LO3: Preparing production plan for individual

crop and the whole farm

3.1Assessing a crop field before selecting the
crop type and variety
Environmental Scanning: This involves a
thorough ocular inspection and other methods to
obtain information on the biotic factors that can
affect plant growth and yield, soil and climatic
conditions prevailing in the area, and accessibility.
Soil Analysis: Research the crop history of your
field, the soil identity, and structure. This will help
you identify what kind of pesticides and fertilizers
had been used by previous owners and if there is a
possibility of chemical contamination.
Crop or Varietal Adaptability: The crops and
the varieties to be grown should be selected based
on their adaptability to the prevailing conditions in
the farm.
Marketability and Profitability: Consider the
market demand for the crop and its profitability
Resistance to Pests and Diseases: Choose crops
and varieties that are resistant to pests and diseases
prevalent in your area
Available Technology: Use available technology
to aid in crop selectionTesting New Varieties: A
variety should be tested over at least 3 seasons in
farmers’ fields to ensure suitability in terms of
stability of yield and resistance to local pests and
adaptation to local conditions.
Remember, farming can feel like one gamble after
another, but successful farmers know that good
risk management strategies can increase farm
stability and profitability.
Crop selection for a particular agro – ecological
Region
Factors influencing climatic variation (Altitude,
Topography, and Latitude).
A) Altitude: - Temperature is closely related with
altitude & has an effect on the crops which can be
grown at a particular altitude.
  Low temperature is not normally a limiting
factor to crop growth and production except
where the temperature is markedly reduced by
altitude.
 Topography: - Topographic features of
elevation & slope have a marked effect on
plant growth.
 High altitudes, lower soil & air temperatures,
degree of slope, nature of underlying rock, soli
type & time and frequency of hard rains
determine the amount of erosion.
 A relatively level topography (plain) has a
distinct advantage in crop production than
undulated topography.
B)Soil factors:-The plant is dependent on the soil
got water and nutrients as well as for anchorage
(supporting the plant), this makes soil an
important factor while selecting a crop to be
grown in a particular area.
Soil Texture: - is important soil characteristics
because it affects infiltration and retention of
water, soil aeration,the adsorption of nutrients,
microbial activities, tillage & irrigation.
 Sand soil is easy to till. Has little inherent
fertility, easily loses plant nutrients, with
rapidly draining water.
 Clay soil has a high potential fertility,
considerable ability to retain water & nutrients,
but it becomes very hard when dry, and sticky
and poorly aerated when wet & difficult to till.
Soil structure: - refers to the arrangement, size
& stability of soil aggregates or pads some of the
structure are platy, prismatic & columnar,
Granular & crumb, Angular blocky.
Soil fertility:- is the a ability of the soil to
produce high yields consistently, provided
environmental factors such as light, temp,
moisture etc are not limiting and crop
management practices are efficient.
 If fertility levels are less than proper
nutrient you should better to adopt to grow
legumes or applying extra fertilizer.
 Soil Drainage:- is an important factor to be
considered while selecting a crops for aparticular
region.
 The soil selected for crop production
should be well drained.
 Soil reaction (ph):- it indicates the acidity
or alkalinity of the soil.
 Various crops: especially legumes are
greatly safer in acidic ph because they are
adapted to acidic soil condition.
 Soil ph influences plant growth by affecting
the activity of beneficial micro organisms
 N - Fixing bacterial is not active in strongly
acidic soils.
 Bacteria that involved in decomposition are
strongly hindered by strong acidity.
3.2 selections of crop variety and applying
agronomic practices
3.2.1. Selections of crop variety
The selection of field crop varieties is a critical
decision in farming. It can significantly influence
a grower’s ability to manage weeds, insect pests,
and disease pressures, as well as cope with climate
uncertainty.
Field crops can be classified according to their
economic importance into categories such as
cereal or grain crops (like wheat, oats, barley, rye,
rice, maize, and grain sorghum) and legumes of
seeds (such as faba bean, peanuts, fenugreek,
lupine, cowpea, soybean, chickpea, and lentil).
They can also be divided into categories according
to the length of their life cycle. For instance,
annual crops complete their entire life cycle from
seed to seed in a single growing season.
When conducting on-farm variety trials to select
the best variety for a specific farm or region,
farmers consider factors such as the crop’s
adaptability to local conditions, its growing habit,
climatic requirements, economic produce and use.
It’s important to note that each crop has a distinct
scientific name and belongs to a specific family
and genus3. This classification helps in
understanding the extent to which plants are
related and promotes the conservation and
improvement of certain plants.
Use of quality seeds and planting materials of
well-adapted crops and varieties
An indispensable input for climate-smart crop
production is quality seeds and planting materials
of well-adapted varieties. It is impossible to
harvest good crops with bad seeds (FAO, 2011).
National, regional and international plant breeding
efforts usually involve multilocational trials and
seek to develop crop varieties that are resistant to
climate-related phenomena and more efficient in
their use of resources to reduce their impact on the
agricultural ecosystem and the wider environment.
Resistance to drought, salinity and flooding are the
most common climate-related traits for which crop
varieties are bred. Other more location-specific
factors include higher frequencies of frosts at the
seedling and/or pollination stages; high
temperatures at the grain-filling stage; heavy rains
that compress the soil; and alternate light rains and
hot temperatures that stimulate seed germination
but prevent the establishment of seedlings.
Farmers obtain seeds from formal systems and/or
informal systems.
Formal seed systems are organized and
underpinned by statutory requirements that ensure
the seeds that farmers use pass through
standardized quality assurance mechanisms.
Delivering the improved varieties to farmers
through formal systems is relatively
straightforward.. In parts of the world where
climate change is expected to have the greatest
impact, most of the seeds sourced through
community-based delivery systems are important
food security crops. These crops include beans,
peanuts, cassava, cowpeas, open pollinated maize,
sweet potato and yams. Small- and medium-scale
enterprises are effective means for ensuring that
quality seeds of the most suitable varieties are
available to small-scale farmers and are within
easy reach in their communities.
A seed system encompasses all the stakeholders
(individuals, organizations and institutions) that
are involved in the development and dissemination
of crop varieties; the production, multiplication,
processing, storage, distribution and marketing of
seeds and related practices and processes; and the
prevailing policies, regulations and laws.
Crop varietal development
Plant breeders must develop an increasingly
diverse portfolio of varieties of an extensive range
of crops in order to adapt production systems to
climate change. Generating novel varieties will
most often depend on obtaining heritable
variations, especially from the non-adapted
materials, including crop wild relatives, that are
not usually used by breeders. Seed production and
delivery
An effective agricultural extension system and a
responsive seed delivery system are needed to
enable farmers to access quality seeds and planting
materials of well-adapted crop varieties at
affordable prices and in a timely manner.
Farmers are more willing to use a new variety
when they have trusted information and are
confident the new variety will meet their needs A
responsive seed delivery system requires national
policies, strategies, regulations and legal
frameworks that cater to both the informal and
formal seed systems and recognize their generally
complementary roles.
Climate change is expected to increase the
frequency and intensity of extreme weather events,
which will trigger crises that threaten the
immediate food security of large populations and
possibly spark famines. These events will also
affect farmers’ ability to obtain quality seeds and
planting materials, which will jeopardize the
success of subsequent cropping seasons.
A seed security assessment is a way to determine
the availability of seeds, their accessibility to
farmers, and their quality and their compatibility
with farmers’ varietal preferences and production
systems. It is a means for identifying the most
suitable responses to the lack of seeds without
hindering the development of the seed sector. Seed
security assessments consider formal and informal
sources of seeds and the functioning of the entire
value chain to identify the main constraints
farmers face in obtaining the seeds they need.

Biodiversity management
Growing “a genetically diverse portfolio of
improved crop varieties, suited to a range of agro-
ecosystems and farming practices, and resilient to
climate change” is a validated means for
enhancing the resilience of production systems
(FAO, 2011). When confronting abiotic changes
(e.g. shifting rainfall and temperature patterns) and
biotic disturbances (e.g. pest infestations), the
level of existing biodiversity (both
functionalxii and responsexiii diversity) can make
the difference between a stressed agricultural
ecosystem and a resilient one. Biodiversity
management is dealt with in module B8.
All major grain crops, including maize, wheat,
rice, and most other crops are often grown in
monoculture systemsxiv that require significant
investments in pesticides and herbicides. The
diversification of crop systems can take many
forms, involving different crop species and/or
varieties (intra- and/or inter-specific
diversification), different spatial scales (landscape,
farm, individual fields and/or crop) and different
time frames.
Integrating multipurpose crop varieties, whose
biomass can be used in a range of combinations
for food, biofuel, feed, and/or fiber, can improve
the functional and productive management on the
farm and be climate-smart. Examples of
multifunctional crops include living fences that
can provide food and feed and serve as
windbreaks. The use of perennial species as
multipurpose crops is discussed in In individual
fields, there are several ways in which the genetic
diversity of crops can be enhanced. These
practices all require that the dates and rates of
seeding be tested locally to ascertain the most
suitable combinations of crops, crop density and
sequencing matter). This is needed to ensure the
crops selected are appropriate for the specific
conditions of each farm system and do not
compete for nutrients, water and light. These
options include:
Different crop varieties of the same species can be
grown in mixtures as one crop (varietal mixtures).
For example, growing a mix of varieties with the
same growing length that can be planted and
harvested at the same time, but that respond
differently to different water regimes, is a strategy
to cope with the unpredictable onset of the rainy
season and increase the stability of yields.
The VARIETY is a group of plants that are
distinct from other groups and its identifying
characteristics are constant in time and space
Improved varieties give high yield whenever they
are planted under the recommended management
practices in their adaptation areas. Improved maize
agronomic practices include land preparation,
planting time, plant density (seed rate, and
spacing), fertilization (type, rate and method),
weed control, cropping systems and soil and water
conservation. Therefore, maize producers should
strictly follow the recommended management
practices to exploit the yield potential of the
improved varieties.

Certified seeds may be more expensive than

uncertified seeds, but the result will be worth it
because seed quality is one of the most important
elements affecting crop productivity.
Aside from that, using only high-quality seeds is
one of the most environmentally responsible ways
to boost crop productivity. A farmer can examine
the quality of specific seeds by contacting a
relevant seed business and arranging customized
trials on a specific parcel of land if necessary.
Aside from that, it’s crucial to understand that
seed quality isn’t permanent or unaffected. From
the moment they are sown in the earth, seed grains
require protection. One of the seed treatment
strategies used to achieve this is seed coating.
It is the technique of encasing seed grains in
exterior materials to improve their properties
(weight, size) and/or providing them with active
chemicals (micronutrients, microbial inoculants,
growth regulators, and so on) to protect them from
plant diseases and enhance their growth.
The VARIETY is a group of plants that are
distinct from other groups and its identifying
characteristics are constant in time and space.
There are two types of maize varieties: open
pollinated varieties (OPVs) and hybrids. OPV is a
population and/or a composite that is different,
relatively uniform, and stable. Examples of OPVs
are Melkasa-2, Gibe-1, Gambela comp-1 and
Hora. Hybrid is produced from two or more
genetically distinct parents called inbred lines.
Based on the number and genetic composition of
parents, maize hybrids can be single cross (BH-
540,
BHQPY-545), three way cross (BH-660, BH-670,
BH-543, BHQP-542, AMH-850) and top cross
(BH-140, AMH-800). The main advantage of
OPVs is that farmers can save their own seeds for
planting the following season for at least three
years. However, hybrids have higher grain yield
and are more uniform than OPVs. The
disadvantages of hybrids are farmer should get F1
seed every year and there is significant yield
reduction if farmers use F2 grains as seed. For
example yield reduction of 23% for BH-540,
18.9% for BH-660 and 11.7% for BH-140 have
been recorded when F2 grains of the hybrids were
planted under research station conditions).The
National Maize Research Project has
recommended a number of OPVs and hybrids
adapted to the different maize agro-ecologies of
the country (mid-altitude sub-humid, high-altitude
sub-humid, low-altitude sub-humid and low
moisture stress areas). These maize varieties
include white, yellow, QPM (quality protein
maize, maize with higher lysine and tryptophan
content) and non-QPM. Improved maize varieties
(both OPVs and hybrids) give high yield when
they are planted in their adaptation areas. List of
recommended maize varieties, their areas of
adaptation
Cr V Y Alti Rain Pla DEa S Yield Disease
op ari ea tude fall nt ar ee (q/h) reaction
et r (m) (mm hei yPla d Re F MG T C
y of ) ght sce C se ar SL L L
rel (c me
to ol ar m VS B R
ea m) Mnt or ch er
se (c
at ce s
um) nt fi
ri er el
ty s d
Hy B 19 160 1000 25 14 1 W 90 6 _T T R
bri H- 93 0- - 5- 5- 6 hi - 0- _
ds 66 220 1500 29 16 0 te 12 8
0 0 0 5 0 0
B 19 100 1000 24 11 1 ‘’
H- 95 0- - 0- 0- 4
54 200 1200 26 12 5
0 0 0 0
B 19 100 1000 24
H- 88 0- - 0-
14 170 1200 25
0 0 5
B 20 100 1000 25
H- 05 0- - 0-
54 200 1200 27
3 0 0
B 20 100 1000 25
H 08 0- - 0-
Q 180 1200 26
P 0 0
Y-
54
5*
B 20 170 1000 26
H- 01 0- - 0-
67 240 1200 29
0 0 5
B 20 100 1000 22
H 01 0- - 0-
Q 180 1200 25
P- 0 0
 54
2*
A 20 180 1000 20
M 05 0- - 5-
H- 250 1200 22
80 0 5
0
180 1000 22
A 20 0- - 0-
M 07 260 1200 23
H- 0 5
85
0
O H 20 180 1000 20
P or 05 0- - 0-
Vs a 240 1200 21
0 5
K 19 170 1000 24
ul 95 0- - 0-
en 220 1200 26
i 5
Gi 20 100 1000 24
be 00 0- - 0-
-1 170 1200 26
0 0
G 19 100 800- 16
utt 88 0- 1200 5-
o 170 19
0 0
M 20 160 1200 27
or 08 0- - 0-
ka 180 2000 30
(i 0 0
m
pr
ov
ed
U
C
B
R 19 160 900- 25
ar 97 0- 1200 0-
e- 220 27
1 0 0
M 20 Lo 600- 14
el 00 w 1000 0-
ka moi 16
sa stur 0
-1 e
stre
ss
M 20 Lo 600- 17
el 04 w 1000 0-
ka moi 19
sa stur 0
-2 e
stre
ss
M 20 Lo 600- 17
el 04 w 1000 0-
ka moi 17
sa stur 5
-3 e
 stre
ss
M 20 Lo 600- 16
el 06 w 1000 0-
ka moi 17
sa stur 0
-4 e
stre
ss
M 20 Lo 600- 18
el 08 w 1000 0-
ka moi 19
sa stur 0
-5 e
stre
ss
M 20 Lo 600- 16
el 08 w 1000 5-
ka moi 17
sa stur 5
- e
6 stre
Q ss
*
M 20 Lo 600- 17
el 08 w 1000 0-
ka moi 18
sa stur 2
-7 e
stre
ss
A 19 300 900- 22
bo 86 - 1200 0-
- 100 23
B 0 0
ak
o
G 20 300 900- 20
a 01 - 1200 0-
m 100 22
be 0 0
la
 C
o
m
p-
1

T=tolerant, R=resistant, MT=moderately tolerant,

MS= moderately susceptible,
MSV= maize streak virus, GLS=gray leaf spot,
TLB=turcicum leaf blight, CLR=common leaf rust
‘‐’ = disease not important (MSV is important
mainly around Gambebela, while GLS is
important mainly in high rain fall areas)
Rare‐1 is mainly for Hararge highlands while
Morka is mainly for Jimma & similar areas with
long rainy season
* Quality protein maize, QPM (maize with high
lysine and tryptophane content)
Gibe‐1 is recommended for “Bone” (off‐season)
production too.
BH‐140 & BHQP‐542 are recommended for
production under irrigation in the rift valley and
similar areas too.
NB: In addition to the varieties listed in this table,
there are other varieties released for mid ‐altitude
sub‐humid agro‐ecology by Pioneer Seed
Company and ESE. Pioneer hybrids are
PHB3253, PHB30H83
(Tabor), PHB30G19 (Shone) and PHB30D79
(Agar). The hybrid released by ESE is ESE‐203
(Toga).

3.2.2. Agronomic practices for field crops

Agronomic practices involve a variety of steps,
each crucial for ensuring the health and
productivity of the crop. Here are some key
practices:
Soil Preparation: After selecting the crop, the
land is prepared for cultivation1. This involves
tilling the soil, removing weeds, and preparing the
bed for planting.
Sowing: Good quality and healthy seeds are
selected for sowing. The sowing method, seed
rate, and sowing time can vary depending on the
specific crop.
Crop Growth and Fertilization: After the seeds
have germinated, they are checked for any water
stress in the soil1. Fertilization is an important step
to provide necessary nutrients to the growing
plants.
Weed Management: Weeds compete with crops
for nutrients, water, and sunlight. Therefore, it’s
important to manage weeds effectively
Irrigation: Watering the crops at appropriate
intervals is crucial for their growth and
development3.
Harvesting: Once the crop is fully grown, it’s
ready to be harvested1. The timing of harvest is
critical to ensure maximum yield.
Storage and Marketing: After harvesting, the
produce is stored properly to prevent
spoilage1. Then it’s ready for marketing.
Crop Diversification and Rotation: This
involves growing different types of crops in a
sequential manner on the same piece of land3. It
helps in improving soil fertility and controlling
pests and diseases.
Innovative Cropping Systems and Agronomic
Practices: These include practices like cover
cropping, intercropping, reduced tillage, etc.,
which can increase the efficiency of resource use
and promote several ecosystem services
Remember that these practices can vary based on
the specific crop, local climate, soil type, and other
factors. It’s always a good idea to consult with a
local agronomist or extension service to get advice
tailored to your specific situation.
Management: land preparation, choice of cropping
system; choice of cultivars; date of planting; plant
population; fertilizer application, irrigation, timing
of nutrient input; timing of pest, weed and
pathogen control; date of harvest; management of
residues
Clearing:- after site selection the producer/farmer
proceeds with clearing
It involves cutting, down unwanted vegetation
grown on the selected area and remove the dead
plant material and burn
Stumping will be carried out in order to avoid
tillage tackle and to establish free root growth
Tillage:- is mechanical manipulation of soil that
are used to provide necessary soil condition
favorable for growing crop/change a soil condition
or position with a tool for a main benefits.
Advantage of tillage
 It control weed
 Seed bed preparation
 Incorporation of OM
 For water and soil conservation
 Improve soil chemical and physical nature
 It promotes good germination
 Preparatory tillage
Cultural operation that cared out after the harvest
of the previous crop but before sowing.
It includes primary and secondary tillage
Primary tillage: -
Initial done to open the compacted or hard soil.
During operation weed are uprooted, soil is cut,
lifted, shattered, twisted, inverted and sheared
for further ploughing.
Secondary tillage: - during this operation soil is
stirred and clods are broken,weed are removed
and seed bed is prepared
Conservation tillage:-is a modern concept of
tillage to reduces or minimizes time loss, loss of
soil and water erosion and generally cost of
production by avoiding urinal ploughing to
prepare land.This concept consists of minimum
and zero tillage
Minimum tillage
Ploughing considerable reduce to the minimum
requirement for good seed bed preparation
During operation crop residences are left in the
field for decomposing.
 It is advantageous in heavy clay and loam soil,
where it often difficult to create optimum
condition in the seed zone, however weed may
become over abundance
Zero tillage
The extreme of minimum tillage
In zero tillage seed is directly placed into the soil
without much tillage

Sowing
Sowing is the placement of a specific quantity of
seed in the soil at optimum position for
germination and growth
And before the soil dries up.Off season tillage don
e with pre season rainfall causes more conservatio
n of moisture and also enables early and timely so
wing.
1. Broadcasting: In broadcast method the seeds
are spread uniformly over well-prepared land.
Broadcasting may be done by hand or mechanical
spreader. Broadcasting is suitable for close-
planted crops that do not require specific crop or
plant geometry. It is used when the number of
plants per unit area is more important than definite
spacing from plant to plant. This is the usual
method of sowing.
2. Drilling: drilling is the practice is of dropping
seeds in rows or lines. Crops such as wheat,
barley, mustard, carrot and sesame are sown by
drilling.
3. Dibbling or planting: This method consists of
putting or placing individual seed or seed material
in a hole or pit, made at pre-determined depth and
spacing by manual labor or with the use of
mechanical dibbler or planter. Generally, the crops
with bigger size seeds and those needing wider
spacing and specific crop geometry for their
canopy development are sown by this method.
This method is suitable to plant crops like maize,
cotton, sun flower, sugar cane, etc
Planting equipment
A wide range of crops are grown in the Ethiopia,
all with various characteristics and requirements.
There are a range of sowing and planting
equipment available to satisfy the planting and
sowing needs of all crops. These equipments can
be categorized into three different types:
 Broadcasters
 Drills
 Planters
The equipment must have:
 Accurate metering to ensure the required
plant population is achieved
 The ability to sow the seeds/plant into a
range of soil conditions
 The ability to handle a range seed/plant
sizes
 A range of easily adjustable sowing rates to
suit a range of crops
 Uniform sowing/planting depth
 Sufficient hopper capacity to maintain
output
Most of the field crop can be established by
direct sowing but some are transplanted (e.g.
rice)
The term transplanting is used when vegetative
part are used for planting materials
The establishment of good plant stand depends
up on different factors:-
Time of sowing: - factors affecting time of
sowing are
Rain fall: - planting should be done in moist soil
to allow rapid seed germination or sprouting.
Excessive rain fall at planting time may cause
water lodging and should be respond to optimum
rain fall
Temperature: - planting should be done when
soil is warm enough to permit rapid germination.
In dry areas To adversely affect seedling
emergency but optimized by mulching
Day length:- the crop should be normally planted
at time that will permit the appropriate
photoperiod to exist at flowering
Disease and pest prevance:- adjust the time of
planting when disease and pest of crop are less
prevent
Marketing situation
Availability of labor and equipment
Time taken to maturity :- depend on crop
duration
Seed rate: - plant population is the total number
of plant per unit area; it is required for utilizing
water, nutrient, light and carbon dioxide
Factors affecting /influencing seed rate
Size of the seed for bigger seed more seed is
required and reverse is true for fine and small
seed
Fertility of the soil:- high soil fertility is requires
less seed rate
Size of cultivars: - crop variety having tillering
capacity requires less seed rate. Dwarf cultivars
requires more seed rate than tall cultivars
Sowing methods:- broad casting planting
method is requires more seed
Amount of moisture available:- high moisture
less seed rate
Number of crop grown together:- inter cropping
Relation ship of spacing, seed rate and plant
population
To minimize the production cost by avoiding
loss of time, labors and seed plant population
should be calculated before planting
Calculation of plant population; - if maize is
planted at spacing 60cmx20cm
The area taken by a single plant will be
0.6x0.2m = 0.12m2
A plant population for 1haor 10000m2
Will be = 10000m2 = 83333.3p
0.12m2
Sowing depth:- optimum depth of sowing is
needed for better utilization of soil moisture,
avoid bird damage and it is important for quick
and uniform germination
Seed size :- large seed need deeper depth and the
reverse
Soil type :- sand soil need deeper and clay soil
shallows
Moisture status of the soil:- under drier condition
seed should be sown deeper
Methods to maintain sowing depth
Field should be wall prepared and leveled
For dibbling and drilling the depth must be the
same
The cover of the soil should be the same
Sowing with adjusted planter
Types of germination
Hypogeal germination requires deeper depth
Epigeal germination requires shallow depth b/c
it push cotyledon on up the surfaces
Sowing methods
Seeding position with respect to the prepared
land depends on nature of the crop and climatic
factors
Drilling
Dibbling
Broadcasting
Fertilizer Application
Fertilizer: - is chemical or non-chemical
substances that applied to the soil to give certain
element essential for plant growth or any organic
or inorganic material of natural or synthetic
origin add to the soil to supply essential element
for growth of plant.
The object of applying fertilizer: -
Fertilizers are applied to the soil to promote
greater plant growth or better crop quality,
To maintain soil fertility and indirectly reduce
soil erosion.
Crops need two kinds of elements.
The mineral elements:- such as N, P, K, Ca, Mg,
S, Fe, Cu, Zn, Mn, Mo, Cl, B, Si, and
Non-mineral elements such as C, H, O. The
mineral elements can be got mainly from the
soil, non-mineral elements can be got from the
air and soil water.
Importance of fertilizer application
In soil there is a limited source of nutrients
which not able to supply enough nutrients
permanently for crop production, so that
applying selected type of fertilizer, at proper
recommended dose ,at proper time and method is
important to composite the nutrient that take by
plant to maximize the quantity and quality.
Types of fertilizer: - generally there is organic
and inorganic fertilizer

Organic fertilizer
Bulky organic manure:-
Animal dungs mixed with stalks, leaves of trees,
branches of trees, grasses, fodder wastes, urine,
washing water，and soil(about 15%) etc.
Piled in a manure pit, until it is well rotted
(about 2-3 months in Ethiopia ).
This is bulk organic manure, includes such as
farmyard manure( FYM )and Compost, Sledges
Has direct effect on plant growth on the humus
content of the soil, so it improves soil
physical property and microbial activity in the
soil
animal manure
Type of Bulky organic manure
FYM-
it produced from animal excreta, so it is also
called
Compost :-
A wall rotted vegetable matter which, produced
from farm and town refuse
A mass of rotted organic matter made from
waste is called compost. The compost made
from farm waste like sugarcane trash, paddy
straw, weeds and other plants and other waste is
called farm compost
The greatest advantage of compost over other
organic fertilizers is that it can be made fairly
easily at home
Concentrated organic manure:-
All kinds of animal dungs only, such as cow
dung, chicken dung, pig dung, human
excrement and human urine.
It should be well rotted (about 2-3months)
A manure which are organic in nature and
contain higher percentage of N,P, and K than
the bulky organic manure
Bio-fertilizer :-
It includes microorganisms like bacteria, fungi
and algae which are capable of fixing
atmospheric N or convert insoluble phosphate in
soil into forms available to plant
It is environmentally friendly and supplements
chemical fertilizer
Green manure: -
The practice of plowing or turning the sowing
plant at their early stage for improving the
physical condition or nutrient status of the soil.
Are plants which are grown to improve the
structure and nutrient content of the soil
Importance of green manure
Greater soil fertility
Green manures recycle nutrients and add organic
matter to the soil
The nutrients are taken up by the green manure
and held inside the plant.
Improved soil structure
Green manures improve soil structure, letting
more air into the soil and improving drainage.
Green manures help sandy soil hold more water
and not drain so quickly.
Prevention of soil erosion
Green manures help to stop the soil being carried
away by wind and rain.
The roots penetrate the soil and hold it in place.
Weed control
Bare soil can become quickly overgrown with
weeds which can be difficult to remove.
Green manures cover the ground well and stop
weeds growing,
Inorganic fertilizer
A fertilizer that produced commercially by
human
Are chemical fertilizers made in chemical
fertilizer factory
It may contain -N in the form of NH4, NO3
P in the form of P2O5
K in the form of K2o5
Depend up on the amount of nutrient found in
the fertilizer Commercial fertilizer can be
Straight/ single or Complex /compound
Compound fertilizer/ Complex:-a kind of
fertilizer contains at least two or more nutrients
in it like DAP.
Straight/ single:-a kind of fertilizer contains only
one nutrient in it like UREA, TSP.
Soil amendments
Soil amendment is correcting the acidity or
alkalinity of the soil
In high RF areas due to the leaching of base,
acidic soil is formed in while, in low rain fall
areas arid and semi-arid condition saline and
alkaline soil occur
Types of soil amendment
Lime:-Material used for amending/ to remake
acidic soil
Gypsum:-Material used for amending/to remake
alkaline soil
Cellulose gum:-Soil aggregating agents or soil
conditioner that stabilize soil aggregate & to
form granule structure.
Criteria of fertilizer selection
Cost of fertilizer related to value of crop
For the crop having low income from the
market , fertilizer having low price should be
se4lect , in order to maximize the profit
Character of fertilizer
For traditional way of production fertilizer
haven’t volatility problem should select than
fertilizer having volatility problem
Fertilizer which can be applied easily with out
high technique should be selected e.g. fertilizer
appied with foliar application method require
high technique than side -dressing
Rate /amount of fertilizer application
To maximize the productivity of the land proper
dosage, rate , fertility status of soil is important
factors
Factors determine level of fertilizer
Moisture status of soil:-
In moisture area more fertilizer applied
To some extent, nutrients of soil will be leached
such as nitrate nitrogen and potassium
Or washing away such as N, P, and K by the
rainfall,
So the higher the rainfall, the more the
compensation.
Type and growth stage of crop :-
Different crop type requires different kinds of
fertilizer and also at early and mid growth stage
nutrient requirement is higher than late stage.
crops absorb different amount of nutrients at
different stage:
At the former (seedling) stage about 10%-
20%;
At the mid (form jointing or branching) stage
about 50%-60%;
At the later (from heading) stage about 20%-
30%.
Fertility status of soil:- On fertile soil need
light fertilizer
Yield ability:-the higher the yield, the more the
nutrients are taken up, so more compensation
need to be made to the higher yield giving field
crop.
Plant density:- the higher the density of the
plant the more the fertilizer applied
Fertilizer ratio
Is the amount of nutrient found in a specific
fertilizer type
N P K
DAP = 18- 46 -0
UREA = 46 -0- 0
STP = 0- 46- 0
Recommended dose of commercial fertilizer for
field crop
Time of fertilizer application
Time of fertilizer application depends on:-
Type of nutrient / natures of fertilizer
Fertilizer are applied
Before sowing;
Some of water insoluble P fertilizer such as rock
phosphate should be applied 2-3 week before
sowing.
this enable conversion of water in soluble form
of P to soluble form for efficient crop utilization
B/c as such form of fertilizer require time to
change in to utilizable form and it require in
grater quantity during the early growth and seed
development.
It stimulate early root development & growth
it stimulate flowering and aid seed formation b/c
of there is no loss of P through leaching and
volatilization and because of P fertilizer becomes
available to the plant slowly full dose of P is
always recommended before sowing
After sowing;
Application of fertilizer after the crop
establishment is called top dressing.
N-fertilizer (UREA) is leached when at wet and
volatilized when at hot condition.
So split application is necessary to reduce the
risk of N loss
Split application;
The application of the recommended fertilizer
several times in growth season
The number of split is governed by factor such
as;-
Total N to be applied:- if the total amount of
fertilizer is more the number of splitting also
more
Crop duration:- for a crop having long maturity
time the splitting become more
Critical stage of growth:- applying the fertilizer
by splitting should be at different critical stage
in the case of maize crop at Seedling stage, Ear
stage (flowering stage)& Grain stage
growth stage of crop: -
Seedling stage: According to the weather, soil,
seedling condition to produce sound seedlings.
Ear stage (flowering stage)
Method of fertilizer application
All applied fertilizer doesn’t ensure that it will
be taken up by the plant
it is important to place some of the fertilizer
where it will be intercepted by the roots of the
young plant and to place bulk of the nutrient
deeper in the soil
Nitrogenous fertilizer is easily soluble in water,
have mobility it can be applied on the soil
surface
Phosphors & Potassium fertilizer;-move slowly
from the point of placement.
It should be placed closer to plant root
Method of fertilizer application
Broadcasting;-
The fertilizer is spread over the entire soil area to
be fertilized with the main objective of
distribution whole quantity of fertilizer evenly
and uniformly and incorporated in to the tilling
layer
Generally the fertilizer requires in large quantity
is broad casting
Placement; -
Whenever small quantity of fertilizer are applied
placement is practice.
This method is practiced in wide spaced crop
&the soil having low fertility
Placement is done in several ways like band
placing, hill placement, row and spot placement
Band placement;-
The application of fertilizer in to the soil close to
the seed or plant when relatively small quantity
of fertilizer is applied
It assure of an adequate supply of nutrient to
young plant root it promote rapid early growth it
reduce fixation of P&K
Hill placement;
Fertilizer are placed close to the plant when plant
to plant spacing is relatively high (100cmor
more) this method is more effective for fruit
plant
Row placement; -
the fertilizer are put in continues band on one or
both side of rows when plant are sown close
together in row this method is used for
potato ,maize &sugarcane etc
Top dressing; -
applying fertilizer in standing crop
 Care must be taken not to spared fertilizer on
wet leave other wise this may burn or scorch
It is practiced for close spaced crop and mostly
N is applied through this method
Foliar application
The spread of nutrient on leaves of growing
plant with fertilizer solution
N and micronutrient are applied as foliar
application
This method is good in correcting
micronutrient
deficiencies
Furtigation; - fertilizer are applied through
irrigation water
 Often used in the well developed area with
high cost investment
Side dressing; - the fertilizer is spread between the
row or around the plan

Weed management
Defn: - weed is:-
 A plant which grow the place where it is not
needed
 Or it is a plant out of place
 Or a plant that can be growth with out the
interest of farmer
 They are unwanted, useless, prolific (they have
a potential to produce a large amount of seed
per a single plant ), competitive and often
harmful to total environment
Characteristics of weed, which enables them to
compute with crop plant
1. Their capacity to produce a thousands of
seeds per plant
2. The ability to flower and produce seeds in
a short period of time
3. Efficiency of their seed dispersal (wind,
animal ,mechanical, water and human)
4. The presences of allele-chemicals, which
inhibit the growth of crops such as partinium
 5. The ability to survive in wide range of
environment
The harm full effect of weed on crop plant
 It reduce yield by competing for nutrient,
water and light.
 It reduce yield by releasing toxic
substances or exudates, which inhibit crop
growth these called Allelopathy effect
 They serve as reservoir for crop pest and
disease
 They may poisons to livestock or man
 They delay maturity and slow down
harvesting process
 They reduce crop quality by contamination
 They create injury on plant part b/c some
weed are parasitic in nature like striga, sciatica
in maize
 Closing of irrigation cannels

Tillage and land preparation

 Tillage is changing a soil’s condition or position
with a tool, for man’s benefit.
 Tillage is a mechanical string of soil for
seedbed preparation for planting. It includes
cutting and inversion of hard soils and separates
it from lower layers after the harvest of previous
crop or fallow land.
Purpose of tillage: - In general, tillage is carried
out for one or a combination of the following
reasons.
 Seedbed preparation/breaking crusts;
 Tillage loosens the soil, and results in a
seedbed suitable for seed germination and the
development of young seedlings;
 Tillage kills weeds cutting them just below
ground level, by burying them completely or
by dragging them out to be left exposed on the
soil surface;
 Tillage also initiates the germination of
many weed seeds that will be destroyed by
subsequent cultivation;
 Tillage exposes the eggs and larvae of
insect pests to adverse conditions such as sun
and predators, and destroys their breeding
grounds. There is a similar effect on
underground rodents;
 Improving nutritional status of the soil;
 Tillage incorporates organic matter and
crop residue into the soil;
 Soil and water conservation;
 Improving infiltration;
 Contour tillage can aid in erosion control;
 Improvement of the soil’s physical
condition;
Types of tillage: -
A/Traditional tillage: - Using oxen drawn
plough, hoe culture
B/ Conventional tillage: - Tractor plough
followed by harrowing
C/Conservation tillage: - At least 30% of the
soil remains covered by crop residue after
sowing.
 This includes:
 Stubble mulch farming - retaining crop
residues on the soil surface
 Minimum tillage – a method aimed at
reducing tillage to the minimum necessary
for ensuring a good seedbed, rapid
germination, a satisfactory stand, and
favorable growing conditions. It substitutes
herbicides for mechanical weed control
during part of the fallow season, with tillage
performed later to loosen the soil and prepare
a seedbed.
 No tillage (also called zero tillage): - relies
completely on herbicides, both contact and
pre-emergence, for weed control throughout
the fallow season.
Favorable effects of mulching are: -
Reduce run-off and erosion
Reduce evaporation
Improve soil moisture
Improve nutritional status
Time of tillage
Early completion of tillage is often helpful to enab
le sowing immediately after rainfall
Reasons for crop classification
To get acquainted with crops.
To understand the requirement of soil & water
different crops.
To know adaptability of crops.
To know the growing habit of crops.
To understand climatic requirement of
different crops.
To know the economic produce of the crop
plant & its use.
To know the growing season of the crop
Approaches to achieving sustainable
agriculture
• In practice, there are two main approaches
to achieving the objectives of sustainable
agriculture:
– Integrated agriculture
– Organic farming
Integrated agriculture
 use of suitable species and varieties of
crops
 crop rotation that mitigates weed, disease,
and pest problems and provide alternatives
sources of soil nitrogen;
 careful soil cultivation that avoids soil
compaction and erosion;
 fertilization based on need, ideally with a
combination of organic and mineral fertilizers;
 application of mechanical methods of weed
control to reduce herbicide input; and
 use of pest-control strategies that reduce the
need for pesticides by integration and
promotion of natural enemies; synthetic
pesticides should be used only when other
methods of control cannot prevent a threshold
of damage being crossed\
Organic Farming
Organic farming is a system, which avoids or
largely excludes the use of synthetic inputs (such
as fertilizers, pesticides, hormones, feed additives
etc) and to the maximum extent relies upon crop
rotations, crop residues, animal manures, off-farm
organic waste, mineral grade rock additives and
biological system of nutrient mobilization and
plant protection.
 Its objective is to create nutrient cycles
within the farm that are as closed as possible
(imitate natural eco-system)
 Helps in maintaining environment health by
reducing the level of pollution.
 Reduces human and animal health hazards
by reducing the level of residues in the
product.
 Helps in keeping agricultural production to
be sustainable.
 Reduces the cost of agricultural production
and also improves the soil health.
 Ensures optimum utilization of natural
resources for short-term benefit and helps in
conserving them for future generation.
  Overall, organic agriculture aims at using
ecological principles to create synergies among
the system components and to improve
sustainability.
Main concepts of agricultural production
Traditional agriculture
Farming practices before the
introduction of agro-chemicals, high
yielding varieties and machines

Conventional Agriculture
Crop production in monoculture Sustainable agriculture
by using high yielding varieties, Approach of integrated
chemical fertilizers and pesticides; environmental soundness,
factory farming of livestocks economic profitability and social
equity

Integrated agriculture Organic agriculture

Minimizing negative impacts of conventional No use of chemical fertilizers
agriculture by combining biological, and pesticides, crops and live
technological and chemical measures stocks production designed in
ways to create nutrient cycles

3.3. Using chemical records to assist planning

Chemical records can be a valuable tool in field
crop planning. They provide detailed information
about the chemical use and pest management
practices for selected field crops1 This data has
been collected annually since the 1990 crop year
by the National Agricultural Statistics Service
(NASS) as part of the Agricultural Resource
Management Survey (ARMS).
The ARMS is conducted in three phases
The initial screening phase identifies in-business,
in-scope operations, multiple operating
arrangements, and operations having commodities
of interest for Phases II and III.
The ARMS II collects data on chemical use and
pest management practices.
The ARMS III collects data on agricultural
production practices, chemical and other resource
use, and variable costs of production for each
crop.
By law, the use of agricultural or veterinary
chemical products must be recorded. Accurate
records can provide a level of protection if
something goes wrong. Records can show that,
before applying the chemical, you assessed the
risks, knew the application rates, checked the wind
speed, and understood the withholding periods.
These records can assist in field crop planning by
providing insights into which chemicals have been
effective in the past and which ones might need to
be adjusted or replaced. They can also help
identify trends in pest resistance to certain
chemicals, enabling more effective pest
management strategies. Furthermore, they can aid
in ensuring compliance with regulations related to
chemical use and environmental protection.
You can find templates to keep records of your
chemical use or supply here. These templates
include fields for recording agricultural chemical
use and spray drift restraints
Complying records with legalization and
regulation
Keeping workplace records
It is essential to keep accurate workplace records,
particularly for applying treatment programs for
weed management and plant health remedies.
Workplace records allow an enterprise to:
Record relevant information about treatment
programs.
For example:
o location
o date documentation completed
o diagnosed problem
o schedule (start and finish dates, number of
days and approval received)
o resources used (personnel, tools, equipment
and machinery)
o chemicals used, (product information,
application method, concentration/solution,
quantity mixed and amount used)
o other relevant information (weather conditions,
PPE, effects on target population and off target
damage)
o tasks carried out.
o explanation of procedures followed (chemical
registration, operator manuals, workplace
procedures and completed records)
 o special notes.

Recording risk assessment and control strategy

Risk assessment is important in chemical use
because to take correction action in the futures. In
the chemical use and at work place there may be
risk to be occurring so that the risk to be occurred
and the control strategy to be taken in at that time
must be recorded. Things have to be recorded are;
 Type of risk occurred
 Types of chemical that cause
 Form of that chemical (dust, liquid or
gas)
 Date of risk occurred
 Control strategy taken -are have to
record.
 Name and qualification of the person
making recorded
Why keep records?
Records can help you remember what happened in
previ
3.4. Pest management for relevant crops
Pest management for field crops involves a range
of strategies to control pests such as weeds,
insects, fungi, viruses, and bacteria. Here are some
key principles and methods used in pest
management for field crops:
Prevention and Suppression: This involves
managing the crop to prevent pests from becoming
a threat. In an agricultural crop, this may mean
using cultural methods, such as rotating between
different crops, selecting pest-resistant varieties,
and planting pest-free rootstock.
Monitoring and Decision Based on Monitoring
and Thresholds: Regular monitoring of the field is
crucial to identify any potential pest
threats. Decisions on pest control measures are
then made based on these observations and
established thresholds.
Non-Chemical Methods: These methods are
preferred as a first line of defense. They include
biological control measures and mechanical
techniques.
Pesticide Selection and Reduced Pesticide Use:
When pesticides are necessary, the selection
should be done carefully to minimize harm to non-
target organisms and the environment. The aim is
always to reduce pesticide use where possible3.
Anti-Resistance Strategies: These strategies are
designed to prevent the development of resistance
in pests3.
Evaluation: Regular evaluation of the pest
management strategies is important to assess their
effectiveness

Pest management is a complex process because

producers must contend with numerous pest
species at any given time. The Integrated Pest
Management (IPM) approach combines chemical
control when necessary, with cultural and
biological practices to form a comprehensive
program for managing pests. IPM emphasizes
maintaining pests below the economic threshold
while applying the minimum amount of chemical
necessary for control
 Integrated Pest Management IPM
Offers growers an array of tools to help manage
pest problems. At the foundation of this approach
are good growing practices, preventive pest
management measures, and a regular pest
monitoring program that enables producers to
accurately determine if a pest control measure is
economically justified. IPM uses a common sense
approach to find the weak link in a pest’s life
cycle. Sound pest programs do not attempt to
eradicate pests, but rather to manage them so that
economic crop losses are minimized. IPM is the
primary BMP for pest management. It involves
combining practices such as:
 ■ selecting crops and varieties which are
resistant to pest pressures
 ■ timing planting and harvest dates to
minimize pest damage
  ■ rotating crops
 ■ monitoring pest and natural enemy
populations
 ■ employing beneficial insects and other
biological controls.
The philosophy behind the IPM approach is to
create unfavorable conditions for pest buildup by
enhancing crop vigor and by protecting natural
enemies that aid in controlling pest populations.
Nonchemical Pest Control Practices IPM may
result in reduced pesticide use by employing
preventive pest management and nonchemical pest
controls. Nonchemical pest management methods
include crop rotation, resistant varieties, cultural
practices, and biological controls. These methods
are basic to effective IPM and should be the first
line of defense. However, producers must plan for
their use in advance of pest outbreaks to
successfully use nonchemical management tools
Pest control measures
Pest control measures are essential to prevent the
spread of pests and ensure a safe and healthy
environment. Various measures can be taken to
control pests, including chemical, mechanical,
cultural, biological methods and genetic control.
Chemical methods
Involve the use of pesticides, insecticides or
herbicides to kill pests which can be effective in
controlling pests but can also have negative
impacts on human health and the environment.
Therefore, it is important to follow proper safety
precautions when using these methods.
Mechanical methods
Involve the use of physical barriers or traps to
prevent pests from entering a particular space or to
capture them. This method is typically more
environmentally friendly than chemical methods,
although it may not be as effective in controlling
large infestations.
Cultural methods
Involve changing the physical or environmental
conditions in order to discourage pests from
inhabiting a particular area. For example, crop
rotation, proper sanitation practices can help
prevent the accumulation of food waste which can
attract pests like rodents and cockroaches.
Additionally, proper storage and disposal of waste
can also aid in pest prevention.
Biological methods
Utilize natural predators and parasites to control
pest populations. This method can be effective in
reducing pest populations without causing harm to
human health or the environment. However,
proper research is necessary before implementing
biological control methods to ensure that the
predator is compatible with the local ecosystem
and does not create additional problems.
Genetic control
This method involves modifying the genetic
makeup of pests to reduce their ability to
reproduce or their susceptibility to certain kinds of
pesticides.
N.B. These methods can be used in combination
as part of an integrated pest management strategy
to minimize the negative impact of pests on
human health, crops, and the environment.

A well-defined Integrated Pest Management (IPM)

is a program that should be based on prevention,
monitoring, and control which offers the
opportunity to eliminate or drastically reduce the
use of pesticides, and to minimize the toxicity of
and exposure to any products which are used. IPM
does this by utilizing a variety of methods and
techniques, including cultural, biological and
structural strategies to control a multitude of pest
problems.
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is an
effective and environmentally sensitive approach
to pest management that relies on a combination
of common-sense practices.
Concept of integrated pest management
The overall aims of IPM is to develop sustainable
systems of disease and pest management, based on
understanding crop ecosystem
Short term control may be achieved by single
practice. However, long term reduction of pest
losses requires the implementation of integrated
control plan, including the use of;
 Use of resistant variety
 Biological control
 Cultural control
 Mechanical control
The Six IPM Program Essentials
Monitoring: - This includes regular site
inspections and trapping to determine the types
and infestation levels of pests at each site.
Record-Keeping: - A record-keeping system is
essential to establish trends and patterns in pest
outbreaks. Information recorded at every
inspection or treatment should include pest
identification, population size, distribution,
recommendations for future prevention, and
complete information on the treatment action.
Action Levels: -Pests are virtually never
eradicated. An action level is the population size
which requires remedial action for human health,
economic, or aesthetic reasons.
Prevention: - Preventive measures must be
incorporated into the existing structures and
designs for new structures. Prevention is and
should be the primary means of pest control in an
IPM program.
Tactics Criteria: - Under IPM, chemicals should
be used only as a last resort only, but when used,
the least-toxic materials should be chosen, and
applied to minimize exposure to humans and all
non-target organisms.
Assess site conditions and infestation
characteristics to determine if pesticide use is
necessary and what precautions the applicator
should take to minimize risk to non-target
resources. This includes the safety of humans, fish
and wildlife, non-target plants, and abiotic
resources such as groundwater.
Select effective pesticide and application methods
that are appropriate for the target species and site
conditions.
Follow label requirements for mixing, storing, and
disposing of pesticide and containers to safeguard
human health, fish and wildlife, and prevent soil
and water contamination.
Ensure that staffs using herbicides have training in
all aspects of herbicide applications and
appropriate procedures for first aid and spill
cleanup.
Monitor before, during, and after herbicide
application to asses effects on target species, no
target organisms, and the environment.
Discontinue use of herbicides that are ineffective
or are causing significant undesirable effects.
Chemicals used for control of disease , pests and
weeds need to be applied safely in such manner
that they come in to contact with pests in case
of direct action or eradication or incase Of
prophytotoxis , distributed over the surface of the
plants to form uniformly distributed resistant
deposit to secure appropriate covering
Selecting chemicals used in IPM
Evaluation: - A regular evaluation program is
essential to determine the success of the pest
management strategies.
In IPM pesticide will be used as supplementary
tool, not as routine andsole component. Judicious
use of pesticide isessential tofeed the ever
increasing human population.Pesticides are used
in IPM programmers where no effective
alternativesare available to keep pestpopulation
from reaching damaging levels.
The emphasis is to maximize the benefits and
advantages that pesticides offer while minimizing
any potential risk. Whenever pesticide treatments
is needed selection of the chemical should be
consistent with the pesticide label and all laws
and regulation, Additional consideration
includes;
Effectiveness against the target organisms.
Compatibility with the host plant.
Effects on beneficial organisms.
Degree of environmental’
User safety and cost.
Pin the calendar in a prominent place to remind
you when things need to be done.
3.5. Planning and applying cropping calendar
Planning field crops and applying a cropping
calendar is a crucial part of successful farming.
Here are some resources that might help:
Farm Planning include crop scheduling for
continuous harvest, calendars for designing CSA
share composition, calendars for farmers’ markets,
and more.
a crop calendar allows better planning of all farm
activities and the cost of production. A cropping
calendar is a schedule of the rice growing season
from the fallow period and land preparation, to
crop establishment and maintenance, to harvest
and storage.
Fao CropCalendar - Food and Agriculture
Organization: This is a searchable platform that
aids farmers’ decision making on planting and
harvesting periods, sowing rates, and other
cultural practices for crops according to
agroecological zones.
Crop Planner Spreadsheet | FarmPlenty5: This
resource provides a crop planner worksheet with
seeding, transplant, and harvest schedules and
monthly yield and revenue projections per
planting for up to 200 plantings.
A crop planting calendar guides farmers on when
to plant/sow in order to capture the highest price
in the market • To decide when the
planting/sowing should be done, farmers have to
undertake a market survey to determine the month
when there is peak demand before preparing a
crop planting calendar • In addition, a crop
planting calendar is an important planning tool
used by farmers to make decisions on when to
carry out various farm activities to meet specific
market demand • It is useful for members of
farmer groups in synchronizing their farm
operations, thus exploiting the economies of scale
when purchasing inputs, the bargaining power,
and constant supply when marketing the produce
A production calendar can be constructed with a
central focus on describing on-going
developments of an enterprise. This type of
production calendar identifies critical periods
like planting, growing, and harvesting in the case
of crops; or breeding and calving for livestock.
With enterprise focused production calendars,
the critical periods of activity for all enterprises
are combined on a monthly calendar so that
periods of overlap and inactivity can be easily
determined and anticipated. This type of
production calendar is useful when land-use
considerations and scheduling are major
management concerns.
 Another type of production calendar focuses on
labor activity. A labor focused production
calendar is useful when time management or
delegation of activities is a major concern.
Table 4 illustrates the format of a monthly
production calendar focusing on labor activity.
Regardless of which type of production calendar
is chosen, the primary usefulness of a production
calendar is to enable management to efficiently
plan and schedule resource (land, labor and
capital) requirements for the full year.

The Crop Calendar is a tool that provides timely

information about seeds to promote local crop
production. It contains information on planting,
sowing and harvesting periods of locally adapted
crops in specific agro-ecological zones. • It also
provides information on the sowing rates of seed
and planting maaterial and the main agricultural
practices. This tool supports farmers and
agriculture extortionists across the world in taking
appropriate decisions on crops and their sowing
period, respecting the agro-ecological dimension.
It also provides a solid base for emergency
planning of the rehabilitation of farming systems
after disasters
How to develop a crop calendar
Using a crop calendar allows better planning of all
farm activities and the cost of production.
A cropping calendar is a schedule of the rice
growing season from the fallow period and land
preparation, to crop establishment and
maintenance, to harvest and storage.
The crop calendar allows a farmer to:
 Plan For Input Purchase And Use
 Develop Cash Flow Budget For Year
 Determine Need Credit And Period
Requirement
 Determine Labor Requirements And Plan
For Peak Usage Times
  Organize Contractors For Land Preparation
And Harvesting
Create a crop calendar
Determine the best date to plant. This information
can be gathered from local experience, agricultural
advisors and leading farmers in the district.
Determine the time the variety takes from planting
to harvest. The length of time from establishment
to harvest is known for each variety. It may vary a
little depending on the growing conditions
especially water availability and solar radiation.
Normally short duration varieties take 100−120
days, medium duration 120−140 days, and long
duration 160 days plus.
Growth duration diagrams
Mark on the calendar the date of planting and then
when each other operation needs to be done
(plowing, weeding, fertilizing, harvesting).
Then determine how much labor, equipment and
finance will be required at each step during
the growing period.
3.6 Resources and budget planning
Planning resources and budget for field crop
production:
List the goals and objectives of the farm firm: This
includes what you want to achieve in terms of
yield, income, and sustainability
Inventory the resources available for use in
production: This includes land, labor, capital, and
management skills.
Determine physical production data: This will
be used in the input/output process. It includes
information on yield per acre, labor hours per
operation, etc.
Identify reliable input and output prices: This
includes the cost of seeds, fertilizers, labor,
machinery, and the expected selling price of the
crops.
Calculate the expected variable and fixed costs
and all returns: Variable costs include those that
vary with the level of production like seeds and
fertilizers. Fixed costs are those that will be there
regardless if you grow the crop or not such as
interest, taxes, and depreciation
Use a Crop Budget Estimator Tool: Tools like
these can help you plan for and continually
evaluate your growing season. They can help you
set marketing goals, yield goals, calculate break-
evens of net farm income and cash flow. They also
aid in many management decisions which are
broken into four key areas: Net Returns, Financial
Scorecard, Break-Evens, Fertility Needs (based on
yield goals).
Optimization Tool: The crop budget estimator also
features an Optimization Tool. Using the budgets
created in the estimator, the optimization tool will
determine what combination of acres returns the
highest profitability.
Remember that these are just guidelines and actual
planning may vary based on your specific situation
and local conditions. It’s always a good idea to
seek advice from local agricultural extension
services or a professional agronomist.
Budgets are used to decide whether a proposed
plan will effectively increase profits.
Similarly, a farmer can use budgets to decide
between two or more alternative enterprises and
even to make whole farm plans.
Most farmers make some attempt at budgeting
their farm plans, even though they may not work
out their calculations on paper.
Farmers need to be encouraged to develop the
habit of making more formal budgets.
By keeping some form of record it is less likely
that some important information will be forgotten
The production plan pairs information from the
resource inventory and financial records to serve
as a realistic estimate of current activities and their
anticipated financial results. A thorough
production plan should detail all enterprises on an
operation (crop, livestock, and other) so that
scheduling of labor and financial resources can be
easily examined. The basis for estimating costs of
production for cropping enterprises begins with an
accounting of variable input requirements and
prices for items such as seed, fertilizer, herbicide,
irrigation fuel, and harvesting.
a monthly cash flow report is the basis for putting
together a cash flow timing summary. This type of
information is useful to examine financial
resources available and demands upon those
resources for a given production plan during the
calendar year. An examination of cash flow timing
enables management to prepare for periods when
expenses are expected to accrue before revenues
are realized. It also allows management to project
how alternative enterprises or changes to the
production plan might affect the timing of
revenues and expenses.

Table 1 provides a worksheet to help identify

those components that define the crop production
plan. This worksheet is organized into six
sections: unit information, cost items, crop
insurance, other crop information, production
history, and hail insurance data. A crop production
worksheet should be completed for every unit in
the operation. Units may be defined by Farm
Service Agency (FSA) farm numbers, fenced
pastures, enterprise operations, geographic
location, or any other logical manner that enables
the operator to account for specific entities. The
basis for estimating costs of production for
cropping enterprises begins with an accounting of
variable input requirements and prices for items
such as seed, fertilizer, herbicide, irrigation fuel,
and harvesting. Since land ownership/lease terms
differ, land tenure considerations can be defined
through the line labeled “Landowner’s Share of
Production” or on the line labeled “Cash Lease
Rate” in Table 1. In the case of share lease
agreements, landowner’s share of variable costs
may be indicated by specifying the correct
percentage in the column to the right of the
relevant cost item. Variable cost estimates under
each crop should not reflect a discount for
landowner’s share, regardless of the land tenure
situation. These considerations are accounted for
on an item by item basis according to the figures
specified under the column marked, “LL Share
%.” 9.2 Crop insurance is also reported on Table 1
including type of coverage, yield and price
election, premium and hail addendum. More
detailed hail insurance data can be reported to
page 2 of Table 1. To better distinguish local and
regional practices, other crop information such as
irrigation method, plant gene type, planting
pattern, purpose, practice, and environmental
considerations can be noted. An important
component of this crop production section is the
reporting of historical and Average Production
History (APH). These histories allow the producer
to determine the amount and variation of
production risk associated with each crop activity
Table. Crop Production budget plan

Unit Info Crop: Crop: Crop: Crop:

Planted Acres
Budgeted Yield
(units/acre)
Actual Yield
(units/acre)
Crop Price
LDP
Base Acres
CCP Yield
Direct Payment
Yield
Landowner’s
Share of
Production

Cost Items Co L Co L Co L Co L
 st L st L st L st L
S S S S
h h h h
a a a a
r r r r
e e e e
% % % %
Seed Cost
($/acre)
Fertilizer Cost
($/acre)
Herbicide Cost
($/acre)
Insecticide Cost
($/acre)
Fungicide Cost
($/acre)
Custom
Application Cost
($/acre)
Scouting &
Other Cost
($/acre)
Irrigation Fuel
Cost ($/acre)
Tillage &
Harvest Fuel
Cost ($/acre)
Variable
Harvesting Cost
($/unit)
Variable
Harvesting Cost
($/acre)
Boll Weevil
Cost ($/acre)
Labor Costs
($/acre)
Cash Lease Rate
($/acre)
Crop Insurance
Information
Type of
Coverage
Yield Coverage
Price Coverage
Premium
Hail Exclusion
(Y/N)
Hail Insurance
(Y/N)
Other Crop
Information
Irrigation
Method
Gene Type
Planting Pattern
Purpose
Practice
Environmental
3.7 Gross margins of profit market prices and
cash flow bud
Gross margins, market prices, and cash flow are
all crucial aspects of a bud cropping plan. Here’s a
brief explanation of each:
Gross Margins: Gross margin is the difference
between the revenue from the sale of the crop and
the variable costs associated with its production
It’s calculated by multiplying the farm gate price
with yield. Gross margin = Value of
production – Variable cost
Calculating gross margins is essential when
deciding between different enterprises. If a farmer
wants to know whether to continue with a certain
crop or grow another, he or she could compare the
gross margins of the two crops. If a farmer
changes enterprises, the fixed costs will probably
not change. But what will change are the variable
costs and value of production. Using a gross
margin will help the farmer to see if the change in
enterprise will be profitable or not
Market Prices: Market prices are determined by
what buyers are willing to pay for the crop. By
looking at the market as the final destination of
produce, it’s important to take into account what is
called the marketing margin. This is done by
taking the market price and deducting costs, such
as transport or handling, to arrive at the farm gate
price1.
Cash Flow: Cash flow analysis is a method of
tracking how much money is coming into and
going out of your business. This can help you
ensure that you have enough cash to cover your
expenses and make informed decisions about
investments and growth The cash flow is the flow
of money into the farm from sales and the flow of
money out of the farm through purchases. Money
received from the sale of farm produce is called
cash inflow. Money paid out for inputs and
materials used is called cash outflow. The
difference between the cash inflow and the cash
outflow at different times of the year is known as
the net cash flow. Farmers need to consider their
likely cash flow on a monthly or quarterly basis in
order to know whether they will have sufficient
cash when it is required. If the cash inflow is less
than the cash outflow at any particular time all
cash commitments cannot be covered. Cash flow
is not the same as profitability. Remember, profit
is based on the value of production less the
variable and fixed costs. However, if the farm
family consumes a lot of the produce, it is possible
that although the farm is profitable, it may not
generate enough cash to cover its cash
requirements. In the previous example on page
Planning these aspects involves estimating the
results of a farming plan, a process known as
budgeting. Budgets are used to decide whether a
proposed plan will effectively increase profits1.
Farmers can use budgets to decide between two or
more alternative enterprises and even to make
whole farm plans.
There are also tools available that can help
calculate basic gross margins, partial and whole
farm budgets, and farm cash flow analyses. These
tools can be particularly useful in planning and
managing a bud cropping operation.
Estimate gross margins and choose enterprises
Estimates are made of the income and variable
costs for each of the possible alternative plans.
These estimates are used to calculate gross
margins. Based on the gross margins and other
factors, the most profitable and viable enterprises
should be selected. The gross income is made by
multiplying the farm gate price with yield. By
looking at the market as the final destination of
produce, it is important to take into account what
we have called the marketing margin. By taking
the market price and deducting the costs, such as
transport or handling, the farmer can arrive at the
farmgate price. The gross margin for each
potential enterprise should be calculated on a per
unit basis (hectare, person-day).
The gross margins should be prepared on the basis
of the most limiting resource. If land is limited, the
enterprises giving the highest gross margin per
hectare would be best. If labour is limiting, the
enterprises giving the highest gross margin per
person-day would be the best. If capital is
identified as the limiting resource the plan giving
the highest gross margin per $100 of capital would
be the best.
Usually a farm plan is for one year, and costs
related to land, family labour, and machinery are
considered fixed.
Therefore, in the short-run, maximizing gross
margin is similar to maximizing profit (or
minimizing losses) because the fixed costs are
constant.
 Formulate Goal
And Objective

Implement Identify Resource

Review And And Potential
Reflect

The planning
process

Prepare whole Identify

farm budget and Opportunity
actin plan
After the enterprise profitability is calculated,
comparisons of profitability between alternative
business ideas can be made.
Some farmers may even prepare different farm
plans to analyse the best options and combinations
of enterprises.
A whole farm budget checks the effect of changes
in the cropping pattern and the introduction of new
enterprises on the economic viability of the entire
farm.
The gross margin for each enterprise will help the
farmer make sure there is a match between amount
of physical resources available to the farmer and
the decisions taken as to the most viable enterprise
for each land parcel on the farm.
The decision would require that there is agreement
among the following aspects:
The physical characteristics of the resource base
Market opportunities
Use of other resources (labour and capital)
available to the farmer Individual preferences of
the farm family
This often involves a process of trial and error.
Once the enterprise combination has been
selected, the farmer then assesses the overall gross
margin and whole farm net income.
The latter would require the preparation of an
inventory of the fixed asset costs.
The difference between the overall gross margin
and the fixed costs provides an estimate of whole
farm net income.
An action plan is then prepared taking into
account physical and financial aspects of the plan.
The plan could include an assessment of;
Land suitability Enterprise selection Planned crop
rotations
A calendar of operations Schedules of supplies
required
An assessment of farm investments Labour
profiles
Cash flow projections Enterprise budgets
One of the simplest ways to do this is with a
seasonal calendar. This will give the farmer a
visual picture of the plan, showing when inputs,
labour and finance are needed, and when various
activities need to take place.
For a new farm, or a large-scale change in an
existing farm system, a complete budget is
necessary.For smaller changes in the farm system
only variable costs are affected and a partial
budget may be a sufficient guide.
How is a performance analysis carried out?

The approach taken shows the basic steps of

comparative farm performance analysis. This
analysis is conducted by you in collaboration with
farmers. The results of the analysis can be used as
a useful extension tool for dissemination of
feedback information to farmers.
Step 1. Group farmers according to farming
system
Look for a common factor upon which farmers
can be grouped. This should be a factor that is
relevant to the group offarmers with whom you
work. This might be land size, agro-ecological
zone, or technological package.

Step 2. Select farm enterprise performance

measures
Select the farm enterprise that you want to study
and identify key performance indicators that
reflect farm performance.

Step 2. Select farm enterprise performance

measures
Market related measures
Final market price achieved
Quality of harvested produce
Marketing costs
 Prices attained after taking into account
marketing costs
Output–input related measures
Yield per hectare
Cost per tonne of packaging
Milk produced per kilogram of feed
Cost of hired labour

A decision should be taken whether to use the

overall indicator of gross margin per hectare, per
person-day or per $100 of capital.

The indicator should be the most limiting factor.

This is to make sure the farms are compared on
the same basis.

Step 3. Identify successful farmers as benchmarks

for comparative analysis
Identify which of the farmers are performing well
and who can be used to set the benchmark for
performance.
Step 4. Compare farm performance against the
benchmark
Once the performance measures are established,
data about the farm(s) to be compared needs to be
collected. Such data should come from farm
records. If these are not available, then the
farmer’s memory will have to suffice. When the
data is available, use appropriate tools to analyze
the farm in terms of the key performance
measures. This stage requires making comparisons
of the performance of the farm with the
benchmark, including such factors as:
Overall profitability of the farm
Gross margin performance of the enterprises
Yields and selling prices Quantities of variable
inputs used Total fixed costs various physical and
financial performance measures identified as
relevant to the farm or to the group of farms
Step 5. Identify the cause and effects of the
performance difference
Using tools like constraints analysis, you can
assist farmers to identify what is causing the
difference between their farms’ performance and
the benchmark.
Step 6. Develop and implement changes
Work should now be done to develop changes in
the farm that can be implemented. This would
include looking at all aspects of the farm in terms
of the decision-making boundary. Farmers should
look at changes in input, production and marketing
which are relevant to the root cause of the
performance difference.

3.8 Market oriented crop production

Market-oriented crop production is a farming
approach that focuses on producing crops based on
the demands of the market. It involves
determining what buyers want, in what form, and
when they want it
The location of the farm in relation to the market
and the transportation network also has an
important influence on enterprise selection. It is
often profitable to farm land more intensively the
closer it is to the market. This approach requires
matching supply with demand, and it’s typically
used in large-scale production for marketing
Market-oriented farming begins by determining
what buyers want, in what form and when they
want it. This module looks at what you need to
know about the planning process, farm
performance and the market. This will enable you
to support farmers in preparing farm plans,
increase profitability and incomeA business
approach wherein the processes of product
development and creation are focused customer
satisfaction
What is Market Orientation?
Market orientation is a business approach wherein
the processes of product development and creation
are focused on satisfying the needs of
consumers. It is a type of marketing orientation
technique that designs products with qualities
that consumers want, which is completely
different from the conventional marketing
approach.
Marketing orientation is a customer-centered
approach that enables businesses to gain profound
insights into consumers’ needs and wants, develop
strategies to fulfill those needs, and ultimately
foster brand loyalty in order to remain
competitive. The advantages of this type of
strategy are numerous, as it gives companies the
opportunity to become more cost-effective, serves
as an inspiration for innovative products and
services, and provides potential market
opportunities.
A market-oriented business should emphasize
customer satisfaction and actively learn about its
customers’ desires in order to create the best
products and services. Additionally, it should
strive to maintain a societal marketing orientation
and be aware of the values and standards of the
customer environment. Companies such as Apple,
Nike, and Tesla have implemented this
philosophy, allowing them to remain on the
cutting edge of the market.
As customer demands evolve quickly, it is
essential for businesses to practice a market-
oriented strategy. By understanding what
motivates customers and responding to their needs
and requirements, organizations will be able to
meet customer needs, differentiate themselves
from competitors, and remain competitive In the
conventional approach, the business prioritizes the
promotion of existing products by establishing
features that can be key selling points. Companies
like Amazon and Coca-Cola use market
orientation principles while companies in the
luxury goods market, such as Louis Vuitton or
Chanel, follow the conventional approa
 Market orientation is a marketing approach
wherein the processes of product development
 and creation are focused on satisfying the
needs of consumers.
 Marketing orientation is the business approach
that dictates all the processes within that
organization. It comes in several types: sales
orientation, market orientation, production
orientation, and societal orientation.
 Market orientation offers several advantages,
including product differentiation and increased
consumer satisfaction.
Commodity marketing relies upon a delicate
blending of supply and demand variables, the
strategic approach employed in this paper is to
explore commodity marketing within the context
of customer intimacy, value differentiation,
coordinated decision making, and operational
excellence. The example provided in the paper
shows how supply and demand for a commodity
product were examined simultaneously at a
relatively large agricultural firm headquartered in
South America. Mapping these elements of a
market orientation onto this example from an
agriculture business shows that commodity
markets can have a market orientation even though
the product itself has few aspects of
differentiation. When implemented successfully,
this market orientation will help create margins
often lacking in commodity businesses.
Understanding Marketing Orientation
Marketing orientation is the business approach
that dictates all the processes within that
organization. It outlines how the company’s core
offering is presented to its users and how the
marketing teams are empowered.
Although marketing teams have a say in the
marketing strategies adopted, the marketing
orientation is determined by the priorities of
upper-level management. The different types of
marketing orientation are as follows:
1. Sales orientation
2. Market orientation
3. Production orientation
4. Societal orientation
How Does Market Orientation Work?
Market orientation is more of an approach to
product design rather than promotion. It means
that the priority is to analyze the target
audience and determine their needs instead of
undertaking any promotional or sales activity. The
needs are kept in mind while developing and
upgrading the product offering.
A market-oriented organization uses a customer-
centered approach, which means that the most
pressing concerns, immediate needs, and personal
preferences of the consumer base must be
researched.
The strategy must be focused on values, culture,
and other behavioral traits of the consumer base.
Thus, the development efforts of the organization
are focused on characteristics that are most widely
demanded. This enables companies to adapt to
different markets and enhance competitiveness.
Advantages of a Market-Oriented Strategy
 Most consumers are in touch with market
trends, too, and clearly understand their needs
and aspirations. Performing data analysis can
reveal trends and desires that are not explicit. It
can be instrumental in anticipating consumer
needs and adapting the market-oriented
organization as one that shapes consumer
behavior rather than one that reacts to it.
 Consumer demands can often seem
impractical, but their knowledge can be vital in
the long-range decision-making process. Ideas
that are not cost-effective in the status quo can
be employable amid changed market
conditions in the future. They can be used for
long-term development strategies.
  Data collected for product development can
also be used post-launch to improve customer
service. Efficient product support that
addresses concerns raised by consumers is
essential in maintaining a high degree
of consumer satisfaction. It enhances brand
loyalty and word-of-mouth advertising by
existing consumers.
Disadvantages of a Market-Oriented Strategy
 An excessive focus on addressing the needs
and desires of consumers reduces the scope for
innovation in an organization. Thus, market
orientation is based on reacting to market
trends rather than creating them.
 Consumer desires are not fixed and can change
very rapidly. A standalone market-oriented
strategy cannot guarantee a huge market share,
given that rival companies serving the
sameconsumer needs can quickly come up in
the market.
Examples of Market-Oriented Companies stently
changes the virtual marketplace and adds features
to address the concerns expressed by consumers.
One such feature is the rating and review system
introduced by the online retailer to boost
credibility.
The company launched Amazon Prime to address
issues with delivery charges. In addition, it created
the Amazon Locker, which is a self-pickup service
for consumers who may not be present in the
shipping address indicated at the time of delivery.
Coca-Cola performs extensive research to come
up with new flavors for its consumers. For users
who are worried about sugar content, the company
launched the zero-calorie Diet Coke and
undertook