Test Bank for Introduction to Criminology: Theories, Methods, and Criminal Behavior, Eighth

Test Bank for Introduction to Criminology: Theories,

Methods, and Criminal Behavior, Eighth 8th Edition
Frank E. Hagan

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Hagan, Introduction to Criminology 8e Instructor Resource

1. The use of empirical (quantitative) or scientific investigation for

the improvement of society is most characteristic of:

a. Classicalism
b. Demonology
c. Marxism
*d. Positivism

2. Positivist criminology is largely centered on:

*a. Empirical research

b. Socialism
c. Speculation
d. Theological doctrine

3. The most important figure in biological positivism was:

*a. Cesare Lombroso

b. Ernest Hooten
c. Henry Goddard
d. Robert Dugsdale

4. Which of the following refers to the study of the size and shape of
the skull to determine a person's intelligence and personality?

a. Atavism
b. Palmistry
*c. Phrenology
d. Physiognomy

5. The "law of criminal saturation" refers to the idea that:

a. Natural forces prevent the crime rate from exceeding a certain

rate within society
*b. Crime expands to fit the amount of control machinery assigned
to it
c. Society will not let the crime rate exceed beyond a certain
point
d. Eventually society will need to revert to the practice of
exile to handle its criminal population
6. The movement to control degenerates through sterilization,
euthanasia, and cutbacks in welfare is known as the:

*a. Eugenics movement

b. Jukes phenomenon
c. Goring effect
d. Social Darwinist movement

7. Which somatotype did Sheldon (1940) propose was linked to criminal

behavior?

a. Ectomorph
b. Endomorph
*c. Mesomorph
d. Teleomorph

8. "Twin studies" are performed to:

a. Check the accuracy of the original study through duplication

b. Investigate the claim that twins are less likely to commit
crime than the general population
c. Investigate the claim that twins are more likely to commit
crime than only children
*d. Investigate the extent of influence that environmental and
genetic factors have on crime

9. The "XYY syndrome" refers to the belief that men with an extra "Y"
chromosome are:

a. Immune to criminogenic influences

b. More likely to go into the field of law enforcement
c. Predisposed to involvement in property crimes such as
vandalism and theft
*d. Predisposed to violent and aggressive behavior

10. According to Freudian theory, what is the name for the part of a
person's personality that is entirely selfish and focused on maximizing
pleasure?

*a. Id
b. Ego
c. Superego
d. Unconsciousness

11. The idea that we learn by observing others is attributable to:

*a. Albert Bandura

b. B.F. Skinner
c. Hans Eysenck
 d. Sigmund Freud

12. The tendency to assume the mutual exclusivity of criminals (defined

as prisoners) and noncriminals (defined as nonprisoners) is known as:

a. The Durham decision

*b. The dualistic fallacy
c. Monozygotic concordance
d. Psychometry

13. After observing other children fighting on the playground, a young

boy begins to pick a fight with one of his classmates. This scenario is
most closely an example of:

a. The criminal personality

b. Feeblemindedness
c. Operant conditioning
*d. Social learning theory

14. One of the strongest contemporary explanations of the observed

connection between IQ and crime points to _______ as the source of the
relationship.

a. Gender
b. Race
*c. School failure
d. Social class

15. The most common form of treatment for brain disorders in the
contemporary United States is:

*a. Drug treatment

b. The frontal lobotomy
c. Psychometry
d. Psychotherapy

16. The theory that criminals are born as such, and that they are
"throwbacks" to an earlier and more primitive evolutionary period, is
known as:

*a. Atavism
b. Eugenics
c. Neobiological positivism
d. Somatotype theory

17. In his book The Jukes, author Robert Dugsdale concluded that crime
is:
 a. Attributable to feeble-mindedness
*b. Hereditary
c. Linked to physical inferiority
d. Rooted in atavism

18. In biological positivism, the idea that "survival of the fittest"

is applicable to human society is known as:

a. Every man for himself

b. The r/K continuum theory
*c. Social Darwinism
d. Survival theory

19. Which theorist is known for suggesting that physical inferiority is

the cause of criminality?

a. Charles Goring
*b. Ernest Hooton
c. Henry Goddard
d. Robert Dugsdale

20. Which of the following theorists suggested the existence of a

"criminal personality"?

a. Albert Bandura
b. Hans Eysenck and B.F. Skinner
*c. Samuel Yochelson and Stanton Samenow
d. Sigmund Freud

21. True or False? Present-day biological theorists are working to

identify the "crime gene" that they believe to be the source of
criminal behavior.

a. True
*b. False

22. True or False? Positivistic theory is often criticized as being

philosophical and speculative, and lacking an empirical orientation.

a. True
*b. False

23. True or False? Lombroso was the most influential figure in

biological positivism.

*a. True
b. False
24. True or False? In Charles Goring's famous study in The English
Convict, the author disputes the connection between heredity and crime.

a. True
*b. False

25. True or False? Variables such as diet, environmental pollution,

endocrine imbalance, and allergies have been claimed to have
criminogenic influence.

*a. True
b. False

26. True or False? Psychometry refers to a procedure in which parts of

the frontal lobes of the brain are destroyed to alter behavior.

a. True
*b. False

27. True or False? The "Twinkie defense" refers to the claim that sugar
consumption can serve as a causal agent in crime.

*a. True
b. False

28. True or False? Present-day biological theories of crime universally

reject the influence of environment on criminal behavior.

a. True
*b. False

29. True or False? Some researchers argue that human females may have
evolved superior inhibitory capabilities in the aggression domain.

*a. True
b. False

30. True or False? The superego was identified by Freud as the

mediator, or "referee," which works to balance the desires of the id
and the controls of the ego.

a. True
*b. False

31. Define positivism.

Correct Answer:
The use of empirical (quantitative) or scientific investigation for the
improvement of society

32. Briefly describe Robert Dugsdale's conclusion from his study of the
"Jukes."

Correct Answer:
In his book The Jukes, Robert Dugsdale made the argument that crime was
hereditary.

33. What is the dualistic fallacy?

Correct Answer:
The tendency to assume the mutual exclusivity of criminals (defined as
prisoners) and noncriminals (defined as nonprisoners)

34. According to Freudian theory, what is the role of the ego?

Correct Answer:
It serves as the mediator or "referee" between the id and the superego.

35. Why are twin and adoption studies used in studies of criminality?

Correct Answer:
They help us identify the role of "nature" versus "nature" in crime
causation.

36. Describe the theory of atavism.

Correct Answer:
This theory was proposed by Cesare Lombroso, and argued that criminals
are born as such; that they are throwbacks to an earlier evolutionary
period; and that they are distinguishable by physical stigmata.

37. Identify one weakness to the early biological theories of crime.

Correct Answer:
Examples: Proposed biological basis for socially defined categories of
behavior; typically used small or inadequate samples; subject to the
"dualistic fallacy"; weak operationalization of variables

38. What are prefrontal lobotomies?

Correct Answer:
Surgeries to destroy portions of the frontal lobes of the brain; these
were performed in order to control behavior.
39. What is the M'Naghten rule?

Correct Answer:
The rule that held that individuals who are insane, unable to
distinguish between right and wrong, cannot be held responsible for
their actions

40. The study of facial features and other body characteristics to gain
sight into human personality is referred to as _______.

Correct Answer:
Physiognomy

41. Most of the claims of early biological theorists have been refuted;
still, these theories did make some important contributions to the
field of criminology. Identify these contributions.

Correct Answer:
The commitment of the early positivists to testing their theories by
means of experiments, the collection of empirical data, and the
employment of statistics are continuing features of modern criminology.

42. Identify the strengths and weaknesses to taking an individualist

(biological or psychological) approach to criminology.

Correct Answer:
The most obvious policy outcome of biological and psychological
theories in criminology was the shift in focus from “Why is there crime
in society?” to “Why is this individual a criminal?” The criminal as
patient and crime as a disease became predominant and rehabilitation
the emphasis. Psychological positivism placed a greater emphasis on
counseling and improving the lot of potential criminals. The paradigm
was shifted from punishing the criminal to rehabilitating him or her.
The creation of a separate juvenile court system recognized the
redemptive possibilities of criminal justice policies. An increase in
discretion and individualized treatments reflected this rehabilitation
orientation. Biopsychological explanations of criminal behavior are
often viewed as politically and socially repressive. If the use of such
findings leads social policy away from improving environmental
conditions, then the approaches are being used for repressive ends. Not
all individuals can be lumped together into a single explanation of
their criminality.

43. Compare and contrast the biological and psychological approaches to

criminology.

Correct Answer:
Biological: Crime as a medical problem, Genetic predisposition,
Biological determinism, Physical inferiority; Emphasis on treatment and
rehabilitation. Psychological: Crime as a medical problem,
Psychological determinism, Criminal personality, IQ; Emphasis on
treatment and rehabilitation, Juvenile court, Indeterminate sentencing,
Probation

44. How has positivism contributed to criminology as a field? In

responding, you might consider how positivism differs from prior
approaches to the study of crime.

Correct Answer:
Positivism: Social Darwinism, Born criminals, Feeblemindedness,
Psychosurgery, Eugenics; Emphasis on treatment and rehabilitation,
Psychosurgery, Sterilization; basic premises of positivism are:
measurement (quantification), objectivity (neutrality), and causality
(determinism). Positivism, with its emphasis on scientific
investigation, also helped sponsor a reform orientation. Rehabilitation
and reformation replaced punishment as the primary motive of
corrections. In fact, the very terminology changed from penology to
corrections. Its emphasis on therapy and treatment and scientific
evaluation were positive developments

45. Compare and contrast early biological theories of crime with their
contemporary counterparts. How are these theories alike, and how do
they differ?

Correct Answer:
Phrenology attempted to determine intelligence and personality on the
basis of the size and shape of the skull and posited that certain areas
of the brain corresponded to various psychological and intellectual
characteristics. Physiognomy involved measuring facial and other body
characteristics as indicative of human personality, while palmistry was
concerned with “palm reading,” analyzing a person’s character and
future by examining the lines on the palm. Lombroso was highly
influenced by Darwin’s theory of evolution, and this led him to the
development of his theory of atavism that criminals were “throwbacks”
to an earlier and more primitive evolutionary period. Such born
criminals could be identified by certain physical stigmata, outward
appearances, particularly facial, which tended to distinguish them from
noncriminals. Social Darwinism claimed that there is a “survival of the
fittest” among human beings and social institutions. The success or
failure of individuals competing in society was not to be interfered
with, since success or failure was all part of a natural system of
societal evolution. Enrico Ferri, Lombroso’s son-in-law, proposed four
types of criminals: insane, born, occasional, and criminal by passion.
He proposed a multiple-factor approach to crime causation, admitting
both individual and environmental factors. Some physically
distinguishing characteristics of Hooton’s damned included: tattooing;
thin beard and body hair, but thick head hair; straight hair; red-brown
hair; blue-gray and mixed eye color; thin eyebrows; low and sloping
foreheads; thin lips; pointed and small ears; and long, thin necks with
sloping shoulders. These findings and their interpretations could be
regarded with a tolerant, mild curiosity if they had appeared in
Lombroso’s 1876 work, but these were released in 1939 by a professor
from one of America’s finest universities. Sheldon (1940) proposed
three somatotypes, body builds that relate to personality
characteristics (temperaments). Endomorphs have soft, round, plump
physiques and tend to be relaxed, easygoing, and extroverted;
mesomorphs are hard and muscularly built, and are aggressive,
assertive, extroverted, and action-seekers; and ectomorphs are thin and
fragile of form as well as introverted, sensitive, and subject to
worrying. Comparing judgmental samples of “problem” youths with college
males, Sheldon claimed that the problem youths tended to be
mesomorphic. New theories: The newest biological theories (some
advocates prefer the name biosocial theories) focus on a broad range of
biological factors including genetic and environmental. Factors such as
head injuries, diets, exposure to toxins such as lead, and birth
complications are viewed as affecting the nervous system. “No one
argues that there is a gene leading directly to crime” (Cullen & Agnew,
2003, p. 3). Most of these theories recognize that interaction exists
between biological factors and the environment and suggest that some
biological factors partially account for some crime in some types of
offenders.

46. Explain the theory-policy connection discussed in this chapter.

Correct Answer:
Shift from “why is there crime in society?” to “why is this individual
a criminal?”; Positivism encouraged rehabilitation and reformation;
Psychological emphasized counseling and improving the lot of potential
criminals; Paradigm shift from punishment to rehabilitation.

47. What are the three steps in the positivistic approach to crime?

Correct Answer:
Application of the scientific method, discovery and diagnosis of
pathology, treatment

48. List three important names in the biological positivism perspective

and list their accomplishments.

Correct Answer:
Lombroso (1853–1909)—Most important figure in biological positivism;
Enrico Ferri (1856–1929)—Proposed the Law of Criminal Saturation;
Raffaelo Garofalo (1852–1934)—Advocated Social Darwinism; Charles
Goring (1870–1919)—Proposed a link between feeblemindedness and crime;
Robert Dugsdale (1841–1883)—Wrote The Jukes (1877) and proposed that
crime was hereditary; Henry Goddard (1866–1957)—Wrote Kallikak Family
(1912), proposed that crime was caused by feeblemindedness, or low
mentality; Ernest Hooton (1887–1954)—Proposed connection between
physical inferiority and crime; William Sheldon (1898–1977)—Proposed
connection between body types and crime.

49. What are three of the critiques associated with early biological
positivism?
Test Bank for Introduction to Criminology: Theories, Methods, and Criminal Behavior, E

Correct Answer:
Suggests a genetic source for a socially defined category of behavior;
Weakly operationalize key variables; Are often based on
small/inappropriate samples; Are compatible with
authoritarian/totalitarian thinking

50. Discuss the nature versus nurture debate. Compare and contrast the
two different sides of the discussion.

Correct Answer:
Shah and Roth (1974), in their review of criminology’s nature versus
nurture controversy (whether criminality is explained by genetics or
environment), detail a variety of research including biochemical
effects, brain disorders, endocrine and hormonal problems, nerve
disorders, and other factors that can hardly be ignored in explaining
at least a restricted number of individual cases of criminality (Marsh
& Katz, 1985). The newest biological theories (some advocates prefer
the name biosocial theories) focus on a broad range of biological
factors including genetic and environmental. Factors such as head
injuries, diets, exposure to toxins such as lead, and birth
complications are viewed as affecting the nervous system. “No one
argues that there is a gene leading directly to crime” (Cullen & Agnew,
2003, p. 3). Most of these theories recognize that interaction exists
between biological factors and the environment and suggest that some
biological factors partially account for some crime in some types of
offenders.

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