Sustainable Architecture, Alternative Concepts and Waste Reduction

Abraham George, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, West Bengal, India

r 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Concepts of Sustainability

Sustainable design and development is defined as; “design and development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (World Commission on Environment and Development,
1987). The need for finding long-terms solutions that warrant continuing human existence and well-being is far more compelling
in these days of depleting resources and catastrophic climate change, than in the former days (Papanek, 1995). The need for waste
reduction is of prime importance since materials saved is equivalent to materials produced. Though, it is Green and sustainable
that are the catch words of design, in the contemporary helpless climatic scenario which is worsening over the passage of time,
these have also created ample ambivalence and confusion. Thanks to the urgency of the situation, debates on the terms green,
sustainable or ecological architecture has become almost meaningless, but the kernel matter lies with addressing the needs of
harmonic and ecologically sustaining design and development, emphasizing on material waste reduction, that would assure the
future of the earth with all its myriad of living and nonliving systems.
During a building’s actualization process, its construction affects the local and global environments by way of interconnected
human activities and natural processes. In the beginning stages, site development and construction influence the local ecology and
its characteristics. The influx of heavy construction equipments and personnel onto a building site and various processes involved,
disrupt the local ecology to a considerable extent, though it may be improved as the construction gets expedited (Ngowi, 2001;
Spence and Mulligan, 1995). Needless to state that manufacture, transport and procurement of materials at various stages never
fail to leave their impact on the global environment. Completed buildings require resources and energy in various forms for their
useful performance. These, in turn, give rise to pollution and add to the mammoth problem of waste and environmental
degradation which inflicts long-term impact on the environment. For instance, fuels and water used by its inhabitants produce
toxic gases and sewage. Similarly, the process of extracting, refining, and transporting all the resources used in building operation
and maintenance also has negative impacts on environment. Further, construction waste produced poses a great problem which
could be avoided if creatively looked at it. This needs careful planning, dimensional; Modular, coordination and management that
would result in the resource waste reduction.
Global ecosystem is essentially made up of three group namely inorganic substances, living organisms, and human beings
(Çelebý, 2003). Built forms contribute to the compounded impact of architecture on global ecosystems. It is therefore, important
to study the impact of built forms on the totality of the environment, throughout various stages. Developments should be
facilitated taking into consideration the entirety of the systems; resource, energy and transport etc., and the myriad of population of the
Nation, along with the specific characteristics of the region being developed. Although the general rule is to use the available
materials at closer proximity to the site, it may not work out to be feasible when it comes to new and appropriate expressions
sought by architects.
Though, it is green and sustainable that are the catch words, an examination of the meaning of ‘sustainable’ is required to avoid the
avoidable confusion these words tend to generate, knowingly or otherwise (Andrew, 1992). Sustainable architecture describes the fact
that ‘we receive what we need, from the nature’. Sustainable architecture, then, is a farsighted positive response to awareness that everything we
need is received from nature, not a prescriptive formula just for our survival (Bergen et al., 1997). In other words, the goal of sustainable
design is to find architectural solutions that warrant the well-being and coexistence of constituent groups (Kim and Rigdon, 2000).
Therefore, a conceptual approach to framework is to be developed in order to meet the goal of well-being and coexistence together with
resource waste reduction in an effort to attain sustainability. Three fundamental concepts of the framework proposed are; Objectives,
Strategies and Achievement. These relate to the environmental responsibilities, creating environmental awareness, explaining the building
ecosystem and designing sustainable built forms with care and efficiency, for the future (Çelebý, 2003).

Why Sustainable Architecture

Sustainable architecture aims at the Protection of Resources – (PR), is the primary response to the awareness which influences all the
following stages. Architects have to be mindful of the efficiency of forms, flexibility in designs and potential to reuse the
components or the building itself on a later date. Life Cycle Design - (LCD) and Livability Design – (LD) facilitate healthy habitation
for humans. Protection of natural resources is proposed at the inception stage of building process, to be achieved through the
reduction and reuse; direct reuse or recycling, of the physical resources involved (Çelebý, 2003). While Life Cycle Designs provide a
methodology for analyzing the building process and its impact on the environment in an effort to decide on the effectiveness of
designer’s choices, Livability Design focuses on the interactions between human beings and the natural environment (American
Instýtute of Architects, 1996) (Fig. 1).
A sympathetic attitude from architects is extremely important as they interact primarily with users and environment in the
establishment of a harmonious, healthy and sustainable built environment. Hence, understanding the above objectives which

Encyclopedia of Renewable and Sustainable Materials doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-803581-8.10700-3 1

2 Sustainable Architecture, Alternative Concepts and Waste Reduction

SUSTAINABLE ARCHITECTURE

Reduction; in material consumption and

Protection of Resources generation of pollution

+ Direct reuse; increase number of reuses

Life Cycle Designs

Recycling; for future different uses
+
Livability Design

Fig. 1 Framework of concepts and strategies for sustainable architecture.

embodies a unique set of intentions is important to develop a more thorough understanding of the designer’s positive interaction
with the environment. The genesis of a project leading to its geographic location is one of the extremely important phases in the
effort to reduce the load on infrastructure and consumption of resources and generation of waste and pollution. Locating a
sustainable built form far away from the supporting or depending facilities would generate unnecessary traffic perils associated
with commutation which is avoidable. Moreover, developing countries like India has the major part of 60% of its population
living in rural areas. Appropriately rated economic magnets like Special Economic Zone – (SEZ), IT parks, industries or the like
may be effectively used in order to achieve balanced development in rural areas which would retard the unhealthy migration to
already congested urban areas. Moreover, as a strategy, develop automobile free, ‘walk to work’ rural or peri-urban communities,
self-sufficient in water and energy requirements, equipped with appropriate waste management systems. Such sustainable com-
munities may be the hubs that are effectively connected to others by means of high speed, ecologically friendly mass transit
systems.

Protection of Resources – (PR)

It is the responsibility of an architect to reduce the use of nonrenewable resources in the construction and operation process of
buildings in an effort to protect the resources and to preserve these for the future generations (Kua and Lee, 2002). Natural and
manufactured resources, as is seen, are in a continuous flow in and out of any building which begins with the production of
building materials, continues throughout the building’s effective life sustaining intended functions. A critical examination of a
building process reveals two essential streams of resource flow as shown in Fig. 2.
Intake resources flow into the building as input to the building ecosystem while Outcome is resources that flow out of the
building to the ecosystem (Kim and Rigdon, 2000). Strategies of protection of resources are multi thronged as given below.

(1) Energy conservation:

It is achieved through the overall built form design, incorporating the principles of energy efficient design in orientation,
organization of spaces, form of building, materials of construction particularly glazing, improved technology and intelligent
building systems. The motto ‘energy conserved is energy generated’ is worth adopting. Further, the design of the built form shall
consider integration of energy generation by way of photovoltaic panels, small wind turbines etc. Energy reduction may be
achieved by the use of atriums, double roof, shorter span, external shading, terrace and vertical landscapes or even by the use
of trombe walls. These consists of a vertical wall, built of a material such as stone or concrete with glazing on its outside.
Sunlight incident on the glazing generates heat which is conducted through the wall also, warms up the air between the
glazing and the Trombe wall surface. This warm air may be channeled for use depending on the heating needs of the built
form. It is important to comply with the GRIHA or other effective sustainability codes in force in the country.
(2) Water conservation:
Any building requires large quantities of water for various purposes that range from domestic uses to irrigation. Water
requires treatments at various levels for specific uses. These treatments along with its transportation and delivery consume
energy. Conservation of water is of increasing importance in these days of climate change and scarcity of water. It is the basic
responsibility of every designer to address this issue seriously. Strategies for conservation of water may be made by the use of
intelligent and improved water supply and sanitation systems, introduction of intelligent water management and control,
change of life habits, and the use of intelligent design and detailing. Water recycling is important and every built form design
shall include water recycling system in order to reduce consumption of treated water. Equally important is water harvesting
from roof top and paved areas for the use for supplemental requirements. Every attempt shall be made to harness and treat
roof water and its useful storage. Replenishing the underground water sources is vital to sustainability. Every attempt shall be
made to increase percolation of rain water to the site soil. Landscaping schemes shall address this issue successfully by the
 Sustainable Architecture, Alternative Concepts and Waste Reduction 3

Intake: Outcome:
A. Construction; Building Materials, A. Waste materials, debris, dust,
Ground Water, Energy smoke, sound
B. Operation forms; Fuels and other of B. Combustion by-products, Polluted
energy, Water, Consumables air, Solid waste, Liquid waste; Grey
Environmental; Solar radiation, Wind, and waste water
Rain C. Debris and waste for dumping.
C. Demolition Design building for reuse of its
components. This reduces waste.

Fig. 2 The input and output streams of resource flow.

integration of roof gardens, perforated pavements or even by the appropriate use of rain pits. Personal use of water is the
responsibility of every citizen and shall be practiced on a daily basis to limit and reduce waste water.
(3) Material conservation:
Material conservation focuses on every particular resource necessity for building construction and operation. Procurement,
production and transportation of materials consume energy which is embodied in these. Major influx of building materials
occurs during the construction stage. The waste generated by the construction and installation process is significant. Flow of
materials continues even after construction that is used for maintenance, replacement and renovation. Consumer goods flow
into the building to support human activities. All of the construction materials, in the end, are outcome raw materials or waste,
either to be recycled or dumped in a landfill (Federle, 1993). Responsible design is the outcome of a thoughtful attitude to
waste reduction at all stages of built form design and use.
Environmental impacts of energy consumption by buildings occur primarily away from the building site, through mining
or harvesting energy sources and generating power. The energy consumed by a building in the process of heating, cooling,
lighting and equipment operation cannot be recovered and these gets added up. Strategies for material conservation include
intelligent form design, stringent area and space requirement calculations, effective management and use of technology in the
performance of intended functions. Further, every attempt shall be made to avoid wastefulness through efficient planning
and detailing. It is worthwhile considering appropriate legislation for levying tax; luxury or green, on buildings that exceeds the
material and energy limits prescribed.

Life Cycle Design (LCD)

As it is seen in Fig. 3, the life cycle process of the building is a linear process consisting of three major stages (Curran, 1996). Each
of these stages calls for sustainable approaches and strategies in an effort to achieve the goals envisioned.
Life cycle design (LCD) is not prescriptive, but suggestive in nature. However, LCD can contribute information and facilitate the
effective decision making process. This approach accounts for the environmental consequences during the entire life cycle of
construction materials; from procurement to return to nature (Burall, 1996). Life cycle of a building can be brought into three phases
namely Pre-building, Building, and Post-building. The phases can be developed into LCD means that focus on minimizing the
environmental impact of a building. Analysis of the building processes in each of these three phases throws light to the dynamics
of design of the built form, its construction, operation, and effects of disposal from it to the ecosystem. Pre-building phase
includes site selection, building design, and building material processes. However, this phase does not include the construction or
installation of the building. Sustainable design approach considers meticulously the environmental consequences of construction
materials, design of the structure, its orientation and impact on the landscape (Dimson, 1996). The procurement of building
materials impacts the environment in various ways; unscrupulous felling of trees leads to deforestation, mining mineral resources disturbs
the nature and creates environmental pollution or the like. Building phase refers to the stage in the life cycle of a building when it is
physically constructed and operated. In the sustainable design, the construction and operation processes shall embrace means to
reduce environmental impact, resource consumption and sick-building syndrome. Post-building phase refers to the stage which
begins when the useful life of a building has ended and its building materials are turned in to resources for other buildings or
waste to be recycled or returned to nature. The strategy is to reduce construction waste by recycling and reusing buildings and
building materials.

Livable Design – (LD)

Livable Design refers to the livability of all constituent spaces in built forms and spaces that form various groups in the global
ecosystem (Celebi and Aydýn, 2001). The livable design is concerned about the healthy coexistence among buildings, their
environment and their respective occupants. Its broad objectives are intended to preserve the elements of the ecosystems in an
effort to facilitate human survival. Built forms are intended to provide safe and healthy environments that are comfortable for their
occupants which in turn enhance their satisfaction and productivity. Livable design objectives, therefore, could be evaluated under
Generation and sustenance of natural conditions, Creation of satisfactory urban design and site, Generation of human comfort (Table 1).
4 Sustainable Architecture, Alternative Concepts and Waste Reduction

Stage I Stage II-a Stage II-b Stage III

Pre-building phase Building phase Post-building phase

Site selection Manufacturing and Construction Demolition, reuse,

Material fabrication operation, use recycling or disposal
Acquisition and Procurement and maintenance
Design

Fig. 3 The life cycle process of building.

Table 1 Conceptual framework of sustainable design

Objective Protection of resources - PR Lifecycle designs – LCD Livable designs – LD

Strategy Energy, Water and Material Pre-building, Building Generation and sustenance natural conditions
Conservation Post-building phases Creation of satisfactory urban design and site
Generation of human comfort
Achievement Optimized space and systems, Total approach to Built form Acceptable and healthy exteriors and interiors,
Materials Conserved design, Lower energy Improved performance and health of users
consumption, waste generation

It is important to minimize the impact of a built form on its local ecosystem. The totality of neighborhoods, cities and entire geographic
regions can reap the positive benefit from harmonious and complimentary planning on all fronts of resource, energy and pollution. Such a
coordinated effort leads to an appropriate urban environment accommodating the specific needs of its context. Needless to state that
sustainable design shall offer human comfort; both internal and external, in the interest of individuals and the nation at large.

Strategies for Creating Sustainable Architecture

The prime intension of strategies of sustainable architecture is to generate beneficial solutions in terms of quantity and quality
which lead to physical and psychological comfort. The three objectives of sustainable architecture; Protection of Resources, Life Cycle
Designs and Livable Designs, gives a comprehensive understanding of the environmental issues related to architecture.

Protection of Resources – PR
Resource demands of a built form are directly related to its utilization efficiency of resources. Concern for conservation of energy,
water and building materials would yield specific design methods that would reduce the need for nonrenewable resources in built
forms. Built form outcome management reduces its effect on environmental by lowering the level of waste generation and
appropriate waste management (Thormark, 2001) (Fig. 4).

Energy conservation
Energy consumption by built forms accounts for a major share of energy requirement of any country. Therefore, one of the main
objectives is to reduce energy requirement and consumption of fossil fuels used in the generation of energy. Operational phase of
buildings consume energy for heating, ventilation and air-conditioning, lighting and transportation. Strategies to be adopted to
achieve energy conservation shall be holistic and include energy conscious urban planning with emphasis on eco-cities with its
neighborhoods and built forms that are sustainable and planned for public transportation, pedestrian walkways and walk-up work
places. Favour mixed use for such cities with zoning laws facilitating balanced developments and walk-up work places. Ensure
balanced development of rural areas and avoid migration and urban sprawl by encouraging redevelopment of existing sites and
adaptive reuse. Do not encourage unscrupulous development and heavy generators of traffic without efficient integration with
public transport networks (Table 2 and Figs. 5 and 6).

Materials conservation
Sustainable designs get realized in terms of building materials, components and products, the choice of which poses a tremendous
task which requires understanding of materials and standards of performance. Cost and availability are likely dominant factors in
normal building projects. It is also important to have the general awareness regarding the diverse implications of production,
consumption and recycling on the environment. Therefore, adopt a lowered consumption which in turn reduces the need for
production and generation of waste (Table 3 and Fig. 7).
 Sustainable Architecture, Alternative Concepts and Waste Reduction 5

Fig. 4 Grid and glass form for cultural sustainability in built form. Gable implies the presence of atrium and the influence of traditional Kerala
architecture. Architect: Dr. Abraham George.

Table 2 Strategies for sustainable design – PR

Strategy Description – Energy conservation

Energy conservation It optimizes the use of natural resources on the site. Southern exposure for passive solar heating, use of trees for shade
Energy-conscious site in summer and solar heat gain in winter. Planting of evergreens on the north of a building for protection from winter
planning winds and improved energy efficiency. Use of water in various forms to provide natural cooling and humidification.
Use of passive heating and cooling through the use of trombe walls, atriums for heat, light, and ultraviolet radiation
necessary for photosynthesis of indoor planting. Passive solar architecture offers design schemes to control the flow
of solar radiation using building structure through the use of intelligent shading devices, active and passive solar
heating systems, and use of photo voltaic panels.
Glazing, cladding and Use of high-performance glazing and wall insulation in cladding to prevent both heat gain and loss. Reduction of heat
insulation transfer reduces the building’s heating and cooling loads and energy requirement. Compounded benefits of smaller
systems are many; smaller HVAC equipments needs lower initial investment, generates lesser mechanical noise and
increases sonic quality of indoors and system reliability.
Day lighting and ventilation Proper orientation of built form, organization of spaces and intelligent fenestration design maximizes the use of natural
light in an effort to conserving electrical energy, reduces peak electric loads and cooling needs. Moreover, day lighting
enhances the illumination quality of indoors, increases physical and psychological well-being and productivity. The
qualitative benefits of day lighting are far more significant than its energy-savings potential.
Energy-efficient equipment Operation and maintenance of equipments are the longest activities whose costs exceed construction costs over a
building’s lifetime. Scrupulous selection of high-efficiency lighting, heating, cooling, and ventilation systems is critical.
Consideration to energy saving is to be given over initial costs.
Embodied energy building Use materials with low embodied energy; how much energy is needed for production. The embodied energy of a material
materials attempts to measure the energy that goes into the entire life cycle of building material. Use local materials, over
transported materials to save transportation energy and reduce pollution (Burall, 1996).
Water conservation Holistic view on water conservation is essential with all efforts for achieving self sufficiency namely; reduction in
requirement, reuse and recycling, water harvesting and practice of water management. Adopt recycling of both grey
water and sewage. Though grey water is not of drinking-water quality, it does not require intense treatment as
equivalent to sewage therefore, can be recycled within a building, to be used for irrigation or for sanitary purposes.
Efficient water supply systems and fixtures can reduce consumption of water and generation waste water. Vacuum-
assisted and biocomposting toilets and water-less urinals reduce water consumption. Biocomposting toilets treat
sewage on site, eliminating the need for energy-intensive municipal treatment. Encourage the use of indigenous and
discriminatory landscaping for reducing water consumption.
Alternative energy sources Incorporate solar, wind, water, and geothermal energy systems to reduce or eliminate the need for external energy
sources. Use of low speed wind turbines could prove to be beneficial if, the built form design is done aerodynamically
to channel and generate wind speed to generators.

Lowered consumption in building α Lowered production of waste and Need for production
Optimization of space requirement α Material Requirement, and Lowered operational costs

Life Cycle Design – LCD

The objectives of Life Cycle Design with its three stages; pre-building, building, and post-building, calls for the design strategies
designed to achieve sustainability in the design of built forms (Table 4).
6 Sustainable Architecture, Alternative Concepts and Waste Reduction

Fig. 5 Atrium-lit central courtyard of Chemical Engineering Block, NIT Calicut. Architect: Dr. Abraham George.

Fig. 6 Atrium-lit central courtyard of Students’ Center, NIT Calicut. Architect: Dr. Abraham George.

Table 3 Strategies for sustainable design-material conservation

Strategy Description – Materials conservation

Building material Attempt to optimize space requirement and estimate scrupulously the built-up area need. Attempt additional discussions
conservation with clients, even at the cost of inconvenience on the part of architect. Floor to floor heights multiplies the material
Direct material reduction requirement which often goes unnoticed. Determine floor to floor height meticulously with proper detailing and efficient
system design and intelligent ceiling designs. Avoid excess trimming of materials to fit non-modular spaces that generates
more waste.
Reuse of built form Accommodating existing buildings that are designed for specific functions to new uses, is one of the most effective methods
of material conservation. Larger free spans, within the prescribed reach of day lighting, enhances the adaptability of built
form. Combining the reclaimed or recycled materials obtained from demolished buildings in new is another method of
material conservation (Kua and Lee, 2002). Many construction materials, such as wood, steel, and glass, could be easily
recycled into new materials. Proper documentation of carefully dismantled joinery would facilitate its direct reuse in new
buildings, particularly those built intentionally to generate heritage images. These attempts preserve embodied energy.
Consumer goods in Consumer goods lose their original usefulness in time and amounts to waste; goods that have lost their original usefulness.
buildings The useful life quantifies the time of conversion of goods from the usefulness to waste. It needs careful consideration in
recycling short-life consumer goods since shorter the useful life of consumer goods, greater the volume of useless goods.
As a rule of thumb, avoid the recycling of shorter life building materials.
 Sustainable Architecture, Alternative Concepts and Waste Reduction 7

Fig. 7 High performance structural glazing enhances lighting and transparency while reducing thermal load. School of Chemical Engineering, NIT
Calicut. Architect: Dr. Abraham George.

Table 4 Strategies for sustainable design

Strategy Description – LCD

Life cycle design: Design and detailing are extremely important which are to be combined with building materials to express architectural forms.
Pre-building Material production and related processes can produce global-level impact that can have long-term consequences. Therefore,
architectural designs together with the building materials chosen are examined for their environmental impact at the Pre-Building
Phase. All efforts shall be made to avoid wasteful expressions using high-embodied energy materials. Instead, care shall be
exercised to use reusable materials intelligently and efficiently integrated with architectural design.
Building materials Prefer to use sustainable materials made from renewable resources since renewable resources could be replenished at a faster rate
exceeding that of consumption. Materials produced from nonrenewable materials like petroleum, metals or the like ultimately
amount to no sustainability even if current supply seems adequate. Argument favouring the use of steel and glass based on their
implied potential for reuse shall be favoured with careful detailing and effective specifications.
It is important for designers to have knowledge of the harvesting of raw materials and the material processes in order to make right
selections to ensure sustainability. Adopt materials produced without causing ecological damage which are locally available and
cause least negative environmental impact. Though mud is a traditional building material which appears to be sustainable, a careful
examination would prove it, not, since the same mud is good for sustenance of flora and retention of essential topographical
feature.
Adopt the use of recycled materials to reduce waste and save scarce landfill space. Moreover, recycled materials preserve embodied
energy of their original form and reduce consumption of raw materials. Many building materials like steel are easily recyclable
thereby eliminating the need for more mining and milling operations. Further, use durable materials with longer life and less
maintenance, in order to limit the exposure to irritant cleaning chemicals.
Building phase Strategies to be adopted for achieving sustainability in the Building Phase address the impact of construction and operation
processes on environment.
Building materials Avoid felling of trees by meticulous designing, integrating trees into the built form. Plant additional trees in order to account for
damages and depletion of flora. Choose to minimize ecosystem damage on the site by careful planning and minimizing the use of
heavy equipment. Topographical modifications and site excavations should not alter or block the flow of prevailing surface and
groundwater flows.
Use nontoxic materials to ensure health of occupants of built form since they spend more than three-quarters of their life indoors.
Adhesives used in interior works produce toxic emissions for prolonged time, even after construction is over. Use only nontoxic
cleansers since toxic airborne cleaners tend to remain in the ventilation system for extended periods.
Post-building Examination of the environmental consequence of structures that has outlived their useful life is done, in order to decide on the
phase future course of action; reuse, recycling or disposal.
Building Resort to direct reuse or recycle in order to allow an existing building to become a resource for new one, since disposal requires
materials incineration or landfill dumping, that adds up to the overburden of environment (Ngowi, 2001). Reuse of building as it is
important, since the embodied energy which includes the sum of energy embodied in the materials and that went into its
construction is considerable. Adaptive re-use is another viable option for energy conservation. When both these approaches fail,
try reuse of building components.
Discourage the inconsiderate suburbia in favour of reuse of existing built forms and infrastructure since, developing new suburbs
from virgin woods or fertile fields destroys the agricultural land and dislocates the rural population which might result in tension
and unrest as witnessed in Singur in West Bengal.
8 Sustainable Architecture, Alternative Concepts and Waste Reduction

Table 5 Strategies for sustainable design – LD

Strategy Description – LD

Livable design Retain existing topographical contours by sympathetic design with a view to enhance microclimate. Moreover,
unscrupulous alteration of contours will adversely affect existing water courses microclimatic and microclimatic wind
movement.
Prefer not to disturb site water table by avoiding excavation below water table since large obstructions like buildings, into
the water table will disturb the natural flow. Avoid exposing water table during construction since it will increase chances
for contamination.
Preservation of natural Do not spoil the existing flora and fauna, but preserve these vital elements of the site and environment. Native plants and
conditions animals; if treated as resources to be conserved rather than as an obstacle to overcome, will compliment the completed
built form and make it a more enjoyable space.
Urban design and site Urban design and planning strategies brings in sustainability at a larger scale, in the totality. It is important for the
balanced geographic positioning and distribution of green zones considering the specific nature of the context and the
special aspects of the nation to which it is applied. Avoid indiscriminate concentration in urban areas, especially in the
Indian context, but encourage sustained growth of both rural and urban areas.
Adopt to integrate design with public transportation, especially walk-up work places, or nodes, since sustainable
architecture on an urban scale must be supported with efficient public transport networks. Avoidance of public transport
results in the use of individual transport means which create problems of pollution, smog, traffic bottlenecks and
parking.
Encourage mixed use development including residential, commercial, office, retail and institutional spaces. It reduces the
use of vehicles, encourages community feeling, dynamism and security with reduced tendency for vandalism.
Design for human comfort Potential subjects of environmental impact in regard to human health include labourers; both skilled and unskilled,
building users and the community in general (Osso et al., 1996). It is important to provide comfort in terms of thermal,
visual, and acoustic environments in order to enhance the performance output of users. Insist on the use of nontoxic
materials with low or no VOC emissions to reduce health hazards and avoid sick building syndrome.
Studies have established the importance of visual connections to exteriors; the biological clock synchronized with the
periodic cycle of day and night, which gets connected to the ever-changing dynamic natural exteriors by way of open or
glazed atriums open vertical zones in built form, that link the interiors with exteriors, in an effort to boost the
performance and wellbeing of occupants. Similarly integration of operable windows is essential for the occupants to
have proper management of openings in an effort to have passive energy efficiency by periodical opening or closing as
per favorable outdoor conditions (Abraham, 1997).
Social responsibility Honour Equal Opportunity Act and design for accessibility by the physically challenged for all spaces in the built form.
Once the built form is designed for the physically challenged; wheel chair bound, people with crutches, visually
challenged, hearing deficient, children, pregnant and people with ailments, its usefulness life and sustainability gets
enhanced.

Livable Design – (LD)

Objectives enshrined at the three levels; ecology, urban design, and human comfort, and the social responsibility of sustainable
architecture are achieved through the following specific strategies (Table 5).

Need for Alternative Concepts

It is important to understand the limitation of traditional design models to generate unique built forms that meet the require-
ments of sustainable designs. Mostly, the inherent inability in the traditional models is manifest by way of stereotyped thinking
which leads to no atypical designs. It is worthwhile to ponder the words of Albert Einstein “We cannot solve the problems by the same
thinking that created them”. Due to the lack of novelty in conceptualization and approach, such designs offer very little scope for
optimization, lowering energy and resource consumption. This problem of stereotype could be resolved creatively by a search for
alternate models in designs. Nature, at this juncture, presents itself with harmonious designs that are sustainable, self-supporting
and self organizing. Solutions that are found in the harmonious natural systems are always in evolution, perfecting and adapting
to their contexts. Thus, what is seen today has been working over billions of years for evolving a reliable and sustainable model.
Adoption of these evolved models in human designs would facilitate the making of future systems better sustainable; envir-
onmentally, ecologically and economically. Hence, Biomimicing reveals itself as a fine model to follow in the generation of
alternative sustainable design solutions.

Biomimicry

Biomimicry is a new science that studies nature’s best ideas and principles and imitates these designs and processes to solve human
problems. In other words Biomimicry leads to innovations inspired by nature (Biomimicry Institute). Though some of nature’s basic
 Sustainable Architecture, Alternative Concepts and Waste Reduction 9

configurations and designs can be copied, most ideas from nature are best adapted when they serve as inspiration for human-made
designs and productions (Bar-Cohen, 2006). Adaptation of natural systems and organisms has facilitated better understanding of
related phenomena and principles in the design of novel designs, devices with better features and capability. For example, the cell-
based structure that is the building block of biological systems has the ability to grow with fault-tolerance and self-repair. With the
adaptation of Biomimic structures based on nano-technologies, such designs and devices are possible in human -made designs,
but not with traditional materials and processes. On a different level, there exists the evident, inspirational link between the design
of tongs and bird’s beaks. The same inspiration is evident in the foldable hand-held fan design and the peacock feather display; a
magnificent attempt to impress the female. Further, there are organisms like spider that feeds on its own saliva; which otherwise would
be a waste, nurturing itself.
One of the important features of nature is its evolution by responding to the system needs and generating solutions that work.
Nature remains in an open, dynamic system establishing balance and continuous refinement in all its productions. Each of the
successful natural creation that passes to the following generation has to withstand the test of survival, establishing the ‘best fit’ for
the following generation. Nature’s laboratory through evolution generates information that is coded in genes and transferred to
the following generation through the process of self replication. Nature thus, is perfecting models worth copying and inspiring
novel engineering methods, processes, materials, algorithms, and designs. In a similar way production of designs and the elements
and their organization in the design produced shall remain in a continuum of evolutionary changes, permitting adaptation and
attainment of the ‘best fit’. Mimicking of nature may be done at various levels beginning with the full and complete appearance of
the natural system to its every system detail in part or full. On the other extreme, natural models are interpreted and transformed
in the making of human-made designs. Such mimicking of life-systems demands the full capacity and intelligence of humans.

Principle of 3Ms
Model
Accept nature as the standard and imitate its system designs, processes and strategies at any level as deem fit, to live sustainably.
Investigations of such natural systems reveal the details of system composition and their organization at the general level and the
details of elements, processes and strategies at the specific level. Biomimic designer has the freedom of choice to operate at the
level of optimum advantage, in tune with the technological capabilities and resources available.

Mentor
Nature is the finest teacher and mentor for the designers of all the times. Genius designers like Leonardo da Vinci, mathematician
Leonardo Fibonacci to architect F. L. Wright have looked to nature for inspiration, ordering and performance of their productions
(Knott et al., 1997). Learning from the vast 3.85 billion years of research experience gained through the nature’s lab and
evolutionary process would immensely benefit the future designers (Lowman, 2002). One has to be, therefore, intelligent enough
to understand, interpret and adopt the nature’s time-tested, creative and sustainable solutions and ordered processes for sus-
tainability individual built forms or in collective urban forms.

Measure
Biomimic designers view nature as an ecological and sustainable standard and accept what it does. Nature with its organisms
maintains sustainability and survival through constant adaptation and satisfying of just needs without causing congestion and
contamination. Unlike organisms, humans plunder the nature for pleasure and satisfy their greed, causing imbalance and violent
repercussions at times. Human adaptations rarely follow biological laws; instead, attempt to change the very constraints that force their
own adaptation. Hence, the antithesis of biological laws is prescribed in the industrial, financial and civil systems. It is worthwhile to
recall the statement of Mahatma Gandhi “The nature has enough to satisfy our need but not greed”. It is therefore, imperative for a
Biomimic designer to comply with nature’s standards in the maintenance of sustainability and adapt to the forces of natural
transformation rather than aggressive living.

Goal
Biomimic designs imitate life systems that learn, grow and adapt incorporating continuous feedback, inheriting innovation and
refinement for effecting evolution and the best fit. This might offer the possibility of a self evolving system having the capability of
production, growth and consumption of waste. In this process the problem of waste would be converted to generation of raw
materials!

Seven Point Strategy

Optimize rather than maximize
Natural systems are programmed to optimize, never maximize their system output. Every natural system and corresponding
elements are designed to be multifunctional in design thus enhancing versatility of design and avoid multiplying need for specifics. A
10 Sustainable Architecture, Alternative Concepts and Waste Reduction

visible example is human hand. Versatility further, reduces consumption of resources and inconveniences. Further natural systems
exhibits extreme ‘form to function’ fit.

Act independently
Natural systems are self reliant with no need for dependence at all levels of production consumption and disposal. Natural system
is equipped for recycling all materials on expiry of useful life and turns waste to food. On the contrary, waste production is inherent
to all human productions chocking every disposal system. Adopting the natural position of ‘waste to useful stuff’ would inspire
Biomimic designers to generate individual or collective built forms that would facilitate useful spaces that are re-transformable and
avoid the need for fresh raw materials, other resources and energy. A Biomimic design shall therefore, enable independent perfor-
mance, foster cooperative relationships and facilitate retransformation. Often built forms meets with the need for self organizing and
remain in balance. A simple example is a corporate building designed for a specific set of functions faces the need to get
transformed to house altogether different set of functions and users due to changes in economy or other formative forces in order
to stay fit. If a built form is designed to be rigid without any scope for readjustment in an effort to be transformed in self
organization, it leads to unfit and extinction. Cases of demolition of high-rise apartment buildings that fail to generate
acceptable living conditions within and exterior environments endorse the necessity for self organization and retransformation
when situations call for it in an effort to maintain balance and harmony (Jacobs, 1961; Newman, 1973).

Manufactures own needs

Traditional models do consume but never produce for the needs it has; be it energy or any other resource. Whereas, through
Biomimic designs many if not all of the needs of a built form may be generated fully or partially. Power for example, to be
generated by alternate means by creatively using wind, sun or even geothermal, multiple use, involvement of human and animal
power or the like in an effort to meet the built form needs. A built form in isolation could be used to tap the wind energy by way of
its aerodynamic design and integrated wind turbines. Similarly, built forms could be designed meticulously to tap solar energy;
both passive and active, through passive and appropriate courtyard designs or photovoltaic integrated designs. Developments in
material science and photovoltaic designs present the designers with transparent thin film options amounting to sustainable and
creative built forms. At city level collective built forms of cities could be creatively composed to generate self shading, light and
ventilation within and around with appropriate reradiation specified, in an effort to counter the increased energy demand resulting
from heat island formation and ill-lit designs.
Imbibing the lesson of consuming what is made by own, locally not brought from elsewhere, Biomimic designers have to
begin with the use of locally available and self generated resources, rather than using those brought from afar, at higher cost and
energy consumption. Preferring to be in harmony with nature and the context of design would immensely benefit Biomimic
designs.

Resourceful and opportunistic

Biomimic designs shall derive its uniqueness and strength from shape rather than the material, and building from the bottom-up.
While using simple and common building blocks, creatively explore the possibilities inherent in forms rather than simply
bogged-down with materiality and available technology. It simply means choosing the 3D form advantage over 2D traditional
models, beginning with the preference for frames over post and lintel. Biomimic designs shall prove to be resourceful and creative
naturally in diminishing consumption and enhancing self generation, even by reducing need exercising preference to intelligent
built forms.

Cyclical processes over linear

Traditional models of designs are inherently linear and additive in nature. Linear additive models have proved to be ineffective with
larger consumption and wastage of resources at all stages of built forms, beginning with erection through operation and maintenance,
leaving behind wastage and byproducts. On the contrary, cyclic processes tend to be inherently effective and efficient at all levels proving
to be naturally sustainable as in the example of falling leaves turned in to fertilizers for the tree through biological involvement.
In the evolutionary Biomimic designing feedback loops are inevitable. These loops are to be effectively incorporated in the
continuous refinement of the process resulting in better designs. In doing so the natural cycles; Carbon cycle, Water cycle and Seasons,
are to be honoured for maintaining sustainability.

Durable and tough

Biomimic designs are to be as durable and tough in tune with the diverse natural law to be ‘operating at low-risk’ as in the preference
for a forest against a single agricultural crop. In such a rugged system each of its components systems shall be complimenting one
another.

Decentralized and distributed

Nature operates at surplus mode having back-up maintained operational and maintains itself even in the failure of a component
system. Multi-supported design increases the operational reliability and earns credibility.
 Sustainable Architecture, Alternative Concepts and Waste Reduction 11

Biomimic Thought Process

• Identify the real challenge

• What do you want to “do” (not make)? Be open, rational and creative. Learn inquisitiveness from kitten!

• Interpret
• Identify the functions / purpose
• How nature does perform function?

• Discover Nature’s Genius

• Go for a walk outside and observe and brainstorm. Look for the precious stones!

• Abstract
• What patterns and principles work for your problem? Be creative and prudent.

• Emulate or Imitate
• Play and design
• Brainstorm and converse

• Evaluate
• Revaluate and Re-Imagine the design deeper and rigorous each time with holistic thinking in order to solve the entire
problem. It might be necessary to redefine to solve the problem as a whole, not in parts.

Formula for Sustainable Future That Offer Waste Reduction

Intellectual Capital + Nature’s Genius ¼ Innovative, Sustainable solutions
If we are limited, it is by our own dreams! Therefore, dream great and be a B2; Beautiful Biomimic.

Conclusion

Concepts and strategies aim to generate sustainable architecture which is the need of the hour and vital to the existence of life
forms on earth. In this process, waste reduction or no waste production shall be attained through adopting alternative concepts to
rescue a world that is already chocked. There exists confusion from multiple mushrooming agencies and competing visions trying
to define and establish what ecologically sustainable architecture is, especially of its scope, application and end result. The
scientific and technical complexity involved along with the commercial and political interests amalgamated to its objectives make
‘defining sustainable architecture’ a delicate issue. These approaches lack a real concern for the unique survival and special needs of
the context to which such prescriptions are applied. Further, it is important to understand the limitation of traditional design
models and look for better alternatives including Biomimicry.
Sustainable architecture can be achieved primarily by reducing the consumption of materials, energy requirement involved
both directly and indirectly and the generation pollution. Space and area optimization warrant an effective strategy in the
achievement of reduction of the need which lowers the generation of pollution. Architects have a greater role to play, therefore, at
this important issue. Engineers have an equally important role in the design and selection of optimized systems; mechanical,
electrical, transport and disposal, which are vital for the efficient performance of the built forms.
It is important to consider necessary legislation to impose ‘green tax’ on buildings that exceed the limits of material and waste
generation; to be stipulated for unit area of foot print on site. Further, those designs that comply with the norms shall be
encouraged through incentives. Architectural schools shall promote creative designs instead of stereotypes.
Additional thrust is to be exercised in regard to the generation of environmental awareness, waste reduction and the design
detailing and practice for sustainability in order to achieve this vital responsibility we owe to the posterity and ourselves. Education
in architecture and allied fields shall impart rigor and soundness to design professionals engaged in the design, production,
operation and reuse of built forms (Celebi and Aydýn, 2001). It is also important to accept the relationships and inter-
connectedness within the ecosystem and the built forms that designers develop. It is the vital responsibility of architects to find
creative design solutions that facilitate well-being and harmonious coexistence of organic and inorganic groups (Yeang, 1995). A
conceptual layout and an array of feasible strategies are elucidated for appropriation as any project demands. It is important to
view these strategies as a positive response to the awareness of the finiteness of the limits of ecosystem.
There is inherent inability in the traditional models and stereotyped thinking leads to atypical designs. The problem of stereotype
could be resolved creatively by alternate models wherein mimicking natural systems holds great potential. Natural systems are always
in evolution, perfecting and adapting to their contexts over billions of years. Adopting the natural models through Biomimicing
facilitates the making of future systems better sustainable. The principle of 3M and the Seven-point strategy is elucidated in generating
Biomimic designs. Further, the Biomimic thought process is illustrated in evolving a formula for sustainable future.
It is right time that the Government sets-up a Project Sustainability Authority for both public and private sector projects in the
wake of the numerous agencies mushrooming with the sustainability and green agendas with no eye for the real needs and special
12 Sustainable Architecture, Alternative Concepts and Waste Reduction

nature of developing nations like India. Premier research and educational institutions could be made a vital part of the ‘Authority’
wherein the Nation can expect fairness without outweighed importance assigned to the concerns of corporate sector, forgetting the
balanced development of rural sections of the country.

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Further Reading
Biomimicry Institute, 2011. [Online] [Cited:. January 4, 2011]. Available at: http://www.biomimicryinstitute.org/about-us/biomimicry-a-tool-for-innovation.html.
Obara, S. Golden Ratio in Art and Architecture. Department of Mathematics. [Online] University of Georgia. Available at: http://jwilson.coe.uga.edu/EMT668/EMAT6680.2000/
Obara/Emat6690/Golden%20Ratio/golden.html.