2.

4 Degrading water
Inland waters such as rivers, lakes and
wetlands are some of the world’s most
degraded environments. Human activities
have reduced the quality and quantity of
clean fresh water in many of these places.
Extracting water from rivers to use in
homes, factories and farms, and damming
rivers for water supply, flood control and
hydroelectricity have all affected the
health of these inland waters. Pollution
from farms and industry sources entering
these waters has also caused damage.
People extract large amounts of fresh
water from various natural sources.
The highest demand for fresh water is
for irrigating farms to grow food. In Source 1 An irrigation dam near Mahabaleshwar in western India
Australia, for example, 70 per cent of the
water extracted from rivers and aquifers
is used in farming. As the world’s
population and its demand for food
and water grow, many of the world’s
water resources are becoming degraded
by having too much water extracted.
This has led to shrinking lakes in some
regions and increased salinity in the
water in others.

Damming the rivers

Of the world’s 292 large river systems,
two-thirds have been changed by dams
and reservoirs. Dams disrupt the flow of
water, flooding some areas and stopping Source 2 A toxic bloom of blue-green algae caused by excess nutrients from
water reaching other areas. Damming farm fertilisers has built up in a dam in northern California.
also disrupts ecosystem services such
as the provision of fresh water, fertile soil and food from the waterways. Land activities such as the use of
production. The natural interaction between rivers and fertilisers and pesticides in farming, littering, clearing
coastal ecosystems is degraded as fewer nutrients and land, creating tips and landfill, processing sewage
less water and sediment reach the river mouth and sea. and industrial activities can all cause pollution of the
waterways.

Pollutants in our water The results of water pollution are devastating. People
lose access to safe, clean, drinking water. Fish and other
Water pollution is the contamination of our rivers, animals in the water are killed or slowly decline in
lakes, wetlands, estuaries, seas and oceans. This health and population numbers and an important food
pollution can be the result of human activities near source is lost. In extreme cases, water pollution can
the water such as shipping, fishing and oil drilling, contribute to widespread food shortages and famine.
or from activities conducted on land, a long way

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 2.5 Damming the rivers
There are many human activities that bring As international pressure mounts to reduce carbon
environmental change to streams and rivers, but emissions, more and more dams are being built across
perhaps the most dramatic of these is building a dam fast-flowing rivers all over the world. Generally speaking,
across a river. One of the main reasons dams are built is the bigger the dam, the greater the amount of electricity
to allow a reservoir of water to build up behind the dam it can generate. Big dams (over 15 metres high) are now
which can then be used for the irrigation of farms, a considered the most efficient. There are more than 50 000
reliable water supply for towns and cities, flood control big dams in the world, half of which are in China, who
and for recreation. The energy of the moving water can has 1600 more under construction. China is by far the
also be captured behind the dam, and when released world’s leading hydroelectricity generator and is home to
through pipes and turbines inside the dam can be used the Three Gorges Dam, the largest dam in the world.
to generate electricity. While big dams bring many benefits, they can also
This type of electricity (hydroelectricity) provides create problems for the environment. Source 1 shows
a cleaner alternative to other methods of power some of the human and environmental impacts of
generation such as coal and oil burning. damming a fast-flowing river.

People are displaced and must relocate. Rotting vegetation releases greenhouse
This can bring cultural change. gases such as methane

Ecosystems of plants and

animals are flooded.
Lake increases incidences of
water-borne diseases,
particularly in warmer
climates. Water released from the
top of the lake is warmer,
raising downstream
temperatures.
Dam blocks natural migration paths for
fish such as eels and salmon.
Sediment builds up in
the reservoir. This traps
nutrients and makes
the dam less efficient.
decrease in downstream
soil fertility leading
to fewer fish

danger of catastrophic flood

due to dam collapse

River banks can erode

more quickly if water Natural river cycles of high and low flow
is released from are disrupted causing environmental
the dam. changes downstream.

Source 1 Some of the human and environmental impacts of damming rivers

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 2.12 Climate change
Although the world’s climate has been changing greenhouse gases, are changing the world’s ecosystems
for millions of years, in more recent times there has and the services they provide.
been an increase in the concentration of certain gases
in the atmosphere. Many of these gases – known
as greenhouse gases – are found naturally in the
Environmental responses
environment, but human activities have increased to climate change
the levels of these gases to a point where they are
Ecosystems develop and flourish under specific
influencing the global climate. The four main
environmental conditions. As climate change alters
greenhouse gases include:
these conditions, the plants and animals within the
• carbon dioxide from burning fossil fuels such as coal
ecosystems respond in one of four ways:
• methane from the large-scale farming of livestock
• They change their basic biology – certain animals
• nitrous oxide from the use of fertilisers may reproduce less often or lay smaller eggs.
• fluorinated gases from refrigerators and solvents. • They change the timing of certain events such as
Greenhouse gases trap some of the Sun’s energy flowering – certain plants may flower earlier or later
within the atmosphere causing temperatures to rise. depending on the conditions. This can impact on
This is known as global warming. birds that rely on these plants for food.
When temperatures rise, other changes take place • They die out – when a species dies out it can have
in the world’s ecosystems. Rainfall patterns change, as serious impacts on the entire ecosystem.
some places become drier and others become wetter. • They move – in general, many plants and animals are
Ice melts and less snow falls in both the polar regions. moving towards the poles and into higher altitudes
Sea levels rise and droughts, floods, cyclones and (Source 2), as temperatures in these places are similar
bushfires become more severe and more frequent. to those in their previous habitats. This affects plants
These, and other changes associated with increased and animals already living in these places.

solar radiation carbon dioxide from

aeroplane travel

blanket layer of
greenhouse gases carbon dioxide from
traps solar burning fossil fuels
radiation, warming
the planet

carbon dioxide from

forest clearing and
burning

fluorinated gases
from propellants
and coolants

carbon monoxide
from motor vehicles
methane from animals
and nitrous oxide
from fertilisers

Source 1 Some of the causes of human-induced climate change

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 2B Why does environmental change pose a challenge for sustainability?

Case study: climate change and While it would seem that warmer temperatures
would bring better grazing conditions to the frozen
the Saami Saami lands, the reverse is actually true. Warmer winter
temperatures melt the snow, turning it to water. It then
One of the largest Indigenous groups in the Arctic
refreezes as a layer of ice which the reindeer cannot
region is the Saami people of northern Scandinavia.
penetrate to reach the lichen below. This ice is known as
Numbering around 70 000 people and living in one
cuokke to the Saami people and can result in their herds
of the world’s harshest environments, many Saami
starving to death. The Saami respond by keeping their
groups rely on traditional reindeer herding for their
herds in pens and feeding them hay and straw but this
livelihood. They migrate north in spring and summer
food is expensive and difficult to find. These changing
and south in winter to find sufficient food, such as
conditions may bring an end to the Saami’s nomadic
grass and small shrubs, for their herds. A typical herd
way of life which has existed for thousands of years.
is made up of several thousand reindeer. Typically,
Saami herders will travel hundreds of kilometres a year
with their herds.
North Pole
Check your learning 2.12
ndary
proje bou
ct e d tundra
proje ary
tundra
movement Remember and understand
ct e nd
d f o re s t b o u
1 What are some of the main causes
of climate change?
forest
incoming reflected movement curre
nt tundr
2 How might climate change bring
heat from a bo
u n d ary an end to the traditional Saami way
the Sun
absorbed of life?

reflected
Apply and analyse
3 Discuss with a partner how climate
curr y
crossing mountain e nt forest boundar change affects ecosystem services
absorbed barriers
(see Source 1 on page 58).
Brainstorm these ideas as a class.
Source 2 The movement of tundra (frozen, treeless land) and forests towards
4 Describe the impact of climate
the North Pole in the Arctic. As mountain slopes become forested they absorb
more heat from the Sun rather than reflecting it, further increasing temperatures. change on plants and animals in
the Arctic region.
5 Why is more solar radiation
absorbed as forests move
northwards?

Evaluate and create

6 Construct a flow diagram that
shows how plants and animals
respond to environmental changes.
Add examples of these responses
to your diagram.
7 The Saami people are not the only
Indigenous people whose way of
life is threatened by climate change.
Research the impact of climate
change on Indigenous people in the
Pacific Islands and compare their
situation with that of the Saami.

Source 3 A Saami man moves his reindeer herd north in spring.

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 3.1 Change in coastal
environments
Coasts are very dynamic places – they are constantly Coastal degradation can be observed on many scales.
changing. Crashing waves, strong currents, tidal waters It may be local, like when litter is dropped on a popular
and hazards (such as storms and tsunamis) all transform holiday beach, or regional, like when an oil spill washes
coastal environments. People, too, bring about many ashore along hundreds of kilometres of coastline. The
changes to these environments. From simple activities, effects of coastal degradation are varied, and can include
such as walking across a sand dune, to complex study the loss of plant and animal species, or the arrival of an
activities, such as the construction of shipping ports invasive species that permanently affects biodiversity in
and sea walls, humans have serious effects on coastal the area. Examples of coastal degradation can include
areas. In many cases, these activities are responsible for sand dunes being washed into the sea, changing the
coastal degradation.

Declining fresh water flows in rivers

due to water extraction for farming
and urban users impacts on
coastal lagoons and estuaries.

Flat, fertile land near the coast Increasing populations, particularly in

is often intensively farmed. coastal areas, bring widespread and
significant change to the coastal
environment. Examples include
building marinas, harbours, ports
and breakwaters.

Sea levels are rising as a result of

climate change. This increases coastal
erosion particularly during storms and
reduces habitat for coastal plants
and animals.
Coastal visitors may impact on the coast, with
activities such as snorkelling and scuba diving.

Source 1 Some common examples of coastal degradation

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 3A How is the coastal environment changing?

coastline, or blooms of toxic algae damaging the marine

environment. Source 1 provides an overview of some Check your learning 3.1
common forms of coastal degradation.
Over the course of this chapter we will be exploring Remember and understand
some of the changes that are having the greatest impact 1 What are some of the changes
on coastal environments. These include climate change, currently impacting on coastal
population growth in coastal areas, the loss of coastal environments?
biodiversity and marine pollution. 2 Are coastal environments close to
cities more at risk from degradation
than those in remote areas? Give
some reasons for your answer.

Apply and analyse

3 The three main drivers of environmental
degradation are climate change,
population growth and economic
growth. Examine Source 1.
Pollution from inland sources a Classify each of the causes
such as farms, cities and industries
of coastal degradation shown
is carried to coastal estuaries
and river mouths by rivers. according to one of these three
drivers.
b Are there any changes that could
Land is often reclaimed from not be classified in this way?
the sea in areas where
flat land is in short supply. c Which of the three drivers appears
to be responsible for most of the
changes shown?
Desalination plants change the Overfishing of certain species by d Classify each of the changes
salinity of water in the local area. commercial trawlers destroys shown according to whether they
natural ecosystems.
are taking place on the local,
regional, national, international or
global scale.
4 Use the geographical concept of
interconnection to describe the links
between changes on the land and
Invasive species from both the land
and the sea impact on coastal changes at the coast.
ecosystems. Ballast water carried
in ships can transport invasive Evaluate and create
species around the world.
5 Select one of the causes of coastal
degradation shown in Source 1.
Harbours are dredged to allow
larger ships to reach ports.
Suggest a solution for the problems
this creates.

Warmer waters means that fish that

thrive in cooler waters move away from
their usual habitats. This can cause the
starvation of other animals and birds
and the death of coral.

chapter 3 coastal change and management 91

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 4.4 Exploring links between
wellbeing
Aspects of wellbeing such as health,
wealth and education are usually
closely related. A change in one
aspect of a person’s wellbeing
usually affects other aspects of their
wellbeing. For example, children who
attend school tend to have better
health than those who do not. Links
such as these can be seen at the
national scale as well as at the local
scale. One of the most useful tools
when exploring these links is a special
type of graph known as a scatter plot.

Scatter plots
Scatter plots are similar to line graphs Source 2 This scatter plot taken from the Gapminder website is exploring
in that they are used to display data the correlation between life expectancy and fertility rates (children per
plotted against two variables. Scatter woman) worldwide.
plots are used by geographers to show
the degree to which one of the variables therefore are said to have a low correlation (see Source 1). When the trend
shown on the graph is related to the is increasing, the correlation is positive. When the trend is decreasing,
other. This relationship is known as the the correlation is negative. A trend line is often added to a scatter plot to
correlation. Commonly, scatter graphs demonstrate the strength of the relationship between the two variables.
show data for a number of countries, Source 1 shows a selection of the most common trends that can be
each of which is represented by a dot represented on a scatter plot. With the introduction of digital graphing tools
on the graph. When the dots come it has been possible to add more data to make scatter plots even more useful.
close to forming a straight line, they are Three variables can now be graphed to create a three-dimensional scatter
closely related and therefore are said to plot. By animating graphs it is also possible to show changes in variables and
have a high correlation. When the dots their correlation over time. In Source 2 the size of each dot is determined
do not come close to forming a straight by the size of the population of the country. The graph is able to show life
line, they are not closely related and expectancy in each country as well as fertility rates.

High Low Low High

positive positive No negative negative
correlation correlation correlation correlation correlation
Variable 2

Variable 2

Variable 2

Variable 2

Variable 2

Variable 1 Variable 1 Variable 1 Variable 1 Variable 1

Source 1 Simple scatter plots showing different types of correlation

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 4.5 Contrasts in wealth
By any measure, the world’s wealth is unevenly distributed
(see Source 2). The richest 1 per cent of the world’s population
has approximately the same amount of income as the poorest
56 per cent of the world’s population (3.5 billion people). Richest World population World income (%)
All 10 of the world’s poorest countries are in Africa. Richest 20% 81.2
Second 20% 9.4

Measuring wealth: Gross Domestic Third 20%

Fourth 20%
5.6
2.4

Product (GDP) Poorest 20% 1.4

A country’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is one way to measure

wealth. This is done by calculating the size of its economy by
adding the total value of all goods and services produced during
People living on People living on
a year. To make meaningful comparisons between countries, the less than $1.25 less than $2 a
a day (22%) day (40%)
total GDP is divided by the size of the population to produce a
measure known as GDP per capita. Source 1 shows the GDP of
countries worldwide, together with a listing of the world’s 10 richest
countries and the world’s 10 poorest countries. Poorest

In 2012, the GDP per capita of Qatar, the world’s richest country,
was $103 900 and the GDP per capita of the Democratic Republic of
Source 2 A graph of the world’s wealth
the Congo, the world’s poorest country, was $272. Australia’s GDP distribution, 2011, known as the ‘champagne
was $42 000. (All these figures are given in US dollars.) glass distribution’ because of its shape

WORLD: GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT SHOWING RICHEST AND POOREST

ARCTIC OCEAN

Norway

Luxembourg
EU RO P E NO RT H
Jersey
A SI A AMER I C A
Lichtenstein
ATLA N TIC
O CEA N
PAC I FI C O C E A N
Bermuda
A FRIC A Hong Kong
Qatar Macau
Niger
Eritrea LEGEND
Liberia South Sudan Gross Domestic Product
Somalia per capita (US$)
Central African DR Singapore
Republic Congo Over 25 000
Burundi SOUTH
Malawi
IND IAN 10 000 to 25 000 A ME R IC A
AT L A N T I C OCE AN 5000 to 10 000
Zimbabwe
2000 to 5000
OCEAN
AUSTRALIA 1000 to 2000
Under 1000
No data available
0 1500 3000 km Qatar Richest countries
Niger Poorest countries
Falkland Islands

Source 1 Source: Oxford University Press

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 4A How does wellbeing vary around the world?

Source 3
Indian and
Nepalese
window-washers
abseil down a
skyscraper in
Doha, the capital
city of Qatar.

Case study: levels of wealth in Qatar

As mentioned, the residents of Qatar are, on average, the best healthcare systems, while water, gas, electricity
wealthiest people on Earth. Its two million people earn and even food are partially paid for by the state. The
an average of US$103 900 each year (compared with the employment opportunities in Qatar attract many
global average of US$12 500). Qatar is a tiny country migrants from other Middle Eastern countries as well
(slightly smaller than the Sydney metropolitan area) as from South and South-East Asia, particularly India,
with vast reserves of oil and gas. The wealth generated Nepal and the Philippines. More than half of the
from developing and exporting these resources has population is made up of foreign workers (the highest
been used to increase the state of wellbeing for many migration rate in the world).
Qatari residents. The country boasts one of the world’s

Check your learning 4.5

Remember and understand 5 Describe the pattern of wealth distribution as shown
1 Where are the world’s 10 poorest countries? in Source 1.
2 Examine Source 3. Why do you think these men have Evaluate and create
travelled from Nepal to Doha to do this work? 6 Conduct some extra research on the Internet to
Apply and analyse complete the following task.
3 When GDP per capita is calculated, small countries a Brainstorm the factors that might help to explain
why global wealth is so unevenly distributed. Why
with a low population are often at an advantage over
are people in some countries such as Qatar, the
countries with large populations. Explain why this is
USA and Australia wealthy while people in other
the case.
places are not?
4 Examine Source 1. In a carefully worded paragraph,
b Try to think of as many reasons as you can and
describe the global distribution of wealth using the
then classify them into groups of factors. Decide
PQE method. For more information on the PQE
on headings for these groups.
method, refer to page 19 of ‘The geography toolkit’.
Refer to specific regions and countries in your
description.

chapter 4 an unequal world 135

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 4.7 Contrasts in health
In some countries, people struggle to obtain the most people around the world is to provide them all with
basic health care services and doctors work in hospitals enough food to eat and enough clean water to drink.
that are old and poorly equipped. In other countries, One in eight people worldwide are undernourished,
hospitals have state-of-the-art facilities and access to making them more susceptible to disease, less
the newest treatments and drugs. While it is easy to see productive in their work and more likely to die young.
how unevenly distributed health services are worldwide, Hunger is often the result of a range of factors including
the level of health and its contribution to the wellbeing conflict, natural disaster, poverty and environmental
of a community or country is a complex concept. There degradation.
are many other variables that can affect the health of Dirty water causes health problems as well, including
people, including diet and other lifestyle factors. diarrhoea, and carries diseases such as cholera and
For these reasons, geographers rely on indicators of typhoid. Around 780 million people around the world
health such as life expectancy and the infant mortality do not have access to clean water, and 345 million of
rates to measure and compare the health of individuals these live in Africa. The importance of clean water
within countries. Other indicators such as the number cannot be under-estimated. More than 3.4 million
of doctors per 1000 people and access to reliable water people die each year from diseases caused by dirty water
can also be used to examine the reasons why health or a lack of sanitation, including thousands of children
differs between countries. every day.

Thirst and hunger Life expectancy

The greatest threat to good health in the world today Life expectancy is the average number of years that
is hunger. The simplest way to improve the health of a person can expect to live. For people in developing

WORLD: HUNGER LEVELS 2012

EUROPE NORTH
AMERICA
ASIA

AFRICA

LEGEND
Population SOUTH
undernourished (%) AMERICA
Over 34
25 to 34
AUSTRALIA
15 to 24
5 to 14
Under 5
No data available
Country border
0 1500 3000 km

Source 1 Source: Oxford University Press

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 4A How does wellbeing vary around the world?

countries, life expectancy is generally shorter Low-income countries

than for people in developed countries. A
child born in Sub-Saharan Africa in 2013, for
Lower middle-income countries
example, can expect to live for 55 years, while
a child born on the same day in the USA can
expect to live for 79 years – 24 years longer. The Higher middle-income countries
lower life expectancy in Sub-Saharan Africa
is due to a wide range of factors including the High-income countries
presence of diseases such as malaria and HIV/
AIDS, poor water and food security and poor 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 20 40 60 80 100
access to health care. Source 3 clearly shows the Number of deaths in Life expectancy at birth
relationship between the wealth of a country children under 5 years (years)
(per 1000 children)
and the life expectancy of its citizens.
Source 3 The links between a country’s wealth, child deaths
and life expectancy
Infant mortality
In the same way that life expectancy varies greatly Check your learning 4.7
between the developing and the developed world,
infant mortality rates (the proportion of children who Remember and understand
die in their first year) are also strikingly different (see 1 In your own words, explain the links between poverty
Source 3). A child born today in Sub-Saharan Africa is and indicators of health like life expectancy and infant
12 times more likely to die in their first year of life than mortality.
a child born in the USA.
2 What are some of the effects of hunger?
Studies of infant mortality in developing countries
have discovered some specific factors that put children Apply and analyse
at higher levels of risk. Children and their mothers 3 Examine Source 1.
are much more vulnerable in rural areas than in a In which regions of the world are more than
cities. Women in cities tend to give birth in hospitals 95 per cent of the population well nourished?
and health clinics, while women in rural areas often b In which regions of the world are more than
give birth at home without a nurse or doctor present. 25 per cent undernourished?
Children born to educated mothers, even those with
c Compare this map with other world maps in
only a primary school level of education, also have
this chapter. What links can you find between
a higher survival rate. In some regions survival rates
hunger and other factors such as Gross
can be up to three times greater than for children of
Domestic Product (Source 1 on page 134) and
uneducated mothers.
literacy rates?
4 Using the ‘World statistics’ section in your obook,
compare the life expectancies of people born in two
different regions of the world – one developed and
one developing. Compare average life expectancy in
these regions with infant mortality. What pattern do
you notice when comparing these two figures?

Evaluate and create

Source 2 5 Use information from your own research on the
Mali, a country in
West Africa, has one Internet to complete the following task.
of the highest infant a One of the Millennium Development Goals is to
mortality rates in the reduce the infant mortality rate by two-thirds
world. Vaccinations
against disease
between 1990 and 2015. By 2010, it had fallen
and more clinics for by one-third. Research how this was achieved
mothers and children and suggest changes that could be made to
are seen as crucial reach the goal by 2015.
steps in lowering this
rate.

chapter 4 an unequal world 139

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 4.9 Contrasts in education
Education provides much more than the opportunity care for themselves and their children, to participate
to read, write and count. It is seen by many in the workforce and improve their country’s economy,
international aid agencies and experts in the field as to live healthier lives, to combat poverty and to reduce
the key to helping people, communities and nations inequalities in wellbeing.
lift themselves out of poverty. Education provides
individuals with opportunities to become more engaged
with society, to have a range of skills and tools to better
Literacy rates
Literacy rates measure the percentage of adults who
can read and write and are often used as an indicator
of education levels within countries. Literacy rates can
be difficult to calculate, however, as many countries do
not keep accurate data. It is also important to be aware
of potential variations in literacy within countries.
In many countries, for example, people in rural areas
have lower literacy levels than city dwellers. In other
countries, girls are not given the same educational
opportunities as boys.

Source 1 Between 1999 and 2010, the percentage of

Sub-Saharan African children attending school rose from
58 per cent to 76 per cent. Despite this remarkable
improvement, 33 million children receive no schooling.

WORLD: LITERACY RATES

AR C TI C O C E AN

E U RO PE N O RT H
A S IA AM ER I C A
PAC I FI C O C E AN
AT L A N T I C

OCEAN
LEGEND
Literacy rate
(percentage of
A FRIC A population)
I N DI A N Over 95.0
S OU T H
85.0 to 95.0 AMERICA
ATLANTIC O CEA N
75.0 to 84.9
OCEAN 60.0 to 74.9
AUSTRALIA
40.0 to 59.9
Under 40.0
No data
0 2500 5000 km available

Source 2  Source: Oxford University Press

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 4A How does wellbeing vary around the world?

Source 3 Eritrea has one of the world’s lowest primary school

enrolment rates. This is due to a number of factors, including Check your learning 4.9
school fees, poor infrastructure and the role of many children as
workers on subsistence farms.
Remember and understand
Barriers to successful education 1 Why do you think Sub-Saharan African children
are less likely to attend school than children in
Access to education varies widely across the globe. other regions of the world?
In developed countries such as Australia, England, 2 List three social barriers that may determine
Germany and France, about 99 per cent of all school- whether or not a child attends school.
aged children are enrolled in schools. In developing
countries such as Mali, Ethiopia and Niger, it is only Apply and analyse
90 per cent. While the enrolment rate has improved 3 Examine Source 3. Who do you think has painted
markedly over the last two decades, a 90 per cent this sign on the school wall? What is the purpose
participation rate means that 61 million children of of this sign?
primary school age are not receiving an education. More 4 Compare Source 2, the world map of literacy
than half of these children are in Sub-Saharan Africa. A
levels, with Source 1 on page 134, the world map
further one-fifth are in South Asia.
of Gross Domestic Product. Comment on the
There are many factors that determine whether or
relationships you see between these two indicators.
not a child will attend school. These include:
5 What is the literacy rate in Eritrea (refer to the
• system barriers – such as a lack of trained teachers,
‘World statistics’ section in your obook)? Compare
classrooms and educational materials including
this with the literacy rate in Australia. Suggest
books
reasons to account for the differences in literacy
• attendance barriers – such as school fees, distance
between these two countries.
to school, poor transport networks and the concern
of many parents about the safety of their children. Evaluate and create
Many children also work to help support their 6 Which of the barriers to education discussed
families
here do you think would be the most difficult to
• social barriers – such as variations in language, overcome? Give some reasons for your answer.
religion and conflict within countries. Conflict is
7 In a small team, develop some strategies to help
one of the greatest barriers with children in war-torn
communities overcome one or more of the barriers
nations such as Somalia and Syria much less likely to
to education. Share your strategies with the class.
attend school.

chapter 4 an unequal world 143

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 6A How can we improve wellbeing?

Source 2
A chart summarising the final progress towards the United Nations Millennium Development Goals in 2015

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 6.3 Improving access
to education 10
Number of children
per woman
9
Number of years
spent at school
8 per woman
Education has shaped my life and the history of my country.
I grew up in a society ravaged by war and mired in poverty.
7
Schools had been destroyed. My classes were held in the open
under a tree. We had no desks, chairs or other basic necessities. 6
The Republic of Korea was on its knees, but education enabled the

Number
country to stand tall again … Even in the worst circumstances, 5
education helps to give children confidence to face the future.
As Secretary-General of the United Nations, I want every child, 4
without exception, to have the same opportunity that I had.
3
Ban Ki-Moon, Secretary-General of the United Nations, 2012
2
One of the United Nations’ goals is to improve the political
profile of education around the world. In fact, the United
1
Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-Moon has personally led the
Global Education First Initiative. Launched in September 2012,
0
the initiative includes, among other aims, the Educate-a-Child

1970

1975

1980

1985

1990

1995

2000

2005

2009
program. This program seeks to get all children into schools and
Year
bring high-quality learning to children who have no access to
formal schooling. This is seen as the key factor to improving the Source 1 Education levels and fertility rates for
women in China aged between 15 and 44 years
living conditions and future wellbeing of millions of children.

The benefits of education

Many social researchers believe that the key to improving human
wellbeing around the world, particularly in poorer communities, is
to improve participation rates in education. Their studies show that
education allows individuals to break the cycle of poverty and live
healthier, longer lives.
The benefits to society are multiplied when girls are able to access an
education at the same rate and level as boys. Studies show that mothers
who have attended school have a lowered risk of their babies falling
victim to infant mortality, have fewer children and earn more than
mothers who are less educated. Children born to these women are 50
per cent more likely to live past the age of five and have much lower
rates of HIV infection than children born to less educated mothers.
Over the past 40 years the Chinese government has made a real
effort to get more children into education for longer periods. This
push has included increasing the education levels of girls. Educating
girls has had many benefits for Chinese society. Educated women
generally want smaller families and make better use of reproductive
health and family planning services to achieve their desired family
size (see Source 1). Educated women contribute more to the economy
and help increase economic growth. With China’s booming economy,
Source 2 A Chinese government poster from
China now has 68 per cent of women in paid employment. This is a the 1970s encourages girls to ‘Learn science and
higher rate than Australia (which has 59 per cent). build the country’.
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 6A How can we improve wellbeing?

Successful schools
As well as getting all children into schools, the United poorly trained teachers and not enough books or other
Nations Global Education First Initiative is also resources to teach with. Too many children are also
interested in improving the standard of schooling going to school hungry, which is affecting their ability
that children receive and creating a positive to learn. Source 3 shows the standards and
school environment. Too many features that the United Nations
schools in the developing would like all schools
world currently have a safe and girl-friendly
support for worldwide to achieve.
respectful disadvantaged
school policies children
environment
access to new
technologies

good
nutrition
and health
services
available
opportunities
for sport easy access
and play to schools

CAFETERIA

School

access for access to

children teaching a books and
with curriculum other
disabilities for global learning
environmentally citizenship materials
friendly well
with clean teaching trained
water and numeracy teachers
sanitation and
literacy
skills

Source 3 The main features of successful schools according to the United Nations Global Education First Initiative

Check your learning 6.3

Remember and understand d How is this linked to the one-child policy
1 What are some of the links between education and implemented over the same period?
wellbeing? Evaluate and create
2 Explain why educating girls can help to improve 5 Using Source 3 as a guide, design a poster that
wellbeing for everyone in a community. promotes one of the advantages of gaining an
Apply and analyse education.
3 ‘Education provides much more than the opportunity 6 Mahatma Gandhi, a leader of the Indian nationalist
to read, write and count.’ Explain this statement movement in the early 20th century, once said
using examples from Source 3. ‘Educate one man, you educate one person,
but educate a woman and you educate a whole
4 Examine Source 1.
civilisation.’ What do you think he meant by this?
a Describe the change in the education of women
Do you agree? Write a paragraph outlining your
in China between 1970 and 2009.
thoughts.
b How is this linked to the poster in Source 2?
c How has the fertility rate changed in the same
period?

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 6.6 Organisations working
to improve wellbeing
As we have learnt, the United Nations (UN) has a huge The United Nations has 193 member countries.
interest in improving wellbeing across the globe with These countries provide the funding to operate the UN’s
its Millennium Development Goals. But the United agencies and programs. Four key areas for the United
Nations does not work alone. It works with individual Nations are peace and security, development, human
governments and not-for-profit organisations, each rights and humanitarian aid.
of which set their own goals and develops their own
programs. In this section, we will investigate the work Peace and security
of the UN and a range of other organisations working to The United Nations has continued with its initial aim of
improve wellbeing. promoting peace and security among the nations of the
world. It provides assistance in areas such as disarmament,
The role of the United Nations mine clearance, counter-terrorism and peacekeeping
forces as well as encouraging nations and communities in
The United Nations was founded at the end of World
conflict to work towards a peaceful resolution.
War II in 1945, to encourage countries to work together
and maintain peace. Since that time it has grown into Development
a vast organisation with multiple agencies working
towards the key goals of ‘maintaining international United Nations programs throughout the developing
peace and security, developing friendly relations among world are aimed at reducing poverty and improving the
nations and promoting social progress, better living wellbeing of billions of people. In terms of promoting
standards and human rights’. economic development, the UN works with countries
to promote trade between countries and to build stable
governments.

Source 2 The United Nations works to provide free universal

Source 1 UN peacekeepers pass groups of people fleeing education, particularly among groups who have found this
conflict in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. difficult to access. This includes the young girls of Pakistan.

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 6B Who is working to improve wellbeing?

Human rights
Check your learning 6.6
The United Nations seeks to uphold the values of the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights throughout the Remember and understand
world. Since the creation of the Universal Declaration 1 What was the initial aim of the United Nations?
of Human Rights in 1948, the UN has adopted several
2 What types of discrimination is the United Nations
further declarations. These include conventions aimed
now dedicated to eliminating?
at ending discrimination against women (in 1979) and
further protecting the rights of children (in 1989). In Apply and analyse
2006, the rights of Indigenous people were described
3 Conduct research to find out more about the
in a further declaration. This aims to allow Indigenous
World Food Programme and answer the following
groups to protect and strengthen their cultural identity.
questions:
The United Nations works towards ending violence
a Which areas received assistance from the
against children, human trafficking, and the use of
World Food Programme in 2013? How
sexual violence as a weapon of war. It also promotes the
many malnourished children received special
freedom of Indigenous people to determine their own
nutritional support in 2013?
futures. The United Nations believes that every child
b Which countries received emergency support
has the right to an education.
in the past year? What was the cause of the
Humanitarian aid emergency?
c Who are the top five donor countries that
In those regions where food security is an issue, the
support the World Food Programme?
United Nations works to improve farm productivity and
provide food in times of famine. It also provides refuge Evaluate and create
for millions of people fleeing conflict in refugee camps 4 Using Source 1 as a starting point, do some further
and aid to those suffering from the impacts of disasters. research on UN peacekeepers in the Democratic
Republic of the Congo and write a short news
article about their role.

Source 3 The World Food Programme provides aid to almost 100 million people a year in over 70 countries.

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 12.1 Measuring growth in the
Australian economy – GDP
One way of measuring your performance at school is
checking how well you have performed on a test. One Gross
way of measuring the performance of the economy is total figure before depreciation
checking Gross Domestic Product (GDP) figures. GDP
is a measure of the total value of all goods and services
produced in Australia over a year, so if GDP increases we
know that the economy is growing. If GDP decreases, Domestic
we know the economy is contracting, or shrinking. within a country

Understanding GDP
As mentioned, GDP is a measure of the total value (in
dollars) of all goods and services produced in Australia Product
over a specific period of time. Let’s look at this term in goods and services
more detail:
• ‘Gross’ means that tax or other deductions (such
as depreciation) are not taken into account when Source 1 GDP is one way to measure economic growth in an
calculating GDP. GDP is a measure of value before economy.
these are deducted. For example, machinery to make them. People are then able to spend their
decreases in value over time due to wear (known wages on a wider variety of goods and services that
as depreciation), but this is not taken into account may improve their living standard. When economic
when calculating GDP. growth falls, it means that there is a decline in the
• ‘Domestic’ refers to production within a country number goods and services being produced, which
such as Australia. usually means a decline in the number of people being
• ‘Product’ includes goods (such as bread, mobile employed, and the wages they are paid. In turn, this
phones and clothes) and services (such as haircuts, often means a decline in their standard of living.
tax returns and school fees). Only final goods and An economic recession is where economic growth
services are included when calculating GDP. For falls for two or more quarters (that is, six or more
example, an apple pie is a final good because it is no months) in a row. Australia has had four recessions
longer being used to produce another good. since 1960: 1961, 1974–75, 1982–83 and 1990–91. A
depression is more severe, and is classed as an extreme
The importance of economic recession lasting two or more years (see Source 2). In a
depression, economic growth falls, there is a decrease in
growth available credit, a significant increase in unemployment,
The Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) releases its and there is little consumer confidence.
GDP figures every quarter (that is, every three months).
It is the percentage change in GDP that makes the news Limitations of GDP as a measure
and tells us whether the economy is growing. On a
At school, your test results alone don’t always paint a
yearly basis, economists hope to see economic growth
true picture of your performance. Most of the time, good
exceed 2 per cent.
performance can only be assessed by looking at a range of
Economic growth is important because if more
different measures, such as your attitude and behaviour
goods and services are being produced it means that
in class, and your relationships with your classmates.
more people are being employed (and paid wages)
Likewise, GDP alone does not accurately assess the true

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 12A How is the performance of the Australian economy measured?

performance of the economy. Producing more goods

and services may have some undesirable environmental
and social consequences. All of the factors in Source
4 are not considered when calculating GDP. Prioritise
what you consider to be the most important factors for a
worthwhile life and then decide whether GDP alone is a
good measure of progress in Australia.

Source 2 Boys collect bricks during the Great Depression

(1929–1939). At the time, young people found it easier to get
jobs, but as they got older their work options reduced. In mid-
1932, almost 32 per cent of Australians were out of work.

Source 3 Annual percentage change in real GDP for Australia

Year 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 (a) 2014 (b)

Annual percentage change 2.4 2.6 3.6 2.0 2.6 2.4

Source: ABS, the IMF and various international sources. (a) All recent data subject to revision; (b) IMF/EIU forecast.

Source 4 Important factors for a worthwhile life

Factors Priority 1–8 (number 1 being the highest priority)

Enough leisure time

Spending time with family and friends

Contributing to the community

A job that is rewarding

Enjoying nature

Good health

A pollution-free environment

Income and wealth are distributed fairly in society

Check your learning 12.1

Remember and understand 8 How might producing more and more goods and
1 What does GDP stand for? services each year affect our environment?
2 Why do we measure GDP? 9 Explain why the pursuit of increasing production can
affect a citizen’s health and welfare?
3 List at least three limitations of GDP as a measure of
the nation’s progress. Evaluate and create
4 What is the definition of an economic recession? 10 Refer to the chart pack at the Reserve Bank’s
5 What is the definition of an economic depression? website and find the latest annual and quarterly GDP
figures. Describe how GDP has changed since 2015.
Apply and analyse
11 Create a diagram showing that one in three people
6 Explain the consequences when there are two or
were unemployed during the Great Depression.
more quarters of negative growth in GDP.
12 Draw a picture or create an image that clearly
7 What percentage change in GDP is considered
shows how increases in GDP can lead to increased
suitable by economists?
employment and a better standard of living.

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 12.2 Measuring price changes in
the Australian economy – inflation
Inflation occurs when there is an increase in the casestudy
general level of prices paid for goods and services over a
certain period of time. Usually we measure the change Have you noticed how much you
in prices on a yearly basis. Rising prices means the
consumer must pay more for goods and services if they
pay for a cup of coffee?
want to continue to consume the same amount and Inflation refers to the rise in the general level of
maintain their standard of living. For example, $100 prices, not just the price of a can of Coke or a cup
spent on goods and services in 1980 would cost $408.63 of coffee. Nevertheless, it’s interesting to look at
in 2015 (assuming an average inflation rate of 4.1 per the price of frequently consumed items such as a
cent over those 35 years). It must be remembered, cappuccino. A Brisbane coffee machine supplier,
however, that wages and salaries do increase. In 1980, Gilkatho, started a coffee price index in 2003. They
the average weekly wage (before tax) for a man was first started monitoring coffee prices in Brisbane in
$245.70 and in May 2015 it was $1674.80. 2003 and now monitor the major capital cities in
Inflation is thought to be sufficiently low if it does Australia. In the last quarter of 2010, the average price
not exceed the Reserve Bank and Treasury target of of a takeaway cappuccino in Melbourne was $3.15.
2–3 per cent per year (see Source 3). The average cost of a cappuccino in Melbourne is
now well over $3.50. The most expensive place to
Reasons for inflation buy a cappuccino is Perth and the least expensive is
Sydney.
A major factor causing rising prices is stronger demand
If you think your coffee is already expensive, the
in the economy for goods and services. This stronger
news is that the price of coffee is likely to increase
demand can lead to shortages of goods and services
with companies unable to keep up with the demand for
soon. Emerging markets such as China, India and
their products and therefore prices increase. Increased Brazil may start demanding more coffee, resulting in
spending might be due to: rising coffee bean prices (the key raw ingredient used
• consumers feeling confident about their income and to make cappuccino). Added to this is the drought in
employment in the future Brazil. Brazil supplies one-third of the world’s coffee
so it’s likely a shortage will drive coffee bean prices up.
• businesses feeling confident about the future – they
may therefore expand their business operations,
employ more staff and invest in better capital National average price of a cappuccino
equipment
• trading partners such as China performing well and
demanding our exported goods and services
$3.50
• relatively low interest rates encouraging consumers
and business to borrow more in order to spend
• lower taxes and increased government spending $3.40
may also lead to increased demand and therefore
expenditure.
Inflation may also occur due to increasing costs. If $3.30
wages increase, this extra cost might be passed on to 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
consumers in the form of higher prices. Higher taxes
Source 1 The average price of a takeaway cappuccino
and higher interest rates on money borrowed may has increased by just over 7 per cent in recent years (data
also lead to increased costs that businesses must bear. derived from the Gilkatho Cappuccino Price Index™).

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 12A How is the performance of the Australian economy measured?

Inflation winners Inflation losers

High-income earners – people with jobs, Low- to middle-income earners – people on

whose incomes increase at the same incomes that do not increase as fast as inflation, such
rate or faster than inflation as part-time workers, the unemployed and pensioners

Borrowers – rising prices means it may Bank savers – money sitting in the bank may not
be better to borrow with a fixed interest buy as much as it previously did due to price rises
rate and make the purchase now

Importers – the price of imported goods Exporters – as exported goods become more
may be cheaper than the price of goods expensive, demand from overseas consumers
produced in Australia will fall

Source 2 Higher inflation rates affect purchasing power, adversely affecting some groups in our community, meaning some people
benefit while others don’t.

Businesses using imported raw materials may also have

to pay more if the Australian dollar falls. An increase in Check your learning 12.2
oil or energy prices can also have a big impact on costs
such as transportation for many businesses. Remember and understand
1 What is inflation?
Measuring inflation – the 2 Why does inflation reduce our ability to purchase
as much as before with the same amount of
Consumer Price Index money?
The Australian Bureau of Statistics measures inflation 3 What is a sufficiently low level of inflation according
by using the Consumer Price Index (CPI). The CPI to the Reserve Bank of Australia?
measures the price change of a typical basket of goods 4 How is inflation measured in Australia?
and services purchased by Australian households every
quarter. The change in these prices from one quarter to Apply and analyse
another is referred to as the inflation rate. We therefore 5 Which of the following factors may contribute to an
know the rate at which prices are changing in the increase in inflation caused by strong demand?
economy.
a consumer confidence falls
Inflation annual percentage change
b business confidence rises
3.5 c interest rates rise
Inflation percentage change

3 d the government increases income tax

2.5
6 Why would an increase in the cost of coffee beans
lead to higher cappuccino prices?
2
7 Why are pensioners more likely to be affected by
1.5
higher inflation rates compared with employed
1 people?
0.5
Evaluate and create
0
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 8 Find out what hyperinflation means and give an
Year example of one country that experienced it. Write a
Source 3 The rate of inflation varies from year to year. paragraph describing how it was affected.
Source: Compiled by the Trade Advocacy and Statistics Section, 9 Think of at least three items you have purchased
DFAT, using the latest data from the ABS, the IMF and various in the past that now cost more to buy. Explain why
international sources
the price for these items may have increased.

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 12.3 Measuring participation in
the Australian economy – the
unemployment rate
Unemployment rate
12
According to the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS),
a person only needs to be employed for one hour per

Percentage of population
10
week to be considered ‘employed’. This includes all
Australians aged 15 years and over, from teenagers (who
8
might mow lawns or deliver newspapers) to older people
(who might work as school crossing supervisors or
6
classroom assistants).
An important indicator of how well the Australian
4
economy is performing is the unemployment rate;
the percentage of people in the labour force who
2
are unemployed. Source 1 shows that Australia’s 1995 1999 2003 2007 2011 2015
unemployment rate was over 10 per cent at the Year
beginning of the 1990s, but in 2015 was just over Source 1 Australia’s unemployment rate fell from over
6 per cent. 10 per cent in the early 1990s to under 5 per cent in the
mid-2000s. In 2015, it sits at just over 6 per cent.

Unemployed The labour force

Employed
Working at least
one hour a week
+ Ready to start work
and taking active steps = Total number of people
in Australia willing and
to find a job able to work
Source 2 ABS labour force definitions

casestudy
Will robots take our jobs in the future? being transported by driverless robots. One of the
country’s largest port operators, Patrick Stevedores, is
According to a recent study conducted at Oxford
also set to slash its workforce by employing driverless
University, nations in the industrialised world such
robots at the port.
as Australia could lose half of all jobs to automation.
Automation is when a machine does the work of a The big advantage to business is the prospect of
human. Automation is already impacting the mining cutting labour costs and therefore remaining competitive
industry, where half of the iron ore in the Pilbara is on the world market. Australia’s largest brickworks,
Austral, now employs two robots that work 24 hours a
day, 365 days of the year, stacking 75 million bricks. It
Source 3 Robots are would have normally taken 10 men at a time working
now used in many fields
and industries such as
8-hour shifts to complete this same amount of work.
medicine, manufacturing, Some experts say that the advance in technology
the military and the police. means that the type of work we do is changing. There
This robot is being used
will be fewer low-skilled jobs, but the opportunity to do
by the Civil Defence Force
in Singapore to diffuse higher-skilled work that robots cannot do will provide
and dispose of a bomb increased opportunities for some.
during a training drill.

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 Overall male and female 12A How is the performance of the Australian economy measured?
unemployment rate
When the total unemployment rate in Australia is
high, the government collects less revenue in the form
of taxes and must also pay more to assist the unemployed
in the form of social benefits (such as unemployment
payments) and welfare programs (such as social housing).
5% 13.6% There are, of course, a range of other social consequences
associated with high unemployment rates, such as
a reduced standard of living, loss of skills from the
workforce, and the possible psychological effects of not
Total population unemployed, Youth unemplyment rate
working (such as depression).
aged 20–74 Source: ABS statistics 2015
Source: ABS statistics 2015 It is useful to look at unemployment rates for various
groups in society as an economic and social indicator of
how well our economy is performing. Source 4 provides a
snapshot of unemployment for various groups.

Causes of unemployment
4.2% 16% There are many causes of unemployment. When
production or GDP is weak and spending in the
economy has decreased, businesses may cease to hire
Older workers unemployed Unemployment rate for new staff or cut back on staff in order to save money
(aged 55 years and over) Indigenous Australians and stay in business. Unemployment may also rise
Source: ABS statistics 2015 Source: ABS statistics 2014
because of factors such as increased competition from
overseas, making it difficult for Australian businesses to
compete. Businesses may take their operations offshore
(to other countries) or may close down. Labour-saving
Source 4 Some key unemployment statistics in Australia technology may also be introduced which may lead to
in 2015 unemployment, even if it is in the short term.

Check your learning 12.3

Remember and understand 5 Jot down at least four examples where machines
1 How has the unemployment rate in Australia have reduced the need for labour.
changed since the early 1990s? 6 What barrier might people aged 55 years and over
2 List some of the social consequences of have to gaining employment?
unemployment. 7 Why are lower levels of production likely to result in
increased unemployment?
Apply and analyse 8 Explain how unemployment affects government
3 Who out of the following people would be revenue.
considered to be unemployed?
a Abbass wants to work but did not look for a job
Evaluate and create
because he is busy painting his own house. 9 In pairs, brainstorm reasons why the youth
b Babette works for four hours after school on a unemployment rate is more than double the total
Friday night. unemployment rate. See if you can think of any
c John lost his job but has been attending job strategies to address this imbalance.
interviews and is ready to start work any time. 10 Read the following statement and write a paragraph
4 Compare the total unemployment rate (Source 4) responding to its message.
to the Indigenous unemployment rate. Why is this ‘A business that doesn’t take advantage of
statistic concerning? automation risks closing down and then no one
will be employed in that business.’

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 12A rich task
Professor Phil Lewis at the University of Canberra says,

Youth ‘Employers increasingly want people with skills and

experience and that's a challenge for young people … A

unemployment
young person who leaves school in year 10 would be very
lucky to find a job these days.’

The youth unemployment rate in Australia is

over 13 per cent – that’s more than double
the general unemployment rate according
to ABS figures released in 2015. Some
geographical regions, however, suffer higher
rates of youth unemployment.

Technological change has contributed to youth

unemployment. Jobs such as working on a cash register,
or as a sales assistant, a filing clerk or a typist are no
longer as plentiful as they once were. This has meant that
many young people have found it difficult to ‘get their foot
Source 1 Work builds not only a person’s self-esteem, but also
in the door’ and gain much-needed work experience.
their bank balance and future. While youth unemployment in
Australia is over 13 per cent, in Spain nearly half of those under
30 years are unemployed. Many young people in Spain have no
hope for their future. This young man is writing ‘Busco Trabajo’,
which means ‘looking for work’.
YOUTH UNEMPLOYMENT AROUND AUSTRALIA

NT
20.5% Cairns

15.5%
Outback Northern
Territory
QLD

WA

SA

19.7%
Northern Adelaide
NSW
17.3% Mandurah
16.8% Parramatta

11.3% ACT
VIC
N
17.5% Hume

21%
0 500 1000 km Western and TAS
northwestern
Tasmania

Source 2 Western and northwestern Tasmania suffer higher youth unemployment than anywhere else in Australia, with Cairns
affected almost as severely.

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 12A How is the performance of the Australian economy measured?

skilldrill

Formulating questions about an Step 5 Formulate some questions that relate to the
evidence surrounding an economic issue. For
economic issue example, ‘What evidence is there that confirms youth
Formulating questions is an important skill that will help unemployment is rising?’ and ‘What other sources
you investigate an economic issue on your own. The might be needed?’
questions that you generate will frame or direct the Use a table, similar to Source 3, to guide you through
research that you then undertake. the process of proposing questions. Remember to include
Once you have established the economic issue a mix of the three question types already discussed.
you would like to explore, it is useful to generate one
broad, overarching question to guide your inquiry. For Apply the skill
example, if the economic issue was ‘the problem of youth 1 Pick an issue about youth unemployment or propose
unemployment’, the question posed might be, ‘Why is an issue about youth unemployment yourself. Some
youth unemployment a problem in Australia?’ examples are:
After that, you need to generate more specific • the social impact of youth unemployment
questions that are related to your overall inquiry • the economic impact of youth unemployment
question, and a mixture of question types.
• solutions to youth unemployment
Step 1 Identify the economic issue you wish to explore.
• problems caused by youth unemployment.
Step 2 Decide on your broad, overarching question.
2 Now that you have picked an issue, propose an
Step 3 Generate some closed (or simple) questions – for overarching question and fill in a table similar to
example, ‘Are youth more likely to be unemployed than Source 3. Conduct some internet research to find out
others in a higher age bracket?’ the answers to the questions you have proposed.
Step 4 Generate some open (or probing) questions –
for example, ‘What are the consequences of youth
unemployment?’

1: Devise an overarching inquiry question

2: Make a list of what you already know about this issue and then
create sub-questions related to each point

Point 1: Sub-questions related to point 1:

Point 2: Sub-questions related to point 2:

Point 3: Sub-questions related to point 3:

3: Make a list of what you don’t know about this issue and then
create sub-questions related to each point

Point 4: Sub-questions related to point 4:

Point 5: Sub-questions related to point 5:

Point 6: Sub-questions related to point 6:

Source 3 Process for generating questions about an economic issue

Extend your understanding

1 Explore the issue of Indigenous unemployment in guide you through your research. Use the Internet to
Australia. Propose an overarching or broad question find the answers to the questions you have posed.
first and then fill in a table similar to Source 3 to help

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 Glossary: Geography
A child mortality rates a measure of the
number of deaths among children
D
annotate to add notes that explain, under five years per 1000 children deforestation the removal of
comment or clarify trees and other plant life from a
born
aquifer an underground water supply forested area, either by cutting
choropleth map a map that shows down or burning; usually carried
consisting of a layer of rock or other
changes in particular data or out to clear the land for farming
permeable materials that hold water
characteristics across an area (e.g.
arid (adjective) describes land and demographics the statistical data
population density, GDP per capita)
climate conditions that are too dry of a population or of particular
by using shades of the same colour
to support vegetation groups within a population,
(e.g. light green through to dark
especially those related to average
atmosphere all of the gases that green)
age, gender, income, education
surround the Earth climate change a change in global level, etc.
or regional climate patterns; in
demographic transition model
B particular a change apparent
from the mid to late 20th century
a geographic model designed
bar graph a graph that shows to help explain changes in
onwards and attributed largely to
information as a series of horizontal populations over time, especially
the increased levels of atmospheric
bars the transition from high birth and
carbon dioxide produced by the use
biodiversity the variety of living death rates to low birth and death
of fossil fuels
organisms (i.e. plants, animals, rates as countries become more
climate graph a combination bar and developed
bacteria and fungi) found in an
line graph that shows the rainfall
environment deposition the laying down of solid
and temperature of a given place;
biological pollutant a term used material that has been eroded and
also known as a climograph
to describe the negative effects of transported from another part of
coastal degradation the deterioration the Earth’s surface
invasive species (such as bacteria, of a coastline due to natural effects
parasites and invasive plants (such as erosion) or human effects desertification the transformation
and animals) that do harm to an (such as pollution) of fertile land into relatively dry
environment desert
complex map a type of map that
biome a large area of the Earth that displays more than one set of data or developed country an industrialised
is home to similar plant and animal information country with a well-developed
communities that have adapted to economy and relatively high
compound column graph a type of
a particular environment over time standard of living that is able to
column graph that features two or
(e.g. desert, forest, grassland) support the needs of its citizens
more sets of related data at the same
breakwater a wall constructed out (see also developing country)
time so that they can be compared;
into the sea to help prevent waves developing country a non-
information provided in each
from reaching the coastline and industrialised (i.e. largely
column is sub-divided for further
causing erosion agricultural) country with a
comparison
relatively fragile economy and
confluence the place or junction
C where two rivers meet
low standard of living that is not
always able to support the needs
cartogram a type of map that is contour line a line on a map (e.g. of its citizens (see also developed
distorted to show a representation of topographic map) joining points country)
statistical data (e.g. access to water, of equal height above or below sea
rates of obesity) rather than land level; contour lines can also be used
area to show the steepness of the land on E
change a key concept in geography: a map economic (adjective) describes
the dynamic nature of all processes correlation a statistical measure that a range of issues relating to
on Earth, whether slow or fast, small indicates the extent to which two employment, income and trade
or large or more variables are related or ecosystem a complex community
chemical pollutants a term used to interlinked made up of living organisms
describe a range of heavy metals, culture a term used to describe that interact with each other
oils, pesticides, industrial chemicals the shared characteristics (e.g. and with their environment;
and salts that do harm to the language, food, religion, beliefs) of an abbreviation for ‘ecological
environment a population or group of people system’

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ecosystem services a term used food security a term used to ground level photograph
to describe a range of important describe a condition in which all a photograph taken from ground
resources, processes and benefits people at all times have access to level (i.e. the photographer is
that healthy ecosystems provide to enough safe nutritious food to standing on ground level and
humans; there are four categories sustain a healthy life (see also food camera lens is parallel to the
of ecosystem services: 1. sources insecurity) ground)
(or provisioning services) such as fossil fuel a fuel made from the groyne a human-made barrier that
providing food and materials; 2. decomposed (fossilised) remains juts out from a beach into the
sinks (or regulating services) such as of plants and animals that lived water, built to prevent erosion
purifying air and water; 3. services millions of years ago (e.g. coal, oil, of the beach from the power of
(or supporting services) such as seed gas) destructive waves and longshore
dispersal and nutrient cycling; 4.
drift
spirituality (or cultural services)
such as spiritual enrichment and G
recreation gender inequality unequal treatment H
ecotourism a form of responsible of individuals within a society Human Development Index (HDI)
and sustainable tourism that based on their gender, whether a tool developed by the United
involves travel to areas of natural male or female
Nations to grade and rank the
or ecological interest with the goal geographic information system social and economic development
of conserving the environment and (GIS) a software application of the world’s countries in order
improving the wellbeing of the local designed to capture, store, from most to least developed; used
people manipulate, analyse, manage and as a measure of human wellbeing
environment a key concept in present all kinds of geographical
geography: a specific place on Earth information
and all the things, both animate and geographical sketch a sketch I
inanimate, that are there focusing on those parts of the infant mortality a statistical measure
environment relevant to the of the proportion of children in an
erosion the wearing away of the
geographic study; often completed area or population under the age
Earth’s surface by wind, water or ice
in the field but also from of 12 months who die; expressed
estuary a wide tidal mouth of a river photographs as deaths per 1000 live births
extinction the dying out and complete Global Positioning System (GPS) interconnection a key concept
disappearance of a species (e.g. plant a device that uses satellites to in geography: the relationship
or animal) accurately pinpoint the location between all things, both living
of an object on the Earth’s surface and non-living, and all processes,
F (e.g. a car, satellite navigation
device, mobile phone) and provide
both natural and human

false colour image an image that Internally Displaced Person (IDP)

data and directions to help with
depicts an object or area in colours a person who has been forced to
navigation
that differ from those seen in flee their home to escape conflict,
nature; false colour images use global warming a gradual increase but who remains within their own
colours that are different from or in the overall temperature of the country’s borders
more exaggerated than those shown Earth’s atmosphere generally
invasive species a plant, animal
in standard photographs, in order to attributed to the release of
or other organism that is not
make the thing being shown easier greenhouse gases such as carbon
native to an area, and whose
to interpret dioxide, CFCs and other pollutants
into the atmosphere introduction has negative effects
fertility rate a statistical measure of on its new environment
the average number of children that grasslands a biome of wide open
all women in a particular area or spaces, where the vegetation is irrigation the watering of otherwise
population will have throughout the dominated by grasses; sometimes dry land by artificial means (e.g.
course of their lives; expressed as called a prairie, steppe or savannah pipes, ditches, sprinkler systems)
births per 1000 women to help in the growing of crops
greenhouse gas a gas, such carbon
fieldwork geographical study that dioxide, that absorbs radiation
takes place outside the classroom at from the sun’s rays trapping heat L
the site of inquiry in the Earth’s atmosphere land reclamation the process of
food insecurity a term used to Gross Domestic Product (GDP) the creating new land from oceans,
describe a condition in which not total monetary value of all the bays, harbours and estuaries by
all people have access to enough safe goods and services produced by a dumping rocks, silt from the sea
nutritious food to sustain a healthy country over a specific time period bed or other materials into the
life (see also food security) (usually a year) water

glossary: geography 499

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space a key concept in
geography: the way things are
arranged on the Earth’s surface
spirituality one of the four
categories of ecosystem services
(also known as cultural services);
a sense of wellbeing and
spiritual connection offered
by the environment (e.g.
aesthetic appreciation of certain
landscapes, deep connections to
the land)
spit a curved build-up of eroded
material that forms at the mouth
of a river
sustainability a key concept in
geography: the ongoing capacity
of Earth to maintain all life

Sustainable Development Goals

a set of 17 goals developed
by the United Nations in
2015 that are designed to end
poverty, protect the Earth from
unsustainable development, and
improve the wellbeing of all
people

T
topographic map a type of map
that shows the shape of the land,
its relief and landforms

V
vertical aerial photograph
a photograph taken from a high
point directly above the object
or area being photographed (i.e.
plan view)

W
water scarcity a term used to
describe a lack of sufficient water
to meet the demands of an area
or population
water table the highest
underground level at which the
rocks and soil in a particular
area are completely wet with
groundwater
wellbeing the ability of human
beings to access the things they
need in order to live happy and
healthy lives (e.g. food, water,
education, safety and security)

glossary: geography 501

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