POLICY BRIEF

Managing Marine
Plastic Debris in Asia
and the Pacific

Environment
and Development
Disclaimer: The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this policy brief do not
imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the United Nations
concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the
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been verified. The United Nations bears no responsibility for the availability or functioning of URLs.
The opinions, figures and estimates set forth in this publication should not necessarily be considered
as reflecting the views or carrying the endorsement of the United Nations. The mention of firm names
and commercial products does not imply the endorsement of the United Nations.

This policy brief on Managing Plastic Marine Litter in Asia and the Pacific has been issued in January
2022. Preparation of this policy brief is coordinated by the Economic and Social Commission for
Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP), through its Environment and Development Division (EDD). The
policy brief was authored by Abigail Smith from ESCAP, under the supervision of Curt Garrigan,
Chief, Sustainable Urban Development Section, and with support from Solene Le Doze, Janet Salem,
Alexander Lee-Emery and Manuel Castillo, from ESCAP. Contributions from Fanny Quertamp
from Rethinking Plastics, Jerome Le Borgne from Recycling and Recovery Southeast Asia, Christine
Cabasset from the Research Institute on Contemporary Southeast Asia (IRASEC) and Emilie Strady
from the French National Research Institute for Sustainable Development (IRD). Financial support by
the French Embassy in Thailand is gratefully acknowledged.

For further information on this policy brief, please address your enquiries to:
Environment and Development Division
Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP)
Email: edd-escap@un.org

2 MANAGING MARINE PLASTIC DEBRIS IN ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

Table of Contents

I. INTRODUCTION 1

A. PLASTIC IN EAST ASIA AND THE PACIFIC 4

II. THE FLOW OF PLASTICS: CITY TO SEA 6

III. CLIMATE CHANGE 13

IV. THE COST OF MARINE PLASTIC POLLUTION 14

V. MICROPLASTICS 16

A. FOOD SECURITY & HUMAN HEALTH 18

VI. SOLUTIONS 19

A. THE CIRCULAR ECONOMY 21

B. EXTENDED PRODUCER RESPONSIBILITY (EPR)] 22

C. EFFICIENT WASTE MANAGEMENT 24

i. MEASURE AND MONITOR 24

ii. INCLUSIVE SYSTEMS 27

iii. FINANCING 28

D. INNOVATION 29

VII. CONCLUSION 31

REFERENCES 32

3 MANAGING MARINE PLASTIC DEBRIS IN ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

I. Introduction

Plastics were first developed in 1907 with However, the impact of unmanaged plastic
the discovery of Bakelite, a synthetic waste now presents unprecedented global
polymer that could be easily mass- environmental, economic and social
produced. This invention led to countless challenges. For example, plastic waste
innovations and new products as plastics can take hundreds of years to break down
became an essential material of the global naturally, entangling wildlife, economically
economy. In 1989 the world produced impacting industries like tourism and
about 100 million tonnes (Mt) of plastic fisheries. In addition, because plastics
every year. By 2015 that number had grown are primarily produced from fossil fuels
exponentially to 322 Mt (McIlgorm et al., and involve greenhouse gas emissions in
2020). Since 1907 over 8.3 billion tonnes the manufacturing and transport stages
of virgin plastics have been manufactured. of the supply chain, the plastic industry
But, as supply and demand continues to is a key contributor to climate change.
grow, global recycling capacity has been Further, plastic being cheap and easy to
unable to keep up. As a result, only 9% of produce has enabled fast consumerism
all plastic ever made has been recycled – and driven the supply and demand for
a small quantity remains in use in society, single-use plastics (SUPs) as well as
while the vast majority sits in landfills, has cheaply made products that are thrown
been openly incinerated or now pollutes away and replaced rather than reused or
the land, forests and oceans of our natural repaired.
environment.
Currently, 150 Mts of plastic has
A society without plastic would be accumulated in the ocean (Crepy & Porteron,
unimaginably different. It makes cars 2021), and through fragmentation, much
safer, extends the life of food with efficient of it has broken-down down into harmful
packaging, makes electronics affordable, and uncontrollable microplastics. With
lowers transportation costs through its latest predictions that the production of
lighter weights, reduces the exploitation plastics will triple by 2050, the risk that
of biomass by using synthetic materials plastic pollution will also triple must be
and is to thank for medical advances that mitigated. Otherwise, by 2050, there will
save countless lives every day – just to be more plastic in the ocean than there are
name a few benefits. fish, threatening the global future through
food shortages, the loss of the marine
economy, increased climate change and
worsening disasters.

1 MANAGING MARINE PLASTIC DEBRIS IN ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

International policy interventions and net-zero plastic emissions by 2050. The
recommendations need to be applied Osaka Blue Ocean Vision emphasises the
immediately and scaled up as soon as need for greater coordination to avoid the
possible to avoid this dark future for common pitfalls of working in silos and
our oceans. The universal Sustainable accelerate nations capacity to meet global
Development Goals include target 14.1 goals.
"By 2025, prevent and significantly reduce
marine pollution of all kinds, particularly Ocean being an environmental common
from land-based activities, including marine good, it is a shared responsibility to protect
debris and nutrient pollution" (see Figure 1 and sustainably manage the ocean and
for list of SDGs connected to reducing to ensure it is not polluted by unwanted
marine plastic pollution) plastics. The transboundary plastics
pollution crisis needs to be addressed
The Osaka Blue Ocean Vision, in which by all levels of government, from local to
G20 countries commit to voluntary "reduce national, regional and global. It will also
additional pollution by marine plastic litter to require active participation from citizens,
zero by 2050 through a comprehensive life- the private and civil sectors, academia and
cycle approach", is an example of framework institutional support to succeed.
that provides nations with the tools to reach

2 MANAGING MARINE PLASTIC DEBRIS IN ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

 FIGURE 1: SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS &
MARINE PLASTIC POLLUTION

By addressing marine plastic pollution, the region will also work towards achieving the following Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs):

1: No Poverty

The productivity, viability, profitability and safety of the fishing and aquaculture industry is
highly vulnerable to the impact of marine plastic litter. As plastic pollution threatens catch
levels and fishery health, it also threatens employment (Beaumont et al., 2019). Three billion
people worldwide depend on the ocean for their livelihood (OECD, n.d.:1).

2: Zero Hunger

Plastic pollution has consequences for human food security. For example, wild seafood
populations could decrease over time due to plastic contamination, threatening the future of
global food supplies (Barboza et al., 2018).

3: Good Health and Well-being

Microplastics that enter the human body via ingestion/inhalation can be absorbed in various
organs and impact human health, damaging cells and inducing inflammatory and immune
reactions (Campanale et al., 2020).

11: Sustainable Cities and Communities

Indiscriminate disposal of plastics in areas with inadequate waste management systems

places immense pressure on critical urban infrastructure (drains and sewers). This can create
multidimensional risks and widespread unsustainable plastic pollution in urban centres
(Barboza et al., 2018).

12: Responsible Consumption and Production

The plastic supply chain is primarily linear, make-take-use-dispose, and due to its widespread
overuse, particularly of single-use products, waste management services can no longer keep
up (Barboza et al., 2018). Therefore, reducing plastics consumption and moving to a circular
economy model for this supply chain is critical for the future of the ocean.

13: Climate Action

Plastics are derived from fossil fuels and account for 8% of global oil consumption (production
and transport). Thus, plastics and Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions are intricately connected
with every step of the plastic life cycle (from production to transportation to waste disposal),
contributing to climate change (Barboza et al., 2018).

14: Life Below Water

Removing existing plastic pollution and preventing future plastics from entering the ocean
is critical to sustaining life below water. This is directly targeted by indicator 14.1.1: Index of
coastal eutrophication and floating plastic debris density (United States Gov., n.d.).

17: Partnerships to Achieve the Goal

Marine plastic litter and the health of the ocean is a transboundary issue. It will take countries
coming together to fix it. It also involves many sectors, including private industry, informal
workers and municipal waste service providers. These sectors need to cooperate to find
practical and scalable solutions.

3 MANAGING MARINE PLASTIC DEBRIS IN ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

 East Asia and the Pacific generates 23% of
A. PLASTIC IN EAST ASIA AND the world's solid waste at an average of 0.56
kilograms per capita per day – setting global
THE PACIFIC
records for the highest waste producers.
Just six ASEAN Member States - Indonesia,
Thailand, Viet Nam, Philippines, Malaysia
"Countries in East Asia and the
and Singapore - generated 243 million tons
Pacific are at the center of the
of waste in 2016 (ASEAN, 2021). And, while
marine plastics crisis - with some
the region is quick to consume and dispose
countries in the region representing
of plastic products, the waste collection
the biggest contributors and others
coverage remains poor, averaging 71%
disproportionately affected by the
overall and creating ample room for plastic
impacts of marine plastic debris on
litter to leak into waterways (Kaza et al.,
their shores." (World Bank, 2021)
2018).

Source:
4 Closing the Loop, ESCAPMANAGING MARINE PLASTIC DEBRIS IN ASIA AND THE PACIFIC
This plastic leakage is a particular problem plastic inputs into the world's oceans,
for Asia and the Pacific, as many emerging contributing to disasters like the Great
nations do not have sufficient waste Pacific Garbage Patch (Lebreton et al., 2018)
management systems, capacity, budget and creating greenhouse gas emissions.
or know-how to properly handle the needs
of their growing populations and people's This volume is only on the rise as the region
plastic lifestyles. Nonetheless, much of experiences rapid economic growth and
the world continues to send their waste to growing demand for plastic products. In
this region to be managed - adding more addition, the current reliance on linear
pressure on already overburdened waste 'take-make-dispose' economic models for
management systems and causing plastic plastic consumption is driving a pressing
leakage into the environment. Today, plastic need for the region to come together to
released from Asian rivers represents 86% provide understandable, scalable and
(Lebreton et al., 2017) of the global river circular solutions to address marine plastic
debris.

FIGURE 2: THE PLASTIC PROBLEM IN ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

Source: Map Lebreton, Egger, and Slat (2019); Waste, Jambeck and others (2015); UNEP (2018b); ESCAP (2020).

5 MANAGING MARINE PLASTIC DEBRIS IN ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

II. The Flow of Plastics:
City to Sea
In the subregion of the Association of About 60% of all plastic in the ocean is
Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), nearly directly from fast-growing cities with weak
half of all people live in cities. It’s projected waste management systems in Southeast
that by 2025 another 70 million people in Asia, South Asia and China (Ocean
the region will move to cities, and by 2030 Conservatory & McKinsey, 2015). With
the consuming class household number will projections forecasting rapid urban growth
double to 163 million (ASEAN, 2021). As over the next ten years, Asian and Pacific
the populations and wealth of cities grow, cities must take immediate action to plug
so will the demands on existing municipal the holes in their municipal waste systems
waste management systems, many of which and infrastructure to protect the ocean from
are already overwhelmed. being overwhelmed by marine plastic litter.

Cities are key contributors to marine Mismanaged solid waste is a major issue,
pollution as major centres of plastic not just because it is a significant source
production and consumption. Here debris of marine plastic debris, but it also causes
can enter the waterways and environment localised flooding in many cities due to
by direct dumping or leakages within blocked drains, particularly during the
the waste supply chain due to poor monsoon season. These floods bring with
management. It is believed that around them water contamination and disease,
32% of plastic packaging escapes the further increasing vulnerabilities and
waste collection system, meaning over ⅓ of reducing the quality of life in urban areas.
all packaging plastics disposed of properly Therefore, improving local solid waste
by consumers still end up as uncontrolled management can positively impact urban
pollutants (Ellen MacArthur Foundation, populations and contribute to resilient
2017). This leakage can mainly be attributed communities. (ESCAP, 2019).
to the fact that nearly 3 billion people do
not have controlled waste management
facilities today (Wilson et al., 2015). In the
ASEAN region alone, a staggering 53% of
all waste goes uncollected, leaving the trash
unmanaged and often entering waterways
(ASEAN, 2021).

6 MANAGING MARINE PLASTIC DEBRIS IN ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

 FIGURE 3: THE FLOW OF UNMANAGED URBAN
PLASTIC POLLUTION

Source: Closing the Loop, ESCAP

7 MANAGING MARINE PLASTIC DEBRIS IN ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

BOX 1: MEASURING PLASTICS WITH CLOSING THE LOOP’S PLASTIC
POLLUTION CALCULATOR

Closing the Loop, a project led by the United This tool is designed to answer the following:
Nations Economic and Social Commission
for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP) and > What type of plastic products are
supported by the Government of Japan, ending up in our waterways?
addresses the global issue of plastic waste > Where in the waste management
leaking into the marine environment from process does plastic leak into the
cities in Asia and the Pacific. environment?

In partnership with the International Solid > Where are the primary 'hotspots' of
Waste Association (ISWA) and the University leakage and what policy solutions will
be most effective? (see example Map
of Leeds (UoL), Closing the Loop applies
of Hotspots below)
the Plastic Pollution Calculator model to
map plastic waste sources, sinks, hotspots
and pathways in four ASEAN cities. This FIGURE 4: MAP OF PLASTIC
scientific methodology integrates social, LEAKAGE HOTSPOTS IN
environmental and waste governance data KUALA LUMPUR, MALAYSIA
to identify the flow of plastics from land into
rivers and oceans.

Source: Closing the Loop, ESCAP

This information provides a baseline aquatic plastic flows to better monitor the
assessment of a city's weaknesses and issue (Discussed in Box 1).
strengths in its waste supply chain. This is
the first step to identifying the measures The four baseline reports on the Closing
that need to be taken to stop plastic waste the Loop’s pilot cities are forthcoming.
leakage, and its data supports a digital Examples from the Plastic Pollution
tool that creates a map of the ocean with Calculator are on the following pages.

8 MANAGING MARINE PLASTIC DEBRIS IN ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

KEY RESULTS FROM CLOSING THE LOOP’S PILOT CITIES

Da Nang City, Vietnam

> 83,000 tonnes of plastic waste is generated each year

> 6,752 tonnes /year of plastic is emitted into the environment
> 1,087 tonnes /year of plastic enters waterways
> 48% of plastic waste's mass is from plastic bags (see Figure 5)
> 47% of plastic pollution is from littering is the largest source of plastic pollution, followed
by uncollected waste (23%), fly tipping / illegal dumping (14%) and leakage while waiting
for collection (11%)

FIGURE 5: PLASTIC WASTE ITEM COMPOSITION AT

SOURCE PER YEAR IN DA NANG CITY, VIETNAM

Source: Closing the Loop, ESCAP

9 MANAGING MARINE PLASTIC DEBRIS IN ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

Surabaya, Indonesia

> 111,300 tonnes of plastic waste is generated each year

> 16,000 tonnes /year of plastic is emitted into the environment each year
> 2,174 tonnes /year of plastic enters waterways as marine litter
> 27% of plastic waste's mass is from plastic bags
> 55% of plastic emissions are from uncollected waste, followed by littering (20%), leakage
while waiting for collection (9%) and fly-tipping (5%) (see Figure 6)

FIGURE 6: KEY SOURCE OF PLASTIC POLLUTION

IN SURABAYA, INDONESIA

Uncollected waste

Littered waste

Waiting for collection (residual stream)

Fly-tipped waste

Secondary transportation

During collection (residual stream)

Primary transportation (residual stream)

Informal sector (value chain)

Transfer station (residual)

Disposal

Treatment (residual stream)

0 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000

Plastic emissions to the environment (tonnes/year)

Source: Closing the Loop, ESCAP

10 MANAGING MARINE PLASTIC DEBRIS IN ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

> 161,000 tonnes of plastic waste is generated each year

> 3,000 tonnes /year of plastic is emitted into the environment
> 653 tonnes /year of plastic enters waterways as marine litter (see Figure 7)
> 35% of plastic waste's mass is from plastic bags
> 64% of plastic emissions are from littering, followed by fly-tipping (15%) and leakage
whilst waiting for collection (15%)

FIGURE 7: SANKEY DIAGRAM OF PLASTIC WASTE FATE

IN KUALA LUMPUR, MALAYSIA

Source: Closing the Loop, ESCAP

11 MANAGING MARINE PLASTIC DEBRIS IN ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

Nakhon Si Thammarat, Thailand

> 9,000 tonnes of plastic waste is generated each year

> 448 tonnes /year of plastic is emitted into the environment
> 87 tonnes /year of plastic enters waterways as marine litter
> 48% of plastic waste's mass is from plastic bags (see Figure 8)
> 47% of plastic emissions occur while waiting for collection, followed by littering (34%)
and emissions from dumpsites (8%)

FIGURE 8: PLASTIC WASTE ITEM COMPOSITION AT

SOURCE PER YEAR IN NAKHON SI THAMMARAT, THAILAND

Source: Closing the Loop, ESCAP

12 MANAGING MARINE PLASTIC DEBRIS IN ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

III. Climate Change

Plastic emits greenhouse gasses throughout begin to transition away from carbon-
its life cycle. Researchers estimate that the intensive energy sources, rising plastic
production and incineration of plastics pump demands may lead petroleum companies
more than 850 million tonnes of greenhouse to continue their use of fossil fuels.
gases (GHGs) into the atmosphere annually.
By 2050, without drastic changes, those The ocean’s role in mitigating climate
emissions may rise as high as 2.8 billion change by acting as a carbon sink is vital.
tonnes annually (WWF, 2021). It absorbs 30 to 50% of all anthropogenic
carbon emissions, delaying a heating
All plastics are fossil fuel-based, requiring planet’s disastrous effects (Levine & Doney,
extensive oil extracting and refining 2006). However, as the ocean becomes
processes, along with a vast global warmer and more acidic, the question of
transportation supply chain, contributing how much longer the ocean can continue
to resource depletion and climate change. absorbing human-made emissions arises.
Between the crude material and refining This is because the oceans’ ability to clean
process, 8% of the world’s total petroleum this anthropogenic pollution is essentially
production is dedicated to plastics alone, due to phytoplankton and algae that live
and this steep number does not include in seagrass meadows. These microscopic
shipping, recycling or other oil-based organisms and their habitat of seagrasses
activities that bring plastics into daily lives can absorb carbon through photosynthesis
(WWF, 2021). Meaning, the more plastic and store it. However, laboratory
made, the more fossil fuels are needed, experiments suggest that their ability to
and ultimately, the more plastics contribute sequester carbon is reduced when they
to global warming. Similarly, as countries ingest microplastics (CIEL, 2019).

13 MANAGING MARINE PLASTIC DEBRIS IN ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

IV. The Cost of Marine Plastic
Pollution
Three billion people worldwide depend Once plastic pollution makes its way into
on the ocean for their livelihood (OECD, the ocean, it becomes extremely difficult
n.d.:1) and 84% of the global population to control or remove. Pollution distribution
engaged in the fisheries and aquaculture and breakdown are influenced mainly by
sector are from Asia. The artisanal and environmental factors, such as exposure
commercial nearshore marine fisheries are to sun and salt and its movement through
a critical component of food security in ocean currents. In addition, 60% of all
South and South-East Asian economies. plastics in the world are less dense than
FAO estimates that 50.8 million people were seawater (Seadon, 2017); these materials
employed in fisheries and aquaculture in are particularly easy to push around and
Asia and the Pacific (FAO, 2018). break down on the water’s surface, causing
them to rapidly degrade and making them
The amount of plastic waste entering the nearly impossible to retrieve.
ocean is a threat to all these peoples’
livelihoods and food security. However, Another factor with direct costs includes
it does not end there, costs are found the ephemeral value of single-use plastics.
throughout the ‘blue economy’, which Globally, around US$80 - $120 billion of items
includes all economic and coastal that have only been used once and typically
resources, and even indirect costs like only for a brief time are thrown away (The
destruction of biodiversity. Pew Charitable Trust & SYSTEMIQ, 2020).
This linear economy is not sustainable for
The most significant direst costs from the producers, waste management systems
marine plastic debris on the ‘blue economy’ or the planet’s health. Promoting the
are fisheries and aquaculture, shipping reintegration of these valuable materials into
(transport and shipbuilding) and marine the economy via circular economy practices
tourism - predicted to cost the Asia-Pacific and recycling presents a unique policy lever
Economic Cooperation (APEC) community for sustainable economic growth.
nearly $11 billion USD in damages in 2015
alone (McIlgorm et al., 2020). Some of the
main ways plastic pollution affects these
sectors are through loss of production,
depleted aquatic life, damages to boats
and ships (commercial and leisure), costs
of beach cleanings and lost tourism due to
degradation of resources.

14 MANAGING MARINE PLASTIC DEBRIS IN ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

BOX 2: ABANDONED, LOST OR OTHERWISE DISCARDED FISHING GEAR (ALDFG)

This fishing industry is both negatively Supporting preventive measures and

affected by marine plastic pollution and a working with the fishing industry to reduce
contributor to the issue. About 10% of all ‘ghost gear’ can have multiple positive co-
marine plastic pollution, or about 500,000 - benefits for the region. Beyond stopping
1 million metric tonnes annually, comes from this hazardous type of plastic pollution
Abandoned, Lost or otherwise Discarded from entering the ocean, it also supports
Fishing Gear (ALDFG), otherwise known as the livelihoods of fishing communities and
‘ghost gear,’ (WWF, 2020). the general economic health of the fishing
sector.
This type of marine plastic litter is designed
to catch fish and other marine life, hence
representing a great threat to aquatic life
through entanglement by discarded nets,
lines and ropes that can last intact for up
to 10 years after they are ‘lost’. This can
undermine fisheries’ sustainability and
cause loss of economic returns as part of
their harvest dies in ALDFG, with studies
estimating that over 90% of species caught
in ghost gear are of commercial value (WWF,
2020). An additional economic burden
is saddled to the fishing industry when
expensive equipment is lost, as these items
need to be re-purchased or gone without.

Source:
15 Hà Nguyễn on Unsplash MANAGING MARINE PLASTIC DEBRIS IN ASIA AND THE PACIFIC
V. Microplastics

Microplastics come in all types of polymers released directly into the environment via
and shapes but typically refer to plastic domestic and industrial liquid waste and
pieces less than 5 millimetres in diameter sewage discharged directly (e.g. intentional
(under 1-millimetre pieces are sometimes flushing) or indirectly (e.g. run-off) into any
classified as nano plastics) (de Sa et al., body of water (de Sa et al., 2018).
2018). These particles are at most as large
as a sesame seed and often so small that 15 to 51 trillion microplastic particles are
they are indistinguishable from a grain of estimated to exist in the world's ocean,
sand (Frias & Nash, 2019). This minuscule weighing from 93,000 to 236,000 Metric
size makes them nearly impossible to tonnes (Mt), in addition to the estimated
manage and remove from the environment 11 Mts of macroplastics in the ocean. With
once they enter. a release rate of 1.5 Mt per year globally
entering the ocean, primary microplastics
must not be overlooked in the fight against
marine plastic litter (Boucher & Friot, 2017).
Microplastics are everywhere, from the
soil food is grown in, to the air everyone is
breathing. Their presence has been found
in all waterways tested, including surface
and deep water, sediment and atmospheric
fallouts. These aquatic microplastics are
most alarming due to the high number of
Source: Oregon State University species exposed to these polymer chemicals
(see list on following page), which ultimately
Microplastics are split into two main
threatens marine ecosystems and human
categories, primary and secondary,
health (de Sa et al., 2018).
depending on the source. Secondary
microplastics are formed due to the
TYPES OF PLASTIC TO KNOW:
gradual degradation of larger plastics
already present in the environment. This > Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET or
fragmentation is due to sun exposure, wave PETE or Polyester)
abrasion and biological degradation by
> High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE)
microorganisms (de Sa et al., 2018). These
secondary microplastics are essentially > Polypropylene (PP)
broken-down marine plastic litter and
> Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
thereby can be avoided by avoiding this
type of pollution in the first place. Primary > Low-Density Polyethylene (LDPE)
microplastics are tiny plastic particles
> Polystyrene (PS)

16 MANAGING MARINE PLASTIC DEBRIS IN ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

 FIGURE 9: KEY SOURCES OF MARINE MICROPLASTICS

Pellets: Many plastic products begin as pellets as part of the manufacturing and
recycling process. Through accidents during production and transport, many of
these pellets can escape into the environment.

Synthetic Textiles: Washing synthetic textiles, household or commercially, leads

to the shedding of plastic fibres, which are then flushed into waterways. A standard
load of 6kg laundry is accountable for 728,000 plastic fibres released to the
environment (Napper & Thompson, 2016).

Tyres & Road Markings: Tyres erode through use, shedding microplastics
composed of rubber and other chemicals. Road maintenance and infrastructure
require many types of plastic, paints, thermoplastics, preformed polymer tape
and epoxy, which break down through weathering and vehicle abrasion. All of this
road dust is spread by wind and rain, entering the nearby environment and flowing
towards the ocean.

Marine Coatings: Boats and ships use coatings made of plastics including
epoxy, polyurethane, vinyl and lacquers to protect them from the elements. These
plastics get into the ocean as microplastics through surface pre-treatment, coating
application and equipment cleaning.

Personal Care Products: Cosmetic and care products use microbeads as

ingredients, typically for exfoliation or thickness. Some products contain as much
as several thousand microbeads per gram.

City Dust: This is a complex group of sources that typically arise in cities from
synthetic abrasions (soles of footwear to building coatings), blasting of abrasives
and intentional pouring of detergents.

Source: Boucher & Friot, 2017

17 MANAGING MARINE PLASTIC DEBRIS IN ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

 Marine microplastics also can harm human
A. FOOD SECURITY & HUMAN health through direct consumption (e.g.
fish, seafood, land animals that consume
HEALTH
fish, water systems). While plastic is
predominantly expelled following ingestion,
Only recently has concern begun to grow evidence suggests that microplastics can
over microplastics in animal and marine be retained in the gut for much longer than
populations and the effects these particles other ingested matter (Barboza et al., 2018).
may have on human health when ingested. While more evidence is needed to assess
Research is still only emerging on this topic, the exact health impacts, research shows
but it is vital to consider the health impacts that plastics smaller than .02 millimetres
of these toxic particles. Plastic particles can penetrate organs, and those with a
may accumulate in the food chain, passing size of about .01 millimetres can access
from seafood and fish to humans. all organs, including the liver, muscles and
brain. In addition, microplastics can cross
Ingestion of microplastic particles by cell membranes, cross the blood-brain
marine organisms is well known and causes barrier and even enter tissue in the placenta
a wide range of ecotoxicological physical (Campanale et al., 2020).
effects, including reduced reproduction
and mortality (de Sa et al., 2018). The more
aquatic life ingests and ultimately dies from
microplastics, the more the world's already
scarce food sources are depleted, and
the livelihoods of fishing communities are
threatened.

Source:
18 iStock MANAGING MARINE PLASTIC DEBRIS IN ASIA AND THE PACIFIC
VI. Solutions

Reducing the use of plastic, particularly and substitution) and downstream (post-
single-use products, is essential to combat consumer interventions, i.e., disposal and
marine plastic pollution and the damages recycling). This redesign should include
it causes. Campaigns against single- applying a Life Cycle Approach that helps
use plastics have been strong, and many decision-makers understand what happens
countries in the Asia Pacific region have at each stage of the plastic value chain:
already announced plans to phase out from raw material acquisition through
certain single use products, even though manufacturing, distribution, product use
enforcement is still not widespread. and disposal. This broader approach is
needed to identify and balance trade-offs
This can be done in a tiered approach. For towards positive impacts for the economy,
example, the island of Bali, Indonesia, first environment and society (UNEP, 2021).
banned plastic bags in their capital city of
Denpasar and then spread to the rest of the Furthermore, marine plastic pollution is
island over six months. The campaign to a transboundary issue. Ocean health is a
ban plastics was supported by grassroots shared responsibility, especially as rivers
organisations like Bye Bye Plastic Bags in running through multiple countries carry
Bali, Indonesia (Bye Bye Plastic Bags, n.d.) and deposit plastics on coasts far from
to help leverage local support. their source. Therefore, the region’s nations
must come together to strategise and share
Another example of using a tiered approach data and best practices to find tangible
to ban plastic bags is Bangkok, Thailand. solutions. Effective change requires a multi-
First, starting with public campaigns to sectoral and multi-stakeholder approach,
sensitise the population, then placing including government, consumers, industry
restrictions that force large retailers and (i.e. plastic producers), informal workers
convenience to charge for plastic, and (i.e. waste pickers), tourism (i.e. hotels and
future plans to place bans in local markets. cruises) and any businesses that rely on
This model allows attitudes and habits to plastic or the ocean.
change gradually and better adjust to a
future free of single-use plastics. Some existing collaborations and
agreements in the Asia Pacific region can
While these types of efforts must continue, help provide the tools and framework for a
consumer reduction of plastic usage is not the transboundary and multi-sectoral approach
only answer. Businesses and governments (see list on following page). However,
need to work together and radically redesign these mechanisms require the support and
the global plastic system, both upstream cooperation of the entire region and all
(pre-consumer interventions, i.e., reduction acting sectors to be effective.

19 MANAGING MARINE PLASTIC DEBRIS IN ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

 > The Coordinating Body on the Seas > The ASEAN Framework of Action on
of East Asia (COBSEA) who oversee Marine Debris comprises four priority
the implementation of the East Asian areas, namely: (1) Policy Support and
Seas Action Plan, adopted in April Planning; (2) Research, Innovation
1981 and revised in 1994 and Capacity Building; (3) Public
Awareness, Education and Outreach;
> SEA circular, an initiative by
and (4) Private Sector Engagement
the United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP) and COBSEA, While no single solution exists to save the
aims to solve plastic pollution at the ocean from flooding with plastics, there is a
source by supporting market-based clear opportunity for regional collaboration
solutions, enhancing science, raising and to employ a portfolio of interventions
awareness and promoting behaviour to address marine litter. Immediate action is
change towards less plastic wasted in
vital to ensure clean and healthy waterways
South-East Asia
and environments are passed down to the
next generation.

Source:
20 Shutterstock MANAGING MARINE PLASTIC DEBRIS IN ASIA AND THE PACIFIC
 To move towards a circular economy,
A. THE CIRCULAR ECONOMY products need to be designed to minimise
the consumption of natural resources and
waste generation across the product's
The standard model currently used in the life-cycle, and to stay within the economy
plastic life-cycle is a linear economy: take- for as long as possible. Dematerialisation,
make-dispose. In this model, manufacturing responsible consumption and extended
and disposal volumes are unsustainably producer responsibility must be promoted
high for the number of plastics the world and supported by policies. Green
uses. It is imperative to shift to a more products and procurement policies
circular economy model that employs can play a leading role in promoting
reuse, sharing, repair, refurbishment, waste reduction and resource efficiency
remanufacturing and recycling to create a improvement programmes ( Asia WMO).
closed-loop system. This aims to minimise The demand for post-consumer plastic
the quantities of required resource inputs materials will increase with more efficient
and reduce waste, pollution and carbon recycling systems as high-quality materials
emissions. and innovations expand recyclable
manufacturing possibilities.

Source: Closing the Loop, ESCAP

21 MANAGING MARINE PLASTIC DEBRIS IN ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

Key circular economy strategies include: In October 2021, ASEAN adopted the
1. Extended product lifespans, Framework for Circular Economy for the
multifunctional design, repairability, i.e., ASEAN Economic Community, which
extending the use of a product by one or identified three strategic goals: Resilient
more users. Economy, Resource Efficiency and
2. Rental, sharing systems, secondhand, Sustainable Growth, along with guiding
i.e., reuse of less frequently used principles and strategic priorities to enable
products by different people. member States to adopt circular economy
3. Refurbishing and remanufacturing, e.g., approaches. Innovative solutions, such
restoring the functionality of a product as those deployed in ESCAP’s Closing the
or upgrading the feature to the new Loop project can support member States as
generation of that product. they identify specific strategies and action
4. Recycling, upcycling and downcycling, plans to accelerate transition to a circular
e.g., recycling PET into new clear plastic. economy.
5. Phasing out emissions from the supply
chain, e.g., preventing wastewater, air
pollution or solid waste.
6. Digitising where possible, e.g., from
B. EXTENDED PRODUCER
CDs to music streaming. RESPONSIBILITY (EPR)
7. Switching to bio-based resources within
safe ecosystem operation, e.g., using
agricultural by products as packaging Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR)
materials. is a policy approach where producers
(i.e. plastic manufacturers, food and
Building a circular economy for plastics beverage companies) accept significant
will require investment. However, the long- responsibility, financial and physical, for
term gains will provide payoffs for the managing post-consumer plastics. Some
environment and the economy. Take, for EPR schemes are voluntary; however, most
example, the amount spent annually on are mandatory and based on an established
disposed of single-use products (US$80 - legal framework.
$120 billion). This cost can be mitigated by
establishing circular economies because EPR policies can be beneficial when
the plastics are reused instead of thrown reducing plastic waste by mitigating some
away, adding value to their production. of the financial constraints developing
countries face for improvements to their
waste management systems. Schemes
like this also create incentives for plastics
industries to find alternative materials
and better recycling methods, helping to
catalyse innovation throughout the plastic
supply chain (OECD, n.d.:2).

22 MANAGING MARINE PLASTIC DEBRIS IN ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

BOX 3: EUROPEAN UNION DIRECTIVE ON PLASTIC REDUCTION
(EUROPEAN UNION, 2019)

In June of 2019, the European Union • Awareness-raising measures

(EU) issued a Directive of the European • Collection of products that are
Parliament and of the Council on the disposed of in public collection
reduction of the impact of certain plastic systems (including infrastructure
products on the environment. This and transport)
comprehensive document works as legally • Cleaning up the littering of those
binding legislation for all member nations of products (including transport and
the EU to combat plastic waste. treatment)
• Data gathering and reporting per
Article 8 of the document focuses on this legislation
Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR)
and outlines the actions that member states > All activities listed above are to be
must take to effectively implement EPR managed cost-effectively and be fully
schemes in their countries. transparent

• Clearly define responsibilities of all

Some of these actions are;
actors in the scheme and appoint
> Establish EPR schemes for all types of roles to help manage this process
single-use plastics and relationships between the
member States
> Ensure that the producers of single- • Schemes are also to be
use plastic products cover the established for fishing gear,
following types of costs (varies on
including monitoring of 'ghost
types of plastic)
gear' to develop better targets

Source:
23 Closing the Loop, ESCAPMANAGING MARINE PLASTIC DEBRIS IN ASIA AND THE PACIFIC
 MEASURE AND MONITOR
C. EFFICIENT WASTE
Measurement and monitoring of plastic
MANAGEMENT pollution are two different steps, serving
two different purposes.

Access to essential waste management 1. The measurement of plastic waste

services is critical to managing plastic litter, pollution is done thoroughly and less
particularly for urban areas. Without this, frequently to establish a baseline and
plastic waste will accumulate uncollected identify hotspots of plastic pollution
and eventually enter the environment. that require action. It aims to answer
questions such as which products
These services need to be efficient and are the priority, where is the plastic
effective to avoid plastic waste leakage. This pollution leaking into the environment
requires equipping service providers with a (both in terms of which stage in the
clear understanding of any weaknesses in plastic pollution value chain and which
their waste supply chain through training and geographic location), which times of
education, establishing waste and leakage the year might trigger more significant
measurements and monitoring systems releases (festivals or weather events),
and infrastructure investment (i.e. ensuring and where is the plastic waste coming
waste storage bins have properly fitting lids). from (residential, retail, office or public
Additionally, including the informal sector in buildings).
designing and implementing waste service 2. Monitoring is a dynamic process that
planning and financing can provide cost- aims to track the change in plastic
effective, local solutions. Knowing at which pollution in time and place. This is used
steps in the waste management process to check whether actions to address
the plastic is leaking into the environment plastic pollution lead to decreases or
will help to prioritise where efforts should increases in plastic pollution, or shifting
be focused. in location, or even whether new sources
of plastic pollution arise, for instance,
Municipalities should also work to create in new development areas. Monitoring
awareness and incentive recycling. For should be part of an action plan.
example, Surabaya, the second-largest
city in Indonesia, has been working on Measuring, monitoring, and managing
better plastic waste management. One plastic pollution are covered in detail
mechanism they have used is a plastic through the Closing the Loop eLearning
waste bus fare scheme, in which anyone can program (ESCAP, 2021), and examples of
pay bus fare by collecting used plastics. A tools they have developed can be seen in
two-hour bus ticket costs ten plastic cups Box 1 (PPC) and Box 4 (Digital Map).
or five plastic bottles, depending on their
size. This program helps the city efficiently
collect plastic for recycling and raises
public awareness on the issue of single-use
plastic litter.

24 MANAGING MARINE PLASTIC DEBRIS IN ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

Plastic waste measurement requires 1. Data Collection
comprehensive data collection at all levels This involves collecting visual data in
(national to household), across the value pre-determined areas of interest through
chain (from producers to consumers, various remote sensing techniques,
including recyclers and waste managers) such as satellites, cameras, drones and
and across sectors (government, private citizen science.
sector and informal). This allows for the 2. Data Processing
quantities of plastic entering the economy This step involves detecting plastic
to be accurately determined and decision- pollution in the images collected using
makers to clearly understand just how much manual or automated techniques such
is recycled, reused or ends up in landfills. as machine learning and combining
the data from various sources into
This data allows governments and service harmonised information.
providers to design effective waste systems, 3. Data Visualisation
including the provision of the appropriate This step converts the information into
number of vehicles, establishing efficient insights through a hotspot map that
collection routes, setting targets for the visualises the pollution hotspots on a
diversion of waste, progress tracking, the map.
realistic allocation of finance and land,
assess to relevant technologies and best Governments must be transparent with
identify strategic partners to support this data and share it with other countries
services (Kaza et al., 2018). to help replicate best practices and learn
from experience. It can also be used to
In addition, proper monitoring will increase public awareness. By publishing
help identify pollution hotspots where this kind of information, citizens will more
plastic escaping the waste supply chain quickly understand the need and benefit of
accumulates in the environment. This avoiding non-essential plastics, changing
monitoring can be done in three steps: our economies and encouraging recycling
(ESCAP, 2019).

25 MANAGING MARINE PLASTIC DEBRIS IN ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

BOX 4: MONITORING PLASTICS WITH CLOSING THE LOOP’S DIGITAL MAPPING
TOOL

Using results from the Pollution Control This tool answers questions such as:
Calculator (PPC) (Discussed in Box 1) and > Where is the plastic pollution entering
other data sources, UN ESCAP and Japan into rivers?
Space Systems (JSS) project, Closing > How much is there?
the Loop, developed an innovative virtual
mapping tool to support city governments > How does it move once in the rivers?
in monitoring and managing their plastic
waste. Using powerful algorithms trained
Combining the data from many sources
by artificial intelligence, the tool will scan
builds a virtual twin of the ocean, giving a
images from a range of data sources and
full scope of the problem for the region, and
detect ocean-bound plastic pollution –
providing needed information for the region
similar to facial recognition but for plastic
to come together and find solutions to end
waste.
ocean marine litter.

Source: JSS

26 MANAGING MARINE PLASTIC DEBRIS IN ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

INCLUSIVE SYSTEMS get recycled (ESCAP, 2021). However, even
though these workers provide significant
Scaling engagement between policymakers contributions to preventing marine
and the informal waste sector can help to plastic litter, they are often overlooked
economically support local communities in policymaking, and general attitudes
and reduce plastic pollution. towards them can be negative.

In developing countries with inadequate Including the informal sector in plans and
infrastructure to manage waste separation leveraging this workforce to implement
and collection, informal waste workers change in waste management systems
sometimes referred to as 'waste-pickers', provides a unique opportunity to support
often fill key service gaps. In the Asia- local communities by providing secure
Pacific region, these informal workers are jobs, particularly in urban areas.
responsible for over half of all plastics that

Source:
27 Closing the Loop, ESCAPMANAGING MARINE PLASTIC DEBRIS IN ASIA AND THE PACIFIC
Some tools policymakers can use to build FINANCING
inclusive waste management systems:
Waste management is expensive. It can
> Help organise: Waste pickers in be the single highest budget item for
some locations have organised into municipalities in low-income countries,
cooperatives or unions. These can where nearly 20% of municipal budgets go
help promote greater economic to waste management services. The sector
opportunity, to improve working is also constantly competing for funding
conditions and elevate their social with other municipal demands, including
status. essential basic services – like clean water
and education (Kaza et al., 2018).
> De-stigmatise: Support wastes
pickers’ work with formal contracts
that include advocacy and community Some common practices to finance better
outreach. waste management are:
> Collection pick-up fees for households
> Build capacity: Training at all levels and businesses;
and between the formal and informal
sectors is key in developing a shared > Fines for illegal dumping and fly-
understanding, exchanging ideas, tipping; and
and identifying roles for improved
> Fees for purchasing single-use plastic
efficiency.
bags.
> Adopt pro-poor initiatives: Support
However, this is not enough, and
and improve existing practices
by embracing and providing low- multiple funding streams are needed
technology solutions for workers, like for improvements. A primary challenge
manual tools and pushcarts. in financing availability for better waste
management infrastructure is that the
> Decentralise systems: Centralised inherent value of the waste does not cover
waste systems often run through the cost of collection and disposal (Moss
private contractors who typically
et al., 2017). There are opportunities to
take all waste to landfills, as it is
generate revenue throughout the plastic
cheaper than sorting and recycling.
waste value chain, particularly with a shift
The informal sector can be included
by making smaller-scale operations to a circular economy, by recycling and
accessible, ensuring more plastic upcycling post-consumer plastics into new
enters a circular economy. products.

28 MANAGING MARINE PLASTIC DEBRIS IN ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

 > Enhance and develop data collection
D. INNOVATION tools for measuring and monitoring
plastics that leak into the environment;

> Explore chemical recycling techniques

To meet the scale of the marine plastic litter that can overcome the economic
crisis, it is important to constantly mobilise and environmental challenges of
large-scale and 'moonshot' innovations mechanical recycling methods (IRP,
focused on practical action. This will involve 2021);
bringing together small, medium and large
> Develop ocean and river plastic
businesses, academics and governments
recovery to capture and recycle
to identify and select the solutions most existing marine litter (IRP, 2021);
likely to succeed, then finance, develop and
implement. > Explore policy interventions based on
‘behavioral science’ to identify nudges
Areas of innovation to consider: and boosts to private and company
> Plastic product alternatives that are behavior (Rankine and Khosravi,
sustainable and meet consumer 2021).
needs;
Solving the issue of primary microplastics
> Product redesign for circularity and also requires innovation. While bans on
multilayer reprocessing to ensure they microbeads from products is one small
have post-consumer value (IRP, 2021); step, it does not fix the problems of
synthetic textiles and tyres. Redesign of
> Continue the search for a 'super-
these products is required (See Figure 10).
polymer' with the functionality of
today's polymers and with superior An eco-design approach requires a
recyclability (Ellen MacArthur systemic life-cycle management approach
Foundation, 2017); and dialogue with all stakeholders from
product design to urban infrastructure
> Reduce the diversity of plastics in planning, both from private and public
usage to make sorting and recycling sectors (UNEP/SETAC, 2009).
more accessible and more efficient
(IRP, 2021);

29 MANAGING MARINE PLASTIC DEBRIS IN ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

 FIGURE 10: INNOVATIONS TO MANAGE PRIMARY MICROPLASTICS

Synthetic Textiles Tyres

• Plastic transformation and product • Plastic transformation and product
manufacturing (chemist/designer): manufacturing (chemist/designer):
design textiles/textiles fibres to eco-design of rubber polymers and
reduce the shedding of fibres tyres to reduce abrasion
• Product manufacturing (designer): • Product use (road/asphalt designer):
pre-wash textiles to reduce heavy design road pavement to reduce
loads from first wash Product abrasion
maintenance (designer of washing • Product use (water infrastructure
machines): install filtering devices on designer): ensure water run-off
washing machines collection and appropriate separation
• Water infrastructure: understand and of plastics
increase treatment efficiency. • Water infrastructure: understand and
increase treatment efficiency

Source: Boucher & Friot, 2017

Source: A R on Unsplash
30 MANAGING MARINE PLASTIC DEBRIS IN ASIA AND THE PACIFIC
VII. Conclusion
Asia and the Pacific is the region that Further alignment of waste management
contributes the most to plastic waste strategies with the Sustainable Development
leaking into the ocean. As the region’s cities Goals will ensure that local actions
and populations grow, so does the amount contribute to the global ambitions of the
of waste they generate. 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.

But the region also holds the power to To meet these ends, it is critical for cities
combat plastic pollution. The key entry and local municipalities to enact changes
point for tackling the plastic waste issue is such as reducing single-use plastics use
the transition away from the current linear and improvements in waste management
economic model for plastics and to, instead, systems. By including the civil and informal
embrace a circular economy. Creative sectors in discussions on their plans, local
solutions are needed to close the loop on authorities can build inclusive systems
the plastic life cycle and reduce the amount so the public is aware of the needed
of plastic, particularly single-use plastics. behavioural changes. It is also crucial for
Waste management systems, including the both the government and private sectors to
local level, must be improved to avoid leakage continue to seek innovations in alternatives
and up-scale recycling opportunities. to plastic and better recycling models which
Entities, including local waste management can support a circular economy for plastics.
departments and local and national Investments must be made in technologies
environmental agencies need capacity to measure and monitor the flow of plastics
building to develop and deploy innovative to ensure science-based policies and
solutions and monitor the flow of plastics. practices that are effective are put in place.
Policy design based on behavioural science
approaches can nudge consumers and
companies towards desirable behaviour or
boost interventions.

Get connected. Follow us. Finally, intergovernmental platforms and

regional dialogues, such as the Asia Pacific
www.unescap.org Day for the Ocean, must be leveraged to
highlight plastic pollution’s transboundary
facebook.com/unescap nature and exchange inclusive, practical
and financially feasible solutions to this
twitter.com/unescap common regional challenge.

instagram.com/unitednationsescap

youtube.com/unescap

linkedin.com/company/united-nations-escap

31 MANAGING MARINE PLASTIC DEBRIS IN ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

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