are most familiar to you), you may miss making is to _________ merchant is to sell as customer
a more accurate diagnosis (Herbert, 2011). is to __________

Assessment

1. What processes underlie reasoning and

decision making?

Problem Solving
Cognitive psychologists are interested in Figure 4.
understanding how people solve complex, real Exercise: The goal of the Tower of Hanoi puzzle
life problems. Psychologists have found that is to move all three disks from the first post to the
problem solving typically involves three steps third and still preserve the original order of the
(See Figure 5): Preparing to create solutions, disks, using the fewest number of moves
producing solutions and evaluating the possible while following the rules that only one
generated solutions. disk at a time can be moved and no disk can
cover a smaller one during a move.

The Tower of Hanoi puzzle (as seen in

Figure 4) represents the third kind of problem—
transformation problems —that consist of an
initial state, a goal state, and a method for

71
changing the initial state into the goal state. In what I want? One of distance. What
the Tower of Hanoi problem, the initial state is changes distance? My automobile. My
the original configuration, the goal state is to automobile
have the three disks on the third peg, and the won’t work. What is needed to make it
method is the rules for moving the disks. work? A new battery. What has new batteries?
An auto repair shop. . . .
Whether the problem is one of arrangement,
inducing structure, or transformation, the In a means-end analysis, each step
preparation stage of understanding and brings the problem solver closer to a resolution.
diagnosing is critical in problem solving because Although this approach is often effective, if the
it allows us to develop our own cognitive problem requires indirect steps that temporarily
representation of the problem and to place it increase the discrepancy between a current
within a personal framework. We may divide the state and the solution, means-ends analysis can
problem into subparts or ignore some be counterproductive. For example, sometimes
information as we try to simplify the task. the fastest route to the summit of a mountain
Winnowing out nonessential information is often requires a mountain climber to backtrack
a critical step in the preparation stage of problem temporarily; a means-end approach—that
solving. implies that the mountain climber should always
forge ahead and upward—will be ineffective in
Step 2. Production: Generating Solutions such instances.

After preparation, the next stage in Forming Subgoals

problem solving is the production of possible Another heuristic commonly used to
solutions. If a problem is relatively simple, we generate solutions is to divide a problem into
may already have a direct solution stored in long- intermediate steps, or subgoals. If solving a
term memory, and all we need to do is retrieve subgoal is a step toward the ultimate solution to
the appropriate information. If we cannot retrieve a problem, identifying subgoals is an appropriate
or do not know the solution, we must generate strategy. In some cases, however, forming
possible solutions and compare them with subgoals is not all that helpful and may actually
information in long- and short-term memory. At increase the time needed to find a solution.
the most basic level, we can solve problems
through trial and error. Thomas Edison invented Insight: Sudden Awareness
the lightbulb only because he tried thousands of In a classic study the German
different kinds of materials for a filament before psychologist Wolfgang Köhler examined
he found one that worked (carbon). The difficulty learning and problem-solving processes in
with trial and error, of course, is that some chimpanzees (Köhler, 1927). In his studies,
problems are so complicated that it would take a Köhler exposed chimps to challenging situations
lifetime to try out every possibility. in which the elements of the solution were all
In place of trial and error, complex present; all the chimps needed to do was put
problem solving often involves the use of them together. In one of Köhler’s studies, chimps
heuristics, cognitive shortcuts that can generate were kept in a cage in which boxes and sticks
solutions. Probably the most frequently applied were strewn about, and a bunch of tantalizing
heuristic in problem solving is a means-ends bananas hung from the ceiling, out of reach.
analysis, which involves repeated tests for Initially, the chimps made trial-and-error
differences between the desired outcome and attempts to get to the bananas: They would
what currently exists. Consider this simple throw the sticks at the bananas, jump from one
example (Huber, et al., 2004; Chrysikou, 2006; of the boxes, or leap wildly from the ground.
Bosse et al., 2011): Frequently, they would seem to give up in
frustration, leaving the bananas dangling
I want to take my son to preschool. temptingly overhead. But then, in what seemed
What’s the difference between what I have and like a sudden revelation, they would stop

72
whatever they were doing and stand on a box to considers various solutions, several factors can
reach the bananas with a stick. Köhler called the hinder the development of creative, appropriate,
cognitive process underlying the chimps’ new and accurate solutions.
behaviour insight, a sudden awareness of the
relationships among various elements that had (Sample Situation)
previously appeared to be unrelated. Application: Functional fixedness and mental set
Although Köhler emphasized the apparent
suddenness of insightful solutions, subsequent Functional fixedness is the tendency to
research has shown that prior experience and think of an object only in terms of its typical use.
trial-and-error practice in problem solving must For instance, functional fixedness probably
precede “insight.” Consequently, the chimps’ leads you to think of this book as only something
behavior may simply represent the chaining to read instead of its potential use as a doorstop
together of previously learned responses, no or as kindling for a fi re. Functional fixedness is
different from the way a pigeon learns, by trial an example of a broader phenomenon known as
and error, to peck a key (Fields, 2011; Wen, et mental set, the tendency to approach a problem
al., 2013). in a certain way because that method worked
previously. Mental set can affect perceptions as
Step 3. Judgment: Evaluating Solutions well as patterns of problem solving. It can
prevent you from seeing beyond the apparent
The final stage in problem solving is constraints of a problem.
judging the adequacy of a solution. Often this is
a simple matter: If the solution is clear—as in the Confirmation bias
Tower of Hanoi problem—we will know Another impediment in problem solving
immediately whether we have been successful is inaccurate evaluation of solutions.
(Varma, 2007). If the solution is less concrete or Confirmation bias happens when problem
if there is no single correct solution, evaluating solvers prefer their first hypothesis and ignore
solutions becomes more difficult. In such contradictory information that supports
instances, we must decide which alternative alternative hypotheses or solutions. Even when
solution is best. Unfortunately, we often quite we find evidence that contradicts a solution we
inaccurately estimate the quality of our own have chosen, we are apt to stick with our original
ideas. For instance, a team of drug researchers hypothesis. Confirmation bias occurs for several
working for a particular company may consider reasons. For one thing, because rethinking a
their remedy for an illness to be superior to all problem that appears to be solved already takes
others, overestimating the likelihood of their extra cognitive effort, we are apt to stick with our
success and downplaying the approaches of first solution. For another, we give greater weight
competing drug companies (Eizenberg & to subsequent information that supports our
Zaslavsky, 2004). Theoretically, if we rely on initial position than to information that is not
appropriate heuristics and valid information to supportive of it (Rassin, 2008; Allen, 2011;
make decisions, we can make accurate choices Koslowski, B., 2013).
among alternative solutions. However, as we
see next, several kinds of obstacles to and Creativity and Problem Solving
biases in problem solving affect the quality of the Despite obstacles to problem solving,
decisions and judgments we make. many people adeptly discover creative solutions
to problems. One enduring question that
Impediments to Solutions cognitive psychologists have sought to answer is
what factors underlie creativity, the ability to
What are the significant obstacles to generate original ideas or solve problems in
problems that can exist? Although cognitive novel ways. Highly creative individuals show
approaches to problem solving suggest that divergent thinking, thinking that generates
thinking proceeds along fairly rational, logical unusual, yet appropriate, responses to problems
lines as a person confronts a problem and or questions. This type of thinking contrasts with

73
convergent thinking, which is thinking in which systematic rules—is a central cognitive ability,
a problem is viewed as having a single answer one that is indispensable for us to communicate
and which produces responses that are based with one another. Not only is language central to
primarily on knowledge and logic. For instance, communication, it is also closely tied to the very
someone relying on convergent thinking would way in which we think about and understand the
answer “You read it” to the query “What can you world. Without language, our ability to transmit
do with a newspaper?” In contrast, “You use it as information, acquire knowledge, and cooperate
a dustpan” is a more divergent—and creative— with others would be tremendously hindered. No
response (Cropley, 2006; Schepers & van den wonder psychologists have devoted
Berg, 2007; Zeng, et al., 2011). considerable attention to studying language
Another aspect of creativity is its (Hoff, 2008; Reisberg , 2009; LaPointe , 2013).
cognitive complexity, or preference for elaborate,
intricate, and complex stimuli and thinking Grammar
patterns. For instance, creative people often
have a wider range of interests and are more The basic structure of language rests on
independent and more interested in grammar, the system of rules that determine
philosophical or abstract problems than are less how our thoughts can be expressed. It deals with
creative individuals (Barron, 1990; Richards, three major components of language:
2006; Kaufman & Plucker , 2011). phonology, syntax, and semantics.

Assessment Phonology - the study of the smallest units of

speech, called phonemes.
1. Solving a problem by trying to reduce the ● phonemes - the smallest units of speech
difference between the current state and that affect meaning, and of the way we use
the goal state is known as a _________. those sounds to form words and produce
2. ________ is the term used to describe meaning. (e.g. the a sound in fat and the a
the sudden “flash” of revelation that often sound in fate represent two different
accompanies the solution to a problem. phonemes in English)
3. Thinking of an object only in terms of its
typical use is known as _______ Syntax - refers to the rules that indicate how
_______. A broader, related tendency to words and phrases can be combined to form
approach a problem in a certain way sentences. It is also the rules that guide the order
because that method worked previously in which words may be strung together to
is known as a ____________. communicate meaning (e.g. to understand the
4. _______ ________ describes the effect of syntax in English, consider the changes
phenomenon of favouring an initial in meaning caused by the different word orders
hypothesis and ignoring subsequent in the following three utterances: “John
competing hypotheses. kidnapped the boy,” “John, the kidnapped boy,”
5. Generating unusual but appropriate and “The boy kidnapped John.”
approaches to a question is known as
________ _________. Semantics - the meanings of words and
sentences. Semantic rules allow us to use words
Language to convey the subtle nuances in meaning. (e.g.
We might say “A truck hit Laura” and we can also
Our ability to make sense out of say “Laura was hit by a truck” in other
nonsense, if the nonsense follows typical rules of circumstances)
language, illustrates the complexity of both
human language and the cognitive processes Assessment
that underlie its development and use. The use Match the component of grammar with its
of language —the communication of information definition:
through symbols arranged according to 1. Syntax

74
 2. Phonology ● The three steps of problem solving:
3. Semantics Preparation, Production, and Judgment
(PPJ).
a. Rules showing how words can be combined ● The three major categories of problems are
into sentences. (a) arrangement, (b) inducing structure, and
b. Rules governing the meaning of words and (c) transformation.
sentences. ● In generating solutions to problems, means-
c. The study of the sound units that affect ends analysis involves repeated tests for
speech. differences between the desired outcome and
what currently exists.
1. A child knows that adding - ed to certain ● Forming subgoals or dividing problems into
words puts them in the past tense. As a their parts is a heuristic in helping generate
result, instead of saying “He came,” the solutions. However, forming subgoals is not
child says “He comed.” This is an all that helpful and may actually increase the
example of _________ . time needed to find a solution. There are also
People who speak more than one language have such problems that cannot be subdivided.
no cognitive advantage over those who speak ● While solving problems, insight, or a sudden
only one. True or False. awareness of the relationships among various
elements that had previously appeared to be
SUMMARY independent of one another can occur that
results to a new behavior
● Cognitive Psychology is the branch of ● In solving problems, functional fixedness is
psychology that focuses on the study of the tendency to think of an object only in terms
higher mental processes, including thinking, of its typical use while mental set is the
language, memory, problem solving, tendency to approach a problem in a certain
knowing, reasoning, and judging. way because that method worked previously
● Thinking is the brain activity in which people ● Confirmation bias is the tendency to find and
mentally manipulate information, including apply information that supports one’s initial
words, visual images, sounds, or other data. solution or idea and to ignore information that
● Mental images are representations in the does not support it.
mind of an object or event. ● Thinking that generates unusual, yet
● Concepts are categorizations of objects, nonetheless appropriate, responses to
events, or people that share common problems or questions is called divergent
properties. thinking.
● Prototypes are representative examples of ● Thinking in which a problem is viewed as
concepts. having a single answer and which produces
● Deductive reasoning is a manner of reasoning responses that are based primarily on
from the general to the specific. knowledge and logic is called convergent
● Inductive reasoning is a manner of reasoning thinking.
from the specific to the general. ● Language is the communication of
● Algorithm is a rule that, if applied information through symbols arranged
appropriately, guarantees a solution to a according to systematic rules. All languages
problem while heuristic is a thinking strategy have a grammar—a system of rules that
that may lead us to a solution to a problem or determines how thoughts can be expressed—
decision, but—unlike algorithms—may that encompasses the three major
sometimes lead to errors. Remember that components of language: phonology, syntax,
algorithms are rules that always provide a and semantics.
solution, while heuristics are shortcuts that ● Linguistic-relativity hypothesis is the
may provide a solution. hypothesis that language shapes and may
determine the way people perceive and
understand the world.

75
● A bilingual is someone who has learned two forms of language. They produce two-word
languages about equally well. This is common combinations, the building blocks of sentences,
among bilingual environments or among and sharply increase the number of different
immigrants. People who speak more than one words they are able to use. By age 2, the
language may have a cognitive advantage average child has a vocabulary of more than 50
over those who speak only one. words. Just 6 months later, that vocabulary has
grown to several hundred words. At that time,
LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT: Developing a children can produce short sentences, although
Way with Words To parents, the they use telegraphic speech —sentences in
sounds of their infant babbling and cooing are which only essential words are used. Rather than
music to their ears (except, perhaps, at 3 o’clock saying, “I showed you the book,” a child using
in the morning). These sounds also serve an telegraphic speech may say, “I show book,” and
important function. They mark the first step on “I am drawing a dog” may become “Drawing
the road to the development of language. dog.” As children get older, of course, they use
BABBLING is a Meaningless speech like less telegraphic speech and produce
sounds made by children from around the age of increasingly complex sentences (Volterra et al.,
3 months through 1 year. While babbling, they 2003; Pérez-Leroux , Pirvulescu , & Roberge ,
may produce, at one time or another, any of the 2011). By age 3, children learn to make plurals
sounds found in all languages, not just the one by adding s to nouns and to form the past tense
to which they are exposed. Even deaf children by adding - ed to verbs. This skill also leads to
display their own form of babbling, for infants errors, since children tend to apply rules
who are unable to hear yet who are exposed to inflexibly. In such overgeneralization, children
sign language from birth “babble” with their employ rules even when doing so results in an
hands (Pettito , 1993; Majorano & D’Odorico , error. Thus, although it is correct to say “he
2011; Shehata-Dieler et al., 2013). An infant’s walked” for the past tense of walk , the - ed rule
babbling increasingly reflects the specific doesn’t work quite so well when children say “he
language being spoken in the infant’s runned ” for the past tense of run (Howe, 2002;
environment, initially in terms of pitch and tone Rice et al., 2004; Gershkoff -Stowe, Connell, &
and eventually in terms of specific sounds. Smith, 2006; Kidd & Lum , 2008).
Young infants can distinguish among all 869
phonemes that have been identified across the UNDERSTANDING LANGUAGE
world’s languages. However, after the age of 6 ACQUISITION: IDENTIFYING THE ROOTS OF
to 8 months, that ability begins to decline. Infants
begin to “specialize” in the language to which LANGUAGE
they are exposed as neurons in their brains
reorganize to respond to the particular Anyone who spends even a little time with
phonemes infants routinely hear. Some theorists children will notice the enormous strides that
argue that a critical period exists for language they make in language development throughout
development early in life in which a child is childhood. However, the reasons for this rapid
particularly sensitive to language cues and most growth are far from obvious. Psychologists have
easily acquires language. In fact, if children are
not exposed to language during this critical offered three major explanations: one based on
period, later they will have great difficulty learning theory, one based on innate processes,
overcoming this deficit (Bates, 2005; Shafer & and one that involves something of a
Garrido -Nag, 2007). combination of the two.

PRODUCTION OF LANGUAGE By the time Learning-Theory Approaches: Language as a

children are approximately 1 year old, they stop
Learned Skill. The learning- theory approach
producing sounds that are not in the language to
which they have been exposed. After the age of suggests that language acquisition follows the
1 year, children begin to learn more complicated principles of reinforcement and conditioning

76
discovered by psychologists who study learning. approach suggest that the brain is hardwired for
For example, a child who says “mama” receives our acquisition of language, in essence providing
hugs and praise from her mother, which reinforce the “hardware” that allows us to develop
the behavior of saying “mama” and make its language. However, it is the exposure to
repetition more likely. This view suggests that language in our environment that allows us to
children first learn to speak by being rewarded develop the appropriate “software” to understand
for making sounds that approximate speech. and produce language. The interactionist
Ultimately, through a process of shaping, approach has many proponents. Still, the issue
language becomes more and more like adult of how language is acquired remains hotly
speech (Skinner, 1957; Ornat & Gallo, 2004). contested (Pinker & Jackendoff , 2005; Hoff,
2008; Waxman, 2009).
Nativist Approaches: Language as an Innate
Skill. Pointing to such problems with learning- Do Eskimos living in the frigid Arctic have
theory approaches to language acquisition, a more expansive vocabulary for discussing
linguist Noam Chomsky (1968, 1978, 1991) snow than people living in warmer climates? It
provided a groundbreaking alternative. Chomsky makes sense, and arguments that the Eskimo
argued that humans are born with an innate language has many more words than English for
linguistic capability that emerges primarily as a snow have been made since the early 1900s. At
function of maturation. According to his nativist that time, linguist Benjamin Lee Whorf
approach to language, humans are biologically contended that because snow is so relevant to
pre-wired to learn language at certain times and Eskimos’ lives, their language provides a
in a particular way. Furthermore, he suggests particularly rich vocabulary to describe it—
that all the world’s languages share a common considerably larger than what we fi nd in other
underlying structure that is pre-wired, biologically languages, such as English (Martin & Pullum ,
determined, and universal. The nativist approach 1991; Pinker, 1994).
argues that the human brain has an inherited
neural system that lets us understand the Linguistic-relativity hypothesis, the hypothesis
that language shapes and may determine the
structure language provides—a kind of universal way people perceive and understand the world.
grammar. These inborn capabilities give us According to this view, language provides us with
strategies and techniques for learning the unique categories that we use to construct our view of
characteristics of our own native language (Lidz others and events in the world around us.
& Gleitman, 2004; McGilvray, 2004; White, Consequently, language shapes and produces
thought (Whorf, 1956; Casasanto, 2008; Tan et
2007).
al., 2008). Let’s consider another possibility,
however. Suppose that instead of language
Interactionist Approaches. To reconcile the being the cause of certain ways of thinking,
differing views, many theorists take an thought produces language. The only reason to
interactionist approach to language expect that Eskimo language might have more
development. The interactionist approach words for snow than English does is that snow is
suggests that language development is considerably more relevant to Eskimos than it is
to people in other cultures.
produced through a combination of genetically
determined predispositions and environmental RECAP
circumstances that help teach language.
Specifically, proponents of the interactionist • Language production, which follows language

77
comprehension, develops out of babbling, which same elements found in the layperson’s
then leads to the production of actual words. conception. To psychologists, intelligence is the
After 1 year of age, children use two-word capacity to understand the world, think rationally,
combinations, increase their vocabulary, and and use resources effectively when faced with
use telegraphic speech, which drops words not challenges. This definition does not lay to rest a
critical to the message. By age 5, acquisition of key question asked by psychologists: Is
language rules is relatively complete. intelligence a unitary attribute, or are there
different kinds of intelligence? We turn now to
• Learning theorists suggest that language is various theories of intelligence that address the
acquired through reinforcement and issue.
conditioning. In contrast, the nativist approach
suggests that an innate language-acquisition Theories of Intelligence
device guides the development of language. The
interactionist approach argues that language G FACTOR The different ways in which
development is produced through a combination people view their own talents mirror a question
of genetically determined predispositions and that psychologists have grappled with. Is
environmental circumstances that help teach intelligence a single, general ability, or is it
language. multifaceted and related to specific abilities?
Early psychologists interested in intelligence
• The linguistic-relativity hypothesis suggests assumed that there was a single, general factor
that language shapes and may determine the for mental ability, which they called g, or the g -
way people think about the world. Most evidence factor. This assumption was based on the fact
suggests that although language does not that different types of measures of intelligence,
determine thought, it does affect the way people whether they focused on, say, mathematical
store information in memory and how well they expertise, verbal competency, or spatial
can retrieve it. visualization skills, all ranked test-takers in
roughly the same order. People who were good
• The degree to which language is a uniquely on one test generally were good on others; those
human skill remains an open question. Some who did poorly on one test tended to do poorly
psychologists contend that even though certain on others. Given that there was a correlation
primates communicate at a high level, those between performance on the different types of
animals do not use language. Other tests, the assumption was that there was a
psychologists suggest that those primates truly general, global intellectual ability underlying
understand and produce language in much the performance on the various measures—the g-
same way as humans. factor. This general intelligence factor was
thought to underlie performance in every aspect
• People who speak more than one language
of intelligence, and it was the g -factor that was
may have a cognitive advantage over those who
presumably being measured on tests of
speak only one.
intelligence (Spearman, 1927; Colom, Jung, &
Haier, 2006; Haier et al., 2009; Major, Johnson,
INTELLIGENCE
& Bouchard, 2011).
The definition of intelligence that
psychologists employ contains some of the

78
FLUID AND CRYSTALLIZED INTELLIGENCE smart?” In answering the latter question,
Some psychologists suggest that there Gardner has developed a theory of multiple
are two different kinds of intelligence: fluid intelligences that has become quite influential
intelligence and crystallized intelligence. Fluid (Gardner, 2000; Kaufman, Kaufman, & Plucker,
intelligence is the ability to reason abstractly. It 2013). Gardner argues that we have a minimum
reflects our ability to reason effectively, identify eight different forms of intelligence, each
patterns, and recognize relationships between relatively independent of the others: musical,
concepts. If we were asked to solve an analogy bodily kinesthetic, logical-mathematical,
or group a series of letters according to some linguistic, spatial, interpersonal, intrapersonal,
principle, we would be using fluid intelligence and naturalist. In Gardner’s view, each of the
(Kane & Engle, 2002; Saggino, Perfetti, & multiple intelligences is linked to an independent
Spitoni, 2006; Di Fabio & Palazzeschi, 2009). system in the brain. Furthermore, he suggests
that there may be even more types of
In contrast, crystallized intelligence is the intelligence, such as existential intelligence,
accumulation of information, knowledge, and which involves identifying and thinking about the
skills that people have learned through fundamental questions of human existence. For
experience and education. It reflects our ability example, the Dalai Lama might exemplify this
to call up information from long-term memory. type of intelligence (Gardner, 1999, 2000).
We would be likely to rely on crystallized
intelligence, for instance, if we were asked to STERNBERG’S TRIARCHIC THEORY of
participate in a discussion about the solution to Intelligence Robert Sternberg (1985)
the causes of poverty, a task that allows us to attempted to go beyond this view by proposing a
draw on our own past experiences, education, triarchic theory that deals with three aspects of
and knowledge of the world. In contrast to fluid intelligence: (a) cognitive processes, (b)
intelligence, which reflects a more general kind identifying situations that require intelligence,
of intelligence, crystallized intelligence is more a and (c) using intelligence in the external world.
reflection of the culture in which a person is He tried to analyze the cognitive processes into
raised. The differences between fluid intelligence smaller components. For example, he
and crystallized intelligence become especially suggested that when solving certain kinds of
evident in late adulthood, when people show problems we go through several stages,
declines in fluid, but not crystallized, intelligence including encoding the information, drawing
(Buehner, Krumm, & Ziegler, 2006; Tranter & inferences, mapping relationships, and applying
Koutstaal, 2008; Ackerman, 2011). the knowledge. If so, it might make sense for
intelligence tests to measure each of these
GARDNER’S MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES: processes separately. The goal was an
THE MANY WAYS OF SHOWING intelligence test that had some theoretical
INTELLIGENCE relationship to cognitive psychology.
Unfortunately, when Sternberg tried to develop
Psychologist Howard Gardner has taken an
tests of encoding, inferring, mapping, and so
approach very different from traditional thinking
forth, he found that all the measures correlated
about intelligence. Gardner argues that rather
fairly highly with each other (Deary, 2002). In
than asking “How smart are you?” we should be
other words he had rediscovered g. Sternberg
asking a different question: “How are you
has explored other possible distinctions among

79
types of intelligence. He has argued that we distinguish more intelligent people from less
have at least three types of intelligence: intelligent ones within a particular age group. On
analytical (or academic), creative (planning the basis of this principle, Binet devised the first
approaches to new problems), and practical formal intelligence test, which was designed to
(actually doing something). While criticizing identify the “dullest” students in the Paris school
standard IQ tests for concentrating only on system in order to provide them with remedial
analytical intelligence, Sternberg has tried to aid. Binet began by presenting tasks to same-
develop new tests that tap creative and practical age students who had been labeled “bright” or
aspects as well. Controversy persists regarding “dull” by their teachers. If a task could be
the status of creative and practical intelligence. completed by the bright students but not by the
On the one hand, we have all known people who dull ones, he retained that task as a proper test
seem high in academic intelligence but not in item; otherwise it was discarded. In the end he
creativity or practical intelligence. On the other came up with a test that distinguished between
hand, thinking of examples is not enough; the the bright and dull groups, and—with further
question is whether in general analytical work—one that distinguished among children in
intelligence is strongly or weakly correlated with different age groups (Binet & Simon, 1916;
creativity and practical intelligence. Furthermore, Sternberg & Jarvin, 2003).
measuring creativity and practical intelligence is
easier said than done. On the basis of the Binet test, children were
assigned a score relating to their mental age, the
ASSESSING INTELLIGENCE. Given the age for which a given level of performance is
variety of approaches to the components of average or typical. For example, if the average
intelligence, it is not surprising that measuring 8-year-old answered, say, 45 items correctly on
intelligence has proved challenging. a test, anyone who answered 45 items correctly
Psychologists who study intelligence have would be assigned a mental age of 8 years.
focused much of their attention on the Consequently, whether the person taking the
development of intelligence tests that quantify a test was 20 years old or 5 years old, he or she
person’s level of intelligence. These tests have would have the same mental age of 8 years
proved to be of great benefit in identifying (Cornell, 2006).
students in need of special attention in school,
diagnosing specific learning difficulties, and A solution to the problem came in the form of the
helping people make the best educational and intelligence quotient (IQ), a measure of
vocational choices. At the same time, their use intelligence that takes into account an
has proved controversial, raising important individual’s mental and chronological (physical)
social and educational issues. age. Historically, the first IQ scores employed the
following formula in which MA stands for mental
BINET AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF IQ age and CA for chronological age:
TESTS. The first real intelligence
tests were developed by the French psychologist
Alfred Binet (1857–1911). His tests followed
from a simple premise: If performance on certain
tasks or test items improved with chronological,
Using this formula, we can return to the earlier
or physical, age, performance could be used to
example of an 18-year-old performing at a

80
mental age of 20 and calculate an IQ score of Because the Stanford-Binet, WAIS-IV, and
(20/18) 3 100 5 111. In contrast, the 5-year-old WISC-IV all require individualized, one-on-one
performing at a mental age of 7 comes out with administration, they are relatively difficult to
a considerably higher IQ score: (7/5) 3 100 5 administer and score on a large-scale basis.
140. Consequently, there are now a number of IQ
tests that allow group administration. Rather
Contemporary IQ Tests: Gauging than having one examiner ask one person at a
Intelligence Remnants of Binet’s original time to respond to individual items, group IQ
intelligence test are still with us, although the test tests are strictly paper-and-pencil tests. The
has been revised in significant ways. Now in its primary advantage of group tests is their ease of
fifth edition and called the Stanford- Binet administration (Anastasi & Urbina, 1997; Danner
Intelligence Scale, the test consists of a series of et al., 2011).
items that vary according to the age of the
person being tested (Roid, Nellis, & McClellan, RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY: TAKING THE
2003). For example, young children are asked to MEASURE OF TESTS When we use a
copy figures or answer questions about ruler, we expect to find that it measures an inch
everyday activities. Older people are asked to in the same way it did the last time we used it.
solve analogies, explain proverbs, and describe When we weigh ourselves on the bathroom
similarities that underlie sets of words. The test scale, we hope that the variations we see on the
is administered orally and includes both verbal scale are due to changes in our weight and not
and nonverbal assessments. An examiner to errors on the part of the scale (unless the
begins by finding a mental age level at which a change in weight is in an unwanted direction!).
person is able to answer all the questions In the same way, we hope that
correctly and then moves on to successively psychological tests have reliability—that they
more difficult problems. When a mental age level measure consistently what they are trying to
is reached at which no items can be answered, measure. We need to be sure that each time we
the test is over. By studying the pattern of correct administer the test, a test-taker will achieve the
and incorrect responses, the examiner is able to same results—assuming that nothing about the
compute an IQ score for the person being tested. person has changed relevant to what is being
In addition, the Stanford-Binet test yields measured.
separate sub-scores that provide clues to a test-
taker’s particular strengths and weaknesses. But suppose your score changed hardly at all,
and both times you received a score of about
The IQ tests most frequently used in the United 400. You couldn’t complain about a lack of
States were devised by psychologist David reliability. However, if you knew your verbal skills
Wechsler and are known as the Wechsler Adult were above average, you might be concerned
Intelligence Scale–IV, or, more commonly, the that the test did not adequately measure what it
WAIS-IV (for adults) and a children’s version, the was supposed to measure. In sum, the question
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children–IV, or has now become one of validity rather than
WISC-IV . Both the WAIS-IV and the WISC-IV reliability. A test has validity when it actually
measure verbal comprehension, perceptual measures what it is supposed to measure.
reasoning, working memory, and processing Knowing that a test is reliable is no guarantee
speed (see sample WAIS-IV items in Figure 5). that it is also valid. For instance, Sir Francis

81
Galton assumed that skull size is related to Intelligent? What makes one child
intelligence, and he was able to measure skull more intelligent than another is a complex
size with great reliability. However, the measure question that depends, in part, on how one
of skull size was not valid—it had nothing to do defines intelligence. Researchers are, however,
with intelligence. In this case, then, we have starting to understand how differences in the way
reliability without validity. However, if a test is the brain works are related to intelligence. One
unreliable, it cannot be valid. Assuming that all aspect of brain functioning that appears to be
other factors— motivation to score well, important is how well different areas of the brain
knowledge of the material, health, and so forth— are connected to one another. In the images
are similar, if a person scores high the first time below, we see areas that are related to
he or she takes a specific test and low the nonverbal intelligence. Research finds that
second time, the test cannot be measuring what children with greater degrees of brain
it is supposed to measure. Therefore, the test is connectivity [here between right parietal and
both unreliable and not valid. right frontal regions (A), and between right
parietal and dorsal anterior cingulate regions
Test validity and reliability are prerequisites for (B)], demonstrate greater nonverbal intelligence.
accurate assessment of intelligence— as well as Keep in mind that this finding does not imply
for any other measurement task carried out by causality: we still don’t know if higher intelligence
psychologists. Consequently, the measures of leads to greater brain connectivity, or if greater
personality carried out by personality connectivity leads to greater intelligence
psychologists, clinical psychologists’ (Langeslag et al., 2013).
assessments of psychological disorders, and
social psychologists’ measures of attitudes must
meet the tests of validity and reliability for the
results to be meaningful (Phelps, 2005;Yao,
Zhour, & Jiang, 2006; Markus & Borsboom,
2013).

Assuming that a test is both valid and reliable,

one further step is necessary in order to interpret The Biological Basis of Intelligence
the meaning of a particular test-taker’s score: the
establishment of norms. Norms are standards of Using brain-scanning methods, researchers
test performance that permit the comparison of have identified several areas of the brain that
one person’s score on a test to the scores of relate to intelligence. For example, the brains of
others who have taken the same test. For people completing intelligence test questions in
example, a norm permits test-takers to know that both verbal and spatial domains show activation
they have scored, say, in the top 15% of those in a similar location: the lateral prefrontal cortex.
who have taken the test previously. Tests for That area is above the outer edge of the eyebrow
which norms have been developed are known as about where people rest their heads in the palms
standardized tests. of their hands if they are thinking hard about a
problem. This area of the brain is critical to
INFLUENCES ON INTELLIGENCE juggling many pieces of information
simultaneously and solving new problems. In
Neuroscience in Your Life: What Makes a Child

82
addition, higher intelligence is related to the tests, the rate at which they advance and their
thickness of the cerebral cortex (Karama et al., ultimate business achievements are only
2009; Luders et al., 2009; Brant et al., 2013). minimally associated with traditional measures
of their intelligence.
Practical and Emotional Intelligence: Toward a
More Intelligent View of Intelligence Sternberg argues that career success requires a
very different type of intelligence from that
Consider the following situation: required for academic success. Whereas
academic success is based on knowledge of a
“An employee who reports to one of your
specific information base obtained from reading
subordinates has asked to talk with you about
and listening, practical intelligence is learned
waste, poor management practices, and
mainly through observation of others’ behavior.
possible violations of both company policy and
People who are high in practical intelligence are
the law on the part of your subordinate. You have
able to learn general norms and principles and
been in your present position only a year, but in
apply them appropriately. Consequently,
that time you have had no indications of trouble
practical intelligence tests measure the ability to
about the subordinate in question. Neither you
employ broad principles in solving everyday
nor your company has an “open door” policy, so
problems (Stemler & Sternberg, 2006; Stemler et
it is expected that employees should take their
al., 2009; Sternberg, 2013).
concerns to their immediate supervisors before
bringing a matter to the attention of anyone else. In addition to practical intelligence, Sternberg
The employee who wishes to meet with you has argues there are two other basic, interrelated
not discussed this matter with her supervisors types of intelligence related to life success:
because of its delicate nature (Sternberg, analytical and creative. Analytical intelligence
1998).” focuses on abstract but traditional types of
problems measured on IQ tests, while creative
Your response to this situation has a lot to do
intelligence involves the generation of novel
with your future success in a business career,
ideas and products (Benderly, 2004; Sternberg,
according to psychologist Robert Sternberg. The
Kaufman, & Pretz, 2004; Sternberg, Grigorenko,
question is one of a series designed to help give
& Kidd, 2005).
an indication of your intelligence. However, it is
not traditional intelligence that the question is Some psychologists broaden the concept of
designed to tap but rather intelligence of a intelligence even further beyond the intellectual
specific kind: practical intelligence. Practical realm to include emotions. Emotional
intelligence is intelligence related to overall intelligence is the set of skills that underlie the
success in living (Sternberg, 2002; Muammar, accurate assessment, evaluation, expression,
2007; Wagner, 2002, 2011). Noting that and regulation of emotions (Mayer, Salovey, &
traditional tests were designed to relate to Caruso, 2004; Humphrey, Curran, & Morris,
academic success, Sternberg points to evidence 2007; Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2008).
showing that most traditional measures of Emotional intelligence is the basis of empathy for
intelligence do not relate especially well to career others, self-awareness, and social skills. It
success (McClelland, 1993). Specifically, encompasses the ability to get along well with
although successful business executives usually others. It provides us with an understanding of
score at least moderately well on intelligence

83
what other people are feeling and experiencing, • Practical intelligence is intelligence
which permits us to respond appropriately to related to overall success in living;
emotional intelligence is the set of skills
others’ needs. These abilities may help explain
that underlie the accurate assessment,
why people with only modest scores on evaluation, expression, and regulation of
traditional intelligence tests can be quite emotions.
successful: the basis of their success may be a
high emotional intelligence, which allows them to
respond appropriately and quickly to others’ Contents lifted from:
feelings. Although the notion of emotional
Introduction to Psychology by James W. Kalat,
intelligence makes sense, it has yet to be
8th edition
quantified in a rigorous manner. Furthermore, Understanding Psychology by Robert S.
the view that emotional intelligence is so Feldmman, 12th edition
important that skills related to it should be taught
in school has raised concerns among some UNIT 10: MOTIVATION AND EMOTION
educators. They suggest that the nurturance of
LEARNING OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
emotional intelligence is best left to students’
families, especially because there is no well- At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
specified set of criteria for what constitutes
1. Understand the different approaches
emotional intelligence (Becker, 2003; Vesely,
to motivation
Saklofske, & Leschied, 2013). Still, the notion of 2. Learn the role of nervous system to
emotional intelligence reminds us that there are motivation
many ways to demonstrate intelligent behavior— 3. Learn the biology of emotion
just as there are multiple views of the nature of 4. Understand the different factors
intelligence (Fox & Spector, 2000; Barrett & affecting to emotions
5. Analyze the classification of emotions
Salovey, 2002)
INTRODUCTION
RECAP
Motivation is the “why” of behavior,
• Because intelligence can take many whether from moment to moment, from day to
forms, defining it is challenging. One day, or over much longer periods. Motives are
commonly accepted view is that reasons why behavior occurs, and issues
intelligence is the capacity to understand involving motives are implicit in virtually any
the world, think rationally, and use discussion of an organism’s behavior. Motivation
resources effectively when faced with in one form or another therefore crops up in most
challenges. themes.
• The earliest psychologists assumed that Emotion is a closely related topic. Like
there is a general factor for mental ability some motives, emotions include both physical
called g. However, later psychologists
and mental components we both “feel” and
disputed the view that intelligence is uni-
“think” though not necessarily in that order. And
dimensional.
motives and emotion often augment each other
• Some researchers suggest that
intelligence can be broken down into fluid in detecting and determining behavior.
intelligence and crystallized intelligence.
• Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences LESSON PROPER
proposes that there are eight spheres of Primary Motives
intelligence.

84
 Primary, basic motives are biological in • Sex – sex motive is similar to the hunger
origin and common to all normal members of motive in some ways. It stems from
species. Secondary motives are instead learned. physiological processes and renders the
organism’s behavior selective and
Primary motives involve biological directional. But, unlike hunger, sex is not
needs in the ongoing maintenance and normal a vital motive. It is dealt with special
functioning of our bodies. We need air, we need social restriction and control. The internal
processes of the sex motive involve the
to maintain viable body temperature, we need
secretion of androgens for males and
liquids, we need food, and, in a sense, we need estrogens for females. The strength of
sex. These and other basic needs give rise to sexual motivation in human beings,
motives. Needs are physiological states of however, is not entirely due to sexual
depletion momentary or otherwise. The body is activity and the incentive that sets off
low on oxygen, water, nutrients, or whatever. sexual interest.
Motives are a more cognitive way of looking at • Air Hunger – the need for air is relatively
things: a need for oxygen produces the behavior unimportant as a motive in everyday life
to obtain it, and the organisms is also because air is usually easy to get.
consciously aware and planning and otherwise However, when our need for air is not
acting deliberately to obtain a goal of getting met, air hunger become the most intense
more oxygen, and fast. Motives arising from of all human drives. Air is the most basic
primary needs also tend to involve negative requirement of the human body and as a
need, it must be continuously satisfied.
emotional states such as being uncomfortable,
Severe oxygen deprivation or anoxia,
or the extreme, being in pain.
even for only a brief period, can result in
• Hunger - All organisms get hungry. feeblemindedness or other
When the state of hunger arises, there abnormalities.
will be activity. Internal processes involve • Rest and Sleep – our muscles are used
a reaction of the hypothalamus to the in movements, and they gradually
chemical state of the blood. Stomach become fatigued when used
contractions produce the awareness of continuously. Sleep drive is related to
hunger in human beings and at the same rest drive, but they are not identical. We
time arouse specific actions. In other may rest without sleeping, but we seldom
individuals, there is a general feeling of sleep without resting. During sleep, the
weakness and lightheadedness. In nerve and brain centers are stimulated by
addition to craving for particular foods, chemical within the body. The muscles
hunger need can also produce specific are also involved as there is a general
food aversions. Some may avoid food relaxation of the body during sleep.
which they have just been satiated with. • Pain – pain as noxious drive is a special
• Thirst – the thirst drive is a regulatory case. It acts as a drive because pain
device which serves to control intake of indicated a danger to the organism, and
water into the body, maintaining constant is related to the need for protection or
water content. An important component safety. The moment pain is experienced,
of the thirst drive is the dryness of the there is a quick reaction to move away
mouth and throat tissues. The tissues of from the stimulus or source. This reaction
the oral cavity become dry as the water is known as the withdrawal reflex.
supply in the body lowers. The dryness Experiences that bring pain make us
stimulates tiny nerves ending embedded learn to avoid them. In time, the very sight
in the mouth and produces the sensation of such an object elicits an avoidance
of thirst. motive.

85
The Role of Nervous System. or exclusive organization may satisfy
complex motives, such as the status
Primary motives tend to be homeostatic, motive. Affectional and sex drives may
(homeostasis is the general tendency of the lead to marriage and may also satisfy
body to keep itself within functional limits and different drives.
thus stay alive) at various levels, whether • Dependency – people depend on others
conscious or not. For example, if the summer to have someone to look up to, to turn to
sun causes body temperature to increase above someone for help, or to be accepted and
normal, our temperature sensors kick in, send loved. This need is closely related to
information to the hypothalamus and CNS affiliation and it arises partly from training
(Central Nervous System) , and cause us to and childhood.
perspire without our conscious intent. But • Social Approval – we seek social
perspiration is limited in its ability to cool the approval for what we do and avoid things
that evoke social disapproval. Social
body adequately, so the next step in the process
approval is learned in early childhood
might be consciously seeking shade or some
training when parent establish what is
other cool place. Thus, the term homeostatic right and what is wrong for the child.
applies to any level of activity that is involved in • Status – most individual are motivated to
the organism’s attempts to maintain normal achieve status among their fellowmen,
limits. However, that when homeostatic although status systems vary from one
mechanisms involve conscious activity, the group to another. And individual’s status
organism may choose not to react. If you’re motives depend on one’s own makeup
determined to get a lot of sun, you might force and on the group or society one belongs
yourself to stay out in the sun and perspire to.
uncomfortably for hours without doing much • Security – people depend on other
about it. Another example is fasting in the people or things and condition for
extreme, people can refuse to eat even to the security. The feeling involves being able
point of death. to hold on to what one has, like money, a
partner’s affection, status, job, etc. The
Secondary Motives. Secondary presence or lack of security affects one’s
motives are those that are learned, either ability to satisfy needs.
through association with primary motives or in • Power – some people desire recognition,
more complex “social” ways. New goals or to be influential and in control. These
values are acquired as one matures. They may individuals, high with the need to
be formed as a result of social pressure in many achieve, are not clock watchers and work
to meet high standards – sometimes with
cultures. Environment and social norms affect
indifference to matters of comfort,
the development of psychosocial needs and its convenience, approval, or monetary
satisfaction. Although the deprivation and reward.
frustration of secondary motives or psychosocial
needs may not lead directly to death as in Theories of Human Motivation
prolonged deprivation of biological need or
1. The Behavior Theory, formulated by
primary motives, they can lead to emotional Whiting and Child (1953), stated that a
disturbance and eventually physical illness. few basic motives acquired in early
Satisfaction in many forms of these needs is infancy proliferate into the behavior
essential to heal and happiness. system in later life. Many kinds of
behavior are influenced by the motive of
• Affiliation – people need the company of stimulus response relationships and
other, but there are different motives for learning (habit formation). Adult behavior
affiliation. Affiliation with clubs, churches, was classified into five behavior systems:

86
 oral, anal, sexual, dependency, and
aggression. The first three are developed
from motives like hunger, elimination,
and sex. The last wot are acquired in
early childhood as a result of the infant’s
helplessness and inevitable frustration.
Each system consists of a set of habits or
customs motivated by a common inborn
or early acquired motive leading to
common satisfactions.
2. The Theory of Unconscious 5. Alderfer’s ERG Theory, Clayton Alderfer
Motivation, originated from Freud and (1940 – Present) agrees with Maslow that
psychoanalysis. Unconscious motives nees are arranged in hierarchy. He identified
are manifested in the form of dreams, three sets of needs:
mannerisms, slips of the tongue, and • Existence: satisfied by factors such as
symptoms of neuroses. Sex and food, air, water, pay, working conditions
aggression are prominent impulses that • Relatedness: satisfied by meaningful social
find indirect, symbolic, or disguised and interpersonal relationships
expressions. • Growth: satisfied by making creative or
3. The Cognitive Theory of Motivation, productive contributions
formulated by John W. Atkinson (1964),
Contemporary Theories of Motivation
accepted some important findings of the
other theories. According to this theory, 1. Self-Determination Theory is a theory of
goals control behavior. Some person are motivation that aims to explain individuals’ goal-
highly motivated by hope of success,
directed behavior (Deci & Ryan 1985; Ryan &
while other by fear of failure. Depending
Deci 2000). The theory proposes universal,
on the task, a person’s motivation is
expressed as motivational disposition, innate psychological needs:
incentive, and expectation. There is an a. Competence is defined by a perceived self-belief
awareness of what is going on, the in one’s ability to perform well in an activity, e.g.
deliberate tendency to anticipate the in triathlon;
future, to plan, and to take risks. b. Autonomy or freedom of choice. Perceived
4. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Human Needs, autonomy is high when individuals feel they are
The first theory was developed by engaging in sport because they choose to do so,
Abraham Maslow in the 1950s. His not because they feel pressured by other people
theory states that with every individual (parents, coaches) or external factors
there is a hierarchy of five needs. As (expectations).
each need is met or satisfied the next c. Psychological relatedness is defined by a sense
need becomes dominant. His theory
of shared experience and meaningful
posits that individuals are stuck in their
existing need level until it is satisfied and relationships. Therefore, people are motivated
then they can move on to the next level. by activities which allow them to form and enjoy
For example, until their safety needs are good relationships.
met they will not be able to move on to
Thus, people feel motivated by activities
the social level. The organization of
which allow them to satisfy those three needs.
these need levels may vary across
cultures. Those activities are enjoyable and driven
by intrinsic motivation. Differently, extrinsic or
controlled motivation characterizes those
activities that yield specific outcomes in terms of

87
 rewards or avoided punishments whereas According to the Yerkes Dodson Law, there I a
perceived autonomy is low. close link between arousal and performance.
Performance of a task is best when arousal level
2. Goal-Setting Theory- Edwin Locke developed is appropriate to the difficult task (Samuel Wood
what is called the goal-setting theory. The idea
2004) if the level of arousal is less than the
behind this theory is that goals that are specific
and effectively difficult can lead to higher optimal, we do something to stimulate it. If
performance if they include self-generated arousal exceeds the optimal, we seek to reduce
feedback. A difficult goal will help the individual stimulation.
to focus and direct attention as well as energize
them to work harder. The difficulty of the goal Biology of Emotion
will increase persistence and force people to be Earlier, you learned about the limbic
more effective and efficient. system, which is the area of the brain involved in
emotion and memory (Figure 1). The limbic
3. Self-efficacy theory- An individual’s belief that
he or she is capable of performing a task also system includes the hypothalamus, thalamus,
known as social cognitive theory or social amygdala, and the hippocampus. The
learning theory. Developed by Albert Bandura. hypothalamus plays a role in the activation of the
This theory is based on an individual’s belief that sympathetic nervous system that is a part of any
he or she is capable of performing a task. This given emotional reaction. The thalamus serves
theory is a complement to the goal-setting as a sensory relay center whose neurons project
theory, as it incorporates goals into the process. to both the amygdala and the higher cortical
Higher efficacy is related to greater confidence, regions for further processing. The amygdala
greater persistence in the face of difficulties, and plays a role in processing emotional information
responding to negative feedback by working and sending that information on to cortical
harder, not shutting down. structures (Fossati, 2012).The hippocampus
4. The Theory of Instinct by William McDougall
integrates emotional experience with cognition
asserts that human were maotivated by a
(Femenía, Gómez-Galán, Lindskog, & Magara,
number of different instincts. Instinct refers to
innate tendencies or biological forces that 2012).
determine behavior. Lately, psychologist and
ethologist (scientist who study animal behavior) Figure 1.
have redefined instinct as being a fixed action
pattern. A fixed action pattern is an innate
biological force that predisposes an organisms to
behave in a fixed way in the presence of a
specific environmental condition.
5. The Drive Reduction Theory of Clark Hull
asserts that a living organism have certain
biological needs that must be met if they are to
survive. For instance, if we are deprived of food
for a long time, biological state of tension arises,
leading to hunger and thirst. You are motivated
to seek food to reduce and satisfy the need.
Homeostasis is the biological concept wherein
the body must maintain a balanced internal state Figure 2.
to ensure physical survival.

The Arousal Theory refers to a person’s state

of alertness and mental and physical activation.

88
Amygdala group was in a cage with sufficient bedding and
The amygdala has received a great deal was left undisturbed with their mothers during the
of attention from researchers interested in same time period. The rat pups that experienced
understanding the biological basis for emotions, abuse were much more likely to exhibit
especially fear and anxiety (Blackford & Pine, depressive-like symptoms during adolescence
2012; Goosens & Maren, 2002; Maren, Phan, & when compared to controls. These depressive-
Liberzon, 2013). The amygdala is composed of like behaviors were associated with increased
various subnuclei, including the basolateral activation of the amygdala.
complex and the central nucleus (Figure 2). Human research also suggests a
The basolateral complex has dense connections relationship between the amygdala and
with a variety of sensory areas of the brain. It is psychological disorders of mood or anxiety.
critical for classical conditioning and for attaching Changes in amygdala structure and function
emotional value to learning processes and have been demonstrated in adolescents who are
memory. The central nucleus plays a role in either at-risk or have been diagnosed with
attention, and it has connections with the various mood and/or anxiety disorders (Miguel-
hypothalamus and various brainstem areas to Hidalgo, 2013; Qin et al., 2013). It has also been
regulate the autonomic nervous and endocrine suggested that functional differences in the
systems’ activity (Pessoa, 2010).Animal amygdala could serve as a biomarker to
research has demonstrated that there is differentiate individuals suffering from bipolar
increased activation of the amygdala in rat pups disorder from those suffering from major
that have odor cues paired with electrical shock depressive disorder (Fournier, Keener, Almeida,
when their mother is absent. This leads to an Kronhaus, & Phillips, 2013).
aversion to the odor cue that suggests the rats
learned to fear the odor cue. Interestingly, when Hippocampus
the mother was present, the rats actually showed As mentioned earlier,
a preference for the odor cue despite its the hippocampus is also involved in emotional
association with an electrical shock. This processing. Like the amygdala, research has
preference was associated with no increases in demonstrated that hippocampal structure and
amygdala activation. This suggests a differential function are linked to a variety of mood and
effect on the amygdala by the context (the anxiety disorders. Individuals suffering from
presence or absence of the mother) determined posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) show
whether the pups learned to fear the odor or to marked reductions in the volume of several parts
be attracted to it (Moriceau & Sullivan, 2006). of the hippocampus, which may result from
Raineki, Cortés, Belnoue, and Sullivan decreased levels of neurogenesis and dendritic
(2012) demonstrated that, in rats, negative early branching (the generation of new neurons and
life experiences could alter the function of the the generation of new dendrites in existing
amygdala and result in adolescent patterns of neurons, respectively) (Wang et al., 2010). While
behavior that mimic human mood disorders. In it is impossible to make a causal claim with
this study, rat pups received either abusive or correlational research like this, studies have
normal treatment during postnatal days 8–12. demonstrated behavioral improvements and
There were two forms of abusive treatment. The hippocampal volume increases following either
first form of abusive treatment had an insufficient pharmacological or cognitive-behavioral therapy
bedding condition. The mother rat had in individuals suffering from PTSD (Bremner &
insufficient bedding material in her cage to build Vermetten, 2004; Levy-Gigi, Szabó, Kelemen, &
a proper nest that resulted in her spending more Kéri, 2013).
time away from her pups trying to construct a
nest and less times nursing her pups. The Classifying Emotions
second form of abusive treatment had an Psychologists have yet to fully tackle the
associative learning task that involved pairing question “How many emotions do we
odors and an electrical stimulus in the absence have?” Part of the difficulty is because our
of the mother, as described above. The control experiences are so complex and involve so

89
many different factors, so distinguishing one • Satisfaction
emotion from another is a lot like drawing lines of • Sensory pleasure
sand in the desert. It can be hard to determine • Shame
where one emotions ends or another
begins. Even when we analyze a commonsense
emotion like “happiness” or “anger,” we know
from everyday experience that these emotions
come in many different degrees, qualities, and
intensities. In addition, our experiences are often
comprised of multiple emotions at once, which
adds another dimension of complexity to our
emotional experience. Despite how difficult
these distinctions may be, plenty of
psychologists have attempted to classify our
emotions into different categories. Early
philosophy of mind posited that all emotions
could be categorized as either “pleasure” or
“pain,” but since then more in depth theories Plutchik’s Wheel of Emotions (1980)
have been put forth. In this post I want to go over Robert Plutchik created a new
some of the main theories that have been conception of emotions in 1980. He called it the
researched over the past half century. “wheel of emotions” because it demonstrated
how different emotions can blend into one
another and create new emotions. Plutchik first
Ekman’s List of Basic Emotions (1972)
Ekman devised his list of basic emotions suggested 8 primary bipolar emotions: joy
after doing research on many different cultures. versus sadness; anger versus fear; trust versus
disgust; and surprise versus anticipation. From
He would describe a situation and ask individuals
there Plutchik identified more advanced
to choose a facial expression that best fit. He
would also show photographs of different facial emotions based on their differences in
expressions and ask individuals to identify the intensities. If you look at the diagram below you
can see how each emotion relates to the other:
emotion. Across all cultures studied, Ekman
found 6 basic emotions:
• Anger
Parrots’ Classification of Emotions (2001)
• Disgust The most nuanced classification of emotions so
• Fear far is probably Parrots’ 2001 theory. Parrot
• Happiness identified over 100+ emotions and
• Sadness conceptualized them as a tree structured list:
• Surprise

Ekman added to this list in the 1990s, but stated

that not all of these can be encoded via facial
expressions:
• Amusement
• Contempt
• Contentment
• Embarrassment
• Excitement
• Guilt
• Pride in achievement
• Relief

90
 up bodily states. The bodily state of emotional
arousal is much like for those of emotions. The
state of bodily arousal is ambiguous but we
interpret or have cognition about the
physiological state. Emotion is experienced
depending on the situation the phases in the
emotional process are: 1. Perception of the
emotion-producing situation; 2. A stirred-up
bodily state which is ambiguous; 3. Interpretation
and labeling of the bodily state that fits the
perceived situation.
Limbic System Theory – James Papez.
Emotional Expression are controlled by the
limbic system structures, such as the amygdala,
hippocampus, and hypothalamus. It is a
collection of interconnected nuclei and tracts that
circles the thalamus.
Theories of Emotions. Our emotional Darwin’s Theory of Emotion. Charles Darwin, in
states are combinations of physiological arousal, his book The Expression of Emotions in Mena
psychological appraisal, and subjective and Animals believes that behavioral
experiences. Together, these are known as expressions of emotions are products of
the components of emotion. These appraisals evolution. He gave three points;
are informed by our experiences, backgrounds,
and cultures. Therefore, different people may 1. Expressions of emotion evolve from
have different emotional experiences even when behaviors that indicate what the animals is
faced with similar circumstances. Over time, likely to do next.
several different theories of emotion, have been 2. The signals provided by such behavior
proposed to explain how the various benefit the animals and enhances the
components of emotion interact with one communication and could intimidate the
another. attacker.
William James – Carl Lange Theory. 3. Opposite messages are often signaled
Emotional Experience occurs after bodiyly by opposite movement (Principle of
changes. The sequence of events in emotional Antithesis). Ex. The aggressive posture of a
states are: 1. Peception of the situation which will dogs (ears forward, hair up, and tail up) and
produce the emotion; 2. Reaction to the the submissive postures (ears back, hair
situation; and 3. Perception of the reaction. The down, and tails down)
bodily states, internal changes, or overt
movement precede the emotion that is felt. Attribution Theory – Stuart Valins. Arousal can
Walter Cannon – Phillip Bard’s thalamic be attributed to various sources, a process that
Theory. The nervous impulses going into the alters perceptions of emotions. It is the mental
hypothalamus from the receptors stimulate that process of assigning causes to events.
center to send impulses to the cortex and viscera Attribution theory predicts that you are more
simultaneously. When the impulses reach the likely to love someone who stirs you emotionally.
cortex, an emotion is generated. The motor
impulses sent to the viscera by way of the Five Components of Emotional Intelligence
sympathetic nervous system result in the
emergency state. The emotional experience and Emotional intelligence involves the ability to
the responses expressed occur at the same time understand and manage emotions. Experts
as a result of hypothalamic activity. agree that this type of intelligence plays an
Cognitive Theory of Emotion – Stanley important role in success, and some have
Schachter. Emotion are interpretation of stirred-

91
suggested that emotional intelligence, or going to make it. She was tired of fighting and
EQ, might even be more important than IQ. In struggling all the time. It seemed just as one
any case, research has suggested that problem was solved, another one soon followed.
emotional intelligence is linked to everything Her father, a chef, took her to the kitchen.
from decision-making to academic achievement. He filled three pots with water and placed each
So what does it take to be emotionally on a high fire. Once the three pots began to boil,
intelligent? Psychologist and author Daniel he placed potatoes in one pot, eggs in the
Goleman has suggested that there are five second pot, and ground coffee beans in the third
components critical to emotional intelligence. pot.
He then let them sit and boil, without
1. Self-awareness, or the ability to recognize saying a word to his daughter. The daughter,
and understand your own emotions, is a moaned and impatiently waited, wondering what
critical part of emotional intelligence. Beyond he was doing.
just recognizing your emotions, however, is After twenty minutes he turned off the
being aware of the effect of your actions, burners. He took the potatoes out of the pot and
moods, and emotions on other people. placed them in a bowl. He pulled the boiled
2. Self-Regulation, In addition to being aware eggs out and placed them in a bowl.
of your own emotions and the impact you He then ladled the coffee out and placed it in a
have on others, emotional intelligence cup. Turning to her he asked. ‘Daughter, what do
requires you to be able to regulate and you see?’
manage your emotions. This doesn't mean ‘Potatoes, eggs, and coffee,’ she hastily
putting emotions on lockdown and hiding your replied.
true feelings—it simply means waiting for the ‘Look closer,’ he said, ‘and touch the
right time and place to express them. Self- potatoes.’ She did and noted that they were soft.
regulation is all about expressing your He then asked her to take an egg and break it.
emotions appropriately. After pulling off the shell, she observed the hard-
3. Social Skills, Being able to interact well with boiled egg. Finally, he asked her to sip the
others is another important aspect of coffee. Its rich aroma brought a smile to her face.
emotional intelligence. True emotional ‘Father, what does this mean?’ she
understanding involves more than just asked.
understanding your own emotions and those He then explained that the potatoes, the
of others. You also need to be able to put this eggs and coffee beans had each faced the same
information to work in your daily interactions adversity– the boiling water. However, each one
and communications. reacted differently.
4. Empathy, or the ability to understand how The potato went in strong, hard, and
others are feeling, is absolutely critical to unrelenting, but in boiling water, it became soft
emotional intelligence. But it involves more and weak.
than just being able to recognize the The egg was fragile, with the thin outer
emotional states of others. shell protecting its liquid interior until it was put in
5. Motivation, Intrinsic motivation also plays a the boiling water. Then the inside of the egg
key role in emotional intelligence. People who became hard.
are emotionally intelligent are motivated by However, the ground coffee beans were
things beyond external rewards like fame, unique. After they were exposed to the boiling
money, recognition, and acclaim. water, they changed the water and created
something new.
SAMPLE SITUATION ‘Which are you,’ he asked his daughter.
‘When adversity knocks on your door, how do
Motivational Story you respond? Are you a potato, an egg, or a
“Once upon a time a daughter coffee bean?’
complained to her father that her life was
miserable and that she didn’t know how she was

92
ACTIVITY / EXERCISES (homeostasis is the general tendency of the body
to keep itself within functional limits and thus stay
Vision Board
alive) at various levels, whether conscious or not.
A vision board is a visualization tool
Secondary motives are those that are learned,
which refers to a board of any sort used to build
either through association with primary motives
a collage of words and pictures that represent
or in more complex “social” ways. New goals or
your goals and dreams. They can be bought from
values are acquired as one matures. They may
a professional supplier or made with cork or
be formed as a result of social pressure in many
poster boards. A vision board helps you clarify
cultures. Environment and social norms affect
what you want out of your life because it forces
the development of psychosocial needs and its
you to put something down.
satisfaction.
Create your Vision Board. As you create
Emotion is a closely related topic. Like some
your vision board identify your thoughts and
motives, emotions include both physical and
feelings while doing it.
mental components we both “feel” and “think”
ASSESSMENT though not necessarily in that order. And motives
and emotion often augment each other in
Questions detecting and determining behavior.
1. What is Motivation? Our emotional states are combinations of
2. Differentiate the ERG Theory from Maslow’s physiological arousal, psychological appraisal,
Hierarchy of Needs and subjective experiences. Together, these are
3. What Factors could lead a person to the known as the components of emotion. These
pursuit of happiness? appraisals are informed by our experiences,
4. Differentiate at least three basic emotions. backgrounds, and cultures. Therefore, different
5. How does the drive reduction theory explain people may have different emotional
motivation? experiences even when faced with similar
Essay Writing circumstances. Over time, several different
theories of emotion, have been proposed to
1. As a student, what is the strongest of all explain how the various components of emotion
human motives? Why? interact with one another.
SUMMARY REFERENCES
Motivation is the “why” of behavior, whether from • EZ 101 Study Keys Psycholgoy Second Edition
moment to moment, from day to day, or over (2006) Bon Baucum, Ph.D
much longer periods. Motives are reasons why • General Psychoglogy Fourth Edition (2005)
behavior occurs, and issues involving motives Custodiosa A. Sanchez, Ph.D, Paz F. Abad,
are implicit in virtually any discussion of an Ph.D, Loreto Jao, Ed.D
organism’s behavior. Motivation in one form or • General Psychology Sixth Edition (2012)
Geraldine E. Tria, Josefina E. Gaerlan, Delia A.
another therefore crops up in most themes.
Limpingco.
Primary motives involve biological needs in the • https://courses.lumenlearning.com/waymaker-
ongoing maintenance and normal functioning of psychology/chapter/the-biology-of-emotions/
our bodies. We need air, we need to maintain • https://www.theemotionmachine.com/classificati
viable body temperature, we need liquids, we on-of-emotions/
• https://www.verywellmind.com/components-of-
need food, and, in a sense, we need sex. These
emotional-intelligence-2795438
and other basic needs give rise to motives.
Primary motives tend to be homeostatic,

93
Unit 11: Personality temperament, physique, and intelligence.
Learning Objectives: Psychologists are interested in
• Describe the major theories of understanding human behavior and qualities
personality and identify important that define our own unique experience and
differences between them. our relatedness to others. Therefore
• Analyze the different perspectives to understanding personality and how it predicts
personality. behavior is a cornerstone of psychology that
• Demonstrate awareness on the different shares growing clinical and research interests.
methods in assessing personality.
The Origins of Personality Psychology
What is Personality?
Personality has been studied for over 2000
Psychologists differ among themselves as to the years, beginning with Hippocrates in 370 BCE.
meaning of personality. Most agree that the word Hippocrates was a physician in Greece who
“personality” originated from the Latin persona, theorized that personality traits and human
which referred to a theatrical mask worn by behaviors are based on four
Roman actors in Greek dramas. These ancient temperaments associated with four distinct
Roman actors wore a mask (persona) to project bodily fluids known as ‘humors.’
a role or false appearance. This surface view of
personality, of course, is not an acceptable This theory, known as humorism or humoral
definition. When psychologists use the term theory of personality, proposed that an
“personality”, they are referring to something individual’s personality was the result of the
more than the role people play. balance of these four humors.
Personality defined: Personality is the pattern
of enduring traits and unique characteristics that The following table describes these humor-
produce consistency and individuality in a given based personality types.
person. As such, personality motivates people to
consistently think, feel and react in particular Humor Personality Characteristics
ways. Over time, these patterns strongly drive Type
personal expectations, perceptions, values, and Yellow bile Choleric Dominant &
even attitudes. While the complete set of short-tempered
characteristics that make up someone’s Black bile Melancholic Quiet &
personality may be unique, there are also reflective
attributes that we all share with each other. Phlegm Phlegmatic Calm &
agreeable
Traits contribute to individual differences in Blood Sanguine Cheerful &
behavior, consistency of behavior over time, and energetic
stability of behavior across situations. Traits may
be unique, common to some group, or shared by DEVELOPMENT OF PERSONALITY: NATURE
the entire species, but their pattern is different VS. NUTURE
from each individual. Thus each person, though
like others in some ways, has a unique
The nature vs. nurture debate on whether
personality.
genetics or environment is more influential in
Characteristics are unique qualities of an human development also extends into our study
individual that include such attributes as of personality. The biological perspective on

94
personality emphasizes the internal on how personality is measured and how
physiological and genetic factors that influence personality tests can be used.
personality. It focuses on why or how personality
traits manifest through biology and investigates
PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACHES TO
the links between personality, DNA, and
PERSONALITY. Psychodynamic approaches to
processes in the brain. Twin studies examining
personality are based on the idea that
similarity in personality traits between adult
personality is primarily unconscious, and
monozygotic (100% genetic similarity) and
motivated by inner forces and conflicts about
fraternal (50% genetic similarity) twins reared
which people have little awareness. The most
together (shared environment and apart (no
pioneer of the psychodynamic approach was
shared environment) are commonly used to
examine the relative contribution of ‘nature’ vs. Sigmund Freud. A number of Freud’s followers,
‘nurture’ to the overall development of including Carl Jung, Karen Horney, and Alfred
personality. Adler, refined Freud’s theory and developed their
own psychodynamic approaches.

Many of these studies generally show that Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory: Mapping the
while identical twins may have some similar Unconscious Mind
personality traits; they still have distinct
personalities, suggesting that genetics are Sigmund Freud, an Austrian physician,
not the only factor in determining developed psychoanalytic theory in the early
personality. 1900s. According to Freud’s theory, conscious
experience is only a small part of our
Research has demonstrated that personality is psychological makeup and experience. He
the outcome of a bidirectional interaction argued that much of our behavior is motivated by
between inherited tendencies and life the unconscious, a part of the personality that
experiences. Environmental influences on contains the memories, knowledge, beliefs,
personality include culture, parenting styles, feelings, urges, drives, and instincts of which the
socioeconomic status, access to education and
individual is not aware.
other experiences that determine our diversity of
exposure to human interactions and resulting
Like the unseen mass of a floating
outcomes.
iceberg, the contents of the unconscious far
surpass in quantity the information in our
Theories of Personality: Past to Present
conscious awareness. Freud maintained that to
In this particular unit, we will consider a
understand personality, it is necessary to expose
number of approaches to personality. For
historical reasons, we begin with psychodynamic what is in the unconscious. But because the
theories of personality, which emphasize the unconscious disguises the meaning of the
importance of the unconscious. Next, we material it holds, the content of the unconscious
consider approaches that concentrate on cannot be observed directly. It is therefore
identifying the most fundamental personality necessary to interpret clues to the
traits; theories that view personality as a set of unconscious— slips of the tongue, fantasies,
learned behaviors; biological and evolutionary and dreams—to understand the unconscious
perspectives on personality; and approaches, processes that direct behavior.
known as humanistic theories, that highlight the
uniquely human aspects of personality. At the To Freud, much of our personality is
end of this chapter, we will focus our discussion
determined by our unconscious. Some of the

95
unconscious is made up of the preconscious,
which contains material that is not threatening
and is easily brought to mind, such as the
knowledge that 2 + 2 = 4. But deeper in the
unconscious are instinctual drives—the wishes,
desires, demands, and needs that are hidden
from conscious awareness because of the
conflicts and pain they would cause if they were
part of our everyday lives. The unconscious
provides a “safe haven” for our recollections of
threatening events.

Point to ponder:

• Some theorists hold the opinion that

individuals are capable of changing their Id. Consists of primitive, instinctual cravings and
personality over time, either intentionally longings. It is the raw, unorganized, inborn part
or unintentionally. What are your of personality. From the time of birth, the id
thoughts regarding the possibility of attempts to reduce tension created by primitive
personality changing over time? drives related to hunger, sex, aggression, and
irrational impulses. Those drives are fueled by
STRUCTURING PERSONALITY: ID, EGO, “psychic energy,” which we can think of as a
AND SUPEREGO limitless energy source constantly putting
pressure on the various parts of personality.
• To describe the structure of personality, The id operates according to the pleasure
Freud developed a comprehensive principle in which the goal is the immediate
theory that held that personality consists reduction of tension and the maximization of
of three separate but interacting satisfaction. However, in most cases, reality
components: the id, the ego, and the prevents the fulfillment of the demands of the
superego. Freud suggested that the pleasure principle: We cannot always eat when
three structures can be diagrammed to we are hungry, and we can discharge our sexual
show how they relate to the conscious drives only when the time and place are
and the unconscious. appropriate. To account for this fact of life, Freud
• Although the three components of suggested a second component of personality,
personality Freud described may appear which he called the ego.
to be actual physical structures in the Ego. Begins to develop soon after birth, strives
nervous system, they are not. Instead, to balance the desires of the id and the realities
they represent abstract conceptions of a of the objective, outside world. In contrast to the
general model of personality that pleasure-seeking id, the ego operates according
describes the interaction of forces that to the reality principle in which instinctual energy
motivate behavior. is restrained to maintain the individual’s safety
and to help integrate the person into society. In
a sense, then, the ego is the “executive” of

96
personality: It makes decisions, controls actions, developmental period in which they first occur.
and allows thinking and problem solving of a Such conflicts may be due to having needs
higher order than the id’s capabilities permit. ignored, such as weaning the child too early or
Superego. The superego is the final personality being too strict during toilet training.
structure to develop in childhood. According to Alternatively, fixation may occur if children are
Freud, the superego is the personality structure overindulged during an earlier period, such as
that harshly judges the morality of our behavior. when parents are overly attentive to a child or
It represents the rights and wrong of society as provide lavish rewards during toilet training. The
taught and modeled by a person’s parents, sequence Freud proposed is noteworthy
teachers, and other significant individuals. The because it explains how experiences and
superego includes the conscience, which difficulties during a particular childhood stage
prevents us from behaving in a morally improper may predict specific characteristics in the adult
way by making us feel guilty if we do wrong. The personality. This theory is also unique in
superego helps us control impulses coming from associating each stage with a major biological
the id, making our behavior less selfish and more function, which Freud assumed to be the focus
virtuous. of pleasure in a given period.
Both the superego and the id are
unrealistic in that they do not consider the
practical realities imposed by society. The
superego, if left to operate without restraint,
would create perfectionists unable to make the
compromises that life requires. An unrestrained
id would create a primitive, pleasure-seeking,
thoughtless individual seeking to fulfill every
desire without delay. As a result, the ego must
mediate between the demands of the superego
and the demands of the id.

Developing Personality: Psychosexual

Stages

Freud also provided us with a view of how

personality develops through a series of five
psychosexual stages during which children
encounter conflicts between the demands of
society and their own sexual urges (in which
sexuality is more about experiencing pleasure
and less about lust). According to Freud, if we
are not able to resolve the conflicts that occur at
a particular psychosexual stage, we may
become locked in that conflict throughout life—
something he called fixation. Fixations are
conflicts or concerns that persist beyond the

97
The child’s ability to resolve these internal from the id threaten to burst through and become
conflicts determines their future ability to uncontrollable.
cope and function as an adult, according to
Freud.
Because anxiety is obviously unpleasant,

Freud believed that people develop a range

of defense mechanisms to deal with it.
Failure to resolve a stage can lead one to Defense mechanisms are unconscious
become fixated in that stage, leading to strategies that people use to reduce anxiety
unhealthy personality traits. By contrast, by distorting reality and concealing the
successful resolution of the stages leads to a source of the anxiety from themselves.
healthy well-adjusted adult.

Defense Mechanisms. Freud’s efforts to

describe and theorize about the underlying
dynamics of personality and its development
were motivated by very practical problems that Critics also highlight that many of Freud’s
his patients faced in dealing with anxiety, an assumptions and approaches of psychodynamic
intense, negative emotional experience. theory are profoundly male dominated, anti-
According to Freud, anxiety is a danger signal to feminist, and misogynistic.
the ego. Although anxiety can arise from realistic
fears—such as seeing a poisonous snake about
to strike—it can also occur in the form of neurotic
anxiety in which irrational impulses emanating

The Neo-Freudian Psychoanalysts: Building on Freud

98
99
 Freud laid the foundation for important types of people, objects, ideas, or experiences.
work done by a series of successors who were For instance, a mother archetype, which
trained in traditional Freudian theory but later contains reflections of our ancestors’
rejected some of its major points. These relationships with mother figures, is suggested
theorists are known as neo-Freudian by the prevalence of mothers in art, religion,
psychoanalysts. literature, and mythology. (Think of the Virgin
Mary, Earth Mother, wicked stepmothers in fairy
The neo-Freudians placed greater tales, Mother’s Day, and so forth!) Jung also
emphasis than Freud on the functions of the ego suggested that men possess an unconscious
by suggesting that it has more control than the id feminine archetype that affects how they
over day-to-day activities. They focused more on behave, and women have an unconscious male
the social environment and minimized the archetype that colors their behavior (Jung, 1961;
importance of sex as a driving force in people’s Bair, 2003; Smetana, 2007).
lives. They also paid greater attention to the
effects of society and culture on personality To Jung, archetypes play an important
development. role in determining our day-to-day reactions,
attitudes, and values. For example, Jung might
JUNG’S COLLECTIVE UNCONSCIOUS explain the popularity of the Harry Potter books
Carl Jung (pronounced “yoong”), one of and movies as being due to their use of broad
the most influential neo-Freudians, rejected archetypes of good (Harry Potter) and evil
Freud’s view of the primary importance of (Voldemort).
unconscious sexual urges. Instead, he looked at
the primitive urges of the unconscious more Although no reliable research evidence confirms
positively. He argued that they rep- resented a the existence of the collective unconscious—and
more general and positive life force that goes even Jung acknowledged that such evidence
back to the dawn of the existence of life, would be difficult to produce—Jung’s theory has
motivating creativity and positive conflict
had significant influence in areas beyond
resolution (Lothane, 2005; Cassells, 2007;
psychology. For example, personality types
Wilde, 2011).
derived from Jung’s personality approach form
Jung suggested that we have a universal the basis for the Myers-Briggs personality test,
collective unconscious—an inherited set of which is widely used in business and industry to
ideas, feelings, images, and symbols that are pro- vide insights into how employees make
shared with all humans because of our common
decisions and perform on the job (Furnham &
ancestral past. This collective unconscious,
Crump, 2005; Wilde, 2011; Mills, 2013).
which is in the deepest layer of the unconscious,
is similar in everyone and is displayed in HORNEY’S NEO-FREUDIAN PERSPECTIVE
behavior that is common across diverse Karen Horney (pronounced “HORN-eye”)
cultures—such as love of mother, belief in a was one of the earliest psychologists to
supreme being, and even behavior as specific as champion women’s issues and is sometimes
fear of snakes (Drob, 2005; Hauke, 2006; Finn, called the first feminist psychologist. Horney
2011). suggested that personality develops in the
context of social relationships and depends
Jung went on to propose that the particularly on the relationship between parents
collective unconscious contains archetypes, and child and how well the child’s needs are met.
universal symbolic representations of particular She rejected Freud’s suggestion that women

100
have penis envy; she asserted that what women • Jung’s conclusions about the existence
envy most in men is not their anatomy but the of the collective unconscious is based on
independence, success, and freedom women myths, legends, dreams and art, instead
often are denied (Horney, 1937; Smith, 2007; of sound scientific research. Do Jung’s
Coolidge et al., 2011). conclusions, or Adler’s hypotheses about
Horney was also one of the first to stress birth order, change your view on the Neo-
the importance of cultural factors in the Freudian’s work?
determination of personality. For example, she
suggested that society’s rigid gender roles for Evaluate
women lead them to experience ambivalence
about success because they fear they will make 1. _______________ approaches state that
enemies if they are too successful. Her
conceptualizations, developed in the 1930s and behavior is motivated primarily by
1940s, laid the groundwork for many of the unconscious forces.
central ideas of feminism that emerged decades 2. Match each section of the personality
later (Eckardt, 2005; Jones, 2006). (according to Freud) with its description:

ADLER AND OTHER NEO-FREUDIANS

1. Ego a. Determines right
Alfred Adler, another important neo-
Freudian psychoanalyst, also considered from wrong on the
Freudian theory’s emphasis on sexual needs basis of cultural
misplaced. Instead, Adler proposed that the standards.
primary human motivation is a striving for
superiority, not in terms of superiority over others 2. Id b. Operates
but in a quest for self-improvement and
according to the
perfection.
Adler used the term inferiority complex to “reality principle”;
describe adults who have not been able to energy is
overcome the feelings of inadequacy they redirected to
developed as children. Early social relationships integrate the
with parents have an important effect on person into
children’s ability to outgrow feelings of personal
inferiority. If children have positive experiences, society.
they can orient themselves toward attaining
socially useful goals. 3. Superego c. Seeks to reduce
Other neo-Freudians included Erik tension brought on
Erikson, whose theory of psycho- social by primitive drives.
development we discussed in other modules,
and Freud’s daughter, Anna Freud. Like Adler
and Horney, they focused less than Freud on
3. Which of the following represents the proper
inborn sexual and aggressive drives and more
order of personality development, according to
on the social and cultural factors behind
Freud?
personality.
a. Oral, Phallic, Latency, Anal, Genital
Points to ponder:
• What’s your view on criticism towards the b. Anal, Oral, Phallic, Genital, Latency
philosophically-based approach of the c. Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, Genital
Neo-Fruedians? d. Latency, Phallic, Anal, Genital, Oral\

101
 4. __________ ____________ is the term Trait theory is the personality approach
Freud used to describe unconscious that seeks to identify the basic traits necessary
strategies to reduce anxiety by distorting to describe personality. Trait theorists do not
reality and concealing the source of the assume that some people have a trait and others
anxiety from themselves. do not; rather, they propose that all people
possess certain traits, but the degree to which a
Trait, Learning, Biological and Evolutionary, particular trait applies to a specific person varies
and Humanistic Approaches to Personality
and can be quantified. For instance, you may be
“Oh, he’s just terrific. He’s the friendliest guy I relatively friendly, whereas I may be relatively
know—goes out of his way to be nice to everyone. unfriendly. But we both have a “friendliness” trait,
He hardly ever gets mad. He’s just so even- although your degree of “friendliness” is higher
tempered, no matter what’s happening. And he’s than mine. The major challenge for trait theorists
really smart,
Friendly. too. About theSmart.
Even-tempered. only thing I don’t like
Energetic. taking this approach has been to identify the
is that he’s always
Self-centered. Arrogant.in such a hurry to get things specific primary traits necessary to describe
done. He seems to have boundless energy, much personality. As we shall see, different theorists
more than
TheI have.”
above exchange is made up of a
have come up with surprisingly different sets of
series of trait characterizations of the speakers’
“He sounds greatmuch
to me,ofespecially traits.
friends. In fact, our own in comparison
understanding
to Rico,” replied Johnetta. “He is so self-centered
of others’ behavior is based on the premise that ALLPORT’S TRAIT THEORY
and arrogant that it drives me crazy. I sometimes
people possess certain traits that are consistent
wonder why I ever started going out with him.” When personality psychologist Gordon
across different situations. For example, we
Allport systematically pored over an unabridged
generally assume that if someone is outgoing
dictionary in the 1930s, he came up with some
and sociable in one situation, he or she is
18,000 separate terms that could be used to
outgoing and sociable in other situations (Gilbert
describe personality. Although he was able to
et al., 1992; Gilbert, Miller, & Ross, 1998;
pare down the list to a mere 4,500 descriptors
Mischel, 2004). Dissatisfaction with the
after eliminating words with the same meaning,
emphasis in psychoanalytic theory on
he was left with a problem crucial to all trait
unconscious—and difficult to demonstrate—
approaches: Which of those traits were the most
processes in explaining a person’s behavior led
basic?
to the development of alternative approaches to
personality, including a number of trait-based
Allport eventually answered this question
approaches. Other theories reflect established
by suggesting that there are three fundamental
psychological perspectives, such as learning
categories of traits: cardinal, central, and
theory, biological and evolutionary approaches,
secondary (Allport, 1961, 1966). A cardinal trait
and the humanistic approach.
is a single characteristic that directs most of a
TRAIT APPROACHES: PLACING LABELS person’s activities. For example, a totally selfless
ON PERSONALITY woman may direct all her energy toward
humanitarian activities; an intensely power-
If someone asked you to characterize hungry person may be driven by an all-
another person, like Anna and her friend, you consuming need for control. Most people,
probably would come up with a list of traits. however, do not develop a single,
Traits are consistent personality characteristics comprehensive cardinal trait. Instead, they
and behaviors displayed in different situations. possess a handful of central traits that make up

102
the core of personality. Central traits, such as the neuroticism dimension encompasses an
honesty and sociability, are an individual’s major individual’s emotional stability. Finally,
characteristics; they usually number from five to psychoticism is the degree to which reality is
distorted. By evaluating people along these three
ten in any one person. Finally, secondary traits
dimensions, Eysenck was able to predict
are characteristics that affect behavior in fewer
behavior accurately in a variety of situations.
situations and are less influential than central or Figure 1 lists specific traits associated with each
cardinal traits. For instance, a reluctance to eat of the dimensions.
meat and a love of modern art would be
considered secondary traits (Smrtnik-Vitulic ́ & Extraversion Neuroticism Psychoticism
• Sociable • Anxious • Aggressive
Zupanˇciˇc, 2011; Kahn et al., 2013).
• Lively • Depressed • Cold
CATTELL AND EYSENCK: FACTORING OUT • Active • Guilt feelings• Egocentric
PERSONALITY • Assertive • Low self- • Impersonal
• Sensation- esteem • Impulsive
Later attempts to identify primary seeking • Tense
personality traits centered on a statistical Figure 1 Eysenck described personality in terms
technique known as factor analysis. Factor of three major dimensions: extraversion,
neuroticism, and psychoticism. Using these
analysis is a statistical method of identifying
dimensions, he could predict people’s behavior
patterns among a large number of variables. For
in many types of situations. (Source: Eysenck,
example, a personality researcher might ask a 1990)
large group of people to rate themselves on a
number of individual traits. By statistically THE BIG FIVE PERSONALITY TRAITS
(OCEAN or CANOE)
computing which traits are associated with each
other, a researcher can identify the fundamental For the last two decades, the most
patterns of traits—called factors—that tend to be influential trait approach contends that five traits
found together in the same person. or factors—called the “Big Five”—lie at the core
of personality. Using factor analytic statistical
Using factor analysis, personality
techniques, a host of researchers have identified
psychologist Raymond Cattell (1965) suggested
a similar set of five factors that underlie
that 16 pairs of traits represent the basic
personality. The five factors are openness to
dimensions of personality. Using that set of traits,
experience, conscientiousness, extraversion,
he developed the Sixteen Personality Factor
agreeableness, and neuroticism (emotional
Questionnaire, or 16 PF, a person- ality scale
stability).
that is still in use today (Cattell, Cattell, & Cattell,
2000; Djapo et al., 2011). Figure 2 Five broad trait factors, referred
to as the “Big Five,” are considered to be the core
Another trait theorist, psychologist Hans
Eysenck (1995), also used factor analysis to of personality. (Source: Adapted from Pervin,
identify patterns of traits, but he came to a very 1990 and McCrae & Costa, 1986.)
different conclusion about the nature of
personality. He found that personality could best
be described in terms of just three major The Big Five (OCEAN) emerge consistently
dimensions: extraversion, neuroticism, and across a number of domains. For example, factor
psychoticism. The extraversion dimension
analyses of major personality inventories, self-
describes a person’s level of sociability, whereas

103
report measures made by observers of others’ the core of an individual. In contrast, learning
personality traits, and checklists of self- approaches to personality focus on the external
descriptions yield similar factors. In addition, the environment—the world in which a person
Big Five emerge consistently in different lives—and how that determines personality.
populations of individuals, including children,
college students, older adults, and speakers of SKINNER’S BEHAVIORIST APPROACH
According to the most influential learning
different languages. Cross-cultural research theorist, B. F. Skinner (who carried out
conducted in areas ranging from Europe to the pioneering work on operant conditioning),
Middle East to Africa also has been supportive. personality is a collection of learned behavior
Finally, studies of brain functioning show that Big patterns (Skinner, 1975). Similarities in
Five personality traits are related to the way the responses across different situations are caused
by similar patterns of reinforcement that have
brain processes information (Schmitt, Allik, &
been received in such situations in the past. If I
McCrae, 2007; Schmitt et al., 2008; Vecchione am sociable both at parties and at meetings, it is
et al., 2011). because I have been reinforced for displaying
social behaviors—not because I am fulfilling an
In short, a growing consensus exists that unconscious wish based on experiences during
the Big Five represent the best description of my childhood or because I have an internal trait
personality traits we have today. Still, the debate of sociability.
over the specific number and kinds of traits—and Learning theorists such as Skinner are less
even the usefulness of trait approaches in interested in the consistencies in behavior
general—remains a lively one. across situations than in ways of modifying
behavior. To a learning theorist who subscribes
to Skinner’s view, humans are infinitely
changeable through the process of learning new
behavior patterns. If we are able to control and
modify the patterns of reinforcers in a situation,
behavior that other theorists would view as
stable and unyielding can be changed and
ultimately improved. Learning theorists are
optimistic in their attitudes about the potential for
resolving personal and societal problems
through treatment strategies based on learning
theory.

SOCIAL COGNITIVE APPROACHES TO

PERSONALITY

LEARNING APPROACHES: WE ARE WHAT Not all learning theories of personality

WE’VE LEARNED take such a rigid view in rejecting the importance
of what is “inside” a person by focusing solely on
The psychodynamic and trait approaches we’ve
the “outside.” Unlike other learning approaches
been discussing concentrate on the “inner”
to personality, social cognitive approaches to
person—the fury of an unobservable but
personality emphasize the influence of
powerful id, or a critical set of traits that describe
cognition—thoughts, feelings, expectations, and

104
values—as well as observation of others’ it again. Direct reinforcement and
behavior, on personality. According to Albert encouragement from others also play a role in
Bandura, one of the main proponents of this developing self-efficacy (Devonport & Lane,
point of view, people can foresee the possible 2006; Buchanan & Selmon, 2008; Artistico et al.,
outcomes of certain behaviors in a specific 2013).
setting without actually having to carry them out.
This understanding comes primarily through Compared with other learning theories of
observational learning—viewing the actions of personality, social cognitive approaches are
others and observing the consequences distinctive in their emphasis on the reciprocity
(Bandura, 1986, 1999). between individuals and their environment. Not
only is the environment assumed to affect
For instance, children who view a model personality, but people’s behavior and
behaving in, say, an aggressive manner tend to personalities are also assumed to “feedback”
copy the behavior if the consequences of the and modify the environment (Bandura, 1999,
model’s behavior are seen as positive. If, in 2000).
contrast, the model’s aggressive behavior has
resulted in no consequences or negative JULIAN ROTTER’S LOCUS OF CONTROL
consequences, children are considerably less
Julian Rotter viewed that the process of learning
likely to act aggressively. According to social
creates expectancies that guide future
cognitive approaches, then, personality behaviour. He expanded upon Bandura’s ideas
develops through repeated observations of of reciprocal determinism, and he developed the
others’ behavior. term locus of control to describe how
individuals view their relationship to the
Self-Efficacy. Bandura places particular environment (“locus” is Latin for “place” or
emphasis on the role played by self-efficacy. “location”).
Self-efficacy is the belief that we can master a
situation and produce positive out- comes. Self- Distinct from self-efficacy, which involves our
belief in our own abilities, locus of control refers
efficacy underlies people’s faith in their ability to
to our beliefs about the power we have over our
successfully carry out a particular task or to lives.
produce a desired outcome. People with high
self-efficacy have higher aspirations and greater
Locus of control can be classified along a
persistence in working to attain goals.
spectrum from internal to external, where those
Furthermore, they ultimately achieve greater
with an internal locus of control expect
success than those with lower self-efficacy
situations to be fully controlled by their own
(Bandura & Locke, 2003; Betz, 2007; Dunlop,
efforts, whereas those with external locus of
Beatty, & Beauchamp, 2011).
control expect that events will be directed by
How do we develop self-efficacy? One environmental factors out of their control.
way is by paying close attention to our prior
HOW MUCH CONSISTENCY EXISTS IN
successes and failures. If we try snowboarding
PERSONALITY?
and experience little success, we’ll be less likely
to try it again. However, if our initial efforts Another social cognitive theorist, Walter
appear promising, we’ll be more likely to attempt Mischel, takes a different approach to

105
personality from that of Albert Bandura. He (Salmela-Aro & Nurmi, 2007; Gentile et al., 2009;
rejects the view that personality consists of broad Gadbois & Sturgeon, 2011).
Self-esteem is strongly affected by
traits that lead to substantial consistencies in culture. For example, consider the characteristic
behavior across different situations. Instead, he of relationship harmony, which is a sense of
sees personality as considerably more variable success in forming close bonds with other
from one situation to another (Mischel, 2009). people. For people living in Asian cultures,
having high relationship harmony is more
In this view, particular situations give rise important to self-esteem than it is in more
individualistic Western societies (Spencer-
to particular kinds of behavior. Some situations
Rodgers et al., 2004; Lun & Bond, 2006; Cheng
are especially influential (think of a movie & Kwan, 2008).
theater, where everyone displays pretty much Although almost everyone goes through
the same behavior by sitting quietly and watching periods of low self-esteem (for instance, after an
the film). Other situations permit much variability undeniable failure), some people are chronically
in behavior (think of a party, for example, where low in self-esteem. For them, failure seems to be
an inevitable part of life. In fact, low self-esteem
some people may be dancing, while others are
may lead to a cycle of failure in which past failure
eating and drinking). breeds future failure.
For example, consider students with low
From this perspective, personality cannot self-esteem who are studying for a test. Because
be considered without taking the particular of their low self-esteem, they expect to do poorly
context of the situation into account—a view on the test. In turn, this belief raises their anxiety
known as situationism. In his cognitive-affective level, which makes it increasingly difficult to
study and perhaps even leading them not to work
processing system (CAPS) theory, Mischel as hard. Because of these attitudes, they do, in
argues that people’s thoughts and emotions fact, ultimately perform badly on the test.
about themselves and the world determine how Ultimately, the failure reinforces their low self-
they view, and then react, in particular situations. esteem, and the cycle is perpetuated. In short,
Personality is thus seen as a reflection of how low self-esteem can lead to a self-destructive
cycle of failure.
people’s prior experiences in different situations
On the other hand, high levels of self-esteem can
affect their behavior (Shoda & Mischel, 2006;
also be troublesome if it is unwarranted.
Mischel & Shoda, 2008; McCrae et al., 2011).
According to a growing body of data, an
SELF-ESTEEM. Our behavior also reflects increasing number of college-age students have
the view we have of ourselves and the way we high levels of narcissism, in which people show
value the various parts of our personalities. Self- self-absorption and hold an inflated view of
esteem is the component of personality that
themselves. For example, over the past three
encompasses our positive and negative self-
evaluations. Unlike self-efficacy, which focuses decades, thousands of American college
on our views of whether we are able to carry out students participating in a variety of
a task, self-esteem relates to how we feel about psychological research studies were asked to
ourselves. take the Narcissism Personality Inventory (NPI),
Although people have a general level of a test of narcissistic tendencies. A summary of
self-esteem, it is not unidimensional. We may
see ourselves positively in one domain but more than 100 such studies conducted over a
negatively in others. For example, a good 25-year period showed a significant increase in
student may have high self-esteem in academic participants’ narcissism scores (Twenge &
domains but lower self-esteem in sports Foster, 2010; Dingfelder, 2011; Twenge &
Kasser, 2013).

106
Figure 3 The cycle of low self-esteem begins follow authority) had particularly strong genetic
with an individual already having low self- components, whereas achievement and social
closeness had relatively weak genetic
esteem. As a consequence, the person will have components (Tellegen et al., 1988; Bouchard et
low performance expectations and expect to fail al., 2004; see Figure 4).
a test, thereby producing anxiety and reduced Furthermore, it is increasingly clear that
effort. As a result, the person will actually fail, the roots of adult personality emerge early in life.
and failure in turn reinforces low self-esteem. Infants are born with a specific temperament, an
individual’s behavioral style and characteristic
way of responding. Temperament encompasses
several dimensions, including general activity
level and mood. For instance, some individuals
are quite active, while others are relatively calm.
Similarly, some are relatively easygoing,
whereas others are irritable, easily upset, and
difficult to soothe. Temperament is quite consis-
tent, with significant stability from infancy well
into adolescence (Wachs et al., 2004; Kagan et
BIOLOGICAL AND EVOLUTIONARY al., 2007; Evans & Rothbart, 2007, 2009; Hori et
APPROACHES: ARE WE BORN WITH al., 2011).
PERSONALITY? Some researchers contend that specific genes
are related to personality. For example, people
Approaching the question of what
with a longer dopamine-4 receptor gene are
determines personality from a different direction,
biological and evolutionary approaches to more likely to be thrill-seekers than those without
personality suggest that important components such a gene. These thrill-seekers tend to be
of personality are inherited. Building on the work extroverted, impulsive, quick-tempered, and
of behavioral geneticists, researchers using always in search of excitement and novel
biological and evolutionary approaches argue
situations. Furthermore, the structure of their
that personality is determined at least in part by
our genes in much the same way that our height brains may reflect their thrill-seeking tendencies
is largely a result of genetic contributions from (see Neuroscience in Your Life; Robins, 2005;
our ancestors. The evolutionary perspective Golimbet et al., 2007; Ray et al., 2009).
assumes that personality traits that led to our
ancestors’ survival and reproductive success are
more likely to be preserved and passed on to
subsequent generations (Buss, 2001, 2009,
2011).
The results of research studies
conducted on twins who are genetically identical
but raised apart illustrate the importance of
genetic factors in personality. Personality tests
indicate that in major respects, genetically
identical twins raised apart are quite similar in
personality, despite having been separated at an
early age.
Moreover, certain traits are more heavily
influenced by heredity than others. For example,
social potency (the degree to which a person
assumes mastery and leadership roles in social
situations) and traditionalism (the tendency to

107
Figure 4 The inherited roots of personality. The Benjamin, & Belmaker, 2003; Bouchard, 2004;
percentages indicate the degree to which 11 South & Krueger, 2008; South et al., 2013).
personality characteristics reflect the influence of HUMANISTIC APPROACHES: THE
heredity. (Source: Adapted from Tellengen et al., UNIQUENESS OF YOU
1988.) In all the approaches to personality that
we have discussed, where is an explanation for
More important, genes interact with the the saintliness of a Mother Teresa, the creativity
of a Michelangelo, and the brilliance and
environment. As we see in discussions of the
perseverance of an Einstein? An understanding
heritability of intelligence and the nature–nurture of such unique individuals—as well as more
issue, it is impossible to completely divorce ordinary sorts of people who have some of the
genetic factors from environmental factors. same attributes—comes from humanistic theory.
Although studies of identical twins raised in According to humanistic theorists, all the
different environments are helpful, they are not approaches to personality we have discussed
share a fundamental misperception in their views
definitive because it is impossible to assess and
of human nature. Instead of seeing people as
control environmental factors fully. Furthermore, controlled by unconscious, unseen forces
estimates of the influence of genetics are just (psychodynamic approaches), a set of stable
that—estimates—and apply to groups, not traits (trait approaches),
individuals. situational reinforcements and punishments
(learning theory), or inherited factors (biological
Finally, even if more genes are found to be linked and evolutionary approaches), humanistic
to specific personality characteristics, genes still approaches to personality emphasize people’s
inherent goodness and their tendency to move
cannot be viewed as the sole cause of toward higher levels of functioning. It is this
personality. For one thing, genetically conscious, self-motivated ability to change and
determined characteristics may not be improve, along with people’s unique creative
expressed if they are not “turned on” by impulses, that humanistic theorists argue make
particular environmental experiences. up the core of personality.
Furthermore, behaviors produced by genes may
help to create a specific environment. For ROGERS AND THE NEED FOR SELF-
instance, a cheerful, smiley baby may lead the ACTUALIZATION
parents to smile more and be more responsive,
The major proponent of the humanistic point of
thereby creating a supportive, pleasant
view is Carl Rogers (1971). Along with other
environment. (Scarr, 1998; Plomin & Caspi,
humanistic theorists, such as Abraham Maslow,
1999; Kim-Cohen, Caspi, & Moffitt, 2003; Kim-
Rogers maintains that all people have a
Cohen et al., 2005).
fundamental need for self-actualization, a state
Although an increasing number of personality of self-fulfillment in which people realize their
theorists are taking biological and evolutionary highest potential, each in a unique way. He
factors into account, no comprehensive, unified further suggests that people develop a need for
theory that considers biological and evolutionary positive regard that reflects the desire to be loved
factors is widely accepted. Still, it is clear that and respected. Because others provide this
certain personality traits have substantial genetic positive regard, we grow dependent on them. We
components and that heredity and environment begin to see and judge ourselves through the
interact to determine personality (Ebstein,
eyes of other people, relying on their values and
being preoccupied with what they think of us.

108
 According to Rogers, one outgrowth of
placing importance on others’ opinions is that a
conflict may grow between people’s experiences
and their self-concept. Self-concept is the set of
beliefs and perceptions people hold about their
own abilities, behavior, and personality. If the
discrepancies between what people experience

and their self-concept are minor, so are the

consequences. But if the discrepancies between Figure 5 According to the humanistic view of
one’s experience and one’s self-concept are Carl Rogers, people have a basic need to be
great, they will lead to psychological loved and respected. If you receive unconditional
disturbances in daily functioning, such as the positive regard from others, you will develop a
experience of frequent anxiety. more realistic self-concept; but if the response is
conditional, it may lead to anxiety and frustration.
Rogers suggests that one way of
overcoming the discrepancy between ABRAHAM MASLOW AND HIS THEORY OF
experience and self-concept is through the NEEDS
receipt of unconditional positive regard from
another person—a friend, a spouse, or a Like Rogers, Abraham Maslow also believed in
therapist. Unconditional positive regard refers the human tendency towards growth and self-
actualization. Specifically, he proposed that
to an attitude of acceptance and respect on the individuals are motivated to achieve certain
observer’s part, no matter what a person says or needs either through a sense of deficiency
does. This acceptance, says Rogers, gives (deficiency motivation) or a desire for personal
people the opportunity to evolve and grow both growth (growth motivation).
cognitively and emotionally and to develop more
realistic self-concepts. You may have
experienced the power of unconditional positive
regard when you confided in someone, revealing
embarrassing secrets because you knew the
listener would still love and respect you even
after hearing the worst about you (Snyder, 2002;
Marshall, 2007; Patterson & Joseph, 2013).

In contrast, conditional positive regard depends

on your behavior. In such cases, others withdraw
their love and acceptance if you do something of
which they don’t approve. The result is a
discrepancy between your true self and what
others wish you would be, which leads to anxiety
and frustration.

109
The ultimate goal in this hierarchy was towards
need for attaining self-actualisation. The
actualising tendency in his model represented
the drive of every organism has to strive towards
reaching their fullest potential.

It’s worth noting that Maslow’s hierarchy of

needs is often criticised in scientific literature,
and even Maslow subsequently changed his
view regarding the need for linear movement
through the levels of the hierarchy, with the main
criticisms being:

• The theory was largely based on

influential public figures rather than
average individuals;
• Self-actualisation is described as ‘being
the best that you can be’ but the
concept of good is relative and varies Figure 6 The multiple perspectives of
between individuals and cultures personality
The steps in this model are not strictly
hierarchical as many individuals in impoverished Self-Test
nations can achieve ideals similar to self-
actualisation whilst ‘lower’ needs are not met. 1. Carl’s determination to succeed is the
dominant force in all his activities and
COMPARING APPROACHES TO relationships. According to Gordon
PERSONALITY. In light of the multiple Allport’s theory, this is an example of a
approaches we have discussed, you may be trait. In contrast, Cindy’s fondness
wondering which of the theories provides the for old western movies is an example of
most accurate description of personality. That a ________ trait.
question cannot be answered precisely. Each
theory is built on different assumptions and 2. Eysenck might describe a person who
focuses on somewhat different aspects of enjoys activities such as parties and
personality. Furthermore, there is no clear way hang-gliding as high on what trait?
to scientifically test the various approaches and
their assumptions against one another. Given 3. Proponents of which approach to
the complexity of every individual, it seems personality would be most likely to agree
reasonable that personality can be viewed from with the statement, “Personality can be
a number of perspectives simultaneously thought of as learned responses to a
(Pervin, 2003). person’s upbringing and
environment”?
a. Humanistic
b. Biological and evolutionary
c. Learning
d. Trait
4. Bandura would rate a person who would

110
 make the statement, “I know I can’t do ASSESSMENT OF PERSONALITY:
it” as low on _________________. DETERMINING WHAT MAKES US
5. Which approach to personality DISTINCTIVE
emphasizes the innate goodness of
people and their desire to grow?
a. Humanistic You have a need for other people to like and admire you.
b. Psychodynamic
c. Learning You have a tendency to be critical of yourself.
d. Biological and evolutionary
You have a great deal of unused potential that you have not
turned to your advantage.
Rethink
Although you have some personality weaknesses, you
1. If personality traits are merely descriptive generally are able to compensate for them.
and not explanatory, what use are they?
Can assigning a trait to a person be Relating to members of the opposite sex has presented
harmful—or helpful? Why or why not? problems for you.
2. In what ways are Cattell’s 16 source
traits, Eysenck’s three dimensions, and Although you appear to be disciplined and self-controlled
the “Big Five” factors similar, and in what to others, you tend to be anxious and insecure inside.
ways are they different? Which trait
At times you have serious doubts about whether you have
seems to appear in all three schemes made the right decision or done the right thing.
(under one name or another? And which
are unique to one scheme? Why is this You prefer a certain amount of change and variety and
significant? become dissatisfied when hemmed in by restrictions and
limitations.

You do not accept others’ statements without satisfactory

proof.

You have found it unwise to be too frank in revealing

yourself to others.

If you think these statements provide a

surprisingly accurate account of your
personality, you are not alone: Most college
students think that these descriptions are
tailored just to them. In fact, the statements were
designed intentionally to be so vague that they
apply to just about anyone (Forer, 1949; Russo,
1981).

The ease with which we can agree with

such imprecise statements underscores the
difficulty in coming up with accurate and

111
meaningful assessments of people’s Norms are established by administering a
personalities. Psychologists interested in specific test to a large number of people and
determining the typical scores. It is then possible
assessing personality must be able to define the to compare a single person’s score with the
most meaningful ways of discriminating between scores of the group, which provides a
one person’s personality and another’s. To do comparative measure of test performance
this, they use psychological tests, standard against the performance of others who have
measures devised to assess behavior taken the test.
objectively. With the results of such tests,
psychologists can help people better understand Self-Report Measures of Personality
themselves and make decisions about their
If someone wanted to assess your
lives. Researchers interested in the causes and
personality, one possible approach would be to
consequences of personality also employ
carry out an extensive interview with you to
psychological tests (Hambleton, 2006; Miller,
determine the most important events in your
McIntire, & Lovler, 2011; Hambleton & Zenisky,
childhood, your social relationships, and your
2013).
successes and failures. Obviously, though, such
Like the assessments that seek to a technique would take extraordinary time and
measure intelligence, all psychological tests effort.
must have reliability and validity. Reliability
It is also unnecessary. Just as physicians
refers to a test’s measurement consistency. If a
draw only a small sample of your blood to test,
test is reliable, it yields the same result each time
psychologists can use self-report measures. In a
it is administered to a specific person or group.
self-report measure, people are asked
In contrast, unreliable tests give different results
questions about their own behavior and traits.
each time they are administered.
This sampling of self-report data is then used to
For meaningful conclusions to be drawn, infer the presence of particular personality
tests also must be valid. Tests have validity characteristics. For example, a researcher who
when they actually measure what they are was interested in assessing a person’s
designed to measure. If a test is constructed to orientation to life might administer the
measure sociability, for instance, we need to questionnaire.
know that it actually measures sociability and not
One of the best examples of a self-report
some other trait.
measure, and one of the most frequently used
Finally, psychological tests are based on personality tests, is the Minnesota Multiphasic
norms, the average test performance of a large Personality Inventory-2- Restructured Form
sample of individuals that permit the comparison (MMPI-2-RF). Although the original purpose of
of one person’s score on a test with the scores this measure was to identify people with specific
of others who have taken the same test. For sorts of psychological difficulties, it has been
example, a norm permits test-takers who have found to predict a variety of other behaviors. For
received a certain score on a test to know that instance, MMPI-2-RF scores have been shown
they have scored in the top 10% of all those who to be good predictors of whether college
have taken the test. students will marry within 10 years of graduating
and whether they will get an advanced degree.
Police departments use the test to measure

112
whether police officers are likely to use their procedure on groups with different diagnoses,
weapons. Psychologists in Russia administer a the test authors were able to devise a number of
modified form of the MMPI-2-RF to their subscales that identified different forms of
astronauts and Olympic athletes (Butcher, 2005; abnormal behavior.
Sellbom & Ben-Porath, 2006; Sellbom, Fischler,
& Ben-Porath, 2007; Butcher, 2011). When the MMPI-2-RF is used for the purpose for
which it was devised—identification of
The test consists of a series of 338 items to personality disorders—it does a good job.
which a person responds “true,” “false,” or However, like other personality tests, it presents
“cannot say.” The questions cover a variety of an opportunity for abuse. For instance,
issues ranging from mood (“I feel useless at employers who use it as a screening tool for job
times”) to opinions (“People should try to applicants may interpret the results improperly
understand their dreams”) to physical and by relying too heavily on the results of individual
psychological health (“I am bothered by an upset scales instead of taking into account the overall
stomach several times a week” and “I have patterns of results, which require skilled
strange and peculiar thoughts”). interpretation. Furthermore, critics point out that
the individual scales overlap, which makes their
There are no right or wrong answers. Instead, interpretation difficult. In sum, although the
interpretation of the results rests on the pattern MMPI-2-RF remains the most widely used
of responses. The test yields scores on 51 personality test and has been translated into
separate scales, including several scales meant more than 100 different languages, it must be
to measure the validity of the respondent’s used with caution (Forbey & Ben-Porath, 2007;
answers. For example, there is a “lie scale” that Ben-Porath & Archer, 2008; Williams & Butcher,
indicates when people are falsifying their 2011).
responses in order to present themselves more
favorably (through items such as, “I can’t
remember ever having a bad night’s sleep”)
(Butcher, 2005; Stein & Graham, 2005;
Bacchiochi, 2006).

How did the authors of the MMPI-2-RF

determine what specific patterns of responses
indicate? The procedure they used is typical of
personality test construction—a process known
as test standardization. To create the test, the
test authors asked groups of psychiatric patients
with a specific diagnosis, such as depression or
schizophrenia, to complete a large number of
items. They then determined which items best
differentiated members of those groups from a
comparison group of normal participants and
included those specific items in the final version
of the test. By systematically carrying out this

113
Figure 2 A MMPI-2-RF profile of person who another well-known projective test. The TAT
suffers from obsessional anxiety, social consists of a series of pictures about which a
withdrawal, and delusional thinking. person is asked to write a story. The stories are
then used to draw inferences about the writer’s
Projective Methods personality characteristics (Weiner, 2004a;
Langan-Fox & Grant, 2006). Tests with stimuli as
ambiguous as those used in the Rorschach and
TAT require a high degree of skill and care in
their interpretation—too much skill and care, in
the view of many critics. The Rorschach in
particular has been criticized for requiring too
much inference on the part of the examiner, and
attempts to standardize the scoring of it have
frequently failed. Despite such problems, both
the Rorschach and the TAT are widely used,
especially in clinical settings, and their
proponents suggest that their reliability and
The shape in the figure is representative of validity are great enough to provide useful
inkblots used in projective personality tests. inferences about personality (Garb et al., 2005;
Projective personality tests are personality Society for Personality Assessment, 2005;
tests in which a person is shown an ambiguous, Campos, 2011).
vague stimulus and asked to describe it or to tell
Behavioral Assessment
a story about it. The responses, which are scored
and interpreted using a standardized scoring If you were a psychologist subscribing to a
method, are considered to be “projections” of the learning approach to personality, you would be
individual’s personality. likely to object to the indirect nature of projective
tests. Instead, you would be more apt to use
The best-known projective test is the
behavioral assessment—direct measures of
Rorschach test. Devised by Swiss psychiatrist
an individual’s behavior designed to describe
Hermann Rorschach (1924), the test involves
characteristics indicative of personality. As with
showing a series of symmetrical stimuli to people
observational research, behavioral assessment
who are then asked what the figures represent to
may be carried out naturalistically by observing
them. Their responses are recorded, and people
people in their own settings: in the workplace, at
are classified into personality types requiring a
home, or in school. In other cases, behavioral
complex set of judgments on the part of the
assessment occurs in the laboratory under
examiner. For instance, individuals who see a
controlled conditions in which a psychologist
bear in one particular Rorschach inkblot are
sets up a situation and observes an individual’s
thought to have a strong degree of emotional
behavior (Gladwell, 2004; Miller & Leffard, 2007;
control, according to the scoring guidelines
O’Brien & Young, 2013).
Rorschach developed (Weiner, 2004b;
Silverstein, 2007). Behavioral assessment is particularly
appropriate for observing—and eventually
The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) is

114
remedying—specific behavioral difficulties, such results.
as shyness in children. It provides a means of
assessing the specific nature and incidence of a • Do not base a decision only on the
results of any one test. Test results
problem and subsequently allows psychologists
should be interpreted in the context of
to determine whether intervention techniques
other information, such as academic
have been successful.
records, social interests, and home and
community activities.
Behavioral assessment techniques based on
learning theories of personality have also made • Remember that test results are not
important contributions to the treatment of always accurate. The results may be in
certain kinds of psychological difficulties. In error; the test may be unreliable or
addition, they are also used to make hiring and invalid. For example, you may have had
personnel decision in the workplace. a “bad day” when you took the test, or the
person scoring and interpreting the test
ASSESSING PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT may have made a mistake. You should
INSTRUMENTS not place too much significance on the
results of a single administration of any
Many companies ranging from General Motors test.
to Microsoft employ personality tests to help
determine who gets hired. For example, potential In sum, it is important to keep in mind
Microsoft employees have been asked the complexity of human behavior—particularly
brainteasers like, “If you had to remove one of your own. No single test can provide an
the 50 U.S. states, which would it be?” (Hint: First understanding of the intricacies of someone’s
define “remove.” If you mean the death of personality without considering a good deal
everyone in the state, suggest a low-population more information than can be provided in a
state. If you mean quitting the country, then go single testing session (Gladwell, 2004; Paul,
for an outlying state like Alaska or Hawaii.) Other 2004; Hogan, Davies, & Hogan, 2007).
employers ask questions that are even vaguer
Summary:
(“Describe November”). With such questions, it’s
not always clear that the tests are reliable or valid • Personality is the pattern of enduring, distinctive
(McGinn, 2003). characteristics that produce consistency and
individuality in a given person.
Before relying too heavily on the results
• According to psychodynamic approaches to
of such personality testing in the role of potential
personality, much behavior is caused by parts of
employee, employer, or consumer of testing
personality that are found in the unconscious and
services, you should keep several points in mind:
of which we are unaware.
• Understand what the test claims to • Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, one of the
measure. Standard personality psychodynamic approaches, suggests that
measures are accompanied by personality is composed of the id, the ego, and
information that discusses how the test the superego. The id is the unorganized, inborn
was developed, to whom it is most part of personality whose purpose is to
applicable, and how the results should be immediately reduce tensions relating to hunger,
interpreted. Read any explanations of the sex, aggression, and other primitive impulses.
test; they will help you understand the

115
 The ego restrains instinctual energy to maintain • Humanistic approaches emphasize people’s
the individual’s safety and to help the person be inherent goodness. They consider the core of
a member of society. The superego represents personality in terms of a person’s ability to
society’s rights and wrongs and includes the change and improve.
conscience. • The major personality approaches differ
• Freud’s psychoanalytic theory suggests that substantially from one another; the differences
personality develops through a series of may reflect both their focus on different aspects
psychosexual stages (oral, anal, phallic, latency, of personality and the overall complexity of
and genital), each of which is associated with a personality.
primary biological function.
• Defense mechanisms, according to Freudian
theory, are unconscious strategies that people
References:
use to reduce anxiety by distorting reality and
concealing the true source of the anxiety from
1. Understanding Psychology by Robert S.
themselves.
Feldman, 12th Edition
• Freud’s psychoanalytic theory has provoked a
2. Theories of Personality by Feist & Feist, 7th
number of criticisms, including a lack of
Edition
supportive scientific data, the theory’s
3. Psychological Testing by Anne Anastasi, 4th
inadequacy in making predictions, and its
Edition
reliance on a highly restricted population. On the
other hand, recent neuroscience research has UNIT 12: STRESS, HEALTH AND
offered some support for the concept of the ADJUSTMENT
unconscious. Neo-Freudian psychoanalytic
LEARNING OBJECTIVES/OUTCOMES
theorists built on Freud’s work, although they
placed greater emphasis on the role of the ego At the end of this lesson, you should be able
and paid more attention to the role of social to:
factors in determining behavior. • Understand the meaning of Stress and
• Trait approaches have been used to identify adjustment
relatively enduring dimensions along which • Identify the psychological moderators of Stress
people differ from one another—dimensions • Explain the effects of stress in our body.
known as traits. • Analyze and understand the chronic health
• Learning approaches to personality concentrate problems.
on observable behavior. To a strict learning INTRODUCTION
theorist, personality is the sum of learned
responses to the external environment. We all experience stress occasionally.
Today’s rapidly paced society creates stress for
• Social cognitive approaches concentrate on the
many of us. We are constantly pressured to
role of cognition in determining personality.
accomplish more and more in less and less time.
Those approaches pay particular attention to
Air and noise pollution, traffic congestion, crime,
self-efficacy and self-esteem in determining
and excessive workload are increasingly present
behavior.
in our everyday lives. Exposure to stress can
• Biological and evolutionary approaches to
lead to painful emotions, for instance anxiety or
personality focus on the way in which personality depression. It can also lead to physical illnesses,
characteristics are inherited.

116
both minor and severe. But people’s reactions to flight response", is activated in case of an
stressful events differ widely: some people faced emergency. However, this response can
with a stressful event serious psychological or become chronically activated during prolonged
physical problems, whereas other people faced periods of stress. Prolonged activation of the
with the same stressful event develop no stress response causes wear and tear on the
problems and may even find the event body – both physical and emotional.
challenging and interesting.
Stress that continues without
relief can lead to a condition called distress – a
LESSON PROPER negative stress reaction. Distress can disturb
DEFINITION OF STRESS the body's internal balance or equilibrium,
leading to physical symptoms such as
headaches, an upset stomach, elevated blood
pressure, chest pain, sexual dysfunction, and
problems sleeping. Emotional problems can
also result from distress. These problems
include depression, panic attacks, or other
forms of anxiety and worry. Research suggests
that stress also can bring on or worsen certain
symptoms or diseases. Stress is linked to 6 of
the leading causes of death: heart disease,
cancer, lung ailments, accidents, cirrhosis of
Stress is the body's reaction to any change that the liver, and suicide.
requires an adjustment or response. The body Stress also becomes harmful when people
reacts to these changes with physical, mental, engage in the compulsive use of substances or
and emotional responses. Stress is a normal part behaviors to try to relieve their stress. These
of life. You can experience stress from your substances or behaviors include food, alcohol,
environment, your body, and your thoughts. tobacco, drugs, gambling, sex, shopping, and
Even positive life changes such as a promotion,
the Internet. Rather than relieving the stress
a mortgage, or the birth of a child produce stress.
and returning the body to a relaxed state, these
substances and compulsive behaviors tend to
The human body is designed to experience keep the body in a stressed state and cause
stress and react to it. Stress can be positive, more problems. The distressed person
keeping us alert, motivated, and ready to avoid becomes trapped in a vicious circle.
danger. Stress becomes negative when a People can learn to manage stress and lead
person faces continuous challenges without happier, healthier lives.
relief or relaxation between stressors. As a CHARACTERISTICS OF STRESSFUL
result, the person becomes overworked, and EVENTS
stress-related tension builds. The body's
autonomic nervous system has a built-in stress
response that causes physiological changes to
allow the body to combat stressful situations.
This stress response, also known as the "fight or

117
Traumatic Events stressfulness as the actual controllability of
those events. The belief that we can control
Situations of extreme danger that are
events appears to reduce the impact of the
outside the range of usual human
events, even if we never exercise that
experience. These include natural disasters,
control.
such as earthquakes and floods; man-made
disasters, such as wars and nuclear Predictability
accidents; catastrophic accidents, such as
car or plane crashes; and physical assaults, The predictability of an event – the degree
such as rape or attempted murder. to which we know if and when it will occur –
also affects its stressfulness. Being able to
predict the occurrence of a stressful event –
Many people experience a specific series
even if the individual cannot control it –
of psychological reactions after a traumatic
usually reduces the severity of the stress.
event. At first, survivors are stunned and Humans generally choose predictable over
dazed and appear to be unaware of their unpredictable shocks, too. They also show
injuries or of the danger. They may wander less emotional arousal and report less
around in a disoriented state, perhaps distress while waiting for predictable shocks
putting themselves at risk for further injury. to occur, and they perceive predictable
In the next stage, survivors are still passive shocks as less aversive than unpredictable
and unable to initiate even simple tasks, but ones of the same intensity
they may follow orders readily. In the third
How do we explain these results? One
stage, survivors become anxious and possibility is that a warning signal before an
apprehensive, have difficulty in aversive event allows the person or animal
concentrating, and may repeat the story of to initiate some sort of preparatory process
the catastrophe over and over again. that acts to reduce the effects of a noxious
stimulus. Another possibility is that with
Controllability
unpredictable shock, there is no safe period,
The controllability of an event – the degree but with predictable shock, the organism
to which we can stop it or bring it about – (human or animal) can relax to some extent
influences our perceptions of stressfulness. until the signal warns that shock is about to
The more uncontrollable an event seems, occur.
the more likely it is to be perceived as Every day they must confront the uncertainty of
stressful. Major uncontrollable events a potentially disastrous future. Even an event as
include the death of a loved one, being laid overwhelmingly negative as torture can be
off from work, and serious illness. Minor
affected by the extent to which victims feel that
uncontrollable events include such things as
the episodes of torture are predictable. Victims
having a friend refuse to accept your
who are able to predict the timing and type of
apology for some misdeed. One obvious
torture they experience while being detained
reason uncontrollable events are stressful is
recover better once they are released than
that if we cannot control them, we cannot
victims who perceive the torture as completely
stop them from happening.
unpredictable.
However, our perceptions of the
controllability of events appear to be as
important to our assessment of their

118
Internal Conflicts into conflict with moral standards, and violation
of these standards can generate feelings of guilt.
Stress can also be brought about by internal
conflicts – unresolved issues that may be either PSYCHOLOGICAL REACTIONS TO STRESS
conscious or unconscious. Conflict occurs when
a person must choose between incompatible, or
mutually exclusive, goals or courses of action.
Many of the things people desire prove to be
incompatible.
Even if two goals are equally attractive – for
example, you receive two good job offers – you
may agonize over the decision and experience
regrets after making a choice. This stress would
not have occurred if you had been offered only
one job.
Conflict may also arise when two inner needs or Anxiety
motives are in opposition. In our society, the
The most common response to a stressor is
conflicts that are most pervasive and difficult to
anxiety. People who live through events that are
resolve generally occur between the following
beyond the normal range of human suffering
motives:
(natural disasters, rape, kidnapping) sometimes
• Independence versus dependence. develop a severe set of anxiety related
Particularly when we are faced with a difficult symptoms known as post-traumatic stress
situation, we may want someone to take care of disorder (PTSD).
us and solve our problems. But we are taught There are four sets of symptoms of PTSD. The
that we must stand on our own. At other times first set represents a deep detachment from
we may wish for independence, but everyday life. People report feeling completely
circumstances or other people force us to remain numb to the world, as if they have no emotional
dependent. reactions to anything. They feel estranged from
• Intimacy versus isolation. The desire to others, as if they can no longer relate to even
be close to another person and to share our close family and friends. They also lose their
innermost thoughts and emotions may conflict interest in their former activities and may just sit
with the fear of being hurt or rejected if we around for hours at a time, apparently staring into
expose too much of ourselves. nothingness. The second set of symptoms is a
• Cooperation versus competition. Our repeated reliving of the trauma. People may
society emphasizes competition and success. dream every night of the trauma and become
Competition begins in early childhood among afraid to go to sleep. Even while awake, they
siblings, continues through school, and may mentally relive the trauma so vividly that
culminates in business and professional rivalry. they begin to behave as if they were there.
At the same time, we are urged to cooperate and
to help others. Trauma survivors may act as though they are
• Expression of impulses versus moral always vigilant for signs of the trauma recurring.
standards. Impulses must be regulated to some They may find it impossible to concentrate on
degree in all societies. Sex and aggression are anything, including their work, conversations, or
two areas in which our impulses frequently come driving a car. Even if they are not having
recurrent nightmares, they may have restless
nights and wake up exhausted. Another

119
symptom of PTSD that is not part of these three withdrawal and apathy, is also common. If
core sets of symptoms is survivor guilt – some the stressful conditions continue and the
people feel terribly guilty about surviving a individual is unable to cope with them,
trauma when others did not, even if they could apathy may deepen into depression. The
not have saved other people. theory of learned helplessness (Seligman,
1975) explains how experience with
Post-traumatic stress disorder may develop
uncontrollable negative events can lead to
immediately after the trauma, or it may be apathy and depression.
brought on by a minor stress experienced weeks,
months, or even years later. It may last a long The original learned helplessness
time. theory is useful, however, in helping us
understand why some people seem to give
Anger and aggression
up when they are exposed to difficult
Another common reaction to a events. For example, the theory has been
stressful situation is anger, which may lead used to explain why prisoners in Nazi
to aggression. Children often become concentration camps did not rebel against
angry and exhibit aggressive behavior their captors more often: They had come to
when they experience frustration. The believe that they were helpless to do
frustration–aggression hypothesis anything about their situation and therefore
assumes that whenever a person’s efforts did not try to escape. Similarly, women
to reach a goal are blocked, an aggressive whose husbands beat them frequently may
drive is induced that motivates behavior not try to escape. They often say that they
designed to injure the object – or person – feel helpless to do anything about their
causing the frustration. Although research situation because they fear what their
has shown that aggression is not an husbands would do if they tried to leave or
inevitable response to frustration, it because they do not have the economic
certainly is a frequent one. resources to support themselves and their
children.
Direct aggression toward the
source of frustration is not always possible Cognitive impairment
or wise. Sometimes the source is vague
In addition to
and intangible. The person does not know
emotional reactions, people often show
what to attack but feels angry and seeks an
substantial cognitive impairment when
object on which to vent these feelings.
faced with serious stressors. They find it
Sometimes the individual responsible for
hard to and to organize their thoughts
the frustration is so powerful that an attack
logically. They may be easily distracted. As
would be dangerous. When circumstances
a result, their performance on tasks,
block direct attack on the cause of
particularly complex tasks, tends to
frustration, aggression may be displaced: deteriorate.
The aggressive action may be directed
toward an innocent person or object rather This cognitive impairment may
than toward the actual cause of the come from two sources. High levels of
frustration. emotional arousal can interfere with the
processing of information, so the more
Apathy and depression
anxious, angry, or depressed we are after
Although experiencing a stressor, the more likely we
aggression is a frequent response to are to exhibit cognitive impairment.
frustration, the opposite response,

120
 Cognitive impairment may also early sign of stress is a dry mouth. The
result from the distracting thoughts that go body’s natural painkillers, endorphins, are
through our heads when we are faced with secreted, and the surface blood vessels
a stressor. We contemplate possible constrict to reduce bleeding in case of
sources of action, worry about the injury. The spleen releases more red blood
consequences of our actions, and berate cells to help carry oxygen, and the bone
ourselves for not being able to handle the marrow produces more white corpuscles to
situation better. fight infection.
Cognitive In groundbreaking
impairment often leads people to adhere work that remains influential today,
rigidly to behavior patterns because they researcher Hans Selye (1978) described
cannot consider alternative patterns. the physiological changes we have just
People have been trapped in flaming discussed as part of a general adaptation
buildings because they persisted in syndrome, a set of responses that is
pushing against exit doors that opened displayed by all organisms in response to
inward; in their panic, they failed to stress. The general adaptation syndrome
consider other possible means of escape. has three phases. In the first phase, alarm,
Some people resort to old, childlike the body mobilizes to confront a threat by
behavior patterns that are not appropriate triggering sympathetic nervous system
to the situation. A cautious person may activity. In the second phase, resistance,
become even more cautious and withdraw the organism attempts to cope with the
entirely, whereas an aggressive person threat by fleeing it or fighting it. The third
may lose control and strike out heedlessly phase, exhaustion, occurs if the organism
in all directions. is unable to flee from or fight the threat and
depletes its physiological resources in
PHYSIOLOGICAL REACTIONS TO attempting to do so.
STRESS
How stress affects health
The fight-or-flight response
Attempts to adapt
Regardless of the stressor, your
to the continued presence of a stressor
body automatically prepares to handle the
may deplete the body’s resources and
emergency. That this is called the fight-or-
make it vulnerable to illness. The wear and
flight response – the body’s mobilization to
tear on the body that results from chronic
attack or flee from a threatening situation.
overactivity of the physiological response
Energy is needed right away, so the liver
to stress is referred to as allostatic load.
releases extra sugar (glucose) to fuel the
Chronic stress can lead to physical
muscles, and hormones are released that
disorders such as ulcers, high blood
stimulate the conversion of fats and
pressure, and heart disease. It may also
proteins into sugar. The body’s metabolism
impair the immune system, decreasing the
increases in preparation for expending
body’s ability to fight invading bacteria and
energy on physical action. Heart rate, viruses.
blood pressure, and breathing rate
increase, and the muscles tense. At the Psychophysiologi
same time, certain unessential activities, cal disorders are physical disorders in which
such as digestion, are curtailed. Saliva and emotions are believed to play a central role.
mucus dry up, thereby increasing the size A common misconception is that people with
of the air passages to the lungs, and an psychophysiological disorders are not really

121
 sick and do not need medical attention. On ❖ Fortunately, people can learn techniques
the contrary, the symptoms of to counter the stress response.
psychophysiological illness reflect ❖ Practice good sleep hygiene. Yes, there
physiological disturbances associated with IS such a thing as sleep hygiene, which includes
tissue damage and pain. A peptic ulcer techniques having a consistent sleep and wake
caused by stress is indistinguishable from up time (if you don’t, you wind up functioning in
an ulcer caused by a factor unrelated to a state of “jet lag”), avoiding caffeinated and
stress, such as long-term heavy usage of
alcoholic drinks close to bedtime, practicing
aspirin.
getting into a relaxed state when you go to bed,
Traditionally, research in psychophysiology and shutting off electronic devices.
focused on such illnesses as asthma, ❖ Give yourself regular breaks. Take a
hypertension (high blood pressure), ulcers, walk, stop working and eat a good dinner (not
colitis, and rheumatoid arthritis. Researchers from the vending machine!) or talk with a friend.
looked for relationships between specific Give your mind a moment to rest and reorganize.
illnesses and characteristic attitudes toward, or Contrary to many people’s first instincts when
ways of coping with, stressful life events. they are stressed, taking breaks actually makes
❖ To learn more about Stress and how it you more efficient, more energetic, and better
affects the Human body, you can watch able to tackle the challenges in front of you.
these videos: ❖ Regularly practice self-soothing
o How stress affects your body - techniques. Think about the 5 senses, and this
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v-t1Z5- will give you clues as to how you can give
oPtU yourself comfort. What works for you? Listening
o Does stress affect your memory? - to music, taking a bath, watching a movie, getting
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hyg7lcU4g a massage, relaxation, yoga are all on the long
8E list of possible ways to self-soothe. Make efforts
❖ COPING SKILLS
to include these strategies in your daily routine
Many people are unable to find a way to put the
as they will help you cope with stress and
brakes on stress. Chronic low-level stress keeps
prevent becoming more stressed.
the HPA axis activated, much like a motor that is
❖ Exercise regularly. Ironically, exercise is
idling too high for too long. After a while, this has
one of the first things to fall by the wayside yet is
an effect on the body that contributes to the
one of the most important coping techniques in
health problems associated with chronic stress.
terms of reducing tension and increasing energy!
Persistent epinephrine surges can damage
No matter how stressed and frantic you are
blood vessels and arteries, increasing blood
feeling, remember that a brisk 20-minute walk
pressure and raising risk of heart attacks or
will likely help.
strokes. Elevated cortisol levels create
❖ Maintain a healthy diet. When your mind
physiological changes that help to replenish the
is full of worries and pressures, many people find
body's energy stores that are depleted during the
that they slip into “mindless eating” (eating
stress response. But they inadvertently
whatever is immediately available…” the
contribute to the buildup of fat tissue and to
vending machine phenomena” or cravings carbs
weight gain. For example, cortisol increases
and sweets for a quick, but unsustainable, burst
appetite, so that people will want to eat more to
of energy). Maintaining a balanced diet of foods
obtain extra energy. It also increases storage of
that provide a more constant source of energy
unused nutrients as fat.
(instead of that sugar spike) can be a great first

122
line of defense against the adverse effects of or stressful events cause a chemical response
stress. Even more importantly it will help you in the body,” he explained.
maintain a connection to your long term goals.
❖ Limit your consumption of alcohol and Eustress is usually a product of nerves, which
other mood altering substances (including can be brought on when faced with a fun
sleeping aids). While a couple of glasses of wine challenge. Genovese says this is important
at night can take the tension out of your because, without eustress, our well-being can
shoulders for the moment, it can cause sleep suffer. “Eustress helps us stay motivated, work
disruptions and an increase in depressed mood, toward goals, and feel good about life,” he
which, in turn, keeps your stress levels high, and added.
increases your tension for the next day.
❖ The following videos show more ways of
combating stress: Working and living outside of our comfort
o How stress is killing us (and how you can zone is a good thing. It’s when we feel
stop it) - overwhelmed that stress can turn negative.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NyyPZJr That’s what makes eustress such an
DfkM important part of our overall health.
o Relieve Stress & Anxiety with Simple “Eustress produces positive feelings of
Breathing Techniques - excitement, fulfillment, meaning,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=odADwW satisfaction, and well-being,” Lee said. He
zHR24 explains that eustress is good because you
o Ways to Relieve Stress - feel confident, adequate, and stimulated by
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Rl4dJacL the challenge you experience from the
ERA stressor. Psychologist Dr. Kara Fasone
says eustress is all about sufficiently
challenging yourself without expending all
SAMPLE SITUATION your resources. This type of stress
empowers you to grow in three areas:
POSITIVE STRESS
We all experience stress at some point. ➢ Emotionally, eustress can result in
positive feelings of contentment, inspiration,
Whether it’s daily chronic stress or occasional
motivation, and flow.
bumps in the road, stress can sneak up on us
➢ Psychologically, eustress helps us build
at any time. What you may not know about
our self-efficacy, autonomy, and resilience.
stress is that it’s not all bad. In fact, we can ➢ Physically, eustress helps us build our
experience eustress, or positive stress, just as body (e.g., through completing a challenging
frequently as we do negative stress. workout).

What is eustress? What are some examples of eustress?

If the idea of positive stress is new to you, you’re Eustress at work
not alone. Most of us equate all stress with
negative experiences. An example of eustress at work is taking on a
new project that encourages you to leverage
existing strengths (which can be incredibly
Clinical psychiatrist Dr. Michael Genovese says
energizing) and requires you to hone existing
we rarely think of stress as a positive thing, but
skills or learn new ones. Work-related projects
eustress is just that — positive stress. “Exciting

123
will only drive eustress if they’re challenging but
realistic. If deadlines are unrealistically tight,
you’re juggling numerous projects (an unrealistic
workload), or working with a toxic team culture,
you’re more likely to experience distress and the
negative consequences that come with it.
Eustress in personal interests
Setting challenging goals around your interests
or passions is another example of eustress. As
humans, we have an innate ability to learn.
Learning new things can be challenging. And
growing expertise in an area doesn’t happen in a
straight line. There’s typically that learning stage
where you may be absolutely terrible. But you’re
learning from those mistakes. As you start
seeing small wins and continue to build self-
efficacy, you’re motivated to continue learning
and improving.
Eustress and travel
B. Yoga
Traveling is inherently stressful, especially when Follow this video:
you’re exploring a faraway place with a different
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q
language and customs. At the same time, you’re
iKJRoX_2uo
immersing yourself in a new and interesting
place, with various foods to enjoy, new places to
see, and a whole culture to experience. C. Meditation
Although stressful, traveling is an eye-opening Follow this video:
experience for many people that’s viewed https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s
positively. G7DBA-mgFY

Eustress and physical conditioning ASSESSMENT

Physically, eustress is exemplified by Watch the movie “Patch Adams” and write a
challenging your body (e.g., lifting weights) to Reflection Paper.
encourage growth (in this case, strength, GUIDE QUESTIONS:
stamina, and muscle growth). In the gym or out 1. Describe the struggle of the Main
on a walking path, you might be jamming out to character and how he was able to resolve it?
your tunes and totally zoned into your workout. 2. Which parts of the movie was stress
You may not even realize how exhausting the evident? State 3.
work has become because you’re caught up in 3. Was the main character able to cope
the moment. with these stressful situations? If yes, how?
I. ACTIVITIES/EXERCISES 4. What did you learn from the characters
STRESS RELIEVERS of the movie?
5. What did you realize after watching the
movie?
A. Coloring activity

124
 SUMMARY Unit 13: ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR

• Stress is a situation that triggers a particular Learning Objectives:

biological response. When you perceive a threat
• Describe and understand abnormal behavior.
or a major challenge, chemicals and hormones
• Identify the models of psychopathology.
surge throughout your body.
• Understand the diagnosis and classification of
• Stress triggers your fight-or-flight response in
abnormal behavior.
order to fight the stressor or run away from it. • Understand sexual deviance.
Typically, after the response occurs, your body
should relax. Too much constant stress can have
negative effects on your long-term health. Normal Versus Abnormal: Making the
• When you sense danger, the hypothalamus at Distinction
the base of your brain reacts. It sends nerve and
Defining Abnormality
hormone signals to your adrenal glands, which
release an abundance of hormones. Because of the difficulty in distinguishing normal
• These hormones are nature’s way of preparing from abnormal behavior, psychologists have
you to face danger and increase your chances of struggled to devise a precise, scientific definition
survival. of “abnormal behavior.” For instance, consider
• The goal of stress management isn’t to get rid of the following definitions, each of which has
it completely. It’s not only impossible, but as we advantages and disadvantages:
mentioned, stress can be healthy in some
• Abnormality as deviation from the average.
situations.
According to this definition, behaviors that are
• In order to manage your stress, first you have to rare or unusual in a society or culture are
identify the things that cause you stress — or considered abnormal. It is basically a statistical
your triggers. Figure out which of these things definition: If most people carry out a behavior, it
can be avoided. Then, find ways to cope with is normal; if only a few people do it, it is
those negative stressors that can’t be avoided. considered abnormal.
• Over time, managing your stress levels may help • Abnormality as deviation from the ideal. An
lower your risk for stress-related diseases. And alternative definition of abnormality considers
it’ll help you feel better on a daily basis, too. behavior in relation to some kind of ideal or
morally appropriate standard toward which most
people are striving.
REFERENCES • Abnormality as a sense of personal
discomfort. A more useful definition
Atkinson, R. L. (n.d.). Introduction to concentrates on the psychological
Psychology (11th ed.). San Diego: Harcourt consequences of the behavior for the individual.
Brace College Publisher. In this approach, behavior is considered
Harvard Health Publishing. (2011, March). abnormal if it produces a sense of personal
Retrieved July 2020, from Understanding the distress, anxiety, or guilt in an individual—or if it
stress response: is harmful to others in some way.
https://www.health.harvard.edu/staying- • Abnormality as the inability to function
healthy/understanding-the-stress-response effectively. Most people are able to feed
Hoekema, S. F. (2009). Introduction to themselves, hold a job, get along with others,
Psychology (15th ed.). Wadsworth. and in general live as productive members of
Plotnik, R. K. (2011). Introduction to Psychology society. Yet there are those who are unable to
(9th ed.). Wadsworth. adjust to the demands of society or function
effectively.

125
• Abnormality as a legal concept. According to
the jury that first heard her case, Andrea Yates,
a woman who drowned her five children in a
bathtub, was sane. She was sentenced to life in
prison for her act.

Clearly, none of the previous definitions is broad

enough to cover all instances of abnormal
behavior. Consequently, the distinction between
normal and abnormal behavior often remains
ambiguous even to trained professionals.
Furthermore, to a large extent, cultural
expectations for “normal” behavior in a particular
society influence the understanding of “abnormal
behavior” (Scheff, 1998; Sanderson, 2007).
Given the difficulties in precisely defining the
construct, psychologists typically use a broad
definition of abnormal behavior. Specifically,
abnormal behavior is behavior that causes
people to experience distress and prevents
them from functioning in their daily lives
(Nolen-Hoeksema, 2007).
Perspectives on Abnormality: From
Superstition to Science
Throughout much of human history, people Classifying Abnormal Behavior: The ABCs of
linked abnormal behavior to superstition and DSM
witch craft. Individuals who di s played abnormal
Crazy. Whacked. Mental. Loony. Insane.
behavior were accused of being possessed by
Neurotic. Psycho. Strange. Demented. Odd.
the devil or some sort of demonic god.
Possessed. Society has long placed labels on
Authorities felt justified in “treating” abnormal
people who display abnormal behavior.
behavior by attempting to drive out the source of
Unfortunately, most of the time these labels have
the problem. This typically involved whipping,
reflected intolerance and have been used with
immersion in hot water, starvation, or other forms
little thought as to what each label signifies.
of torture in which the cure was often worse than
Providing appropriate and specific names and
the affliction (Berrios, 1996). Contemporary
classifications for abnormal behavior has
approaches take a more enlightened view.
presented a major challenge to psychologists. It
Today, six major perspectives are used to
is not hard to understand why, given the
understand psychological disorders. These
difficulties discussed earlier in simply
perspectives suggest not only different causes of
distinguishing normal from abnormal behavior.
abnormal behavior but different treatment
Yet psychologists and other care providers need
approaches as well. Furthermore, some
to classify abnormal behavior in order to
perspectives are more applicable to specific
diagnose it and ultimately treat it. Therefore the
disorders than are others.
guide for classifying abnormality is the
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders, Fifth Edition, (DSM-5) which is a

126
system, devised by the American Psychiatric
Sally’s first panic attack was a surprise.
Association, used by most professionals to
diagnose and classify abnormal behavior. The Visiting her parents after college, she suddenly
manual takes an atheoretical approach to felt dizzy, broke into a cold sweat, and began
identifying psychological disorders, though some hyperventilating. Her father clocked her pulse
practitioners have argued that this diagnostic at 180 and rushed her to the hospital, where all
approach is too heavily based on a medical symptoms vanished. She laughed it off and
model. returned to her apartment.

But the panic attacks continued. At the

gym, at work, in restaurants and movie
theaters, Sally was never safe from them. Not
just frightening, they were downright
embarrassing. She quit her job to work at home.
She avoided crowds and turned down dinners,
parties, and movies. The only way to escape
humiliation was to wall herself inside her
apartment with a blanket and a pillow.

Sally suffered from panic disorder, one

of the specific psychological disorders we’ll
consider in this module. Keep in mind that
although we’ll be discussing these disorders
objectively, each represents a very human set
of difficulties that influence and in some cases
considerably disrupt people’s lives.

Case lifted from Understanding Psychology by

Robert S. Feldman
Anxiety Disorders
All of us at one time or another experience
anxiety, a feeling of apprehension or tension, in
DIAGNOSIS AND CLASSIFICATION OF reaction to stressful situations. There is nothing
ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR “wrong” with such anxiety. It is a normal reaction
to stress that often helps rather than hinders our
The Major Psychological Disorders daily functioning. Without some anxiety, for
instance, most of us probably would not have
much motivation to study hard, undergo physical
exams, or spend long hours at our jobs. But
some people experience anxiety in situations in
which there is no apparent reason or cause for
such distress. Anxiety disorders occur when
anxiety arises without external justification and
begins to affect people’s daily functioning. We’ll

127
discuss three major types of anxiety disorders: purchase ice cream for a dying companion
phobic disorder, panic disorder, and generalized (Kimbrel, 2007; Wong, Sarver, & Beidel, 2011;
anxiety disorder. Stopa et al., 2013).
PHOBIC DISORDER
Forty-five-year-old Donna is terrified of
electricity. She’s unable to change a light bulb for
fear of getting electrocuted. The thought of static
electricity on clothing sends her into a panic. She
can’t even open a refrigerator door without being
terrified a short-circuit will send electricity
through her body. And thunderstorms? Forget it:
she is beside herself with fear of getting
electrocuted by lightning (Kluger, 2001).

Donna suffers from a specific phobia, an

intense, irrational fear of a specific object or
situation. For example, claustrophobia is a fear
of enclosed places, acrophobia is a fear of high
places, xenophobia is a fear of strangers, social
phobia is the fear of being judged or Figure 1 Phobic Disorders differ from
embarrassed by others, and—as in Donna’s generalized anxiety and panic disorders
case—electrophobia is a fear of electricity. The because a specific stimulus can be identified.
Listed here are a number of types of phobias and
objective danger posed by an anxiety-producing
their triggers. (Source: Adapted from Nolen-
stimulus is typically small or nonexistent.
Hoeksema, 2007)
However, to someone suffering from the phobia,
the danger is great, and a full-blown panic attack
may follow exposure to the stimulus. Phobic PANIC DISORDER
disorders differ from generalized anxiety
disorders and panic disorders in that there is a In another type of anxiety disorder, panic
specific, identifiable stimulus that sets off the disorder, panic attacks occur that last from a
anxiety reaction. few seconds to several hours. Panic disorders
do not have any identifiable triggers (unlike
Phobias may have only a minor impact on phobias, which are triggered by specific objects
people’s lives if those who suffer from them can or situations). Instead, during an attack such as
avoid the stimuli that trigger fear. For example, a
those Sally experienced in the case described
fear of heights may have little impact on people’s
earlier, anxiety suddenly—and often without
everyday lives (although it may prevent them
from living in a high floor in an apartment)— warning—rises to a peak, and an individual feels
unless they are firefighters or window-washers. a sense of impending, unavoidable doom.
On the other hand, a social phobia, or a fear of Although the physical symptoms differ from
strangers, presents a more serious problem. In person to person, they may include heart
one extreme case, a Washington woman left her palpitations, shortness of breath, unusual
home just three times in 30 years—once to visit amounts of sweating, faintness and dizziness,
her family, once for an operation, and once to gastric sensations, and sometimes a sense of

128
imminent death. After such an attack, it is no Because of persistent anxiety, people with
wonder that people tend to feel exhausted generalized anxiety disorder cannot concentrate
(Rachman & deSilva, 2004; Laederach- or set their worry and fears aside; their lives
Hofmann & Messerli-Buergy, 2007; become centered on their worry. Furthermore,
Montgomery, 2011). their anxiety is often accompanied by
physiological symptoms, such as muscle
Panic attacks seemingly come out of nowhere tension, headaches, dizziness, heart
and are unconnected to any specific stimulus. palpitations, or insomnia (Starcevic et al., 2007).
Because they don’t know what triggers their Figure 2 shows the most common symptoms of
feelings of panic, victims of panic attacks may generalized anxiety disorder.
become fearful of going places. In fact, some
people with panic disorder develop a
complication called agoraphobia, the fear of
being in a situation in which escape is difficult
and in which help for a possible panic attack
would not be available. In extreme cases, people
with agoraphobia never leave their homes
(Herrán, Carrera, & Sierra-Biddle, 2006;
Wittchen et al., 2008; McTeague et al., 2011).

In addition to the physical symptoms, panic

disorder affects how the brain processes
information. For instance, people with panic
disorder have reduced reactions in the anterior
cingulate cortex to stimuli (such as viewing a
fearful face) that normally produce a strong
reaction in those without the disorder. It may be
that recurring high levels of emotional arousal
that patients with panic disorder experience
desensitizes them to emotional stimuli (Pillay et
al., 2007; Maddock et al., 2013).

GENERALIZED ANXIETY DISORDER

People with generalized anxiety disorder

experience long-term, persistent anxiety and
Figure 2 Frequency of symptoms in cases of
uncontrollable worry. Sometimes their concerns
Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD). (Source:
are about identifiable issues involving family,
Adapted from Beck & Emery, 1985.)
money, work, or health. In other cases, though,
people with the disorder feel that something Obsessive-Compulsive Disorders
dreadful is about to happen but can’t identify the
In obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD),
reason and thus experience “free-floating”
people are plagued by unwanted thoughts,
anxiety.
called obsessions, or feel that they must carry

129
out behaviors, termed compulsions, which they If I didn’t grab the molding on the wall just the
feel driven to perform. An obsession is a right way as I entered or exited my room; if I
persistent, unwanted thought or idea that keeps didn’t hang a shirt in the closet perfectly; if I didn’t
recurring. For example, a student may be unable read a paragraph a certain way; if my hands and
to stop thinking that she has neglected to put her nails weren’t perfectly clean, I thought my
incorrect behavior would kill my parents.
name on a test and may think about it constantly
(Summers, 2000.)
for the 2 weeks it takes to get the paper back. A
man may go on vacation and wonder the whole Although carrying out compulsive rituals may
time whether he locked his house. A woman may lead to some immediate reduction of anxiety, in
hear the same tune running through her head the long run the anxiety returns. In fact, people
over and over. In each case, the thought or idea with severe cases lead lives filled with
unrelenting tension (Penzel, 2000; Dittrich,
is unwanted and difficult to put out of mind. Of
Johansen, & Fineberg, 2011; Kalanthroff et al.,
course, many people suffer from mild 2013).
obsessions from time to time, but usually such
thoughts persist only for a short period. For Etiology Anxiety Disorders and Obsessive-
people with serious obsessions, however, the Compulsive Disorders
thoughts persist for days or months and may
We’ve considered several of the major types of
consist of bizarre, troubling images (Lee et al.,
anxiety disorders and obsessive-compulsive
2005; Rassin & Muris, 2007; Wenzel, 2011).
disorder, but there are many other related
As part of an obsessive-compulsive disorder, disorders. The variety of anxiety disorders
people may also experience compulsions; means that no single explanation fits all cases.
irresistible urges to repeatedly carry out some
act that seems strange and unreasonable even 1. Genetic factor is one of the believed
to them. Whatever the compulsive behavior is, causes of anxiety disorders and OCD. For
people experience extreme anxiety if they
example, if one member of a pair of identical
cannot carry it out even if it is something they
want to stop. The acts may be relatively trivial, twins has panic disorder, there is a 30% chance
such as repeatedly checking the stove to make that the other twin will have it also. Furthermore,
sure all the burners are turned off, or more a person’s characteristic level of anxiety is
unusual, such as washing one’s hands so much related to a specific gene involved in the
that they bleed (Frost & Steketee, 2002; Clark, production of the neurotransmitter serotonin.
2007; Moretz & McKay, 2009).
This is consistent with findings indicating that
For example, consider this passage from the certain chemical deficiencies in the brain appear
autobiography of a person with OCD: to produce some kinds of anxiety disorder
(Holmes et al., 2003; Beidel & Turner, 2007;
I thought my parents would die if I didn’t do Chamberlain et al., 2008).
everything in exactly the right way. When I took 2. Some researchers believe that an
my glasses off at night I’d have to place them on overactive autonomic nervous system may
the dresser at a particular angle. Sometimes I’d
be at the root of panic attacks. Specifically,
turn on the light and get out of bed seven times
they suggest that poor regulation of the brain’s
until I felt comfortable with the angle. If the angle
locus ceruleus may lead to panic attacks, which
wasn’t right, I felt that my parents would die. The
feeling ate up my insides. cause the limbic system to become
overstimulated. In turn, the overstimulated limbic

130
system produces chronic anxiety, which disorder reports physical symptoms, no
ultimately leads the locus ceruleus to generate biological cause exists, or if there is a medical
still more panic attacks (Balaban, 2002; Davies problem, the person’s reaction is greatly
et al., 2008; Dresler et al., 2013). exaggerated.
3. There are also biological causes at
work in OCD. For example, researchers have ILLNESS ANXIETY DISORDER- A type of
found differences in the brains of those with the somatic symptom disorder in which people have
disorder compared to those without it (Christian a constant fear of illness and a preoccupation
et al., 2008). with their health. These individuals believe that
4. Psychologists who employ the everyday aches and pains are symptoms of a
behavioral perspective have taken a different dread disease. The “symptoms” are not faked;
approach that emphasizes environmental rather, they are misinterpreted as evidence of
factors. They consider anxiety to be a learned some serious illness—often in the face of
response to stress. For instance, suppose a inarguable medical evidence to the contrary
dog bites a young girl. When the girl next sees a (Abramowitz, Olatunji, & Deacon, 2007; Olatunji,
dog, she is frightened and runs away—a 2008; Weck et al., 2011).
behavior that relieves her anxiety and thereby
CONVERSION DISORDERS- Unlike illness
reinforces her avoidance behavior. After
anxiety disorder, in which there is no physical
repeated encounters with dogs in which she is
problem, conversion disorders involve an
reinforced for her avoidance behavior, she may
actual physical disturbance, such as the inability
develop a full-fledged phobia regarding dogs.
to see or hear or to move an arm or leg. The
5. The cognitive perspective suggests
cause of such a physical disturbance is purely
that anxiety disorders grow out of
psychological; there is no biological reason for
inappropriate and inaccurate thoughts and
the problem. Some of Freud’s classic cases
beliefs about circumstances in a person’s
involved conversion disorders. For instance, one
world. For example, people with anxiety
of Freud’s patients suddenly became unable to
disorders may view a friendly puppy as a
use her arm without any apparent physiological
ferocious and savage pit bull, or they may see an
cause. Later, just as abruptly, the problem
air disaster looming every moment they are in
disappeared.
the vicinity of an airplane. According to the
cognitive perspective, people’s maladaptive
Conversion disorders often begin suddenly.
thoughts about the world are at the root of an
Previously normal people wake up one day blind
anxiety disorder (Frost & Steketee, 2002; Wang
or deaf, or they experience numbness that is
& Clark, 2002; Ouimet, Gawronski, & Dozois,
restricted to a certain part of the body. A hand,
2009).
for example, may become entirely numb, while
an area above the wrist, controlled by the same
nerves, remains sensitive to touch—something
Somatic Symptom Disorders that is physiologically implausible. Mental health
Somatic symptom disorders are psychological professionals refer to such a condition as “glove
difficulties that take on a physical (somatic) form anesthesia” because the numb area is the part
but for which there is no medical cause. Even of the hand covered by a glove and not a region
though an individual with a somatic symptom related to pathways of the nervous system (see

131
Figure 3). highly dramatic, rare, and controversial class of
disorders: dissociative disorders.
Surprisingly, people who experience conversion
disorders frequently remain unconcerned about Dissociative disorders are characterized by
symptoms that most of us would expect to be the separation (or dissociation) of different facets
highly anxiety producing. For instance, a person of a person’s personality that are normally
in good health who wakes up blind may react in integrated and work together. By dissociating
a bland, matter-of-fact way. Considering how key parts of who they are, people are able to
most of us would feel if we woke up unable to keep disturbing memories or perceptions from
see, this unemotional reaction (called la belle reaching conscious awareness and thereby
indifference, a French phrase meaning “a reduce their anxiety (Maldonado & Spiegel,
beautiful indifference”) hardly seems appropriate 2003; Houghtalen & Talbot, 2007). Several
dissociative disorders exist, although all of them
are rare.

DISSOCIATIVE IDENTITY DISORDER (DID)

(once called multiple personality disorder)- a
person who displays characteristics of two or
more distinct personalities, identities, or
personality fragments. Individual personalities
often have a unique set of likes and dislikes and
their own reactions to situations. Some people
with multiple personalities even carry several
pairs of glasses because their vision changes
with each personality. Moreover, each individual
(Brasic, 2002).
personality can be well adjusted when
considered on its own (Ellason & Ross, 2004;
Stickley & Nickeas, 2006; Howell, 2011).
Figure 3 Conversion disorders sometimes
produce numbness in specific and isolated areas The diagnosis of dissociative identity disorder is
of the body (indicated by the shaded areas in the controversial. It was rarely diagnosed before
figure). For instance, in glove anesthesia, the 1980, when it was added as a category in the
area of the body covered by a glove feels numb. third edition of DSM for the first time. At that
However, the condition is biologically implausible point, the number of cases increased
because of the nerves involved, which suggests significantly. Some clinicians suggest the
that the problem results from a psychological increase was due to more precise identification
disorder rather than from actual nerve damage. of the disorder, while others suggest the increase
Dissociative Disorders was due to an overreadiness to use the
classification. In addition, widespread publicity
The classic movie The Three Faces of Eve about cases of DID may have influenced patients
(about a woman with three wildly different to report symptoms of more common personality
personalities) and the book Sybil (about a girl disorders in ways that made it more likely they
who allegedly had 16 personalities) represent a would receive a diagnosis of DID. There are also

132
significant cross-cultural differences in the state, people take sudden, impulsive trips and
incidence of DID (Kihlstrom, 2005a; Xiao et al., adopt a new identity. After a period of time—
2006). days, months, or sometimes even years—they
suddenly realize that they are in a strange place
DISSOCIATIVE AMNESIA- another dissociative and completely forget the time they have spent
disorder in which a significant, selective memory wandering. Their last memories are those from
loss occurs. Dissociative amnesia is unlike the time just before they entered the fugue state
simple amnesia, which involves an actual loss of (Hennig-Fast et al., 2008).
information from memory and typically results
from a physiological cause. In contrast, in cases The common thread among dissociative
of dissociative amnesia, the “forgotten” material disorders is that they allow people to escape
is still present in memory—it simply cannot be from some anxiety-producing situation. Either
recalled. The term repressed memories is the person produces a new personality to deal
sometimes used to describe the lost memories with stress, or the individual forgets or leaves
of people with dissociative amnesia. behind the situation that caused the stress as he
or she journeys to some new—and perhaps less
In the most severe form of dissociative amnesia, anxiety-ridden—environment (Putnam, 2000; R.
individuals cannot recall their names, are unable J. Brown, 2006).
to recognize parents and other relatives, and do
not know their addresses. In other respects, Mood Disorders
though, they may appear quite normal. Apart
From the time I woke up in the morning until the
from an inability to remember certain facts about time I went to bed at night, I was unbearably
themselves, they may be able to recall skills and miserable and seemingly incapable of any kind
abilities that they developed earlier. For of joy or enthusiasm. Everything—every thought,
instance, even though a chef may not remember word, movement—was an effort. Everything that
where he grew up and received training, he may once was sparkling now was flat. I seemed to
still be able to prepare gourmet meals. myself to be dull, boring, inadequate, thick
brained, unlit, unresponsive, chill skinned,
In some cases of dissociative amnesia, the bloodless, and sparrow drab. I doubted,
memory loss is profound. For example, in one completely, my ability to do anything well. It
dramatic case, Raymond Power Jr., an attorney, seemed as though my mind had slowed down
husband, father of two, and Boy Scout leader, and burned out to the point of being virtually
left home to go to work one morning. Two days useless. (Jamison, 1995.)
later he was homeless, living a new life a
We all experience mood swings. Sometimes we
thousand miles away, and had no memory of
are happy, perhaps even euphoric; at other times
who he was or how he got there. He was found
we feel upset, saddened, or depressed. Such
6 months later but still had no recollection of his
changes in mood are a normal part of everyday
previous life, including any knowledge of his wife
life. In some people, however, moods are so
of 30 years or even that he had children
pronounced and lingering— like the feelings
(Foderaro, 2006; Dell, 2013).
described above by writer (and psychiatrist) Kay
DISSOCIATIVE FUGUE- a form of amnesia in Jamison—that they interfere with the ability to
which a person leaves home suddenly and function effectively. Mood disorders are
assumes a new identity. In this unusual and rare disturbances in emotional experience that are

133
strong enough to intrude on everyday living. In In addition, people are developing major
extreme cases, a mood may become life depression at increasingly younger ages
threatening; in other cases, it may cause the (Kendler et al., 2006a; Staley, Sanacora, &
person to lose touch with reality. Tagman, 2006; Sado et al., 2011).

When psychologists speak of major depression,

they do not mean the sadness that comes from
MAJOR DEPRESSIVE DISORDER experiencing one of life’s disappointments that
we all have experienced. Some depression is
President Abraham Lincoln. Queen Victoria. normal after the breakup of a long-term
Newscaster Mike Wallace. relationship, the death of a loved one, or the loss
of a job. It is normal even after less serious
The common link among these people? Each problems, such as doing badly on a test or
suffered from periodic attacks of major having a romantic partner forget one’s birthday.
depressive disorder, a severe form of People who suffer from major depression
experience similar feelings, but the severity
depression that interferes with concentration,
tends to be considerably greater. They may feel
decision-making, and sociability. Major useless, worthless, and lonely, and they may
depression is one of the more common forms of think the future is hopeless and no one can help
mood disorders. them. They may lose their appetite and have no
energy. Moreover, they may experience such
Epidemiology. Some 15 million people in the feelings for months or even years. They may cry
United States suffer from major depression, and uncontrollably, have sleep disturbances, and be
at risk for suicide. The depth and duration of such
at any one time, 6-10% of the U.S. population is
behavior are the hallmarks of major depression.
clinically depressed. Almost one in five people in
the United States experiences major depression
at some point in life, and 15% of college students
have received a diagnosis of major depression.
The cost of depression is more than $34 billion a
year in lost productivity (Scelfo, 2007; Simon et
al., 2008; Edoka, Petrou, & Ramchandi, 2011).

Women are twice as likely to experience major

depression as men, with one-fourth of all females
apt to encounter it at some point during their
lives. Furthermore, although no one is sure why,
the rate of depression is going up throughout the
Figure 4 This test is based on the list of signs
world. Results of in-depth interviews conducted
and symptoms of depression found on the
in the United States, Puerto Rico, Taiwan,
National Institute of Mental Health website at
Lebanon, Canada, Italy, Germany, and France
http://www.nimh.gov/health/publications/depres
indicate that the incidence of depression has
sion/what-are-the-signs-and-symptoms-of-
increased significantly over previous rates in
depression.shtml
every area. In fact, in some countries, the
likelihood that individuals will have major
depression at some point in their lives is three
times higher than it was for earlier generations.

134
MANIA AND BIPOLAR DISORDER In contrast, his output dropped off drastically
during periods of depression. On the other hand,
While depression leads to the depths of despair, the high output associated with mania does not
mania leads to emotional heights. Mania is an necessarily lead to higher quality: Some of
extended state of intense, wild elation. People Schumann’s greatest works were created
experiencing mania feel intense happiness, outside his periods of mania (Szegedy Maszak,
power, invulnerability, and energy. Believing 2003; Kyaga et al., 2013). Although creativity
may be generated by mania, persons who
Mr. O’Reilly took a leave of absence from experience this disorder often show a
his civil service job. He purchased a large number of recklessness that produces emotional and
cuckoo clocks and then an expensive car, which he sometimes physical self-injury. They may
planned to use as a mobile showroom for his wares, alienate people with their talkativeness, inflated
anticipating that he would make a great deal of
self-esteem, and indifference to the needs of
money. He proceeded to “tear around town” buying
others.
and selling clocks and other merchandise, and when
he was not out, he was continuously on the phone
making “deals.” . . . He was $3,000 in debt and had
driven his family to exhaustion with his excessive
activity and talkativeness. He said, however, that he
felt “on top of the world.” (Spitzer et al., 1983.)

they will succeed at anything they attempt, they

may become involved in wild schemes.
Consider, for example, the following description
of an individual who experienced a manic
episode:

Some people sequentially experience periods of

mania and depression. This alternation of mania
and depression is called bipolar disorder (a Figure 5 The number of pieces written by
condition previously known as manic-depressive composer Robert Schumann in a given year is
disorder). The swings between highs and lows related to his periods of depression and mania
may occur a few days apart or may alternate (Slater & Meyer, 1959, reprinted in Jamison,
over a period of years. In addition, in bipolar 1993).
disorder, periods of depression are usually
Etiology of Mood Disorders
longer than periods of mania.
Ironically, some of society’s most creative 1. Genetic and biological factors. Some
individuals may have suffered from bipolar mood disorders clearly have genetic and
disorder. The imagination, drive, excitement, and biological roots. In fact, most evidence suggests
energy that they display during manic stages that bipolar disorders are caused primarily by
allow them to make unusually creative bio- logical factors. For instance, bipolar disorder
contributions. For instance, historical analysis of (and some forms of major depression) clearly
the composer Robert Schumann’s music shows runs in some families, pointing to a genetic
that he was most prolific during periods of mania. cause. Furthermore, researchers have found

135
that several neurotransmitters play a role in give up fighting aversive events and submit to
depression. For example, alterations in the them, which thereby produces depression. Other
functioning of serotonin and norepinephrine in theorists go a step further and suggest that
the brain are related to the disorder. depression results from hopelessness, a
combination of learned helplessness and an
Also, research on neuroimaging suggests that a expectation that negative outcomes in one’s life
brain structure called area 25 is related to are inevitable (Kwon & Laurenceau, 2002;
depression: When area 25 is smaller than Bjornstad, 2006; Li, B., 2011).
normal, it is associated with a higher risk of
depression. Furthermore, the right anterior Clinical psychologist Aaron Beck has proposed
insula, a region of the brain related to self- that faulty cognitions underlie people’s
awareness and interpersonal experience, also depressed feelings. Specifically, his cognitive
appears to be related to depression (Popa et al., theory of depression suggests that depressed
2008; Insel, 2010; Cisler et al., 2013). individuals typically view themselves as life’s
losers and blame themselves whenever anything
2. Psychological causes. Other goes wrong. By focusing on the negative side of
explanations for depression have also included a situations, they feel inept and unable to act
focus on psychological causes. For instance, constructively to change their environment. In
proponents of psychoanalytic approaches see sum, their negative cognitions lead to feelings of
depression as a result of feelings of loss (real or depression (Newman et al., 2002).
potential) or of anger directed at oneself. One
psychoanalytic approach, for instance, suggests Brain imaging studies suggest that people with
that depression is produced by the loss or depression experience a general blunting of
threatened loss of a parent early in life (Vanheule emotional reactions. For example, one study
et al., 2006). found that the brains of people with depression
3. Environmental factors. Behavioral showed significantly less activation when they
theories of depression argue that the stresses of viewed photos of human faces displaying strong
life produce a reduction in positive reinforcers. emotions than did those without the disorder
As a result, people begin to withdraw, which only (Gotlib et al., 2004).
reduces positive reinforcers further. In addition,
people receive attention for their depressive Why does depression occur in approximately
behavior, which further reinforces the depression twice as many women as men—a pattern that
(Lewinsohn & Essau, 2002; Lewinsohn et al., is similar across a variety of cultures?
2003; Domschke, 2013).
One explanation suggests that the stress women
4. Cognitive and emotional factors.
experience may be greater than the stress men
Some explanations for mood disorders attribute
experience at certain points in their lives—such
them to cognitive factors. For example,
as when a woman must simultaneously earn a
psychologist Martin Seligman suggests that
living and be the primary caregiver for her
depression is largely a response to learned
children. In addition, women have a higher risk
helplessness. Learned helplessness is a learned
for physical and sexual abuse, typically earn
expectation that events in one’s life are
lower wages than men, report greater
uncontrollable and that one cannot escape from
unhappiness with their marriages, and generally
the situation. As a consequence, people simply
experience chronic negative circumstances.

136
Furthermore, women and men may respond to 2007.)
stress with different coping mechanisms. For This excerpt illustrates the efforts of a person
instance, men may abuse drugs, while women with schizophrenia, one of the more severe
respond with depression (Nolen-Hoeksema, forms of mental disturbance, to communicate.
2007; Hyde, Mezulis, & Abramson, 2008; People with schizophrenia account for by far the
Komarovskaya et al., 2011). largest percentage of those hospitalized for
psychological disorders. They are also in many
Biological factors may also explain some respects the least likely to recover from their
women’s depression. For example, the rate of difficulties.
female depression begins to rise during puberty,
so some psychologists believe that hormones Schizophrenia refers to a class of disorders in
make women more vulnerable to the disorder. In which severe distortion of reality occurs.
addition, 25–50% of women who take oral Thinking, perception, and emotion may
contraceptives report symptoms of depression, deteriorate; the individual may with- draw from
and depression that occurs after the birth of a social interaction; and the person may display
child is linked to hormonal changes. Finally, bizarre behavior. The symptoms displayed by
structural differences in men’s and women’s persons with schizophrenia may vary
brains may be related to gender differences in considerably over time Nonetheless, a number
depression (Holden, 2005; Graham, Bancroft, & of characteristics reliably distinguish
Doll, 2007; Solomon & Herman, 2009; schizophrenia from other disorders. They include
Silverstein et al., 2013). the following:

Ultimately, it is clear that researchers have • Decline from a previous level of

discovered no definitive solutions to the puzzle functioning. An individual can no longer carry out
of depression, and there are many alternative activities he or she was once able to do.
explanations. Most likely, a complex interaction • Disturbances of thought and speech.
of several factors causes mood disorders. People with schizophrenia use logic and
language in a peculiar way. Their thinking often
Schizophrenia does not make sense, and their logic is
frequently faulty, which is referred to as a formal
Things that relate, the town of Antelope, Oregon, thought disorder. They also do not follow
Jonestown, Charlie Manson, the Hillside conventional linguistic rules (Penn et al., 1997).
Strangler, the Zodiac Killer, Watergate, King’s • Delusions. People with schizophrenia often
trial in L.A., and many more. In the last 7 years have delusions, firmly held, unshakable beliefs
alone, over 23 Star Wars scientists committed with no basis in reality. Among the common
suicide for no apparent reason. The AIDS cover- delusions people with schizophrenia experience
up, the conference in South America in 87 had are the beliefs that they are being controlled by
over 1,000 doctors claim that insects can someone else, they are being persecuted by
transmit it. To be able to read one’s thoughts and others, and their thoughts are being broadcast
place thoughts in one’s mind without the person so that others know what they are thinking
knowing it’s being done. Realization is a reality
(Coltheart, Langdon, & McKay, 2007; Startup,
of bioelectromagnetic control, which is thought
Bucci, & Langdon, 2009).
transfer and emotional control, recording
• Hallucinations and perceptual disorders.
individual brainwave frequencies of thought,
sensation, and emotions. (Nolen-Hoeksema, People with schizophrenia do not perceive the

137
world as most other people do. They also may schizophrenia is indicated by the presence of
have hallucinations, the experience of perceiving disordered behavior such as hallucinations,
things that do not actually exist. Furthermore, delusions, and emotional extremes. In contrast,
they may see, hear, or smell things differently negative-symptom schizophrenia shows an
from others (see Figure 6); they do not even absence or loss of normal functioning, such as
have a sense of their bodies in the way that social withdrawal or blunted emotions (Levine &
others do and have difficulty determining where Rabinowitz, 2007; Tandon et al., 2013).
their bodies stop and the rest of the world begins
(Botvinick, 2004; Thomas et al., 2007; Bauer et The distinction between positive and negative
al., 2011). symptoms of schizophrenia is important
• Inappropriate emotional displays. People with because it suggests that two different kinds of
schizophrenia sometimes show a lack of causes might trigger schizophrenia.
emotion in which even the most dramatic events Furthermore, it has implications for predicting
pro- duce little or no emotional response. treatment outcomes.
Alternately, they may display emotion that is
Biological Causes of Schizophrenia
inappropriate to a situation. For example, a
person with schizophrenia may laugh
Because schizophrenia is more common in
uproariously at a funeral or react with anger
some families than in others, genetic factors
when being helped by someone.
seem to be involved in producing at least a
• Withdrawal. People with schizophrenia tend to
susceptibility to or readiness for developing
have little interest in others. They tend not to
schizophrenia. For example, the closer the
socialize or hold real conversations with others,
genetic link between a person with
although they may talk at another person. In the
schizophrenia and another individual, the greater
most extreme cases, they do not even
the likelihood that the other person will
acknowledge the presence of other people and
experience the disorder (see Figure 7;
appear to be in their own isolated world.
Brzustowicz et al., 2000; Plomin & McGuffin,
2003; Gottesman & Hanson, 2005).
Usually, the onset of schizophrenia occurs in
early adulthood, and the symptoms follow one of However, if genetics alone were responsible for
two primary courses. In process schizophrenia, schizophrenia, the chance of both of two
the symptoms develop slowly and subtly. There identical twins having schizophrenia would be
may be a gradual withdrawal from the world, 100% instead of just under 50% because
excessive daydreaming, and a blunting of identical twins have the same genetic makeup.
emotion until eventually the disorder reaches the Moreover, attempts to find a link between
point where others cannot overlook it. In other schizophrenia and a particular gene have been
cases, known as reactive schizophrenia, the only partly successful. Apparently, genetic
onset of symptoms is sudden and conspicuous. factors alone do not produce schizophrenia
The treatment outlook for reactive schizophrenia (Franzek & Beckmann, 1996; Lenzenweger &
is relatively favorable, but process schizophrenia Dworkin, 1998).
has proved more difficult to treat.
According to one hypothesis, the brains of
DSM-5 classifies the symptoms of schizophrenia people with schizophrenia may have a
into two types. Positive-symptom biochemical imbalance. For example, the

138
dopamine hypothesis aka Dopamine theory Changes in brain have been found in people with
of Schizophrenia suggests that schizophrenia schizophrenia. In an MRI reconstruction of the
occurs when there is excess activity in the areas brain of person with schizophrenia (a), the
of the brain that use dopamine as a hippocampi (yellow) are shrunken, and the
neurotransmitter. This hypothesis came to light ventricles (gray) are enlarged and fluid-filled. In
after the discovery that drugs that block contrast, an MRI reconstruction of the brain of a
dopamine action in brain pathways can be highly person without the disorder (b) is structurally
effective in reducing the symptoms of different with larger hippocampi and smaller
schizophrenia. Other research suggests that ventricles. (Source: N.C. Andreasen, University
glutamate, another neurotransmitter, may be a of Iowa.)
major contributor to the disorder (Stone,
Morrison, & Pilowsky, 2007; Howes & Kapur, Situational Causes of Schizophrenia
2009; Kendler & Schaffner, 2011).
Psychoanalytic explanations suggest that
Another biological explanation is that there may schizophrenia occurs when people experience
be structural abnormalities in the brains of regression to earlier experiences and stages of
people with schizophrenia. Such brain life. Specifically, Freud believed that people with
abnormalities may be caused by exposure to a schizophrenia lack egos that are strong enough
virus during prenatal development. Support for to cope with their unacceptable impulses. They
such a view comes from research showing regress to the oral stage—a time when the id and
abnormalities in the neural circuits of the cortex ego are not yet separated. Therefore, individuals
and limbic systems. Furthermore, differences with schizophrenia essentially lack an ego and
exist in the way the brain functions. act out impulses without concern for reality.

Further evidence for the importance of biological However, little evidence supports psychoanalytic
factors shows that when people with explanations. More plausible theories suggest
schizophrenia hear voices during hallucinations, that the emotional and communication patterns
the parts of the brain responsible for hearing and of the families of people with schizophrenia are
language processing become active. When they to blame for the disorder. For instance, some
have visual hallucinations, the parts of the brain researchers suggest that schizophrenia is
involved in movement and color are active. At the related to a family interaction style known as
same time, people with schizophrenia often have expressed emotion. Expressed emotion is an
unusually low activity in the brain’s frontal interaction style characterized by high levels of
lobes—the parts of the brain involved with criticism, hostility, and emotional intrusiveness
emotional regulation, insight, and the evaluation within a family. Other researchers suggest that
of sensory stimuli (Stern & Silbersweig, 2001). faulty communication patterns lie at the heart of
schizophrenia (Lobban, Barrowclough, & Jones,
2006; Nader et al., 2013).

Psychologists who take a cognitive perspective

on schizophrenia suggest that the problems in
thinking that people with the disorder experience
point to a cognitive cause. Some suggest that
schizophrenia results from overattention to

139
stimuli in the environment. Rather than being someone with a genetic predisposition to
able to screen out unimportant or develop schizophrenia may avoid developing the
inconsequential stimuli and focus on the most disorder if that person experiences relatively few
important things in the environment, people with life stressors.
schizophrenia may be excessively receptive to
virtually everything in their environment. As a In short, the models used today associate
consequence, their information-processing schizophrenia with several kinds of biological
capabilities become overloaded and eventually and situational factors. It is increasingly clear,
break down. Other cognitive experts argue that then, that no single factor but a combination of
schizophrenia results from underattention to interrelated variables produces schizophrenia
certain stimuli. According to this explanation, (Meltzer, 2000; McDonald & Murray, 2004; Opler
people with schizophrenia fail to focus et al., 2008).
sufficiently on important stimuli and pay attention
Personality Disorders
to other, less important information in their
surroundings (Cadenhead & Braff, 1995). I had always wanted lots of things; as a child I
Although it is plausible that overattention and can remember wanting a bullet that a friend of mine had
underattention are related to different forms of brought in to show the class. I took it and put it into my
schizophrenia, these phenomena do not explain school bag and when my friend noticed it was missing,
the origins of such information-processing I was the one who stayed after school with him and
disorders. Consequently, cognitive searched the room, and I was the one who sat with him
approaches—like other environmental and bitched about the other kids and how one of them
took his bullet. I even went home with him to help him
explanations—do not provide a full explanation
break the news to his uncle, who had brought it home
of the disorder.
from the war for him.
Multiple Causes of Schizophrenia
But that was petty compared with the stuff I did
later. I wanted a Ph.D. very badly, but I didn’t want to
Most scientists now believe that schizophrenia is
work very hard—just enough to get by. I never did the
caused by both biological and situational factors.
experiments I reported; hell, I was smart enough to make
Specifically, the predisposition model of up the results. I knew enough about statistics to make
schizophrenia suggests that individuals may anything look plausible. I got my master’s degree
inherit a predisposition or an inborn sensitivity to without even spending one hour in a laboratory. I mean,
develop schizophrenia. This genetic the professors believed anything. I’d stay out all night
predisposition makes them particularly drinking and being with my friends, and the next day I’d
vulnerable to stressful factors in the get in just before them and tell ’em I’d been in the lab
environment, such as social rejection or all night. They’d actually feel sorry for me. (Duke &
dysfunctional family communication patterns. Nowicki, 1979.)
The stressors may vary, but if they are strong
enough and are coupled with a genetic
predisposition, they result in the appearance of
This excerpt provides a graphic first-person
schizophrenia. Furthermore, a strong genetic
account of a person with a personality disorder.
predisposition may lead to the onset of
A personality disorder is characterized by a set
schizophrenia even when the environmental
of inflexible, maladaptive behavior patterns that
stressors are relatively weak. On the other hand,
keep a person from functioning appropriately in

140
society. Personality disorders differ from the their wrongdoing. When those with antisocial
other disorders we have discussed because personality disorder behave in a way that injures
those affected by them often have little sense of someone else, they under- stand intellectually
personal distress associated with the that they have caused harm but feel no remorse
psychological maladjustment. In fact, people (Goodwin & Hamilton, 2003; Hilarski, 2007;
with personality disorders frequently lead Bateman, 2011).
seemingly normal lives. However, just below the
surface lies a set of inflexible, maladaptive People with antisocial personality disorder are
personality traits that do not permit them to often impulsive and lack the ability to withstand
function effectively as members of society (Davis frustration. They can be extremely manipulative.
& Millon, 1999; Clarkin & Lenzenweger, 2004; They also may have excellent social skills; they
Friedman, Oltmanns, & Turkheimer, 2007). can be charming, engaging, and highly
persuasive. Some of the best con artists have
There are 10 different personality antisocial personalities.
disorders, each with different symptoms.
Professionals sort these disorders into three What causes such an unusual constellation
clusters: Cluster A, Cluster B, and Cluster C. The of problem behaviors?
disorders within these clusters make people
A variety of factors have been suggested ranging
think and behave in similar ways.
from an inability to experience emotions
appropriately to problems in family relationships.
For example, in many cases of antisocial
behavior, the individual has come from a home
in which a parent has died or left or one in which
there is a lack of affection, a lack of consistency
in discipline, or outright rejection. Other
explanations concentrate on sociocultural
factors because an unusually high proportion of
people with antisocial personalities come from
lower socioeconomic groups. Still, no one has
been able to pinpoint the specific causes of
antisocial personalities, and it is likely that some
combination of factors is responsible
The best-known type of personality disorder, (Rosenstein & Horowitz, 1996; Costa & Widiger,
illustrated by the case above, is the antisocial 2002; Chen et al., 2011).
personality disorder (sometimes referred to as
a sociopathic personality). Individuals with this People with borderline personality disorder
disturbance show no regard for the moral and have problems regulating emotions and
ethical rules of society or the rights of others. thoughts, display impulsive and reckless
Although they can appear quite intelligent and behavior, and have unstable relationships with
likable (at least at first), upon closer examination others. They also have difficulty in developing a
they turn out to be manipulative and deceptive. secure sense of who they are. As a
consequence, they tend to rely on relationships
Moreover, they lack any guilt or anxiety about with others to define their identity. The problem

141
with this strategy is that rejections are reality, though, almost 20% of children and 40%
devastating. Furthermore, people with this of adolescents experience significant emotional
disorder distrust others and have difficulty or behavioral disorders (Romano et al., 2001;
controlling their anger. Their emotional volatility Broidy, Nagin, & Tremblay, 2003; Nolen-
leads to impulsive and self-destructive behavior. Hoeksema, 2007). For example, although major
depression is more prevalent in adults, around
Individuals with borderline personality disorder 2.5% of children and more than 8% of
often feel empty and alone, and they have adolescents suffer from the disorder. In fact, by
difficulty cooperating with others. They may form the time they reach age 20, between 15% and
intense, sudden, one-sided relationships in 20% of children and adolescents will experience
which they demand the attention of another an episode of major depression (Garber &
person and then feel angry when they don’t Horowitz, 2002).
receive it. One reason for this behavior is that
they may have a back- ground in which others Children do not always display depression the
discounted or criticized their emotional same way adults do. Rather than showing
reactions, and they may not have learned to profound sadness or hopelessness, childhood
regulate their emotions effectively (King-Casas depression may produce the expression of
et al., 2008; Hopwood et al., 2009; Samuel et al., exaggerated fears, clinginess, or avoidance of
2013). everyday activities. In older children, the
symptoms may be sulking, school problems, and
The narcissistic personality disorder is another even acts of delinquency (Koplewicz, 2002;
type of personality disorder. The narcissistic Seroczynski, Jacquez, & Cole, 2003).
personality disorder is characterized by an
exaggerated sense of self-importance. Those Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
with the disorder expect special treatment from (ADHD)- a disorder marked by inattention,
others while at the same time disregarding impulsiveness, a low tolerance for frustration,
others’ feelings. In some ways, in fact, the main and generally a great deal of inappropriate
attribute of the narcissistic personality is an activity. Although all children show such
inability to experience empathy for other people. behavior some of the time, it is so common in
There are several other categories of personality children diagnosed with ADHD that it interferes
disorder that range in severity from individuals with their everyday functioning (Barkley, 2005;
who may simply be regarded by others as Smith, Barkley, & Shapiro, 2006; Barkley,
eccentric, obnoxious, or difficult to people who Knouse, & Murphy, 2011). ADHD is surprisingly
act in a manner that is criminal and dangerous to widespread with estimates ranging between 3%
others. Although they are not out of touch with and 5% of the school-age population—or some
reality like people with schizophrenia, people 3.5 million children under the age of 18 in the
with personality disorders lead lives that put United States. Children diagnosed with the
them on the fringes of society (Millon, Davis, & disorder are often exhausting to parents and
Millon, 2000; Trull & Widiger, 2003). teachers, and even their peers find them difficult
to deal with.
DISORDERS THAT IMPACT CHILDHOOD
The cause of ADHD is not known, although most
We typically view childhood as a time of
experts feel that it is produced by dysfunctions in
innocence and relative freedom from stress. In

142
the nervous system. For example, one theory co-occur with many other psychological
suggests that unusually low levels of arousal in disorders, such as mood disorders, trauma- and
the central nervous system cause ADHD. To stressor-related disorders, and schizophrenia,
compensate, children with ADHD seek out which complicate treatment considerably
stimulation to increase arousal. Still, such (Salgado, Quinlan, & Zlotnick, 2007).
theories are speculative. Furthermore, because
many children occasionally show behaviors Another widespread problem is eating disorders.
characteristic of ADHD, it often is misdiagnosed They include such disorders as anorexia
or in some cases overdiagnosed. Only the nervosa and bulimia, which we considered in the
frequency and persistence of the symptoms of chapter on motivation and emotion, as well as
ADHD allow for a correct diagnosis, which only a binge-eating disorder, characterized by binge
trained professional can do (Barkley, 2000; eating without behaviors designed to prevent
Sciutto & Eisenberg, 2007; Ketisch & Jones, weight gain. Finally, sexual disorders, in which
2013). one’s sexual activity is unsatisfactory, are
another important class of problems. They
Autism Spectrum Disorder- a severe include sexual desire disorders, sexual arousal
developmental disability that impairs one’s ability disorders, and paraphilic disorders, atypical
to communicate and relate to others; is another sexual activities that may include nonhuman
disorder that usually appears in the first 3 years objects or nonconsenting partners.
and typically continues throughout life. Children
with autism have difficulties in both verbal and Another important class of disorders is
nonverbal communication, and they may avoid neurocognitive disorders, some of which we
social contact. About 1 in 88 children are now touched on previously. These are problems that
thought to have the disorder, and its prevalence have a purely biological basis, such as
has risen significantly in the last decade. Alzheimer’s disease and some types of
Whether the increase is the result of an actual developmental disability. Remember, there are
rise in the incidence of autism or is due to better other disorders that we have not mentioned at
reporting is a question of intense debate among all, and each of the classes we have discussed
researchers (Rice, 2009; Neal, Matson, & Belva, can be divided into several subcategories
2013). (Kopelman & Fleminger, 2002; Pratt et al., 2003;
Reijonen et al., 2003).
OTHER DISORDERS
To add in the Chapter Summary…
It’s important to keep in mind that the various
forms of psychological disorders described in • Anxiety disorders are present when a person
DSM-5 cover much more ground than we have experiences so much anxiety that it affects daily
been able to discuss in this module. Some relate functioning. Specific types of anxiety disorders
to topics considered in other chapters. For include phobic disorder, panic disorder, and
example, psychoactive substance use disorder generalized anxiety disorder. Also related is
relates to problems that arise from the use and obsessive-compulsive disorder.
abuse of drugs. Furthermore, alcohol use
disorders are among the most serious and • Somatic symptom disorders are psychological
widespread problems. Both psychoactive difficulties that take on a physical (somatic) form
substance use disorder and alcohol use disorder but for which there is no medical cause.

143
Examples are illness anxiety disorder and 1. Kathy is terrified of elevators. She could be
conversion disorders. suffering from a(n)
a. OCD
b. Phobic disorder
c. Panic disorder
• Dissociative disorders are marked by the d. Generalized Anxiety Disorder
separation, or dissociation, of different facets of 2. Carmen described an incident in which her
a person’s personality that are usually anxiety suddenly rose to a peak, and she felt
integrated. Major kinds of dissociative disorders a sense of impending doom. Carmen
experienced a(n) ______________.
include dissociative identity disorder,
3. Troubling thoughts that persist for weeks or
dissociative amnesia, and dissociative fugue. months are known as
a. Obsession
• Mood disorders are characterized by b. Compulsions
emotional states of depression or euphoria so c. Rituals
strong that they intrude on everyday living. They d. Panic attacks
4. An overpowering urge to carry out a strange
include major depression and bipolar disorder.
ritual is called a(n) ___________.
5. The separation of personality, which provides
escape from stressful situations, is the key
• Schizophrenia is one of the more severe forms factor in ______ disorders.
of mental illness. Symptoms of schizophrenia 6. States of extreme euphoria and energy paired
include declines in functioning, thought and with severe depression characterize ______
disorder.
language disturbances, perceptual disorders,
7. ___________ schizophrenia is characterized
emotional disturbance, and withdrawal from by symptoms that are sudden and of easily
others. identifiable onset; ____________
schizophrenia develops gradually over a
• Strong evidence links schizophrenia to person’s life span.
genetic, biochemical, and environmental factors. The ___________ ____________ states that
According to the predisposition model, an schizophrenia may be caused by an excess
interaction among various factors produces the of certain neurotransmitters in the brain.
disorder.
SEXUAL DEVIANCE Understanding
• People with personality disorders experience Homosexuality and Bisexuality
little or no personal distress, but they do suffer Homosexuals are sexually attracted to
from an inability to function as normal members members of their own sex, whereas bisexuals
of society. These disorders include antisocial are sexually attracted to people of the same sex
personality disorder, borderline personality and the other sex. Many male homosexuals
disorder, and narcissistic personality disorder. prefer the term gay and female homosexuals
prefer the term lesbian because they refer to a
• Childhood disorders include major depression,
broader array of attitudes and lifestyles than the
attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD),
term homosexual, which focuses on the sexual
and autism spectrum disorder.
act.

QUIZ The number of people who choose same-sex

sexual partners at one time or another is

144
considerable. Estimates suggest that around twin identified himself or herself as homosexual,
20–25% of males and about 15% of females the occurrence of homosexuality in the other twin
have had at least one gay or lesbian experience was higher than it was in the general population.
during adulthood. The exact number of people Such results occur even for twins who have been
who identify themselves as exclusively separated early in life and who therefore are not
homosexual has proved difficult to gauge; some necessarily raised in similar social environments
estimates are as low as 1.1% and some as high (Kirk, Bailey, & Martin, 2000; Gooren, 2006;
as 10%. Most experts suggest that 5–10% of LeVay, 2011).
both men and women are exclusively gay or
lesbian during extended periods of their lives Hormones also may play a role in
(Hunt, 1974; Sells, 1994; Firestein, 1996). determining sexual orientation. For example,
research shows that women exposed before
Although people often view homosexuality and birth to DES (diethylstilbestrol—a drug their
heterosexuality as two completely distinct sexual mothers took to avoid miscarriage) were more
orientations, the issue is not that simple. likely to be homosexual or bisexual (Meyer-
Pioneering sex researcher Alfred Kinsey
Bahlburg, 1997).
acknowledged this when he considered sexual
orientation along a scale or continuum with
“exclusively homosexual” at one end and
“exclusively heterosexual” at the other. In the
middle were people who showed both
homosexual and heterosexual behavior.
Kinsey’s approach suggests that sexual
orientation is dependent on a person’s sexual
feelings and behaviors and romantic feelings
(Weinberg, Williams, & Pryor, 1991).

Determining the Causes of Sexual Figure 4 The Kinsey Scale is designed to define
Orientation the degree to which sexual orientation is
heterosexual, homosexual, or bisexual.
What determines whether people Although Kinsey saw people as falling along a
become homosexual or heterosexual? Although continuum, most people believe that they
there are a number of theories, none has proved belonged to a specific category. (Source: Kinsey,
completely satisfactory. Some explanations for Pomeroy, & Martin, 1948.)
sexual orientation are biological, suggesting that
there are genetic causes. Studies of identical
twins provide evidence for a genetic cause of
sexual orientation. Studies find that when one

145
Some evidence suggests that differences in experience, homosexuality might be
brain structures may be related to sexual incorporated into his or her sexual fantasies. If
orientation. For instance, the structure of the such fantasies are used during later sexual
anterior hypothalamus, an area of the brain that activities—such as masturbation—they may be
governs sexual behavior, differs in male positively reinforced through orgasm, and the
homosexuals and heterosexuals. Similarly, other association of homosexual behavior and sexual
research shows that, compared with pleasure eventually may cause homosexuality to
heterosexual men or women, gay men have a become the preferred form of sexual behavior.
larger anterior commissure, which is a bundle of
neurons connecting the right and left Although the learning-theory explanation is
hemispheres of the brain (LeVay, 1993; Byne, plausible, several difficulties rule it out as a
1996; Witelson et al., 2008). definitive explanation. Because our society has
traditionally held homosexuality in low esteem,
However, research suggesting that biological one ought to expect that the negative treatment
causes are at the root of homosexuality is not of homosexual behavior would outweigh the
conclusive because most findings are based on rewards attached to it. Furthermore, children
only small samples of indi- viduals. Still, the growing up with a gay or lesbian parent are
possibility is real that some inherited or biological statistically unlikely to become homosexual,
factor exists that predisposes people toward which thus contradicts the notion that
homosexuality if certain environmental homosexual behavior may be learned from
conditions are met (Veniegas, 2000; Teodorov et others (Golombok et al., 1995; Victor & Fish,
al., 2002; Rahman, Kumari, & Wilson, 2003). 1995; Tasker, 2005).

Virtually no scientific evidence suggests that Because of the difficulty in finding a consistent
sexual orientation is brought about by child- explanation for sexual orientation, we can’t
rearing practices or family dynamics. Although definitively answer the question of what
proponents of psychoanalytic theories once determines it. It seems unlikely that any single
argued that the nature of the parent-child factor orients a person toward homosexuality or
relationship can produce homosexuality (e.g., heterosexuality. Instead, it seems reasonable to
Freud, 1922/1959), research evidence does not assume that a combination of biological and
support such explanations (Isay, 1994; environmental factors is involved (Hyde,
Roughton, 2002). Mezulis, & Abramson, 2008).

Another explanation for sexual orientation rests Although we don’t know exactly why people
on learning theory (Masters & Johnson, 1979). develop a certain sexual orientation, one thing is
According to this view, sexual orientation is clear: Despite increasingly positive attitudes
learned through rewards and punishments in toward homosexuality, many gays and lesbians
much the same way that we may learn to prefer face antigay attitudes and discrimination, and it
swimming over tennis. For example, a young can take a toll. Lesbians and gays have higher
adolescent who had an unpleasant heterosexual rates of depression and suicide than their
experience might develop disagreeable straight counterparts. There are even physical
associations with the other sex. If the same health disparities due to prejudice that gays and
person had a rewarding, pleasant gay or lesbian lesbians may experience. Because of this, the

146
American Psychological Association and other chromosomal or gene patterns. In some cases,
major mental health organizations have they are born with both male and female sexual
endorsed efforts to eliminate discrimination organs, or the organs are ambiguous. It is an
against gays and lesbians (Chakraborty et al., extremely rare condition found in one in 4,500
2011; Ashley, 2013; Lick, Durso, & Johnson, births. Intersexism involves a complex mix of
2013). physiological and psychological issues
(Lehrman, 2007; Diamond, 2009).
Transsexualism

Transsexuals are people whose sexual

identification is with the opposite gender from Contents lifted from Understanding Psychology
that they were born with. Transsexuals feel that by Robert S. Feldman, 12th edition
they are trapped in the body of the other gender. UNIT 14: Methods of Therapy
In fundamental ways, transsexualism represents
less of a sexual difficulty than a gender issue Learning Objectives:
involving one’s sexual identity (Meyerowitz, In this module students will:
2004; Heath, 2006). Transsexuals sometimes
seek sex-change operations in which their 1. Understand the history of treating mental
existing genitals are surgically removed and the and psychological conditions
genitals of the desired sex are fashioned.
2. Learn what is Psychotherapy
Several steps, including intensive counseling,
hormone injections, and living as a member of 3. Gain an overview of the different
the desired sex for several years, precede therapeutic approaches and their uses
surgery, which is, not surprisingly, highly
complicated. The outcome, though, can be quite Readings:
positive (O’Keefe & Fox, 2003; Stegerwald & Kalat, J.W., Introduction to Psychology, Ninth
Janson, 2003; Lobato, Koff, & Manenti, 2006; Edition 2011 pp. 546 - 564
Richards, 2011). Plotnik, R., Kouyoumdjian, H., Introduction to
Psychology, Ninth Edition 2001 pp 554-574
Transsexualism is part of a broader category Feist, G.J., Rosenberg, E.L., Psychology:
known as transgenderism. The term Perspectives and Connections, 2019 pp 608-
transgenderism encompasses not only 640
transsexuals, but also people who view Note: You may make use of the internet to
themselves as a third gender (neither male nor search more on other references
female), transvestites (who dress in the clothes
of the other gender), or others who believe that
Introduction
traditional male-female gender classifications
In this module we’ll discuss the history of
inadequately characterize them (Prince, 2005;
psychotherapy and how current therapists are
Hyde, Mezulis, & Abramson, 2008). trained. We willl explain Freud’s psychoanalysis
and how those who disagreed with Freud
Transsexuals are distinct from individuals who developed their own kinds of therapies. We’ll
are known as intersex or by the older term discuss three of the more popular forms of
hermaphrodite. An intersex person is born with psychotherapy: behavior therapy, cognitive
an atypical combination of sexual organs or therapy, and humanistic therapy. Finally, we’ll

147
answer one of the most interesting questions: Do
therapies differ in their effectiveness?
We’ll discuss the major changes in treating
mental disorders, including early inhumane
treatments, the breakthrough in the use of drugs,
and community mental health centers.

Early Treatments

From 1400 to 1700, people who today would be

diagnosed as schizophrenics were considered
insane and called lunatics. They were primarily
confined to asylums or hospitals for the mentally Early treatment was to sit in a
ill, where the treatment was often inhumane and “tranquilizing chair.”
cruel. For example, patients were treated by
being placed in a hood and straitjacket, chained
to a cell wall, swung back and forth until they
were quieted, strapped into a chair (right Dr. Rush also tried to cure patients with fright,
drawing), locked in handcuffs, hosed down with
such as putting them into coffins and convincing
water until they were exhausted, or twirled until
they passed out. them they were about to die. Despite these
strange and inhumane treatments, Dr. Rush
In the late 1700s, Dr. Benjamin Rush, who is encouraged his staff to treat patients with
considered the father of American psychiatry, kindness and understanding (Davison & Neale,
developed the “tranquilizing chair” (bottom 1994). In the 1700s, some hospitals even sold
drawing). A patient was strapped into this chair tickets to the general public. People came to see
and remained until he or she seemed calmed
the locked-up “wild beasts” and to laugh at the
down. Dr. Rush believed that mental disorders
tragic and pathetic behaviors of individuals with
were caused by too much blood in the brain. To
cure this problem, he attempted to treat patients severe mental disorders. However, in the late
by withdrawing huge amounts of blood, as much 1700s and early 1800s, a few doctors began to
as six quarts over a period of months. make reforms by removing the patients’ chains,
forbidding physical punishment, and using a
more psychological approach to treat mental
disorders (J. C. Harris, 2003).

Reform Movement

In the 1800s, a Boston schoolteacher named

Dorothea Dix (right photo below) began to visit
the jails and poorhouses where most of the
mental patients in the United States were kept.
Dix publicized the terrible living conditions and
Early treatment was to be
strapped to a chair. the lack of reasonable treatment of mental
patients. Her work was part of the reform
movement that emphasized moral therapy.
Moral therapy, which was popular in the early
1800s, was the belief that mental patients could

148
be helped to function better by providing humane locked away. But in the mid-1950s, two events
treatment in a relaxed and decent environment. dramatically changed the treatment of mental
patients: one was the discovery of antipsychotic
During the reform movement, pleasant mental drugs, and the other was the development of
hospitals were built in rural settings so that moral
community mental health centers.
therapy could be used to treat patients. However,
these mental hospitals soon became Biomedical Treatments for Psychological
overcrowded, the public lost interest, funds
Disorders
became tight, and treatment became scarce.
Mental health professionals rely on four major
forms of treatment to help alleviate the
symptoms of—and sometimes to cure—
psychological disorders: biomedical,
psychological, technology-based, and combined
therapies (see Figure 1). While most mental
health professionals rely on all four, each
practitioner works from a perspective based on
training, personal interest, and experience. In
other words, the same disorder can be treated in
By the late 1800s, the belief that moral therapy different ways depending on the clinician.
would cure mental disorders was abandoned. People seeking treatment should keep in mind
Mental hospitals began to these differences in perspective when selecting
resemble human snake pits, in someone to help, because different clinician
which hundreds of mental backgrounds don’t always lead to the same
patients, in various states of dress clinical outcome
or undress, milled about in a large
room while acting out their
symptoms with little or no
Freud developed supervision. Treatment went
first
psychotherapy
backward, and once again
patients were put into
straitjackets, handcuffs, and various restraining
devices (Routh, 1994).
By the early 1900s, Sigmund
Freud had developed psychoanalysis, the first
psychotherapy. Psychoanalysis eventually
spread from Europe to the United States and
reached its peak of popularity in the 1950s.
However, psychoanalysis was more effective in
treating less serious mental disorders
(neuroses) than in treating the serious mental
disorders (psychoses) that kept people in mental
hospitals.
Thus, the wretched conditions
and inhumane treatment of patients with serious
mental disorders persisted until the early 1950s.
By then, more than half a million patients were

149
Drug Therapy treatments are maintained. Also, the adverse
effects of ECT on memory can be fairly severe.

Psychological Treatment for Psychological

Disorders

• Psychotherapy is the use of

psychological techniques to modify maladaptive
behaviors or thought patterns, or both, and to
develop insight into the client’s behavior.

Psychodynamic therapies attempt to relate

personality to the interplay of conflicting
impulses within the individual, including some
that the individual does not consciously
recognize. For example, both Sigmund Freud’s
procedure (looking for sexual motives) and
Alfred Adler’s procedure (looking for power and
superiority motives) are considered
psychodynamic despite the differences between
them. Here we focus on the procedure
developed by Freud, although its practitioners
have modified and developed it further since
Freud’s time.

Psychoanalysis, the first of the “talk” therapies, is

• Both traditional and atypical
a method based on identifying uncon-scious
antipsychotic drugs work best on the positive
thoughts and emotions and bringing them to con-
symptoms of schizophrenia. Certain atypical
sciousness to help people understand their
antipsychotic drugs may relieve the negative
thoughts and actions. Psychoanalysis is
symptoms.
therefore an “in-sight-oriented therapy” in
• Psychosurgery is brain surgery contrast to thera-pies that focus on changing
performed to treat psychological disorders. thoughts and behaviors (Figure 15.3).
Prefrontal lobotomy was once used to reduce Psychoanalysis was the dominant form of
psychotic behavior, but it is now considered an psycho-therapy in the United States in the mid-
outdated and cruel procedure. 1900s. Over the years, it has declined in
popularity and influence in the United States,
• Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)
although it remains more wide-spread in parts of
involves passing electrical current through the
Europe.
brain to induce a seizure. Because ECT can lead
to memory loss, the only currently acceptable
clinical application of ECT is for cases of severe
depression that fail to respond to any other
treatment.
Although many patients report immediate relief
with ECT, usually it is effective only as long as

150
 use of token economies to treat maladaptive
behaviors. This technique is based on a simple
principle: Desirable behaviors are reinforced
with a token, such as a small chip or fake coin,
which the client can then exchange for
privileges.

In the realm of mental health, the technique was

used with some success in the 1950s and 1960s
to reduce undesirable psychotic behaviors in
patients in mental institutions (Nolen-Hoeksema,
2007). Recent uses include the treatment of
substance abuse by people with schizophrenia.
Each time the patients did not use drugs, they
were rewarded with small amounts of money.
Coupled with problem solving and social-skills
training, this token system helped control
substance abuse in hospitalized patients with
schizophrenia, who are generally very hard to
treat (Bellack et al., 2006). Also, the use of token
economies may encourage socially appropriate
Freud believed that psychological problems behaviors and enhance life skills in children with
result from unconscious thought processes and autism spectrum disorder (Matson & Boisjoli,
that the way to control self-defeating behavior is 2009).
to make those processes conscious. Bringing
Systematic desensitization is a widely used
them to consciousness, he thought, would
application of behavior therapy that is especially
produce catharsis, a release of pent-up emotions
effective for treating simple phobias (Tyron,
associated with unconscious thoughts and
2005). Systematic desensitization pairs
memories. (Whether catharsis is actually helpful
relaxation with gradual exposure to a phobic
is, however, uncertain. Expressing strong fear
object. First, the therapist generates a hierarchy
and anger does not make people feel good.) To
of increasing contact with the feared object,
bring unconscious material to consciousness,
ranging from mild to extreme. Figure 6 shows a
Freud used dream analysis, free association,
possible hierarchy for a person with
and transference.
arachnophobia (a fear of spiders). In addition to
Behavior Therapies increasing exposure, the therapist helps the
client learn relaxation techniques that he or she
In behavior therapies, therapists apply the can use when experiencing anxiety, especially
principles of classical and operant conditioning anxiety related to the phobic object. The
to treat psychological disorders. They focus on therapist works to help the client relax and then
changing behavior rather than thoughts, exposes the client to the phobic stimulus at
feelings, or motives. The idea is to help clients gradually increasing levels of intensity. The idea
eliminate undesirable behaviors and increase to pair two incompatible body responses,
the frequency of desirable ones. relaxation and anxiety, is a clever one. People
cannot be both relaxed and anxious at the same
Behavioral therapists employ the basic time.
principles of operant conditioning through the

151
Systematic desensitization often successfully
treats phobias and some other anxiety disorders
(Tyron, 2005).

Systematic desensitization involves three levels

of exposure to a phobic object: imagined, virtual,
and real. In imagined exposure, people simply
imagine contact with the phobic object. The next
level is virtual reality exposure. At this stage, the
individual may be shown photographs or
exposed to a virtual reality computer simulation.
For instance, one type of virtual reality software
allows clients to simulate flying during treatment Cognitive and Cognitive-Behavioral
for flying phobia, as depicted in Figure 7
Treatments
(Wiederhold & Wiederhold, 2005). The most
realistic level of exposure is in vivo exposure, in
Any type of psychotherapy that works to
which the client makes real-life contact with the
restructure irrational thought patterns is known
phobic object.
as cognitive therapy. Typically, in cognitive
therapy the therapist helps the client identify
Implosion therapy, or flooding, is a form of in
irrational thought patterns and then challenges
vivo exposure in which the client experiences
these thoughts. Cognitive therapy (CT) is
extreme exposure to the phobic object, as when
structured and problem oriented, with the
someone who is arachnophobic is asked to hold
primary goal of fixing erroneous thought
three hairy tarantulas at once. Flooding, in this
patterns, as we will illustrate with an example
sense, is very different from systematic
shortly. It is also time limited and involves a
desensitization. Flooding involves heavy
collaborative effort by the therapist and the client.
exposure to the feared object, whereas
In using cognitive therapy, the therapist relies on
systematic desensitization involves gradually
what is known as the Socratic method: The
making the person less sensitive to the feared
therapist poses questions that help the client
object, one step at a time.

152
recognize erroneous logic that may support HUMANISTIC THERAPY

Humanistic psychologists believe that people

can decide deliberately what kind of person to
be. They also believe that we naturally strive to
achieve our full potential. However, people
sometimes come to dislike themselves because
they feel criticism and rejection. They become
distressed by the incongruence (mismatch)
between their perceptions of their real self and
their ideal self.

That incongruence becomes a problem, causing

people to lose confidence in their ability to cope.
According to humanistic therapists, once people
are freed from the inhibiting influences of a
rejecting society, they can solve their own
problems.

problematic thinking (Beck & Emery, 1985). The best-known version of humanistic therapy,
pioneered by Carl Rogers, is person-centered
Often therapists integrate cognitive techniques
therapy, also known as nondirective or client-
for restructuring irrational thoughts with
centered therapy. The therapist listens to the
behavioral techniques to shape desirable
client with total acceptance and unconditional
behaviors in what is known as cognitive-
positive regard. Most of the time, the therapist
behavioral therapy (CBT). As the name implies,
paraphrases and clarifies what the client has
the focus of CBT is to change both thoughts and
said, conveying the message, “I’m trying to
behavior. CBT entails restructuring thoughts,
understand your experience from your point of
loosening the client’s belief in irrational thoughts
view.” The therapist strives to be genuine,
that may perpetuate the disorder, and offering
empathic, and caring, rarely offering any
incentives for acquiring more adaptive thought
interpretation or advice.
and behavior patterns. Cognitive-behavioral
therapy is a short-term psychological treatment FAMILY SYSTEMS THERAPY
that has been successfully applied to disorders
In family systems therapy, the guiding
as varied as depression, phobias, post-traumatic
assumptions are that most people’s problems
stress disorder (PTSD), obsessive-compulsive
develop in a family setting and that the best way
disorder, eating disorders, and substance abuse. to deal with them is to improve family
Think of CBT as a tool for teaching skills that relationships and communication. Family
curtail depressogenic thinking, or thinking that systems therapy is not an alternative to other
tends to help generate depressed moods. CBT forms of therapy. A family therapist uses
has revolutionized the treatment of many behavior therapy, cognitive therapy, or other
psychological disorders. techniques. What distinguishes family therapists
is that they prefer to talk with two or more
members of a family together. Even when they

153
talk with someone alone, they focus on how the
individual fits into the family and how other family
members react. Solving most problems requires
changing the family dynamics as well as any
individual’s behavior (Clarkin & Carpenter, 1995;
Rohrbaugh, Shoham, Spungen, & Steinglass,
1995).

Group Therapy
In group therapy, several people who share a
common problem all meet regularly with a
therapist to help themselves and one another;
the therapist acts as a facilitator. Group therapy
often follows a structured process, with clear
treatment goals such as learning to overcome
social anxiety disorder. The group serves as both
a source of support and an aid to the therapeutic
process by allowing several people with a
common problem to listen to, discuss with, and
critique one another. The interactions among
participants becomes as much a part of the
treatment as people’s individual comments. A self-help group, such as Alcoholics
Anonymous, operates much like group therapy,
Psychological treatments have been used not
except without a therapist. Each participant both
only to alleviate psychological disorders but also
gives and receives help. People who have
to help prevent the development of such
experienced a problem can offer special insights
disorders. Given the difficulties in treating many
to others with the same problem. They are
psychological disorders and the costs to
especially well prepared when someone says,
individuals and society of the large numbers of
“You just don’t understand.” They reply, “Oh,
people suffering from such conditions,
yes, we do!” Self-help groups have another
prevention programs are an increasing area of
advantage: The members can phone one
effort in psychology and medicine. Figure 8
another for help at almost any time. The service
summarizes the psychotherapies discussed in
is supported by voluntary contributions, so each
this section and lists what each therapy
person pays only what he or she can afford
addresses as the causes of a disorder, as well
as the therapy’s treatment goals and techniques. Effectiveness of Psychological Treatments
Self-Help Groups
An increasingly prevalent view is that therapists
need to make treatment choices based on the
empirical evidence of their efficacy—that is, they
need to be evidence-based therapies (APA
Presidential Task Force, 2006). However, very
little research has addressed the issue of which
psychotherapies work best for various disorders.
Decades ago, a review of the literature on the
effectiveness of various types of
psychotherapies showed that people who

154
received any kind of therapy were better off on a depression might employ drugs to help manage
number of outcomes relevant to mental status the depressive state along with CBT to help
than were most people who did not receive clients recognize and control the thought
therapy (Smith & Glass, 1977). The study patterns that may push them into depressive
revealed no significant differences between states (Cuijpers et al., 2010; Teasdale et al.,
behavior therapies and psychodynamic ones. 2000).
Current meta-analyses of the effectiveness of
psychotherapy continue to show that most forms Integrative Therapy
of therapy are effective and few significant
Some therapists take an eclectic approach to
differences exist in effectiveness among general
psychotherapy, which means they draw on
psychotherapy, cognitive- behavioral therapy,
numerous techniques in their work with clients.
and psychodynamic therapy (Shedler, 2010).
These clinicians are typically trained in many
This conclusion is sometimes referred to as the
methods and use those that seem most
dodo bird verdict, after the dodo bird in Alice in
appropriate, given the situation, without loyalty to
Wonderland (Luborsky, Singer, & Luborsky,
any particular orientation or treatment. This
1975). The dodo bird proclaims, “Everybody has
approach is known as integrative therapy
won, and must have prizes.” The idea is that
(Norcross, Bike, & Evans, 2009; Prochaska &
psychotherapy tends to work, but which kind of
Norcross, 2007). For a client showing symptoms
therapy one has appears not to matter too much.
of simple phobia and suffering from depression,
behavioral therapy may be best for treating the
COMBINED APPROACHES phobia while cognitive techniques may work
better for the depression. Problems of self-
Some approaches combine different types of esteem might best be treated with a humanistic
psychotherapy or combine nontraditional approach.
practices with traditional approaches.
Sometimes the optimal treatment for a The vast majority of clinical psychologists
psychological disorder may be to combine drugs practicing in the United States say they take an
with psychotherapy. We will look at several integrative-eclectic approach to treating
combined approaches: drugs and disorders (Norcross, Bike, & Evans, 2009;
psychotherapy, integrative therapy, and Norcross, Karpiak, & Lister, 2005). These
mindfulness training and psychotherapy. practitioners share the experience that no one
therapeutic approach is effective for all
Drugs and Psychotherapy psychological disorders.

Given the dynamic interplay between biological Prolonged exposure therapy is an integrative
and psychological influences in many treatment program for people who have
psychological disorders, combined treatments posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD; Foa et al.,
might work better than either alone (Ganasen, 2005; Powers et al., 2010). It combines CBT with
Ipser, & Stein, 2010). The drugs can modify the imagined exposure form of systematic
some of the debilitating effects of a disorder desensitization and relaxation. For clients with
enough that patients can function sufficiently well PTSD, this involves a course of individual
to learn techniques that might help in changing therapy in which clients directly process
their problematic thinking and behavior. This traumatic events and thus reduce trauma-
approach works best for depressive and anxiety induced psychological disturbances. Thus, a
disorders, in which thinking is not severely person with combat-related PTSD might re-visit
impaired. A combined therapy to manage traumatic war scenes (such as the death of a

155
compatriot) in her mind and engage in cognitive Name four ways in which nearly all
approaches with the therapist to reduce irrational forms of psychotherapy are similar.
thinking about her role in that event (e.g., she
could not have saved him). This technique has Compare the different types of therapy.
been used effectively for the treatment of Must include the following:
combat- and rape-related PTSD (Cahill et al.,
2006; Foa et al., 2005; Mørkved et al., 2014; Type
Nacash et al., 2007; Powers et al., 2010). Theory of what causes disorder
Sometimes drugs prescribed for anxiety Goal of treatment
disorders are used in combination with Therapeutic Methods
prolonged exposure therapy to treat PTSD Role of therapist
(Rothbaum et al., 2006).

Mindfulness Training and Psychotherapy Summary:

Some newer therapies integrate the
As you have seen, therapists differ enormously
nontraditional practice of mindfulness meditation in their assumptions and methods. A
with psychotherapeutic techniques to treat psychoanalyst hopes to uncover your
psychological disorders (Chiesa, Brambilla, & unconscious thoughts, memories, and motives
Serretti, 2010; Farb et al., 2010). In mindfulness on the assumption that knowing about them will
meditation, the meditator is trained to calm the
help solve your problems. A cognitive or
body and the mind and to notice the thoughts or behavior therapist is more interested in changing
feelings that might draw his or her attention, your current thoughts and actions than in
without getting pulled around by them and dwelling on the past. A person-centered
without clinging to them. These skills help people
therapist provides a warm, supportive setting, in
keep thoughts or emotions in perspective. We
which you can set your own goals and decide for
will explore two combined approaches in this yourself how to achieve them. Despite these
vein: mindfulness-based cognitive therapy and
major differences, all the common forms of
dialectical behavior therapy. therapy are almost equally effective. It is as if
TECHNOLOGY-BASED TREATMENTS FOR researchers found that when you are sick, one
PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS kind of medicine is as good as another.
Psychotherapy began with psychiatry, a branch
• A number of newer therapies make use
of medicine, and we still treat it as analogous to
of technology or the Internet to complement
medicine. That is, a client comes with a disorder,
current therapies or to make psychotherapeutic
the therapist provides a treatment, and health
techniques available to people who might
insurance pays the bills. In some ways, this
otherwise not have access to them or seek them
analogy fails, and therapy is more like education.
out
A client is like a student, and the therapist is like
an instructor who tries to provide direction, but
• Virtual reality therapies, a subset of which
the amount of progress depends on the client’s
is known
own efforts. This is not to say that the therapist
as “avatar therapy,” use virtual environments
is irrelevant. However, the variation between one
(digital simulations) that create therapeutic
client and another is greater than the typical
situations that might be hard to create otherwise.
difference between one treatment and another.
Assessment: Make a table illustrating your
answer.

156
Psychoanalysis. Psychoanalysts try to uncover Content of the this were lifted from the
the unconscious reasons behind self-defeating following references:
behaviors. To bring the unconscious to
consciousness, they rely on free association, Kalat, J.W., Introduction to Psychology, Ninth
dream analysis, and transference. Edition 2011 pp. 546 - 564
Plotnik, R., Kouyoumdjian, H., Introduction to
Behavior therapy. Behavior therapists set Psychology, Ninth Edition 2001 pp 554-574
specific goals for changing a client’s behavior
Feist, G.J., Rosenberg, E.L., Psychology:
and use learning techniques to help a client
Perspectives and Connections, 2019 pp 608-
achieve those goals. 640
Cognitive therapies. Cognitive therapists try to
get clients to give up their irrational beliefs and UNIT 15 : Social Psychology
unrealistic goals and to replace defeatist thinking
with more favorable views of themselves and the
world. Many therapists combine features of In this lesson, students will be able to:
behavior therapy and cognitive therapy,
• Understand the social thinking, social
attempting to change people’s behaviors by
influence and social interaction.
altering how they interpret the situation.
Humanistic therapy. Humanistic therapists,
Reading references:
including person-centered therapists, assume
that people who accept themselves as they are Kalat, J.W., Introduction to Psychology, Ninth
can solve their own problems. Person-centered Edition 2011 pp. 451-497
therapists listen with unconditional positive
regard and seldom offers interpretations and Plotnik, R., Kouyoumdjian, H., Introduction to
advise. Psychology, Ninth Edition 2001 pp 554-574
Family systems therapy. In many cases, an Feist, G.J., Rosenberg, E.L., Psychology:
individual’s problem is part of an overall disorder Perspectives and Connections, 2019 pp 526-
of family communications and expectations.
563
Family systems therapists try to work with a
whole family. Note: You may make use of the internet to

Group therapies and self-help groups. search more on other references

Psychotherapy is sometimes provided to people
in groups, often composed of individuals with
Introduction
similar problems. Self-help groups provide
sessions similar to group therapy but without a Social psychology is the scientific study of how
therapist. people's thoughts, feelings, beliefs, intentions
and goals are are constructed within a social
Effectiveness of psychotherapy. The average context by the actual or imagined interactions
troubled person in therapy improves more than with others.
at least 80% of the troubled people not in
Baron, Byrne and Suls (1989) define social
therapy. In general, all mainstream therapies
psychology as 'the scientific field that seeks to
appear about equally effective, although a few
understand the nature and causes of individual
“fad” therapies are useless or harmful.
behavior in social situations'.
Therapists today emphasize empirically
supported therapies.

157
It therefore looks at human behavior as notable book in English was published by
influenced by other people and the social context McDougall in 1908 (An Introduction to Social
in which this occurs. Psychology), which included chapters on
Social psychologists, therefore, deal with the emotion and sentiment, morality, character and
factors that lead us to behave in a given way in religion, quite different to those incorporated in
the presence of others, and look at the conditions the field today.
under which certain behavior/actions and He believed that social behavior was
feelings occur. innate/instinctive and therefore individual, hence
Topics examined in social psychology include: his choice of topics. This belief is not the
the self concept, social cognition, attribution principle upheld in modern social psychology,
theory, social influence, group however.
processes, prejudice and discrimination, Allport’s work (1924) underpins current thinking
interpersonal processes, to a greater degree, as he acknowledged that
aggression, attitudes and stereotypes. social behavior results from interactions between
people. He also took a methodological
History of Social Psychology approach, discussing actual research and
emphasizing that the field was one of a “science
Early Influences
… which studies the behavior of the individual in
Aristotle believed that humans were naturally so far as his behavior stimulates other
sociable, a necessity which allows us to live individuals, or is itself a reaction to this behavior”
together (an individual centered approach), (1942: p. 12). His book also dealt with topics still
whilst Plato felt that the state controlled the evident today, such as emotion, conformity and
individual and encouraged social responsibility the effects of an audience on others.
through social context (a socio-centered
Murchison (1935) published The first handbook
approach).
on social psychology was published by
Hegel (1770–1831) introduced the concept that Murchison in 1935. Murphy & Murphy (1931/37)
society has inevitable links with the development produced a book summarizing the findings of
of the social mind. This led to the idea of a group 1,000 studies in social psychology. A text by
mind, important in the study of social psychology. Klineberg (1940) looked at the interaction
Lazarus & Steinthal wrote about Anglo- between social context and personality
European influences in 1860. development by the 1950s a number of texts
“Volkerpsychologie” emerged, which focused on were available on the subject.
the idea of a collective mind. It emphasized the Journal Development
notion that personality develops because of
• 1950s – Journal of Abnormal and Social
cultural and community influences, especially
Psychology
through language, which is both a social product
• 1963 – Journal of Personality, British Journal
of the community as well as a means of
of Social and Clinical Psychology
encouraging particular social thought in the
• 1965 – Journal of Personality and Social
individual. Therefore Wundt (1900–1920)
Psychology, Journal of Experimental Social
encouraged the methodological study of
Psychology
language and its influence on the social being.
• 1971 – Journal of Applied Social Psychology,
Early Texts European Journal of Social Psychology
Texts focusing on social psychology first • 1975 – Social Psychology Quarterly,
emerged at the start of the 20th century. The first Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin

158
• 1982 – Social Cognition topics and will be discussed throughout this
• 1984 – Journal of Social and Personal website.
Relationships
Thus the growth years of social psychology
Early Experiments occurred during the decades following the
1940s.
There is some disagreement about the first true
experiment, but the following are certainly
among some of the most important. Triplett Social Psychology Key Figures
(1898) applied the experimental method to Allport (1920) – Social Facilitation
investigate the performance of cyclists and
schoolchildren on how the presence of others Allport introduced the notion that the presence of
influences overall performance – thus how others (the social group) can facilitate certain
individual’s are affected and behave in the social behavior. It was found that an audience would
context. improve an actors’ performance in well
learned/easy tasks, but leads to a decrease in
By 1935 the study of social norms had performance on newly learned/difficult tasks due
developed, looking at how individuals behave to social inhibition.
according to the rules of society. This was
conducted by Sherif (1935). Bandura (1963) Social Learning Theory

Lewin et al. then began experimental research Bandura introduced the notion that behavior in
into leadership and group processes by 1939, the social world could be modeled. Three groups
looking at effective work ethics under different of children watched a video where an adult was
styles of leadership. aggressive towards a ‘bobo doll’, and the adult
was either just seen to be doing this, was
Later Developments rewarded by another adult for their behavior or
Much of the key research in social psychology were punished for it. Children who had seen the
developed following World War II, when people adult rewarded were found to be more likely to
became interested in the behavior of individuals copy such behavior.
when grouped together and in social situations. Festinger (1950) – Cognitive Dissonance
Key studies were carried out in several areas. Festinger, Schacter and Black brought the idea
Some studies focused on how attitudes are that when we hold beliefs, attitudes or cognitions
formed, changed by the social context and which are different, then we experience
measured to ascertain whether change has dissonance – this is an inconsistency that causes
occurred. Amongst some of the most famous discomfort.
work in social psychology is that We are motivated to reduce this by either
on obedience conducted by Milgram in his changing one of our thoughts, beliefs or attitudes
“electric shock” study, which looked at the role or selectively attending to information which
an authority figure plays in shaping supports one of our beliefs and ignores the other
behavior. Similarly, Zimbardo’s prison (selective exposure hypothesis).
simulation notably demonstrated conformity to
given roles in the social world. Dissonance occurs when there are difficult
choices or decisions, or when people participate
Wider topics then began to emerge, such as in behavior that is contrary to their attitude.
social perception, aggression, relationships, Dissonance is thus brought about by effort
decision making, pro social behavior and justification (when aiming to reach a modest
attribution, many of which are central to today’s

159
goal), induced compliance (when people are They were encouraged to increase the voltage
forced to comply contrary to their attitude) and given after each incorrect answer up to a
free choice (when weighing up decisions). maximum voltage, and it was found that all
Tajfel (1971) – Social Identity Theory participants gave shocks up to 300v, with 65
percent reaching the highest level of 450v.
When divided into artificial (minimal) groups,
prejudice results simply from the awareness that It seems that obedience is most likely to occur in
there is an “out-group” (the other group). an unfamiliar environment and in the presence of
an authority figure, especially when covert
When the boys were asked to allocate points to pressure is put upon people to obey. It is also
others (which might be converted into rewards) possible that it occurs because the participant
who were either part of their own group or the felt that someone other than themselves was
out-group, they displayed a strong in-group responsible for their actions.
preference. That is, they allocated more points
on the set task to boys who they believed to be Haney, Banks, Zimbardo (1973) – Stanford
in the same group as themselves. Prison Experiment

This can be accounted for by Tajfel & Turner’s Volunteers took part in a simulation where they
social identity theory, which states that were randomly assigned the role of a prisoner or
individuals need to maintain a positive sense of guard and taken to a converted university
personal and social identity: this is partly basement resembling a prison environment.
achieved by emphasizing the desirability of one’s There was some basic loss of rights for the
own group, focusing on distinctions between prisoners, who were unexpectedly arrested,
other “lesser” groups. given a uniform and an identification number
(they were therefore deindividuated).
Weiner (1986) – Attribution Theory
The study showed that conformity to social roles
Weiner was interested in the attributions made occurred as part of the social interaction, as both
for experiences of success and failure and groups displayed more negative emotions and
introduced the idea that we look for explanations hostility and dehumanization became apparent.
of behavior in the social world. Prisoners became passive, whilst the guards
assumed an active, brutal and dominant role.
Although normative and informational social
He believed that these were made based on
influence had a role to play here,
three areas: locus, which could be internal or
deindividuation/the loss of a sense of identity
external; stability, which is whether the cause is
seemed most likely to lead to conformity.
stable or changes over time: and controllability.
Both this and Milgram’s study introduced the
Milgram (1963) – Shock Experiment
notion of social influence, and the ways in which
Participants were told that they were taking part this could be observed/tested.
in a study on learning, but always acted as the
teacher when they were then responsible for
SOCIAL PERCEPTION
going over paired associate learning tasks.
When the learner (a stooge) got the answer We are seldom fully aware of the reasons for our
wrong, they were told by a scientist that they had own behavior, much less someone else’s, but we
to deliver an electric shock. This did not actually make our best guesses. If someone you know
happen, although the participant was unaware of passes by without saying “hello,” you might
this as they had themselves a sample (real!) attribute that person’s behavior to
shock at the start of the experiment. absentmindedness, indifference, or hostility. You

160
might attribute someone’s friendly response to Cultural differences. People in Asian cultures
your own personal charm, the other person’s are less likely than those in Western cultures to
extraverted personality, or that person’s devious attribute behavior to consistent personality traits
and manipulative personality. The attributions and more likely to attribute it to the situation.
you make are sure to influence your own social
behaviors. Actor-observer effect. We are more likely to
attribute internal causes to other people’s
First impressions. Other things being equal, we behavior than to our own.
pay more attention to the first information we
learn about someone than to later information. Self-serving bias and self-handicapping.
First impressions form rapidly, and in some People sometimes try to protect their self-
cases, they are surprisingly accurate. esteem by attributing their successes to skill and
their failures to outside influences. They
Stereotypes. Stereotypes are generalized sometimes place themselves at a disadvantage
beliefs about groups of people. Stereotypes in- to provide an excuse for failure.
fluence our behavior in subtle ways, often
without our awareness. Group Living and Social Influence

Prejudice. A prejudice is an unfavorable The social nature of human beings stems from
stereotype. Many people do not admit their the importance of group living in our evolutionary
prejudices, even to themselves. Indirect history. We are not solitary animals. Group living
measures demonstrate subtle prejudices even in offered many advantages in human evolution,
people who deny having them. such as increased safety in the presence of
danger, cooperation with others to complete
Overcoming prejudice. Trying to have a good challenging tasks (such as hunting), and child
experience with someone works better than rearing (Brewer & Caporael, 2006; Melis &
trying to avoid showing prejudice. Accepting and Semmann, 2010). This heritage explains why
enjoying group differences usually work better people work to preserve group membership and
than trying to see everyone as the same. why they modify their behavior when in the
Spending time together and working together for presence of others. As we will see, social factors
a common goal weaken prejudices between can push people to do things they might not
groups. otherwise do.

Attribution. Attribution is the set of thought You may have noticed that sometimes you
processes by which we assign internal or perform a task better with others around and
external causes to behavior. According to Harold sometimes you do worse. Such effects are seen
Kelley, we are likely to attribute behavior to an in animals as diverse as humans, chimps, birds,
internal cause if it is consistent over time, and even cockroaches (Gates & Allee, 1933;
different from most other people’s behavior, and Klopfer, 1958). The effect of having others
directed toward a variety of other people or present can depend on the situation or task at
objects. hand, how easy or difficult the task is, and how
excited you are.
Fundamental attribution error. People
frequently attribute people’s behavior to inter- nal Social facilitation occurs when the presence of
causes, even when they see evidence of others improves our performance. Over a
external influences. century ago, Norman Triplett (1898) noticed that
he bicycled faster when he rode with others. In a
laboratory test of the idea that the presence of

161
others improves performance, Triplett asked Informational social influence is most
children to wind a fishing reel as fast as they pronounced in ambiguous or novel situations.
could. He tested them alone and among other We rely on it all the time, especially as children.
kids doing the same thing. Sure enough, they
wound faster when other kids were present— Normative social influence is the type of
they showed social facilitation, which usually conformity that occurs when people go along
occurs for tasks we find easy, we know well, or with the behavior of others in order to be
we can perform well (Zajonc, 1965). accepted by the group. A classic example is peer
pressure, in which people engage in certain
Social loafing is the opposite; it occurs when the behaviors, such as drinking or trying drugs, so
presence of others causes individuals to relax that they will be accepted by a particular so- cial
their standards (Harkins, 1987). If you are group. This phenomenon is widespread. Look at
singing in a choir and there are dozens of other yourself and your peers. Do you wear the same
voices supporting yours, you are less likely to kinds of clothes? How many of you have similar
sing your heart out. You alone are not hairstyles? Consider a more subtle example of
responsible for the sound, so the diffusion of normative social influence.
responsibility alters your behavior (you loaf). If
you are singing a solo, you might belt it out— SOCUAL INTERACTION: How people behave
because all the responsibility rests on your in crowds?
shoulders.
You may not notice, but being in a crowd can
Conformity cause you to think and behave differently than
when you’re alone.
Social facilitation is a subtle way in which the
A crowd, which is a large group of persons who
presence of others changes our actions. More are usually strangers, can facilitate or inhibit
direct social factors also pressure us to act in certain behaviors.
certain ways. Society imposes rules about
acceptable behavior, called social norms. For example, we’ll discuss how being in a crowd
Examples of social norms include “Boys don’t can increase or decrease personal performance,
cry,” “Don’t pick your nose in public,” and “Don’t encourage individuals to engage in antisocial
be a sore loser.” Norms vary by culture, too. behaviors, such as riots, or cause individuals to
refuse to help to someone in need.
Burping at the dinner table is considered rude in
the United States, but in some parts of East Asia, Facilitation and Inhibition
belching is seen as a compliment to the chef.
If a runner has a history of successful
Most of the time we conform to the social norms competition, he may turn in a better performance
of our culture. Conformity occurs when people in front of a large crowd as a result of social
adjust their behavior to what others are doing or facilitation.
adhere to cultural norms. The reasons for
Social facilitation is an increase in performance
conformity vary, depending on the situation. in the presence of a crowd.
Informational social influence occurs when
people conform to the behavior of others In contrast, if a runner has a spotty history in
because they view them as a source of competition, he may turn in a worse performance
knowledge about what they are supposed to do. in front of a large crowd because of social
Consider the incoming freshmen who look to inhibition.
other students for information about where to Social inhibition is a decrease in performance in
hang out, how to behave in class, and the like. the presence of a crowd.

162
Whether we show facilitation or inhibition one stops to help, including fear of the person’s
depends partly on our previous experience. reactions, inexperience with providing help, and
Generally, the presence of others will facilitate the bystander effect.
well-learned, simple, or reflexive responses but
will inhibit new, unusual, or complex responses. The bystander effect says that an individual may
An example of social facilitation occurs during feel inhibited from taking some action because of
champion- ship games when a player is awarded the presence of others.
the title of “most valuable player.” An example of
social inhibition also occurs during championship Data from over 50 studies indicate that 75% of
games when a star player, who is expected to do people offer assistance when alone, but fewer
great, instead feels anxiety about performing and than 53% do so when in a group (Latané & Nida,
plays poorly or “chokes” (Baumeister, 1995). 1981). There are two explanations for the
Thus, the presence of a crowd can either facili- bystander effect.
tate or inhibit behaviors, depending on the The informational influence theory says that we
situation (Burn, 2004). use the reactions of others to judge the
Deindividuation in Crowds seriousness of the situation.

During the Los Angeles riots in the early 1990s, If other bystanders are taking no action, we
people were arrested for looting, setting fires, conclude that no emergency exists and we do
and beating others. Individuals in a crowd are nothing to offer help or aid (Burn, 2004).
more likely to commit such antisocial acts The diffusion of responsibility theory says that, in
because being in a crowd conceals the person’s the presence of others, individuals feel less
identity, a process called deindividuation. personal responsibility and are less likely to take
Deindividuation refers to the increased tendency action in a situation where help is required
for subjects to behave irrationally or perform (Latané, 1981).
antisocial behaviors when there is less chance of Recent survey results report that 77% of
being personally identified. Americans want to help victims of disasters such
Researchers believe deindividuation occurs as hurricanes and earthquakes, but when it
because being in a crowd gives individuals comes to volunteering, many will not because
anonymity and reduces guilt and self- they believe the whole country is already helping
awareness, so that people are less controlled by (Marchetti & Bunte, 2006). Thus, an individual
internal standards and more willing to engage in may feel less responsibility to offer help or aid.
deviant or antisocial roles (Silke, 2003; The presence of others also influences how we
Zimbardo, 1970). Support for this explanation of make decisions.
deindividuation comes from competitive sporting
events in which spectators turned into violent Summary:
individuals (Postmes & Spears, 1998).
Social influence. People influence our behavior
Another situation where deindividuation occurs by offering information and by setting norms of
and people feel anonymous is on the Internet.
expected conduct. We also follow others’
For instance, teens are willing to disclose sexual
examples just because they suggested a
information when their anonymity is ensured on
the Internet (Chiou, 2006). possible action

The Bystander Effect Conformity. Many people conform to the majority

view even when they are confident that the
As a person lies unconscious on a city sidewalk, majority is wrong. An individual is as likely to
dozens or hundreds of people may walk by conform to a group of three as to a larger group,
without helping. There are several reasons no

163
but an individual with an ally is less likely to Kalat, J.W., Introduction to Psychology, Ninth
conform. Edition 2011 pp. 451-497
Cultural differences. Although some cultures Plotnik, R., Kouyoumdjian, H., Introduction to
tend to be more collectivist or conforming than Psychology, Ninth Edition 2001 pp 580-606
others, it is an overgeneralization to regard all
Asian cultures as collectivist or to assume that all Feist, G.J., Rosenberg, E.L., Psychology:
members of a society are equally collectivist. Perspectives and Connections, 2019 pp 526-

Obedience. In Milgram’s obedience study, many 563

people followed directions in which they thought Note: You may make use of the internet to
they were delivering painful shocks to another
search more on other references
person.

Group polarization. Groups of people who lean

mostly in the same direction on a given issue
often make more extreme decisions than most
people would have made on their own.

Groupthink. Groupthink occurs when members

of a cohesive group fail to express their
opposition to a decision for fear of making a bad
impression or harming the cohesive spirit of the
group.

ASSESSMENT/ACTIVITY

Give example situations of the keywords listed

below within your own experience in the
community or observed in social issues which
demonstrates the following: (explain
extensively)

1. Stereotyping
2. Self-serving bias or self-handicapping
3. By-stander effect
4. Social Loafing
5. Group polarization

Content of this were lifted from the

following:

McLeod, S. A. (2007). Social psychology.

Simply Psychology.
https://www.simplypsychology.org/social-
psychology.html

164