Physics Stage 6 Syllabus 2017

NSW Syllabus
for the Australian

curriculum
Physics
Stage 6
Syllabus
Contents
Introduction.............................................................................................................................................. 4
Physics Key ............................................................................................................................................. 7
Rationale ............................................................................................................................................... 10
The Place of the Physics Stage 6 Syllabus in the K–12 Curriculum .................................................... 11
Aim ........................................................................................................................................................ 12
Objectives.............................................................................................................................................. 13
Outcomes .............................................................................................................................................. 14
Year 11 Course Structure and Requirements ....................................................................................... 16
Year 12 Course Structure and Requirements ....................................................................................... 17
Assessment and Reporting ................................................................................................................... 18
Content .................................................................................................................................................. 19
Physics Year 11 Course Content .......................................................................................................... 32
Physics Year 12 Course Content .......................................................................................................... 48
Glossary ................................................................................................................................................ 65
Year 12 Course Structure and Requirements
Modules Indicative hours Depth studies
Module 5
Advanced Mechanics
60
Year 12 Module 6
Working
course Electromagnetism
Scientifically *15 hours
Skills Module 7 in Modules 5–8
(120 hours)
The Nature of Light
Module 8 60
From the Universe to the
Atom
*15 hours must be allocated to depth studies within the 120 indicative course hours.
Requirements for Practical Investigations

Scientific investigations include both practical investigations and secondary-sourced investigations.
Practical investigations are an essential part of the Year 12 course and must occupy a minimum of 35
hours of course time, including time allocated to practical investigations in depth studies.
Practical investigations include:

● undertaking laboratory experiments, including the use of appropriate digital technologies
● fieldwork.
Secondary-sourced investigations include:

● locating and accessing a wide range of secondary data and/or information
● using and reorganising secondary data and/or information.
Physics Stage 6 Syllabus 17

Organisation of Content
The following diagram provides an illustrative representation of elements of the course and their
relationship.
The Year 11 and Year 12 courses each comprise four modules. The skills of Working Scientifically
are integrated as course content throughout the syllabus. Each module includes a specific focus on
some of the Working Scientifically skills. However, there is scope within each module to engage with
all of the Working Scientifically skills.
The Working Scientifically outcomes and content are integrated into each module wherever students
undertake an investigation.

Working Scientifically
Working Scientifically skills are at the core of conducting practical and secondary-sourced
investigations in science.
Opportunities should be provided for students to engage with all the Working Scientifically skills in
investigations. In each module, particular outcomes have been identified as those that are most
relevant to the intended learning.
Students are challenged to further develop their understanding of Working Scientifically as a group of
dynamic and interdependent processes that are applied in each scientific investigation in a way that is
appropriate and determined by the activity. This dynamism and interrelatedness adds a level of
sophistication to students’ understanding of the true nature and practice of science. Through regular
involvement in these processes, applying them as appropriate, in a range of varied practical
investigations; students can broaden their interpretation of Working Scientifically beyond the common
linear model.
Students are encouraged to select the most appropriate gateway to the Working Scientifically
processes. The pathways within the processes become self-evident through the nature of the
investigation. An investigation may be instigated by, for example:
● direct observation of a phenomenon
● inconsistencies arising from results of a related investigation
● the quantitative and qualitative analysis of data
● secondary-sourced research.
Students are challenged to be open to:

● refining or redeveloping their chosen procedures
● redefining their questions and/or hypotheses
● modifying their methodologies or designs
● conducting further practical investigations
● conducting further secondary research.
Students are also encouraged to communicate evidence-based conclusions and suggest ideas for
future research. Unexpected results are to be welcomed to refine methodologies and to generate
further investigation. Knowledge and understanding of science is essential to these processes.
Through this practice of science, students can acquire a deeper knowledge and understanding of
scientific concepts.

Each of the seven Working Scientifically outcomes represents one of the interdependent dynamic
processes that are central to the study of Science and the acquisition of scientific knowledge and
skills. This course is structured to provide ongoing opportunities for students to implement these
processes, particularly through the depth study provision. The following descriptions of the Working
Scientifically outcomes provide further information about the skills students are expected to develop
throughout the course.
Questioning and Predicting

Developing, proposing and evaluating inquiry questions and hypotheses challenges students to
identify an issue or phenomenon that can be investigated scientifically by gathering primary and/or
secondary-sourced data. Students develop inquiry question(s) that require observations,
experimentation and/or research to aid in constructing a reasonable and informed hypothesis. The
consideration of variables is to be included in the questioning process.

Planning Investigations
Students justify the selection of equipment, resources chosen and design of an investigation. They
ensure that all risks are assessed, appropriate materials and technologies are sourced, and all ethical
concerns are considered. Variables are to be identified as independent, dependent and controlled to
ensure a valid procedure is developed that will allow for the reliable collection of data. Investigations
should include strategies that ensure controlled variables are kept constant and an experimental
control is used as appropriate.
Conducting Investigations
Students are to select appropriate equipment, employ safe work practices and ensure that risk
assessments are conducted and followed. Appropriate technologies are to be used and procedures
followed when disposing of waste. The selection and criteria for collecting valid and reliable data is to
be methodical and, where appropriate, secondary-sourced information referenced correctly.
Processing Data and Information

Students use the most appropriate and meaningful methods and media to organise and analyse data
and information sources, including digital technologies and the use of a variety of visual
representations as appropriate. They process data from primary and secondary sources, including
both qualitative and quantitative data and information.
Analysing Data and Information

Students identify trends, patterns and relationships; recognise error, uncertainty and limitations in
data; and interpret scientific and media texts. They evaluate the relevance, accuracy, validity and
reliability of the primary or secondary-sourced data in relation to investigations. They evaluate
processes, claims and conclusions by considering the quality of available evidence, and use
reasoning to construct scientific arguments. Where appropriate, mathematical models are to be
applied, to demonstrate the trends and relationships that occur in data.
Problem Solving
Students use critical thinking skills and creativity to demonstrate an understanding of scientific
principles underlying the solutions to inquiry questions and problems posed in investigations.
Appropriate and varied strategies are employed, including the use of models, to qualitatively and
quantitatively explain and predict cause-and-effect relationships. In Working Scientifically, students
synthesise and use evidence to construct and justify conclusions. To solve problems, students:
interpret scientific and media texts; evaluate processes, claims and conclusions; and consider the
quality of available evidence.
Communicating
Communicating all components of the Working Scientifically processes with clarity and accuracy is
essential. Students use qualitative and quantitative information gained from investigations using
primary and secondary sources, including digital, visual, written and/or verbal forms of communication
as appropriate. They apply appropriate scientific notations and nomenclature. They also appropriately
apply and use scientific language that is suitable for specific audiences and contexts.

Investigations
An investigation is a scientific process to answer a question, explore an idea or solve a problem.
Investigations include activities such as planning a course of action, collecting data, processing and
analysing data, reaching a conclusion and communicating. Investigations may include the collection
of primary and/or secondary-sourced data or information.
Practical investigations involve the collection of primary data. They may include:
● undertaking laboratory investigations, including fair tests and controlled experiments
● undertaking fieldwork and surveys
● constructing models.
Secondary-sourced investigations can include:

● researching by using a variety of media
● extracting and reorganising secondary-sourced information in the form of flow charts, tables,
graphs, diagrams, prose, keys, spreadsheets and databases
● using models to inform understanding.
Safety
Schools have a legal obligation in relation to safety. Teachers will need to ensure that they comply
with relevant legislation as well as system and school requirements in relation to safety when
implementing their programs. This includes legislation and guidelines relating to Work Health and
Safety, and the handling and storage of chemical and dangerous goods.
Animal Research
Schools have a legal responsibility in relation to the welfare of animals. The keeping of animals and
all practical activities involving animals must comply with relevant guidelines or legislation.
Inquiry Questions
Inquiry questions are included in the course content and used to frame the syllabus content within
each module. The depth of knowledge and understanding and skill development required to fully
address the inquiry questions may vary. This allows for differentiation of the course content to cater
for the diversity of learners.

Depth Studies: Year 11 and Year 12
What are Depth Studies?

A depth study is any type of investigation/activity that a student completes individually or
collaboratively that allows the further development of one or more concepts found within or inspired
by the syllabus. It may be one investigation/activity or a series of investigations/activities.
Depth studies provide opportunities for students to pursue their interests in physics, acquire a depth
of understanding, and take responsibility for their own learning. Depth studies promote differentiation
and engagement, and support all forms of assessment, including assessment for, as and of learning.
Depth studies allow for the demonstration of a range of Working Scientifically skills.
A depth study may be, but is not limited to:

● a practical investigation or series of practical investigations and/or a secondary-sourced
investigation or series of secondary-sourced investigations
● presentations, research assignments or fieldwork reports
● the extension of concepts found within the course, either qualitatively and/or quantitatively.
The length of time for any individual study and the pedagogies employed are not prescribed. The time
for the depth studies may be allocated to a single study or spread over the year, and incorporate
several studies depending on individual school and/or class requirements.
Requirements for Depth Studies

● A minimum of 15 hours of in-class time is allocated in both Year 11 and Year 12.
● At least one depth study must be included in both Year 11 and Year 12.
● The two Working Scientifically outcomes of Questioning and Predicting and Communicating must
be addressed in both Year 11 and Year 12.
● A minimum of two additional Working Scientifically skills outcomes, and further development of at
least one Knowledge and Understanding outcome, should be addressed in all depth studies.
Ideas for Depth Studies
Practical Investigations
● Design and conduct experiments
● Test a claim
● Test a device
Secondary-sourced Investigations
● Make a documentary or media report
● Conduct a literature review
● Develop an evidence-based argument
● Write a journal article
● Write an essay – historical or theoretical
● Develop an environmental management plan
● Analyse a work of fiction or film for scientific relevance
● Create a visual presentation
● Investigate emerging technologies

Creating
● Design and invent
● Create a working model
● Create a portfolio
Fieldwork
Fieldwork may be a starting point for a practical investigation or secondary-sourced study and could
be initiated by the following stimuli:
● an excursion
● engagement with community experts.
Data Analysis
Data analysis may be incorporated into a practical investigation or secondary-sourced investigation.
For example:
● construction and analysis of graphs/tables
● data analysis from a variety of sources
● research analysis, eg of longitudinal data, resource management data.

Year 12
Physics Year 12 Course Content
Year 12 Course Structure and Requirements

Modules Indicative hours Depth studies
Module 5
Advanced Mechanics
60
Year 12 Module 6
Working
course Electromagnetism
Scientifically *15 hours
Skills Module 7 in Modules 5–8
(120 hours)
The Nature of Light
Module 8 60
From the Universe to the
Atom
*15 hours must be allocated to depth studies within the 120 indicative course hours.
Requirements for Practical Investigations

Scientific investigations include both practical investigations and secondary-sourced investigations.
Practical investigations are an essential part of the Year 12 course and must occupy a minimum of 35
hours of course time, including time allocated to practical investigations in depth studies.
Practical investigations include:

● undertaking laboratory experiments, including the use of appropriate digital technologies
● fieldwork.
Secondary-sourced investigations include:

● locating and accessing a wide range of secondary data and/or information
● using and reorganising secondary data and/or information.

Year 12
Module 5: Advanced Mechanics
Outcomes
A student:
› selects and processes appropriate qualitative and quantitative data and information using a range
of appropriate media PH11/12-4
› analyses and evaluates primary and secondary data and information PH11/12-5
› solves scientific problems using primary and secondary data, critical thinking skills and scientific
processes PH11/12-6
› communicates scientific understanding using suitable language and terminology for a specific
audience or purpose PH11/12-7
› describes and analyses qualitatively and quantitatively circular motion and motion in a
gravitational field, in particular, the projectile motion of particles PH12-12
Content Focus
Motion in one dimension at constant velocity or constant acceleration can be explained and analysed
relatively simply. However, motion is frequently more complicated because objects move in two or
three dimensions, causing the net force to vary in size or direction.
Students develop an understanding that all forms of complex motion can be understood by analysing
the forces acting on a system, including the energy transformations taking place within and around
the system. By applying new mathematical techniques, students model and predict the motion of
objects within systems. They examine two-dimensional motion, including projectile motion and
uniform circular motion, along with the orbital motion of planets and satellites, which are modelled as
an approximation to uniform circular motion.
In this module, students focus on gathering, analysing and evaluating data to solve problems and
communicate ideas about advanced mechanics. Students should be provided with opportunities to
engage with all the Working Scientifically skills throughout the course.
Content
Projectile Motion
Inquiry question: How can models that are used to explain projectile motion be used to analyse and
make predictions?
Students:
● analyse the motion of projectiles by resolving the motion into horizontal and vertical components,
making the following assumptions:
– a constant vertical acceleration due to gravity
– zero air resistance

Year 12
● apply the modelling of projectile motion to quantitatively derive the relationships between the
following variables:
– initial velocity
– launch angle
– maximum height
– time of flight
– final velocity
– launch height
– horizontal range of the projectile (ACSPH099)
● conduct a practical investigation to collect primary data in order to validate the relationships
derived above.
● solve problems, create models and make quantitative predictions by applying the equations of
motion relationships for uniformly accelerated and constant rectilinear motion
Circular Motion
Inquiry question: Why do objects move in circles?
Students:
● conduct investigations to explain and evaluate, for objects executing uniform circular motion, the
relationships that exist between:
– centripetal force
– mass
– speed
– radius
● analyse the forces acting on an object executing uniform circular motion in a variety of situations,
for example:
– cars moving around horizontal circular bends
– a mass on a string
– objects on banked tracks (ACSPH100)
● solve problems, model and make quantitative predictions about objects executing uniform circular
motion in a variety of situations, using the following relationships:
𝑣2
– 𝑎c = 𝑟
2𝜋𝑟
– 𝑣= 𝑇
𝑚𝑣 2
– 𝐹c = 𝑟
∆𝜃
– 𝜔= 𝑡
● investigate the relationship between the total energy and work done on an object executing
uniform circular motion
● investigate the relationship between the rotation of mechanical systems and the applied torque
– 𝜏 = 𝑟⊥ 𝐹 = 𝑟𝐹 sin 𝜃

Year 12
Motion in Gravitational Fields

Inquiry question: How does the force of gravity determine the motion of planets and satellites?
Students:
● apply qualitatively and quantitatively Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation to:
𝐺𝑀𝑚
– determine the force of gravity between two objects 𝐹= 𝑟2
𝐺𝑀
– investigate the factors that affect the gravitational field strength 𝑔= 𝑟2
– predict the gravitational field strength at any point in a gravitational field, including at the
surface of a planet (ACSPH094, ACSPH095, ACSPH097)
● investigate the orbital motion of planets and artificial satellites when applying the relationships
between the following quantities:
– gravitational force
– centripetal force
– centripetal acceleration
– mass
– orbital radius
– orbital velocity
– orbital period
● predict quantitatively the orbital properties of planets and satellites in a variety of situations,
including near the Earth and geostationary orbits, and relate these to their uses (ACSPH101)
● investigate the relationship of Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion to the forces acting on, and the
total energy of, planets in circular and non-circular orbits using: (ACSPH101)
2𝜋𝑟
– 𝑣= 𝑇
𝑟3 𝐺𝑀
– = 4𝜋2
𝑇2
● derive quantitatively and apply the concepts of gravitational force and gravitational potential
energy in radial gravitational fields to a variety of situations, including but not limited to:
2𝐺𝑀
– the concept of escape velocity 𝑣esc =√ 𝑟
𝐺𝑀𝑚
– total potential energy of a planet or satellite in its orbit U=− 𝑟
𝐺𝑀𝑚
– total energy of a planet or satellite in its orbit U+K=− 2𝑟
– energy changes that occur when satellites move between orbits (ACSPH096)
– Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion (ACSPH101)

Year 12
Module 6: Electromagnetism
Outcomes
A student:
› develops and evaluates questions and hypotheses for scientific investigation PH11/12-1
› designs and evaluates investigations in order to obtain primary and secondary data and
information PH11/12-2
› conducts investigations to collect valid and reliable primary and secondary data and information
PH11/12-3
› explains and analyses the electric and magnetic interactions due to charged particles and
currents and evaluates their effect both qualitatively and quantitatively PH12-13
Content Focus
Discoveries about the interactions that take place between charged particles and electric and
magnetic fields not only produced significant advances in physics, but also led to significant
technological developments. These developments include the generation and distribution of
electricity, and the invention of numerous devices that convert electrical energy into other forms of
energy.
Understanding the similarities and differences in the interactions of single charges in electric and
magnetic fields provides students with a conceptual foundation for this module. Phenomena that
include the force produced on a current-carrying wire in a magnetic field, the force between current-
carrying wires, Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction, the principles of transformers and the
workings of motors and generators can all be understood as instances of forces acting on moving
charged particles in magnetic fields.
The law of conservation of energy underpins all of these interactions. The conversion of energy into
forms other than the intended form is a problem that constantly drives engineers to improve designs
of electromagnetic devices.
In this module, students focus on developing and evaluating questions and hypotheses when
designing and conducting investigations; and obtaining data and information to solve problems about
electromagnetism. Students should be provided with opportunities to engage with all the Working
Scientifically skills throughout the course.

Year 12
Content
Charged Particles, Conductors and Electric and Magnetic Fields

Inquiry question: What happens to stationary and moving charged particles when they interact with
an electric or magnetic field?
Students:
● investigate and quantitatively derive and analyse the interaction between charged particles and
uniform electric fields, including: (ACSPH083)
𝑉
– electric field between parallel charged plates 𝐸=𝑑
– acceleration of charged particles by the electric field 𝐹⃗net = 𝑚𝑎⃗, 𝐹⃗ = 𝑞𝐸⃗⃗
1
– work done on the charge 𝑊 = 𝑞𝑉, 𝑊 = 𝑞𝐸𝑑, 𝐾 = 2 𝑚𝑣 2
● model qualitatively and quantitatively the trajectories of charged particles in electric fields and
compare them with the trajectories of projectiles in a gravitational field
● analyse the interaction between charged particles and uniform magnetic fields, including:
(ACSPH083)
– acceleration, perpendicular to the field, of charged particles
– the force on the charge 𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣⊥ 𝐵 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵sin𝜃
● compare the interaction of charged particles moving in magnetic fields to:
– the interaction of charged particles with electric fields
– other examples of uniform circular motion (ACSPH108)
The Motor Effect

Inquiry question: Under what circumstances is a force produced on a current-carrying conductor in a
magnetic field?
Students:
● investigate qualitatively and quantitatively the interaction between a current-carrying conductor
and a uniform magnetic field 𝐹 = 𝑙𝐼⊥ 𝐵 = 𝑙𝐼𝐵sin𝜃 to establish: (ACSPH080, ACSPH081)
– conditions under which the maximum force is produced

– the relationship between the directions of the force, magnetic field strength and current
– conditions under which no force is produced on the conductor
● conduct a quantitative investigation to demonstrate the interaction between two parallel current-
carrying wires
𝐹 𝜇 𝐼1 𝐼2
● analyse the interaction between two parallel current-carrying wires = 2𝜋0 and determine the
𝑙 𝑟
relationship between the International System of Units (SI) definition of an ampere and Newton’s
Third Law of Motion (ACSPH081, ACSPH106)

Year 12
Electromagnetic Induction
Inquiry question: How are electric and magnetic fields related?
Students:
● describe how magnetic flux can change, with reference to the relationship 𝛷 = 𝐵∥ 𝐴 = 𝐵𝐴cosθ
(ACSPH083, ACSPH107, ACSPH109)
● analyse qualitatively and quantitatively, with reference to energy transfers and transformations,
𝛥𝛷
examples of Faraday’s Law and Lenz’s Law 𝜀 = −𝑁 𝛥𝑡 , including but not limited to:
(ACSPH081, ACSPH110)
– the generation of an electromotive force (emf) and evidence for Lenz’s Law produced by the
relative movement between a magnet, straight conductors, metal plates and solenoids
– the generation of an emf produced by the relative movement or changes in current in one
solenoid in the vicinity of another solenoid
● analyse quantitatively the operation of ideal transformers through the application of: (ACSPH110)
𝑉p 𝑁p
– =
𝑉s 𝑁s
– 𝑉p 𝐼p = 𝑉s 𝐼s
● evaluate qualitatively the limitations of the ideal transformer model and the strategies used to
improve transformer efficiency, including but not limited to:
– incomplete flux linkage
– resistive heat production and eddy currents
● analyse applications of step-up and step-down transformers, including but not limited to:
– the distribution of energy using high-voltage transmission lines
Applications of the Motor Effect

Inquiry question: How has knowledge about the Motor Effect been applied to technological
advances?
Students:
● investigate the operation of a simple DC motor to analyse:
– the functions of its components
– production of a torque 𝜏 = 𝑛𝐼𝐴⊥ 𝐵 = 𝑛𝐼𝐴𝐵sin𝜃
– effects of back emf (ACSPH108)
● analyse the operation of simple DC and AC generators and AC induction motors (ACSPH110)
● relate Lenz’s Law to the law of conservation of energy and apply the law of conservation of
energy to:
– DC motors and
– magnetic braking

Year 12
Module 7: The Nature of Light
Outcomes
A student:
› develops and evaluates questions and hypotheses for scientific investigation PH11/12-1
› designs and evaluates investigations in order to obtain primary and secondary data and
information PH11/12-2
› conducts investigations to collect valid and reliable primary and secondary data and information
PH11/12-3
› describes and analyses evidence for the properties of light and evaluates the implications of this
evidence for modern theories of physics in the contemporary world PH12-14
Content Focus
Prior to the 20th century, physicists, including Newton and Maxwell, developed theories and models
about mechanics, electricity and magnetism and the nature of matter. These theories and models had
great explanatory power and produced useful predictions. However, the 20th century saw major
developments in physics as existing theories and models were challenged by new observations that
could not be explained. These observations led to the development of quantum theory and the theory
of relativity. Technologies arising from these theories have shaped the modern world. For example,
the independence of the speed of light on the frame of observation or the motion of the source and
observer had significant consequences for the measurement, and concepts about the nature, of time
and space.
Throughout this module, students explore the evidence supporting these physical theories, along with
the power of scientific theories to make useful predictions.
In this module, students focus on developing and evaluating questions and hypotheses when
designing and conducting investigations; evaluating the data obtained from investigations; and
communicating ideas about the nature of light. Students should be provided with opportunities to
engage with all the Working Scientifically skills throughout the course.
Content
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Inquiry question: What is light?
Students:
● investigate Maxwell’s contribution to the classical theory of electromagnetism, including:
– unification of electricity and magnetism
– prediction of electromagnetic waves
– prediction of velocity (ACSPH113)

Year 12
● describe the production and propagation of electromagnetic waves and relate these processes
qualitatively to the predictions made by Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory (ACSPH112,
ACSPH113)
● conduct investigations of historical and contemporary methods used to determine the speed of
light and its current relationship to the measurement of time and distance (ACSPH082)
● conduct an investigation to examine a variety of spectra produced by discharge tubes, reflected
sunlight or incandescent filaments
● investigate how spectroscopy can be used to provide information about:
– the identification of elements
● investigate how the spectra of stars can provide information on:
– surface temperature
– rotational and translational velocity
– density
– chemical composition
Light: Wave Model

Inquiry question: What evidence supports the classical wave model of light and what predictions can
be made using this model?
Students:
● conduct investigations to analyse qualitatively the diffraction of light (ACSPH048, ACSPH076)
● conduct investigations to analyse quantitatively the interference of light using double slit
apparatus and diffraction gratings 𝑑sin𝜃 = 𝑚𝜆 (ACSPH116, ACSPH117, ACSPH140)
● analyse the experimental evidence that supported the models of light that were proposed by
Newton and Huygens (ACSPH050, ACSPH118, ACSPH123)
● conduct investigations quantitatively using the relationship of Malus’ Law 𝐼 = 𝐼max 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 for
plane polarisation of light, to evaluate the significance of polarisation in developing a model for
light (ACSPH050, ACSPH076, ACSPH120)
Light: Quantum Model

Inquiry question: What evidence supports the particle model of light and what are the implications of
this evidence for the development of the quantum model of light?
Students:
● analyse the experimental evidence gathered about black body radiation, including Wien’s Law
related to Planck's contribution to a changed model of light (ACSPH137)
b
– 𝜆max =T
● investigate the evidence from photoelectric effect investigations that demonstrated inconsistency
with the wave model for light (ACSPH087, ACSPH123, ACSPH137)
● analyse the photoelectric effect 𝐾max = ℎ𝑓 − 𝜙 as it occurs in metallic elements by applying the
law of conservation of energy and the photon model of light, (ACSPH119)

Year 12
Light and Special Relativity

Inquiry question: How does the behaviour of light affect concepts of time, space and matter?
Students:
● analyse and evaluate the evidence confirming or denying Einstein’s two postulates:
– the speed of light in a vacuum is an absolute constant
– all inertial frames of reference are equivalent (ACSPH131)
● investigate the evidence, from Einstein’s thought experiments and subsequent experimental
𝑡0 𝑣2
validation, for time dilation 𝑡 = 𝑣2
and length contraction 𝑙 = 𝑙0 √(1 − 𝑐 2 ), and analyse
√(1− 2 )
𝑐
quantitatively situations in which these are observed, for example:
– observations of cosmic-origin muons at the Earth’s surface
– atomic clocks (Hafele–Keating experiment)
– evidence from particle accelerators
– evidence from cosmological studies
● describe the consequences and applications of relativistic momentum with reference to:
𝑚0 𝑣
– 𝑝𝑣 = 𝑣2
√(1− 2 )
𝑐
– the limitation on the maximum velocity of a particle imposed by special relativity (ACSPH133)
● Use Einstein’s mass–energy equivalence relationship 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2 to calculate the energy released

by processes in which mass is converted to energy, for example: (ACSPH134)
– production of energy by the sun
– particle–antiparticle interactions, eg positron–electron annihilation
– combustion of conventional fuel

Year 12
Module 8: From the Universe to the Atom
Outcomes
A student:
› solves scientific problems using primary and secondary data, critical thinking skills and scientific
processes PH11/12-6
› explains and analyses the evidence supporting the relationship between astronomical events and
the nucleosynthesis of atoms and relates these to the development of the current model of the
atom PH12-15
Content Focus
Humans have always been fascinated with the finite or infinite state of the Universe and whether there
ever was a beginning to time. Where does all the matter that makes up the Universe come from?
Ideas and theories about the beginnings of the Universe, based on sound scientific evidence, have
come and gone. Current theories such as the Big Bang theory and claims of an expanding Universe
are based on scientific evidence available today through investigations that use modern technologies.
Evidence gathered on the nucleosynthesis reactions in stars allows scientists to understand how
elements are made in the nuclear furnace of stars. On scales as large as the Universe to those as
small as an atom, humans look to the sky for answers through astronomical observations of stars and
galaxies.
Beginning in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, experimental discoveries revolutionised the
accepted understanding of the nature of matter on an atomic scale. Observations of the properties of
matter and light inspired the development of better models of matter, which in turn have been
modified or abandoned in the light of further experimental investigations.
By studying the development of the atomic models through the work of Thomson and Rutherford, who
established the nuclear model of the atom – a positive nucleus surrounded by electrons – students
further their understanding of the limitations of theories and models. The work of Bohr, de Broglie and,
later, Schrödinger demonstrated that the quantum mechanical nature of matter was a better way to
understand the structure of the atom. Experimental investigations of the nucleus have led to an
understanding of radioactive decay, the ability to extract energy from nuclear fission and fusion, and a
deeper understanding of the atomic model.
Particle accelerators have revealed that protons themselves are not fundamental, and have continued
to provide evidence in support of the Standard Model of matter. In studying this module, students can
appreciate that the fundamental particle model is forever being updated and that our understanding of
the nature of matter remains incomplete.

Year 12
In this module, students focus on analysing and evaluating data to solve problems and communicate
scientific understanding about the development of the atomic model and the origins of the Universe.
Students should be provided with opportunities to engage with all the Working Scientifically skills
throughout the course.
Content
Origins of the Elements

Inquiry question: What evidence is there for the origins of the elements?
Students:
● investigate the processes that led to the transformation of radiation into matter that followed the
‘Big Bang’
● investigate the evidence that led to the discovery of the expansion of the Universe by Hubble
(ACSPH138)
● analyse and apply Einstein’s description of the equivalence of energy and mass and relate this to
the nuclear reactions that occur in stars (ACSPH031)
● account for the production of emission and absorption spectra and compare these with a
continuous black body spectrum (ACSPH137)
● investigate the key features of stellar spectra and describe how these are used to classify stars
● investigate the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram and how it can be used to determine the following
about a star:
– characteristics and evolutionary stage
– surface temperature
– colour
– luminosity
● investigate the types of nucleosynthesis reactions involved in Main Sequence and Post-Main
Sequence stars, including but not limited to:
– proton–proton chain
– CNO (carbon-nitrogen-oxygen) cycle
Structure of the Atom

Inquiry question: How is it known that atoms are made up of protons, neutrons and electrons?
Students:
● investigate, assess and model the experimental evidence supporting the existence and properties
of the electron, including:
– early experiments examining the nature of cathode rays
– Thomson’s charge-to-mass experiment
– Millikan's oil drop experiment (ACSPH026)
● investigate, assess and model the experimental evidence supporting the nuclear model of the
atom, including:
– the Geiger-Marsden experiment
– Rutherford’s atomic model
– Chadwick’s discovery of the neutron (ACSPH026)

Year 12
Quantum Mechanical Nature of the Atom

Inquiry question: How is it known that classical physics cannot explain the properties of the atom?
Students:
● assess the limitations of the Rutherford and Bohr atomic models
● investigate the line emission spectra to examine the Balmer series in hydrogen (ACSPH138)
● relate qualitatively and quantitatively the quantised energy levels of the hydrogen atom and the
law of conservation of energy to the line emission spectrum of hydrogen using:
– 𝐸 = ℎ𝑓
ℎ𝑐
– 𝐸= 𝜆
1 1 1
– = 𝑅 [𝑛2 − 𝑛2 ] (ACSPH136)
𝜆 𝑓 𝑖
● investigate de Broglie’s matter waves, and the experimental evidence that developed the
following formula:
ℎ
– 𝜆 = 𝑚𝑣 (ACSPH140)
● analyse the contribution of Schrödinger to the current model of the atom
Properties of the Nucleus

Inquiry question: How can the energy of the atomic nucleus be harnessed?
Students:
● analyse the spontaneous decay of unstable nuclei, and the properties of the alpha, beta and
gamma radiation emitted (ACSPH028, ACSPH030)
● examine the model of half-life in radioactive decay and make quantitative predictions about the
activity or amount of a radioactive sample using the following relationships:
– 𝑁t = 𝑁o 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
𝑙𝑛2
– 𝜆=𝑡
1/2
where 𝑁t = number of particles at time 𝑡, 𝑁0 = number of particles present at 𝑡 = 0, 𝜆 =

decay constant, 𝑡1/2 = time for half the radioactive amount to decay (ACSPH029)
● model and explain the process of nuclear fission, including the concepts of controlled and
uncontrolled chain reactions, and account for the release of energy in the process (ACSPH033,
ACSPH034)
● analyse relationships that represent conservation of mass-energy in spontaneous and artificial
nuclear transmutations, including alpha decay, beta decay, nuclear fission and nuclear fusion
(ACSPH032)
● account for the release of energy in the process of nuclear fusion (ACSPH035, ACSPH036)
● predict quantitatively the energy released in nuclear decays or transmutations, including nuclear
fission and nuclear fusion, by applying: (ACSPH031, ACSPH035, ACSPH036)
– the law of conservation of energy
– mass defect
– binding energy
– Einstein’s mass–energy equivalence relationship 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2

Year 12
Deep inside the Atom

Inquiry question: How is it known that human understanding of matter is still incomplete?
Students:
● analyse the evidence that suggests:
– that protons and neutrons are not fundamental particles
– the existence of subatomic particles other than protons, neutrons and electrons
● investigate the Standard Model of matter, including:
– quarks, and the quark composition hadrons
– leptons
– fundamental forces (ACSPH141, ACSPH142)
● investigate the operation and role of particle accelerators in obtaining evidence that tests and/or
validates aspects of theories, including the Standard Model of matter (ACSPH120, ACSPH121,
ACSPH122, ACSPH146)

Glossary
Glossary term Definition
ampere A unit of electric current equal to a flow of one coulomb per second.
black body An imaginary object that perfectly absorbs radiation (and also a perfect
emitter) at all wavelengths.
charge The intrinsic electrical nature of a body. May be positive or negative.
classical physics Physics as it was understood before the advent of quantum physics and
relativity. The term is generally applied to the rules of physics that were
established before the end of the 19th century.
collision An interaction, usually involving contact, between two or more bodies.
conclusion A judgement based on evidence.
controlled variable A variable that is kept constant (or changed in constant ways) during an
investigation.
dependent variable A variable that changes in response to changes to the independent variable
in an investigation.
digital technologies Systems that handle digital data, including hardware and software, for
specific purposes.
dipole Having opposite electric charge at opposite ends of a molecule or body.
dynamic Changing over time, eg moving.
elastic The property of a body that enables it to regain its original shape following
the removal of a force that deformed it.
elastic collision A collision in which the total kinetic energy of the colliding bodies after
collision is equal to their total kinetic energy before collision.
electric current The flow of electric charge, usually through a conductor or resistor. The
term may refer to the flow of charged particles through a vacuum. In the
context of current, charge may be electrons, ions or positive holes (in a
semiconductor).
electric field A region in which a stationary electric charge experiences a force due to
the influence of another charged object.
electrical resistance The ratio of the voltage across a component of a circuit to the current
flowing through it: R = V/I. The Systems Internationale (SI) unit for electrical
resistance is ohm (equivalent to a volt/ampere).
energy The capacity of a physical system to do work. The capacity of

electromagnetic radiation to do work.
energy potential The energy that an object possesses due to its position in a force field or
that is stored in a system by virtue of the configuration and interaction
between bodies in that system, eg elastic potential energy.

environment All surroundings, both living and non-living.
equilibrium A state of balance resulting from the application of two or more forces that
produce a zero net force.
equipotential Points in a field that have the same potential.
field A region in which a body experiences a force due to the effects of another
body. The effect can be the mass within the bodies, their charges or
magnetic properties.
force An influence that acts to change the motion of a body or to impose an

elastic strain on it.
frame of reference A coordinate system that enables the position of a body to be specified.
hypothesis A tentative explanation for an observed phenomenon, expressed as a

precise and unambiguous statement that can be supported or refuted by
investigation.
independent A variable that is changed in an investigation to see what effect it has on

variable the dependent variable.
inelastic collision A collision in which the total kinetic energy of the colliding bodies after
collision is less than their total kinetic energy before collision.
inertial frame of A reference frame in which a body moves at a constant velocity unless
reference acted on by a net force.
investigation A scientific process of answering a question, exploring an idea or solving a

problem, which requires activities such as planning a course of action,
collecting data, interpreting data, reaching a conclusion and communicating
these activities. Investigations can include practical and/or secondary-
sourced data or information.
kinetic energy The energy that an object possesses by virtue of its motion.
law A statement describing invariable relationships between phenomena in

specified conditions, frequently expressed mathematically.
linear momentum The product of the mass (m) and the velocity (v) of a body.
magnet A magnetic material that has been magnetised, ie has a magnetic field.
magnetic material A material that is capable of being magnetised.
magnetised material Magnetic material that has magnetic poles.
model A representation that describes, simplifies, clarifies or provides an

explanation of the workings, structure or relationships within an object,
system or idea.
net force The vector sum of the forces acting on a body.
non-ohmic Relating to a circuit element, whose electrical resistance does not obey
Ohm’s Law.

ohmic Relating to a circuit element, whose electrical resistance obeys Ohm’s Law.
photoelectric effect The process in which a photon ejects an electron from an atom so that all
the energy of the photon is absorbed in separating the electron and
imparting kinetic energy to it.
plan Decide on a course of action, and make arrangements relating to that

course of action, in advance.
practical An investigation that involves systematic scientific inquiry by planning a

investigation course of action and using equipment to collect data and/or information.
Practical investigations include a range of hands-on activities, and can
include laboratory investigations and fieldwork.
primary Information created by a person or persons directly involved in a study or

sources/primary observing an event.
data
qualitative Relating to, measuring, or measured by the quality of something.
quantitative Relating to, measuring, or measured by the quantity of something.
reliability An extent to which repeated observations and/or measurements taken

under identical circumstances will yield similar results.
resistor An electrical component or material the properties of which limit the flow of
an electric current through it.
secondary-sourced An investigation that involves systematic scientific inquiry by planning a

investigation course of action and sourcing data and/or information from other people,
including written information, reports, graphs, tables, diagrams and images.
solenoid An electrical conductor that is wound into a helix with a small pitch, or
into two or more coaxial helices, through which a current passes and
establishes a magnetic field, usually to activate a metal bar within the
helix and perform some mechanical task.
static Not changing over time.
technology All types of human-made systems, tools, machines and processes that can
help solve human problems or satisfy needs or wants, including modern
computational and communication devices.
theory A set of concepts, claims and/or laws that can be used to explain and
predict a wide range of related observed phenomena. Theories are typically
founded on clearly identified assumptions, are testable, produce
reproducible results and have explanatory power.
validity An extent to which tests measure what was intended; an extent to

which data, inferences and actions produced from tests and other
processes are accurate.
variable In an investigation, a factor that can be changed, maintained or measured

 eg time, distance, light, temperature.

vector A quantity having both magnitude and direction.
voltage A measure of the electrical potential difference between two points. The SI
unit for voltage is the volt (equivalent to joule/coulomb).
work (in physics) Work done by a force when the application of that force results in
movement having a component in the direction of the applied force.

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NSW Syllabus

for the Australian

Requirements for Practical Investigations

Practical investigations include:

Secondary-sourced investigations include:

Physics Stage 6 Syllabus 17