An Analysis To The Main Economic Drivers For Offshore Wells-THESIS
An Analysis To The Main Economic Drivers For Offshore Wells-THESIS
An Analysis To The Main Economic Drivers For Offshore Wells-THESIS
by
2011
The Thesis Committee for Sandra Milena Wiegand
Certifies that this is the approved version of the following thesis:
APPROVED BY
SUPERVISING COMMITTEE:
Supervisor:
Steve Nichols
Manas Gupta
An Analysis to the Main Economic Drivers for Offshore Wells
Abandonment and Facilities Decommissioning
by
Thesis
Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of
in Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements
This thesis is dedicated to the two most important people in my life: my wonderful
father, Hugo Torres and my dear husband, Michael Wiegand. To my father who taught
me the meaning of unconditional love. Thank you for giving me the best you had and
helping me succeed in life and instilling in me the confidence that I am capable of doing
anything I put my mind to. I love you Daddy !. And to my husband, my soul mate and
confidant, for always being there for me. Thank you for you endless love, support and
patience as I went through this journey. I could not have made it through without you by
my side.
Acknowledgements
Dr. Robert Duvic, for his guidance throughout the first stage of my thesis process.
To Dr. Farid Shecaira and Mr. Dalmo Barros for all their support as my managers
To Mr. Manas Gupta for his contribution as the co-supervisor for this thesis.
To Ms. Ingrid Sellick for her valuable ideas and all the wonderful time we shared
To Mr. Don Porteous for all his time, support and guidance.
To Mr. Joseph Ayyoubi for sharing all his decommissioning knowledge and
experience with me, his input was very much appreciated during the elaboration of this
thesis.
v
Abstract
vi
Table of Contents
List of Illustrations...................................................................................................x
Glossary ................................................................................................................44
Bibliography ..........................................................................................................46
Vita …...................................................................................................................50
viii
List of Figures
ix
List of Illustrations
Illustration 8: Artificial Reefs, Oases for Marine Life in the Gulf ....................25
x
Chapter 1: Introduction
which one is the best way is to shut down production and operations for a facility once
the field has reached its economic life. Its main objective is to deliver all property free
from hazards for the environment and to restore the area to the original conditions, as per
Decommissioning involves a long term planning and covers several phases and
areas. Its phases are closing, plugging and abandoning the well(s) and pipelines, cleaning
the site, making the facilities and structural components safe, removing equipments,
disposing, reusing or recycling them, and finally, providing monitoring and surveillance
if needed. Among the areas for the planning are Health, Safety and Environmental
such as location, design and installation, and they are operated for specific purposes at a
followed through on a case-by-case basis where several factors are carefully analyzed in
order to minimize risk to the personnel, environment and compliance with the
government regulations.
Many multinational companies that work in the oil and gas sector have
1
risks throughout the project life cycle and comply with their own internal corporate social
responsibility policies and principles. These efforts have contributed to a better analysis
alternatives.
predict because of mainly the following reasons: Nowadays, new technologies allow a
more efficient and extensive oil and gas recovery so this fact prolongs the life of a field;
the optimization of resources using new subsea systems that “tie back” to existing
volatility in the oil price determine whether it is economic or not to extract oil from a
particular field.
Since oil production started in the Gulf of Mexico (GoM) in 1947, more than
6,500 platforms have been designed, built and installed on the continental shelves of
more than 53 countries around the world (Thornton, 1997). The majority of these
platforms are located in the United States GoM which is one of the largest oil and gas
producers in the world. The GoM is part of the Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) which is
the submerged Federal land off the United States coasts that supplies the Nation’s energy
about US$3 billion over the next 5 years. (Decommissioning Activity in the Gulf of
Mexico, 2009)
all the information about each possible decommissioning option and to recommend the
2
best solution. The final decision on how the structure and wells are decommissioned is
The decommissioning phase is the stage least enjoyable for the operator/owner of
the facilities and wells because means to face the abandonment and the end of the
productive life of a project. Once the aging fields reach their production and economic
issues that impact the economical results for wells and facilities. The study is focus on
scenarios that happen in the GoM and it will provide an insight about the impact of the
1.1 Background
Since exploration and production began in the GoM, thousands of wells have
been drilled in shallow, deep and ultra-deep waters. In general, the common water depth
classification for projects in the GoM is as follows: Projects in less than 1,200 ft water
depths are considered to be shallow-water, those in between 1,201 ft and 5,000 ft are
considered to be deepwater projects and those in greater than 5,001 ft are ultra-deepwater
As mentioned before, production started in the GoM in 1947 and the first
frequency ranges from 100 to 150 installations per year (Watson, 1998) and over the past
decade 424 wells have been plugged and abandoned (Decommissioning activity in the
Gulf of Mexico, 2009). Approximately 6,976 platforms have been installed in the GoM,
3
by 2010 and there are 3,817 active and 3,000 already removed from the GoM (BOEMRE,
2011).
during the decision making process for the decommissioning. Due to the high volume of
oil and gas operations in the GoM and its weather exposure, this area is very vulnerable
liability. For example, during the Hurricanes Katrina and Rita, it has been reported that
4
hurricanes. The GoM has experienced 191 hurricanes since 1937 and 79 have passed over
or close to offshore oil and gas structures (National Hurricane Center, 2011).
Illustration 2: Platforms damaged during Katrina Hurricane in 2005 (Oil Field Diving,
2000)
Figure 1 illustrates the damage caused by the stronger hurricanes in the last two
decades. Therefore, the risk and cost involved in decommissioning destroyed structures
is more expensive than conventional abandonment due to the stretch of resources and the
time constrains during the recovery stage. Throw in the occasional devastating hurricane
and the huge impact this has had both in activity volume and cost, it is estimated the
annual industry worth between $377M and $825M. The total exposure for
decommissioning in the Gulf of Mexico is between $18bn and $57bn, this big range is
5
Hurricane Damage Summary
3500
Katrina &
Rita
3000
2500
# P latforms
Gustav &
Ike
2000
1500
Andrew Lily Ivan
1000
500
0
1992 2002 2004 2005 2008
Year
2011)
Plugging and abandonment which is the process of plugging all exploration and
development wells. This phase involves a careful analysis of the producing zones,
isolating them and setting the proper concrete and plugs. Also, involves integrity tests
and cleaning of the well site. Pipeline decommissioning which must be done in order to
prevent leaks and safety hazards for the environment, navigation, and human lives.
Platform decommissioning which is executed according to the location and design of the
platform and should fully comply with the applicable laws. Site clearance is when all the
obstructions are removed from the location. This process may require divers to search
around the well bore, or seafloor scanning for verification of the clearance.
6
1.2 Motivation
Decommissioning and abandonment is a relevant topic in the oil and gas industry
due to the large investment that these activities involve and the exposure with all
stakeholders and government during the planning and execution phase. At the end of the
productive life of a field the cash flow is affected and yearly update in the expenses and
production forecast may affect the timing for the operations. Planning is important to
properly reserve the resources needed for the implementation of the plans. During the
lifetime of a field multiple scenarios may arise such as keeping production in a field or
the sale of the field and/or facilities before the depletion of the hydrocarbons.
This research is limited to cases in the GoM, in shallow waters and in deep
waters. The information presented in this report could be used as a basic approach for a
person that wants to know more about decommissioning and the different factors that
affect the economics of that kind of projects. The results are solely applied for the gas
and oil industry and as decommissioning and abandonment are a case-by-case situation,
the objective is to illustrate a methodology that could be applied for future cases. Data
1.4 Objectives
The objectives of this study are to provide an insight into the literature and
common practices in the industry for decommissioning, abandonment and to assess the
impact of the key drivers in the decommissioning job cost. But in order to achieve these
7
objectives is important to take in consideration the limitations and opportunities during
the planning of the jobs and their economical analysis. Relevant issues are examined and
it was analyzed how they affect the economical context of the different decommissioning
methods including the well plug and abandonment issues, using current available
1. Define and identify the main options available for decommissioning platforms
2. Evaluate the risk issues for the various decommissioning options and well
abandonment; identifying in the process key points to deal with similar situations.
3. Provide an overview of the current status and the market opportunity for the
decommissioning field.
1.5 Methodology
In order to accomplish with the objectives set for this study a methodology was
established. At first, the objectives and scope of work were identified and formulated.
Then literature review and industry cases were analyzed, this was helpful on the path to
pursue later. With the knowledge acquired from the literature reviewed and the economic
engineering class all information was examined under different scenarios. Finally, the
conclusions and recommendation for future cases were summarized and presented.
8
Chapter 2: Literature Review
By their very nature, resource extraction activities, in the oil and gas and mining
sectors in particular, have the potential to generate negative environmental, social, health
and safety impacts. Many of these impacts endure after the conclusion of commercial
exploitation. If not properly addressed and mitigated, these impacts can result in
significant legal and financial burdens to the operator(s), the local population, and the
host countries once exploitation ends (World Bank Multistakeholder Initiative, 2010).
The U.S. Department of Interior (USDOI) and the U.S. Bureau of Ocean Energy
Service (MMS)), are responsible for leasing the submerged Federal lands on the United
States OCS for minerals exploration, development, and production under the OCS Lands
Act Amendments of 1978. To meet this responsibility the BOEMRE has the following
priority goals: promote the minerals resource development on public land, protection of
the human, marine, and coastal environments, receipt of fair market value from the
BOEMRE’s oversight and regulatory framework ensure production and drilling are done
In the GoM, the removed structures started being record in 1973 (Griffin, 1998)
scenarios and the BOEMRE makes the final decision on the best alternative. Once, a
9
final decision is made, the owner is the party responsible for the implementation of the
selected plan.
During the late 1980’s it became evident that an American Petroleum Institute
(API) process was required for assessing the structural integrity of existing jacket
platforms in the United States OCS. The approach would be different from the design of
new platforms and as such required a new section of the API Recommended Practice
(RP) 2A. The offshore community then established an API working group that developed
the assessment approach and released it in the mid 1990’s as “API RP 2A, Section 17 –
Assessment of Existing Platforms.” Since then, Section 17 has become the worldwide
recognized approach for assessing existing platforms. It has been used many times
around the world and particularly in the Gulf of Mexico. In August 2003, the MMS
released a Notice to Lessees and Operators (NTLs) requiring GoM platform owners to
and the use of more sophisticated structural analysis methods to determine the strength of
platforms and their acceptability. The recommended procedure involves design level and
ultimate strength analyses. The ultimate strength analysis reduces conservatism and
attempts to provide mean estimates of platform system (global) capacities using the best
1997).
10
From Friday October 15-2010, oil and gas operators in the Gulf of Mexico have
120 days to submit their plans to the Bureau of Ocean and Energy Management and
Regulatory Enforcement (BOEMRE), detailing how they intend to set permanent plugs in
nearly 3,500 non-producing wells, and dismantle roughly 650 idle oil and gas production
Following every major hurricane, the BOEMRE send to platform owners a NTL
winds. For platforms on the path of the hurricane that were exposed to strong winds,
operators are required to conduct a Level I surveys that are related to above water visual
inspections to the BOEMRE, and indicate if platforms had no damage, incurred minor or
major damage, or were destroyed (Kaiser, 2010). Level II is related to general visual
excessive marine growth, etc. Level III and IV are more detailed inspections depending
on the risk found by previous ones. Level III analyzes pre-selected high risk areas where
damage is suspected and it requires cleaning of marine growth. Level IV uses more
the national laws are modified in order to include the intention of the international
agreements. Globally, the regulatory policy has evolved in the last decades establishing
equilibrium between the need to protect the environment, navigation, fishing, and other
11
users of the sea on the one hand, and to take into account the safety, technical feasibility,
Geneva Convention on the Continental Shelf, 1958. It was the first international
removal standard that according to the very shallow water production of that time
With time the inexpensive and easy removal process became more challenging in deeper
waters and changes were needed to reflect the current and future situation.
The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Seas (UNCLOS), 1982. This
worldwide. The 1989 IMO guidelines require the complete removal of all structures in
12
water depths shallower than 100 m and jacket weight lighter than 4,000 tones. It allows
for navigations safety. All structures installed after January 1, 1998, must be designed to
allow complete removal. Some exceptions apply in case the installation will serve other
removal is not feasible technically. The IMO consent the possibility for a Rigs-to-Reefs
Convention (and the subsequent 1996 protocol) provided a generic guidance for any
waste that can be dumped at sea and specified its different classes, including platforms
and other man-made waste. The convention partially covers the conversion of platforms
There are many different types of offshore facilities including fixed concrete base
system. The majority of installations that have been decommissioned to date are steel-
legged platforms which weight between 100-2,000 tons (BOEMRE, 2011). The
illustration 2 shows the different types of deepwater systems in the Gulf of Mexico.
13
Illustration 3: Different Deepwater System Types (Mustang, 2011).
Fixed Platform (FP) consists of a jacket and a deck which make up the foundation
for the surface facilities. The jacket is a tall vertical section supported by piles that are
anchored into the seabed. The deck is located on the top of the structure and it is the
place where the living quarters, a drilling rig, and production facilities are placed. The
Compliant Tower (CT) is a slim tower and a piled foundation that can hold a
conventional deck for drilling and production operations. The difference between this
tower and the fixed is that the CT resists larger lateral forces, and is usually used in and
system. The set of tension legs or tendons (mooring system) are attached to the platform
and connected to a foundation on the seafloor. The larger TLP's have been successfully
14
Mini-Tension Leg Platform (Mini-TLP) is a cost-efficient floating mini-tension
leg platform designed for production of smaller deepwater reserves that under other
the early production stage of a field. The world's first Mini-TLP was installed in the Gulf
single vertical and hollow cylinder structure supporting a deck. The drilling and
production equipment is located in the platform topside. This type of platform has three
types of risers (production, drilling, and export), and a hull with a lateral catenary system
of 6 to 20 lines keeps the spar on location. The SPAR's are presently used in deepwater
host drilling and production equipment. It is anchored in place with large, heavy anchors,
or through dynamic positioning. The production from subsea wells is transported to the
surface deck by flexible or rigid production. The FPS can be used in a wide range of
Subsea System (SS) could be use for single subsea wells producing to a nearby
distant facility. These systems are presently used in ultra deep water depths.
system able to receive, process and store production from nearby platforms. The oil and
are an alternative for marginally economic fields located in remote deepwater areas
15
where a pipeline infrastructure does not exist yet. Currently, there is one FPSO
is up to the owner and the government to choose the option that best benefits all the
parties and stakeholders involved in the project. Illustration 3 refers to the different
16
A platform jacket could be left in place but this option is frequently not possible
due to the international and national laws that require removing structures no longer
having ongoing operations. In addition, the owner will have to assume maintenance costs,
accident liability, collisions, and other possible navigational hazards that complicate this
option. This alternative is best suitable when substitute uses are associated to the platform
When the complete removal option is chosen then the structure has to be
equipments is possible but recycling a platform has a lot of limitations that combined
with the economical effects may not be the best alternative at sometimes. Platforms are
designed for a specific operational condition, volumes, location and many alterations may
be needed that will increase the final cost if the recycling use is pursued.
The top portion of a platform could be removed to 20-30 meters subsurface and
the remaining lower portion left standing in place (“topping”). This partial removal
should allow safe navigation and it is permissible under IMO for large structures. The
jacket is cut to the required depth and the bottom portion stays on the seabed. The top
part may place next to the bottom portion of the jacket on the seafloor, recycle or
disposed onshore.
When the structure is toppled over in the same location is called “toppling”. The
upper portion of the jacket is toppled in-situ leaving an unobstructed water column. The
operations involved in this option require high degree of precision and control to ensure
17
As mentioned previously, when structures are moved to a new location, the
opportunities for reuse of jackets in other field sites are limited as they are designed for
specific production requirements, water depth, environmental criteria, soil conditions, etc.
Also, degradation in the integrity of the structure such as fatigue and corrosion could
impact the performance. However, some owners still consider reusing jackets for
specific cases due to the potential cost and time reduction benefits.
There are a number of options for the reuse of offshore production facilities,
rather than scraping them. Some of the Mobil Offshore Production System (MOPU) has
been reused on 4 or 5 different fields over a 25 year life of the system. The capital cost
per location steadily drops as facilities are reused, and the construction and installation
For a long time, conventional jacket type platforms have been reused in the GoM,
this is a practice that is not longer popular because of the production declination in
shallow waters. Instead of this jacket platform being reused in the GoM there is a market
in international waters that have enough reserves to justify the cost reconditioning them
and transporting them to the new location (For example, West Africa).
Some structures such like TLPs are quite simple to reuse in the GoM or an
international location, this option is economically much better than scraping them. Some
modifications in the tendons and anchoring system may be needed according to the new
conditions.
18
Semisubmersibles units could be reused in the GoM or in areas with milder storm
activity. Again, modifications may be need in the mooring system in order to comply
SPARS are structures more difficult to reuse due to their limitations moving
around. They are very expensive so owners usually try to get the most out of them
Regarding the FPSOs are the easiest structures to relocate from one field to
specific gravity, water cut, sour gas content, sand content, etc). If modifications to the
facility equipments are required then time should be allowed to re-engineering and refit
of the FPSO. Old tankers are typically converted to FPSOs and as FPSOs they could last
Other equipments like subsea well heads, trees and production manifolds are
routinely decommissioned and removed. They could be modified and reused for future
projects. Reuse is an option mainly when they have high technical specifications that
Regarding the subsea pipelines the alternatives for reuse are not common.
Usually the procedure to handle a pipeline that will be decommissioned is to flush them
with water, proceed to disconnect and abandon them on site. The options for all other
electro hydraulic umbilical control cables are more frequently retrieved reeled up,
19
Practical cost effective solutions developed by individual operators or contractors
eventually evolve into accepted industry practices and trends. In addition to trends, new
lift techniques and technology have been or will be introduced to the GoM which will
for cost effective field development In relatively shallow waters, the use of a concrete
platform combined with jack-up drilling provides a particularly cost efficient production
The market challenges for the offshore heavy lifts industry have frequently been
formidable, given the historically wide fluctuations in the price of oil, the booms and
busts in the offshore industry, and the long lead times and huge capital commitments
Operators executing removal try to reduce the amount of work required offshore,
contracting vessels that perform as many lifts as possible without breaking down
anything offshore. The dismantle of the structure is done onshore. This is an efficient
20
Illustration 5: Heavy Lift Example (Versabar, 2011)
It is a method used mainly in the North Sea for removal of offshore installations
and where simplicity is the key to cost efficient execution. This methods has the
21
optimize front running team to logistic chain to and from shore, large pieces of the
platform can be lifted to the service vessel for further processing, reduce conflicts
flexibility together with other removal methods, use of local labor and equipment and no
need for crane barges and marine vessels (AF Environment, 2011) .
the same as its installation. The majority of topsides were installed by crane vessels.
Hence reverse installation of topsides will involve the use of crane vessels. The size of
the lifts and the lifting capacity of the crane vessel will determine the number of lifts
required to remove the modules and any module support frame. They would then be
placed on either the deck of the crane vessel or cargo barges to be taken to their final
destination. There are some fundamental governing factors that would need consideration
in the design of lifts, for example the structural integrity of the topside components, the
design of any module reinforcement, padeyes and lifting frames (Bayou, 1997).
22
One of the advantages of this removal technique is that the technology and
procedures are proven but costs could be high and the operations involved for reuse may
not be as cost effective as other techniques involving less time and more integrated lifts.
An exception to this would be self-contained modules such as living quarters and drilling
equipment.
The main options for decommissioning offshore pipelines are either leaving the
pipeline in-situ of removing it to shore and disposing it on land. If the first option is
considered then it may be left in place or buried. If the removal is pursued then some of
the methods to remove it are the reverse lay barge recovery, J-lift recovery, sectional
In the GoM is common to find most of the pipelines buried and abandoned in
place after cleaning and disconnection, very few have been removed (Nord Stream AG,
2009). For deepwater pipelines decommissioning the size and the depth are two factors to
implemented to flush pipelines in water depths over 8,000 feet (Proserv Offshore, 2009).
After flushing and purging the pipeline the flushing fluids have to be properly disposed
the pipeline is going to be left in place, a diver or remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) in
deeper waters could cut the ends and plugged the pipeline.
using semi-submersible lay barges or by sea bed cutting and lift removal in appropriate
23
segment lengths. The reverse lay barge recovery is likely to be more cost effective
(Gorman, 1998).
There are no regulations that mandate the removal of subsea pipeline as far as
they do not obstruct navigation activities. In addition, to the high cost involved with the
removal and all the risk of all personnel that could participate in a removal job, the better
The underwater portion of the oil and gas platforms is typically a metal lattice
structure, which is anchored into the ocean floor. Within a short period of time of the
installation the underwater structures has a vast marine environment, invertebrates and
plants attached to it. Within a year the structure may be completely covered with all the
kind of organisms that attract fish species and other kind of invertebrates creating a
complex food chain (BOEMRE, 2011). Such structures could be toppled in site and
create artificial reefs that positively impact commercial and recreational fishing and
diminish the consequences of destroying the complete ecosystem once the structure is
completely removed. This idea started as an innovative way to use obsolete platforms
and create policies to artificial reef building. As seen in illustration 8, the marine life
24
Illustration 8: Artificial Reefs, Oases for Marine Life in the Gulf (Artificial Reefs,
2010)
Decommissioned oil platforms have been estimated to last as long as 300 years
and, when properly sited proved to be able to withstand hurricane force conditions. A
number of Gulf demonstration rigs-to reefs projects proved that platforms possessed the
needed characteristics of stability, durability, availability, and function and were quickly
recognized as the best material of opportunity for artificial reefs (Kasprzak 1998).
Environmental Enhancement and Fishing in the Sea (REEFS) task force with the
following objective:
25
“Pave the way for aggressive movement towards a national rigs-to-reefs program
which will enhance fishery resources and improve recreational and sport
opportunities with in America’s offshore marine environments (DuBose, 1985).”
The primary agenda of the REEF task force was to assess the use of obsolete
platforms as artificial reefs as a means to enhance local fisheries and to develop policy
that set national standards for artificial reef building (Carr, 2003).
The entities that regulate the REEFS program are the States, the U.S. Army Corps
of engineers, and the BOEMRE which once the production has ceased regulates the use
of oil and gas structures as artificial reefs. The reef plan must comply with the criteria in
the National Artificial Reef Plan and the permitting requirements of the U.S. Army Corps
A great amount of species could be found around oil and gas platforms, such as:
Loggerhead, hawksbill, green sea turtles, corals, octocorals, black coral, sponges,
bryozoans; and fish such as grouper, snapper, jacks, etc. (Boland, 2006). It is been
reported that 10,000- 30,000 adult fish reside around a single platform in an area about
The first use of an oil and gas structure for a reef occurred in 1979 with the
to a permitted artificial reef site offshore Apalachicola, Florida (Dauterive, 2000). The
State of Louisiana is pioneer among the Gulf States in establishing the most
comprehensive artificial reef policy where the ownership and liabilities of the platforms
is transfer to the State once is decided that the platform is going to be decommissioned.
The Plan established an Artificial Reef Trust Fund for funding costs associated with each
26
artificial reef project (Kasprzak, 2000). When a platform donation is made to the REEFS
program the owners of the structure are asked to donate to the Artificial Reef Trust Fund
half of the cost savings related to avoided disposal costs. Historically, approximately 8%
of the platforms decommissioned in the Gulf OCS have become used in the Rigs-to-
Reefs program (Dauterive, 2000). Most reefs have been established off the coasts of
In the GoM, liability is transferred to the state at the point the structure is accepted
by the state as an artificial reef, under the state’s respective artificial reef programs. The
oil structure is transferred to the state (or, in some cases, another public entity) after the
state has obtained a Corps of Engineers permit for an artificial reef development.
(McGinnins, 2001)
2.6 Wells
Once the wells are permanently abandoned, then the platform decommissioning
might start. During the productive life of a field, some wells may become inactive
because of decrease on the production and the economic returns. The inactivity could be
well in the GoM. The average cost for removing a structure sits at US$1.2M and to plug
Since 1947 approximately 34,000 wells have been drilled in the GoM OCS
Region, and about half have been permanently abandoned (PA) according to the publicly
available MMS (now the BOEMRE) “borehole” database (Nichol, 2000). Of the
27
Illustration 9: Typical GoM Plugged and Abandoned (P&A) Wellbore (Thornton, 2000)
The objective for any well abandonment is to isolate permanently all subsurface
formation in the well. This means properly abandoning all producing zones and
protecting aquifers while minimizing cost and risk. (Tettero, 2004). Planning is the key
factor in the well abandonment process, which involves a number of factors like for
example the geology conditions, the water depth, and the well design.
shut-in (SI) status, in addition to meeting the mechanical requirements (for plugging and
28
In the case for shut-in wells, the current regulations are:
“…completions shut-in for a period of six months shall be equipped with either
(1) pump-through-type tubing plug; (2) a surface controlled Sub-surface Safety
Valve (SSSV), provided the surface control has been rendered inoperative; or (3)
an injection valve capable of preventing backflow.” (20 CFR Ch. II, 250.801 (f))
Over time, all the inactive wells represent a high risk to safety and environment;
this issue should be considered against the potential benefits of retaining them for future
recovery of hydrocarbons.
practices are proven to be safe and cost effective to plug and abandon wells in the GoM.
Using Coiled Tubing units eliminate the need for a rig and operations could be completed
in shorter time than using traditional methods with rig interventions. This procedure
requires pumping the first plug and the intermediate plug through the tree. Both plugs are
tagged and tested before the tree is removed. The final plug is set after the well is secured
29
Chapter 3: Relevant Issues that influence Economical Analysis
Decisions
the GoM is the largest hydrocarbon producing area in the world. The active hurricane
season and the consequences of destructions that bring to the economy in the world make
hazardous and costly activity, due to this unpredictability high fluctuation is observed in
the cost and volume of the jobs. The government and major players in the GoM have
developed a more proactive approach and tighter regulations that are consistent with the
importance of the issue. Other factor that makes the topic relevant is the fact that more
deep waters platforms are being installed. Portfolios and risk analysis should reflect the
abandonment options thus generally favor minimum cost alternatives as the preferred
means of most disposals. The factors that determine when a structure will be removed, as
well as how it will be removed, are driven by engineering, economic and safety criteria
Some major oil companies sell off depleted offshore fields to smaller ones that
could maximize economical return lowering operating cost and squeezing the last drops
out of the fields. There are a lot of justifications behind the decision of selling a field; one
30
of them could be to get rid of the decommissioning liabilities. In some cases the
Actually, many of the aging offshore oil and gas fields in the world, mainly in the
GoM and the North Sea, are close to the end of their productive lives. Consequently, in
the next 25 years, it should be expected that over 6,500 installations would be
3.1 Key Drivers for Offshore Decommissioning and Abandonment Cost Estimate
There are several factors that are relevant when calculating the decommissioning
and abandonment costs. The main ones are listed below and every company evaluates
The operator must research drilling, construction, production and operation files
to obtain as much historical information as possible. The research will determine the
installed condition of the wells, structure and equipment and identify any items that may
platform to examine the wells, structure and equipment in order to prepare detailed
inspection. The biggest challenge is that in many cases, the information desired is not
available and in some cases, portions of the information required are not even available.
The quality of the information used in planning directly affects the costs of the
decommissioning project. (Thornton, 2000). “One of the key aspects is the lack of
knowledge of the state of the facility and the integrity of the components you have to
31
remove”, said Bruce Gresham, vice president for North America at Heerema Marine
Contractors US. “When facilities are no longer producing, maintaining them becomes
less of a priority for an operator, certainly. And then it’s about record keeping, being
able to document things that have altered or significantly affected the facility. There is
just going to be –and this is our experience- a tremendous amount of uncertainties. Some
of the biggest challenges are the unknowns, the surprises, and how to establish a fair
balance of contractual risk between the contractor and the operator.” (JPT, 2011).
resources and perform the job in a safe manner. Once the scope of work is defined, it
should up to the owner to determine if it is the best interest to bid the job as a whole or
the bid process, since decommissioning is an operational type of activity. If the contract
is split could be an optimization in time and price. All cases are different so both
approaches should be considered. If the scope of work is split, then every phase has to be
breakdown in segments that address jobs. For the preparation phase an option could be to
abandonment of the wells and hook-down of cables and piping. Second there is a
removal and dispose that include other engineering details and actual removal and
dispose of the equipments and flowlines. The terms and conditions should be revised by
a legal team and the remuneration structure should contain detailed information about
possible bonus, lumps sums, combination of this, or others. The compensation item
should reflect uncertainty such as weather, lack of information, etc. The lump sum
contracts do not provide incentives for HSE performance and the final deliverable, being
32
the environmental inventory account may suffer under a lump sum regime (Gram, 2011).
If using single lifts or small piece methods, either way, proper accounting methods have
Waste Management is one the key drivers when estimating costs and it is an issue
approached as per every company’s policy that should be analyzed in detail either if the
waste is going to be disposed at sea or onshore, reuse or recycled. Once the safety
inspections identify the hazardous materials, resources have to be delivered for their
mercury, hydrocarbons, heavy metals, etc. should be handled carefully to protect workers
The operating procedures are other key driver that should be done including all
the legal concerns involved during the decommissioning and abandonment, the health,
safety and environment (HSE), contract strategy, etc. Regarding the legal issues, they are
Companies have to comply with an extensive legal framework in order to remove and
dispose offshore installations. The legal framework intents to protect the environment,
navigation, fishing and other sea users, tanking into account safety, technical feasibility
Numerous HSE issues arise with the decommissioning of offshore platforms. The
use of explosives, diver exposure and multiple heavy lifts are some of the potential risky
jobs that could affect greatly the decommissioning and abandonment and increase the
uncertainty about the structural integrity and precise weights and centers of gravity of
33
components, especially when during the life of the installation several modifications to
the structure have been performed. Furthermore, risks to safety have been estimated to
removal, due to the higher exposure of personnel to hazards during a total removal
related to the disposal process that impacts the sea, land and air, so a careful detailed
environmental assessment is required to deal with the issues, the concerns and the
financial risks. The likely environmental impact is largely independent of the choice
between decommissioning options. If this finding is true then the choice of which
decommissioning route to take hinges firmly on the safety and cost factors (Gorman,
1998).
high cost operation that varies from the pipeline location and the impacts on the
environment, especially from the marine environment are minor. Compared with the
abandon in place option, pipeline removal requires 70% more energy (Nord Stream AG,
2009)
costs are reviewed on an annual basis. New technologies and costs need to update the
cost estimation, a review of the reserves vs. the operational cost need to determine when
the best time to cease production is and the identification for additional opportunities that
could improve the economics of the field. Planning ahead and an effective project
34
management of the decommissioning job could significantly reduce the decommissioning
liabilities and optimize the recovery of an important portion of the overall expense of
removing an offshore structure. Platform size and water depth are two considerations
The cost to decommission the world’s offshore platforms has been estimated at
US$20-40 billion. The North Sea area accounts for approximately 60% of the worldwide
attributed to the size of the North Sea installations and the severe environmental
2000).
Decommissioning costs are driven by the complicated logistics process for the
structure and equipments removal that are needed to ensure structural integrity, assurance
of spill free operations from harmful and hazardous materials, and the cost optimization
of all the services contracted. When decommissioning scenarios such as leaving fully or
partially structures in place are decided, the owners should plan for long-term monitoring
costs that go according to the location, complexity of the structure and the government
regulations.
The deeper the oil and gas fields are located the higher the costs, also the most
likely is that the complexity of the operations is higher which contributes to increase the
cost as well. As mentioned in several occasions through this study, the decommissioning
generate different cost estimates based on the unique characteristics of the platforms and
wells. Options such as partial removal and toppling in situ have been estimated to offer
35
potential savings of 15-70% compared to total removal due to the reduced offshore
deconstruction time and thus, offshore spread utilization (The Oil Industry International
The marginal cost-effectiveness specifically for the scenario complete removal vs.
donation to an artificial reef program, is relatively little for shallow water platforms.
These marginal differences increase for deep-water platforms and because of this reason
and their larger donations to the artificial reef funds, decommissioning in deepwater
platforms as artificial reefs is more attractive to the parties, platform owners and program
managers.
The main cost elements related to a decommissioning project are the mobilization,
demobilization, project management, surveys pre and post removal, contractors, final
Based on business statistics revealed from GoM and projects such as Odin
Platform in the North Sea, the money spent on total removal of offshore structures is
distributes as follow:
3. Decommissioning (11%)
from scope of work up to contract strategy that best suits the field. The cost will depend
on the kind of technology used, the complexity of the decommissioning and the
36
dismantling procedure to accomplish the decommissioning job. This phase includes the
proper planning for tasks such as permitting and regulatory compliance, the platform
preparation, the plugging and abandonment of the wells, the conductor severing and
removal, the mobilization and demobilization, the pipeline decommissioning and the
material disposal.
The different decommissioning options have to inevitably analyze the best options
that satisfy the different groups involved in a job of this magnitude. The principal
spheres of special interest are the environmental, health and safety, financial and
political. The literature and the established conventional wisdom has identified the Best
necessary to examine what is Best Practicable from each spheres of interest. The
The conjunction of all of these options could be defined as the Best Practicable
Engineered Option. And the term “best” is relative to the company’s policies and their
stakeholders.
field, in order to decrease costs and find a potential user of the facility. This is an
alternative in small fields and when costs are higher than revenues. With volatile oil and
and adding the environmental and political concerns when a job of this kind is performed,
then the reuse of the facilities is a “green” alternative that affect the Net Present Value
(NPV) of the field to be decommissioned and the NPV of the new field. There are cash
The political importance for the petroleum and gas industry involves public and
private interests which affects the decision-making process. The Brent Spar events,
which was a high profile publicity case generated by Greenpeace in 1995 against the
disposal plan of the Shell operated North Sea oil storage and tanker loading buoy in the
Brent oilfield. This Greenpeace campaign on the Brent Spar case has demonstrate that it
is not up just to the regulators but also it is an issue that all stakeholders’ opinion should
be taken into account when performing a decommissioning job. Public opinion is volatile
and difficult to measure and it often neglected because lack of a proper methodology to
address the issues and find the way to quantify results. Risk assessment techniques can
help to evaluate the financial consequences that negative publicity could bring to a
project.
Oil companies –like the counterparts in other sectors- are struggling to meet the
“responsible” company was the one that made a profit without breaking any laws or
causing any high-profile disaster or scandals. The term now implies much greater
accountability for –as well as a higher degree of transparency on- the environmental and
38
The oil industry has made an important progress identifying all kind of issues
(RTK) movement is that people deserve access to information about companies’ actions
that directly affect their welfare. Traditionally, the focus has been on environmental
health issues –but the RTK concept is expanding to encompass a company’s social and
All the future cost related with the production facilities decommissioning and
wells plug and abandonment have to been reflected in the accounting books. Also, all
costs of bringing back and returning the place to the initial environmental conditions have
service, either through sale or disposal. Retirement obligations can be recognized when
the asset is placed in service or during its operating life at the point when its removal
obligation is incurred.
Statement of Financial Accounting Standards (SFAS) No. 143, “Accounting for Asset
Retirement Obligations” (ARO’s) for those companies listed on the New York Stock
Exchange. The SFAS No. 143 defines the criterion for decommissioning and
information about the way companies are required to report the cost allocation in the
company accounts which are auditable material. In general, companies are required to
recognize much sooner any legal liability associated with the future retirement of tangible
long-lived assets.
39
Once a liability for retirement obligations is identified, the company should
capitalize the exact amount as part of the cost basis of the related long-lived asset and
allocate it to the Depletion, Depreciation and Amortization (DD&A) over the life of the
asset. Any changes in the obligation need to be recognized by modifications (up or down)
to the carrying value of the asset retirement obligation (ARO) and the related long-lived
asset.
40
Chapter 4: Conclusions and Recommendations
4.1 Summary
Decommissioning is an important topic in the oil and gas industry and it is even
more relevant when a field has been producing for quite some time. Also, the active
weather in the Gulf of Mexico has a huge impact in the subject and requires a constant
basis and the government authorities are the ones who will make the final decision on the
an alternative that could provide cost savings for certain cases in shallow and deepwater
projects. Legislation relieves platform owners of liabilities after the platform is donated
and they are satisfied with the idea that ecological benefits (artificial reefs) are obtained
as a consequence. The selection of this option strategy is taken by the owner who, for the
Decommissioning is a final and difficult stage for any field, because it means the
end of the productive life and the economic limit has been reached. But it is an important
topic when analyzing the economics of an oil and gas field. There are several
41
opportunities available that when combined with the economic analysis they will provide
selling a field when reaching economic limit could be explored and advantageous to third
4.2 Recommendations
removal of several structures at the same time and maximize savings. The Government
collaboration.
When dealing with small, marginal fields reusing equipments could provide a
competitive advantage and improve the economical view of a project. Regulations could
be implemented to incentive this option and all consequences should be analyzed to avoid
More emphasis should be put in place at the initial stage of a project when
designing facility equipments and platforms, in this way when the time to remove them
comes the decommissioning will be easier to handle. This could bring more cost-
Document control is very important during the any project management and
becomes a key issue during decommissioning since lack of information could prolong the
project and increase cost. The equipment inventory should be categorized and analyzed
to take the best approach for the decommissioning. Information becomes critical when a
field is near the end of the production life and when it is sold to other operators.
Sometimes the owner of a platform is not the one that was involved during the
42
construction phase, so basic information might be in their possession but detailed one is
Regulations and contractual provisions should address the transfer of data to new
One challenge that the oil and gas industry have to overcome is the limitation in
experience base because although an increase in recent decommissioning activity has allowed the
industry some experience, there is still much to learn and accomplish on a larger scale, like for
example in deep waters. The industry should keep emphasizing in the importance of training
personnel and consider decommissioning an area as relevant as drilling, production, reservoir, etc.
decommissioning operations.
regulations, insurance issues, risk identification and mitigation plans, legal and
contractual structures to perform the job in the safer and environmental best manner,
reuse of equipments and deep waters decommissioning which is a whole new area to
explore that will bring new technology and lessons to learn from.
4.3 Conclusions
existing platform cannot be avoided, but a company can select when the best moment to
perform the job is. When key parameters are unknown the best alternative is to continue
production, if possible, until the circumstances might be more favorable. It is thus part of
43
the ongoing value of the project. It is also the opportunity cost of decommissioning today
and can be used to determine the best time to decommission in the future.
platform owners and program managers due to the relatively higher cost-savings to
platform owners and their greater contributions to artificial reef funds. However, other
44
Glossary
HSE Health, Safety and Environment SPAR Seagoing Platform for Acoustic
45
UNCLOS United Nations Convention USDOI U.S. Department of Interior
46
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Vita
Sandra Milena Wiegand was born in Colombia. She attended Santa Dorotea High
School in Cali and graduated as valedictorian in 1993. In Fall of 1993, she was admitted
exchange student at the University of Oklahoma during 1998-1999, where she obtained
her Certificate in Petroleum Engineering. In August 2009, while maintaining her full-
time employment, she entered the Graduate School at the University of Texas in Austin.
51