1.

Unit One: Elements of Grammar

 Overview
Dear learner, under this unit, you will learn some concepts of grammar especially at sentence
level. Elements of sentence will be analyzed both in structure and word class.

Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
 identify the features of different kinds of sentences;
 analyze phrases and clauses as the main constituents of a sentences;
 Construct meaningful sentences of different kinds and types.

1.1 Sentence Elements

Before dealing with sentence, let us start with defining the term grammar. What do we mean by
grammar? Grammar is the system and structure of a language. It is a rule of a language that
gives meaningful expressions which helps people to achieve communication. These rules of
grammar help us to know the appropriate order of words and to decide which form of a word to
use.
What is a sentence then? Sentence is a group of words that gives a complete thought, and
makes sense on its own. Sentence bears a complete meaning and communicates the language
users effectively. In academic writing, a sentence we write must consist of grammatically
accurate, complete, and have clear meaning. It begins with a capital letter, and ends with an
appropriate punctuation mark (i.e. full stop, question mark or exclamation mark).

Dear student, we hope that you have got qualities of a sentence in the above section. Now, let us
discuss about the elements of a sentence. In a broad sense, a sentence has two major elements in
it. These are subject and predicate.

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The subject tells what or whom the sentence is about, while the predicate tells something about
the subject. In the following sentences, the predicate is underlined while the subject is
highlighted.

Example: Aster runs.

Aster and her dog run on the beach every morning.
To determine the subject of a sentence, first isolate the verb and then make a question by placing
"who?" or "what?" before it; the answer is the subject.
 The Simple Subject and Simple Predicate
Every subject is built around one noun or pronoun that, when removed all the words that modify
it, is known as the simple subject. Consider the following example:
Example: A piece of cake would satisfy his hunger.
We students should respect our teachers.
 A sentence may have a compound subject. That is a simple sentence consisting of more
than one noun or pronoun as in the following examples:
Example: Team flags, rock posters and family photographs covered the walls.
Her uncle and she walked slowly through the art gallery and admired the
powerful sculptures exhibited there.
The second sentence above features a compound predicate, a predicate that includes more than
one verb pertaining to the same subject (in this case, "walked" and "admired").

 A predicate has a verb and object or complement in it. Let us see the difference
between the two.
 Objects
Objects: A verb may be followed by an object that completes the meaning of the verb. There are
two kinds of objects which follow verbs: direct objects and indirect objects. To determine if a
verb has a direct object, we, simply, isolate the verb and make it into a
question by placing "whom?" or "what?" after it. The answer, if there is one, is the direct object.
A verb may be followed by an object that completes the meaning of the verb. There are two
kinds of objects which follow verbs: direct objects and indirect objects. To determine if a verb
has a direct object, we, simply, isolate the verb and make it into a question by placing "whom?"
or "what?" after it.

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 Direct Object: A direct object is a noun or pronoun that receives the action expressed by the
verb or names the result of the action. They answer the questions what? or whom?.
Example: Almaz typed the paper.
Indirect Object: An indirect object tells to whom or to what, for whom or for what the action of
the verb is done. An indirect object is usually placed between the verb and the direct object.
When an indirect object follows the direct object, the indirect object will be preceded by to, for,
or of.
Example: The young man gave Almaz a bunch of flowers.
The storekeeper sent the carpet to the hotel.
Both sentences contain indirect objects. An indirect object, like a direct object, is always a noun
or pronoun which is the recipient of the direct object. To determine if a verb has an indirect
object, isolate the verb and ask to whom? to what?, for whom?, or for what? after it. The answer
is the indirect object.

Note that, in English, all verbs are not necessarily followed by objects. Consider the verbs in
the following sentence:
Example: After work, my sister usually jogs around the compound.
The boy laughed.
Therefore, verbs can be grouped as transitive and intransitive. Those Verbs that take objects
are known as transitive verbs and verbs which do not take objects are called intransitive verbs.
 Some verbs can be either transitive verbs or intransitive verbs, depending on the context:
Example: I hope the Senators win the next game. (Transitive)

1.2 Parts of Speech

Parts of speech are word classes into which English words are divided on the basis of
meaning, form, and function. Parts of speech in English are nouns, pronouns, adjectives,
verbs, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections.

The meaning of the part of speech is the meaning in which that word belongs. For example,
nouns are words denoting people, things, notions, and the like; verbs denote actions;
adjectives denote qualities.

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 Form includes suffixes, endings, and other grammatical forms. For example, the suffix
"ence" is a noun suffix; the suffix "ize" is a verb suffix; nouns can be singular or plural
(the plural ending "s"); verbs have tense forms (writes, wrote, was writing); adjectives have
degrees of comparison (larger, more expensive).

Function, the most important distinguishing feature, is the function in a sentence. For
example, nouns usually function as subjects or objects, verbs function as predicates, and
adjectives function as attributes. As standard English word order is quite strict, each part
of the sentence has its own place and can be identified by its position in the sentence.

1.2.1 NOUNS
A noun is a word used as the name of a person or a thing. eg. Dereje, Hawassa. . In the
following examples, the nouns are underlined.
 He opened the parcel.
 She is a student.
 The weather is warm.
 A cat is sitting on the steps.
Nouns can also refer to actions and events: theft, landing; and to roles: pilot, spokesman
A. Kinds of Nouns
Nouns have many different kinds. But among grammarians, there are various ways of
categorizing nouns.
Generally, there are four kinds of nouns in English. These are: Common nouns, Proper nouns,
Abstract nouns and Collective nouns.

1. Common nouns: common noun is a noun which is shared those who or which are found
in the same species or category. For example, the word dog is shared by all species of this
creature;, table is shared by all types of tables. Other common nouns include man, pen, bird,
soil, etc.
Common nouns are divided into countable nouns (a boy, a book, an idea) and uncountable nouns
(milk, equipment, kindness).

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Countable nouns are divided into concrete nouns (a boy, a book) and abstract nouns (an idea).
Uncountable nouns are divided into concrete nouns (milk, equipment) and abstract nouns
(kindness).

Countable nouns have the category of number: one chair – two chairs; a house – three houses; a
boy – boys. Countable nouns generally form the plural by adding the ending s/es: a ball – balls; a
table – tables; a play – plays; a city – cities; a knife – knives.

A limited number of nouns have irregular plural forms: a man – men; a woman – women; a child
– children; a tooth – teeth; a sheep – sheep; a crisis – crises; a formula – formulae; a stimulus –
stimuli. (See Irregular Plural Nouns in the section Writing.)

Uncountable nouns can't be counted: air, water, sugar, gold, chemistry, education, help, love,
progress, energy, economics. They don't have the category of number and don't take the ending
s/es.

2. Proper nouns: Names of individual persons or things are referred to as proper

nouns. In English, proper nouns must begin with a capital letter. The underlined words in
the following sentences are proper nouns. e.g. Yabsira, Ethiopia, Addis Ababa.

3. Abstract nouns: Abstract nouns refer to ideas and qualities: time, result, security, beauty,
charity, courage fear, Joy, kindness

4. Collective nouns: Crowd, flock, group, swarm, team

Some tips about nouns

 English nouns don't have suffixes or endings to show gender. (Only the personal
pronouns "he, she, it" and their forms show gender.) There are a few nouns with the
feminine suffix "ess": hostess, stewardess, actress, waitress, princess, baroness, goddess,
and lioness. But on the whole, gender in English is connected only to the meaning of
nouns.

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 For example:
 Man, boy, father, son, brother, husband, uncle, nephew, king, lord, mister have
masculine gender (he).
 Woman, girl, mother, daughter, sister, wife, aunt, niece, queen, lady, madam
have feminine gender (she).
 A teacher, doctor, author, captain, secretary, student, friend, thief, cook can be
"he" or "she".

An animal is generally "it", but if necessary, you can indicate gender by using "he" or "she": My
cat is very clever. She understands everything. "It" is used when referring to an inanimate object
or an abstract noun: table, book, window, money, laughter, truth, health.
 All nouns are "they" in the plural (if they have the plural form).
Animate nouns can show possession and belonging (the possessive case) by adding the
apostrophe and "s": Abebe’s book, the doctor's house; my friend's car; the dog's name, the dogs'
names; the ladies' room, the men's room, children's books.

Many English nouns don't have any suffixes that mark them as nouns; for example, city – noun;
pretty – adjective; copy – noun or verb; sparrow – noun; tomorrow – adverb; narrow – adjective;
borrow – verb.
 At the same time, there are many suffixes that signal that the word is a noun.
For example:
-ment: argument, document; -ness: kindness, happiness;
-ion: station, illusion; -er, -or: worker, doctor;
-ism: capitalism, idealism; -ist: idealist, psychologist;
-age: courage, passage; -ty, -ity: safety, clarity;
-ship: friendship, ownership; -ance,-ence: distance, absence;
-ency: agency, urgency; -ure: picture, treasure.
 The most reliable way to identify a noun is by its function in the sentence (subject,
object) and by the word order and immediate surroundings. For example, the phrases "a
book, a new book, his books; this book is interesting; the books are on the table; he likes
these books" show that the words "book, books" are nouns.

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 Exercise 1
Read the following passage carefully. Make a list of all the nouns you find in your exercise
book. Then divide them into singular nouns and plural nouns.

Food contains many different substances that work together to keep you going. Food substances
that give you energy are called carbohydrates and fats. Carbohydrates are found in foods like
potatoes, rice and bread. Milk, butter and cheese are fatty foods. The parts of your food that
help your body grow and mend itself are called proteins. They are mainly found in meat, milk,
eggs, nuts and grain.

Your food also contains vitamins and minerals which help you stay healthy. They make the chemicals in
your body work properly. Food also contains tough parts called fiber. Fiber helps to keep your intestines
in good working order. We take in water from our food, as well as water from what we drink.

Your blood needs a great deal of water to carry all these substances around your body.

Plural Nouns Singular Nouns

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Countable or uncountable noun
It is not always obvious from the meaning whether a noun is countable or uncountable. For
example, information, news and furniture are uncountable.
I've got some information for you. NOT “an information.”
There was no news of the missing hiker NOT “There were no news.”
They had very little furniture, NOT “very few furnitures.”
But we can use piece(s) of, bit(s) of and item(s) of with many such nouns.
I've got a piece of information for you.
They had very few items of furniture.

Singular Subject: The book is interesting.

Plural Subject: The books are interesting.
Singular Subject: A duck was flying overhead.
Plural Subject: Two ducks were flying overhead.
Singular Subject: One student lives here.
Plural Subject: Three students live here.

1.2.2 PRONOUNS
Pronouns are words which can be used in the place of nouns. The personal pronouns in the
following sentences are underlined.
Example
She will do the work herself.
They gave it to him.
We want to know who was there.
In the following examples, pronouns are used in the place of nouns, instead of repeating the
nouns.
Example
I saw a boy on the steps. He seemed to recognize me.
My friend and her brother like to dance. They dance whenever they can.
In the first example, the pronoun he is used instead of repeating the noun boy. In the second
example, the pronoun they is used instead of repeating the nouns friend and brother.

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1. The subjective case
The following are English personal pronouns. They are usually referred to as indicated below:
Singular Plural
First Person I we
Second Person you you
Third Person he, she, it they
Thus, I is referred to as the first person singular; we is referred to as the first person plural; you is
referred to as the second person; he, she and it are referred to as the third person singular; and
they is referred to as the third person plural.

These pronouns are said to be in the subjective case, because they can each be used as the subject
of a verb. In the following examples, the personal pronouns in the subjective case are underlined.
e.g. I am ready.
He is fortunate.
2. Agreement of personal pronouns with their antecedents
The pronoun I is used to refer to the speaker or writer. The pronoun you is used to refer to one or
more persons or things which are being addressed by the speaker or writer.

The pronoun we is normally used to refer to the speaker or writer together with one or more other
people.

When a pronoun stands for a noun which has already been mentioned, the noun is sometimes
referred to as the antecedent of the pronoun.
e.g. The apples are cheap, but they are not ripe yet.
In the preceding example, the noun apples is the antecedent of the pronoun they. The antecedents
of pronouns usually precede the pronouns. However, a pronoun may also stand for a noun which
follows the pronoun, provided that it is obvious to what the pronoun is referring.
e.g. Because they are sour, the apples will be used for cooking.
In this example, the pronoun they stands for the noun apples, which occurs later in the sentence.

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a. Male and female antecedents
The third person singular pronouns he and she are the only pronouns in the subjective case which
are differentiated with respect to gender. The pronoun he is used to refer to male antecedents,
and the pronoun she is used to refer to female antecedents.
Example: A girl was sitting on the steps. She was waiting for her friend.
A boy was delivering papers. He seemed to be in a hurry.
In the above examples, the pronoun she agrees with the female antecedent girl, and the pronoun
he agrees with the male antecedent boy.

b. Singular and plural antecedents

English third person pronouns are also differentiated with respect to number. If the antecedent of
a pronoun is singular, a singular pronoun must be used. If the antecedent of a pronoun is plural, a
plural pronoun must be used.
e.g. I have one watch. It is quite accurate.
I have two watches. They are quite accurate.
This is my sister. She is younger than I am.
These are my sisters. They are younger than I am.
In the above examples, the singular pronouns it, he and she agree with the singular antecedents
watch, sister and brother. The plural pronoun they agrees with the plural antecedents watches and
sisters.
As illustrated above, the third person plural pronoun they can be used to stand for either male or
female antecedents.
e.g. The men liked to play cards. They took turns keeping score.
The women came, but they did not stay long.
c. Human and non-human antecedents
The third person singular pronouns he, she and it usually distinguish between antecedents which
refer to human beings, and antecedents which refer to things which are not human. The pronouns
he and she usually refer to human beings. However, he or she may also be used to refer to an
animal, if the gender of the animal is known to the speaker or writer.
Example: My aunt is very intelligent. She has a degree in philosophy.
His brother was not there, because he had to work late.

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 Your dog is well trained. He is a good guard dog.
In the first two examples, he and she are used to refer to human beings. In the third example, he
is used to refer to an animal. If a third person singular antecedent does not refer to a human
being, the pronoun it is usually used. However, when the thing named by the antecedent is
referred to as if it had human qualities, the pronoun he or she may be used. For instance, ships
and countries are sometimes referred to as she.
Example: This is a good book. It is interesting and well-written.
The Shebele is a sailing ship. She is very seaworthy.
In the first example, it is used to refer to thing which is not human. In the second example, she is
used to refer to a thing which is not human.
e.g. The children bought ice cream, because they felt hungry.
The umbrellas are popular, because they are inexpensive.
In the first example, they stands for the human antecedent children. In the second example, they
stands for the non-human antecedent umbrellas.
The main rules for the agreement of the third person pronouns he, she, it and they with their
antecedents can be summarized as follows:
Agreement of Third Person Pronouns with their Antecedents
 he singular, male, usually human
 she singular, female, usually human
 it singular, non-human
 they plural
3. Special uses of It
The pronoun it can be used without an antecedent in sentences referring to general conditions
such as the weather or the time.
Example: It is raining.
It has been a wet summer.
It is too hot here.
4. The objective case
Objects of verbs have already been discussed in the chapter on transitive and intransitive verbs.
When a personal pronoun is the object of a verb, the pronoun must be in the objective case. In
the following sentences, the pronouns in the objective case are underlined.

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Example: They need me.
We like you.
They understand him.
As shown in the following table, each personal pronoun in the subjective case has a
corresponding form in the objective case.
Personal pronouns in the subjective and objective cases

Subjective Case Objective Case

I Me
You You
He Him
She Her
It It
We Us
They Them

5. Possessive personal pronouns

Each of the personal pronouns has forms which indicate possession. For instance, in the
following sentences, the underlined words are the possessive forms of personal pronouns.
e.g. This is your book.
This book is yours.
His apartment is large, but mine is small.
Their marks are higher than ours.
a. Possessive adjectives
As shown in the preceding table, the personal pronouns have two possessive forms. One form
shows possession by preceding a noun. A personal pronoun in this form may be referred to as a
possessive adjective, since, like an adjective, it describes the thing to which the noun refers.
In the following sentences, the possessive adjectives are underlined.
Example: My bicycle is new.
Does your uncle play hockey?
Her father is not here.

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 Their house is one block from the school.
b. Possessive pronouns
The possessive form of a personal pronoun which can be used independently can be referred to
as a possessive pronoun, since it can be used in the place of a noun. In the following sentences,
the possessive pronouns are underlined.
e.g. He did not bring his coat, but I brought mine.
Our mail has been delivered, but theirs has not.
In the above examples, mine stands for my coat, and theirs stands for their mail.
The subjective, objective and possessive forms of the English personal pronouns are shown in
the following table.

Subjective Form Objective Form Possessive adjective Possessive pronoun

I Me My mine
you You Your yours
he Him His his
she Her Her hers
It It Its [its]
we Us Our ours
they Them Their theirs

6. Reflexive Pronouns
Reflexive pronouns are often used when the action described by the verb is directed toward the
thing referred to by the subject of the verb. This use of reflexive pronouns is illustrated in the
following examples. The reflexive pronouns are underlined.
Example: I washed myself thoroughly before putting on clean clothes.
Did you hurt yourself?
Reflexive pronouns can also be used when it is desired to emphasize a personal pronoun. The
reflexive pronouns in the following examples are underlined.
Example: I myself saw what happened.
Did he solve the problem himself?
She did the work herself.

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In these examples, the reflexive pronouns myself, himself and herself are used to emphasize the
personal pronouns I, he and she.
The reflexive personal pronouns are listed below.
Subjective Case Reflexive Pronoun
I ………………………… myself
You……………………….. yourself
he ………………………… himself
she………………………… herself
it…………………………… itself
we……………………….. ...ourselves
you…………………………ourselves
they…………………………themselves

Review Exercise 2
1. In the sentences below, fill in the blanks with the personal pronouns which agree with
the underlined antecedents. For example:
The man walked slowly, because __ was carrying a heavy parcel.
The man walked slowly, because he was carrying a heavy parcel.
Although ___ knew it was dangerous, the girl wanted to ride the horse.
Although she knew it was dangerous, the girl wanted to ride the horse.
1. The children are happy because _______ have a holiday today.
2. My father and I had planned to visit the park, but since it was raining _______ decided not to
go.
3. This chair is valuable because _______ is so old.
4. The woman is pleased because _______ has found work.
5. Until _______ retired, their father managed a business.
6. After the chickens have been cut up, _______ should be sprinkled with spices.
7. Because her husband used to study music, _______ knows how to play several musical
instruments.
8. My neighbor and I like to go shopping together so that _______ can help each other choose
what to buy.
9. Her daughter likes to study, because _______ finds the work interesting.
10. The car is in good condition, but _______ needs new tires.

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1.2.3 Adjectives
*Adjectives are also words which belong to parts of speech. Adjectives describe or modify
another person or thing in the sentence. In modern grammar, the articles — a, an, and the — are
also grouped under adjectives.
 a six-year-old child
 the tall man
 a month's pay
 the richest man
If a group of words containing a subject and verb acts as an adjective, it is called an Adjective
Clause.
My sister, who is much older than I am, is an engineer.
If an adjective clause is stripped of its subject and verb, the resulting modifier becomes an
Adjective Phrase:
He is the man who is keeping my family in the poorhouse.

1.2.3.1 Position of Adjectives

Unlike Adverbs, which often seem capable of appearing up almost anywhere in a sentence,
adjectives nearly always appear immediately before the noun or noun phrase that they modify.
Sometimes they appear in a string of adjectives, and when they do, they appear in a set order
according to category. When indefinite pronouns — such as something, someone, anybody —
are modified by an adjective, the adjective comes after the pronoun:
Anyone capable of doing something horrible to someone nice should be punished.

1.2.3.2 Degrees of Adjectives

Adjectives can express degrees of modification. For example: Debritu is a rich woman, but
Genet is richer than Debritu, and Seble is the richest woman in town.
The degrees of comparison are known as the positive, the comparative, and the superlative.
We use the comparative for comparing two things and the superlative for comparing three or
more things. Notice that the word than frequently accompanies the comparative and the word the
precedes the superlative. The inflected suffixes -er and -est suffice to form most comparatives
and superlatives, although we need -ier and -iest when a two-syllable adjective ends in y (happier
and happiest); otherwise we use more and most when an adjective has more than one syllable.

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 Example:
Positive Comparative Superlative
rich richer richest
lovely lovelier loveliest
beautiful more beautiful most beautiful
Certain adjectives have irregular forms in the comparative and superlative degrees:
Irregular Comparative and Superlative Forms
good better best
bad worse worst
little less least
many/much more most
far further furthest
dear student, be careful not to form comparatives or superlatives of adjectives which already
express an extreme of comparison — unique, for instance — although it probably is possible to
form comparative forms of most adjectives: something can be more perfect, and someone can
have a fuller figure. People who argue that one woman cannot be more pregnant than another
have never been nine-months pregnant with twins.

Order of Adjectives in a Series

It may be difficult to explain why we say "little brown house" and not "brown little house" or
why we say "red Italian sports car" and not "Italian red sports car." The order in which adjectives
in a series sort themselves out is confusing for people learning English as a second language.
Most other languages dictate a similar order, but not necessarily the same order. It takes a lot of
practice with a language before this order becomes instinctive, because the order often seems
quite arbitrary. There is, however, a pattern.
You will find many exceptions to the pattern, but it is definitely important to learn the pattern of
adjective order if it is not part of what you naturally bring to the language.
Adjectives when they come together will appear in the following order as described as follows:
1. Determiners — articles and other limiters. a, an, the
2. Observation — post determiners and limiter adjectives (e.g., a real hero, a perfect idiot)
and adjectives subject to subjective measure (e.g., beautiful, interesting)

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 3. Size and Shape — adjectives subject to objective measure (e.g., wealthy, large, round)
4. Age — adjectives denoting age (e.g., young, old, new, ancient)
5. Color — adjectives denoting color (e.g., red, black, pale)
6. Origin — denominal adjectives denoting source of noun (e.g., Ethiopian, French,
American, Sudanese)
7. Material — denominal adjectives denoting what something is made of (e.g., woolen,
metallic, wooden)
8. Qualifier — final limiter, often regarded as part of the noun (e.g., rocking chair, hunting
cabin, passenger car, book cover)

Review Exercise 3
From the choices provided after each sentence select a word or phrase that would correctly
complete the sentence.
1. Those are probably the ___________ curtains in the store. a. fanciest b. fanciest
c. most fanciest
2. Uncle Someno is really ______________________ man.
a) an old sweet b. a sweet, old c. a sweet old
3. The Ferrari used to be _________________ sports car.
a) a fine German b. a German, fine c. a fine, German
4. Everyone was home for the holidays. What could make for ___________ Christmas than
that? A. a merrier b. the merriest c. a merrier
5. They grew up in ___________________ house in Hawassa City.
a) a comfortable, little b. a little, comfortable c. a comfortable little
6. Sew Lesew is the ____________ Drama I have ever seen. A. most excited
b. most exciting c. most exciteable
7. Teshome wanted to take a course with _____________________ professor.
a) that interesting new Japanese economics
b) that Japanese interesting, new economics
c) that interesting, new, Japanese, economics

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1.2.4 Verb
Dear student, we hope that you have good knowledge of English verbs. Here we will let you
know classes and forms of verbs in detail.
What a verb?
Please write your own definition here.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
A verb is part of speech which usually comes between a subject and object of a sentence.
Verbs normally tell the action or state of the subject. In other words, they play the role of
either to do or to be part of the sentence. Verbs have few suffixes that identify them as
verbs: ize, ise – apologize, organize, advertise; y – deny, imply; fy – intensify, simplify; en
– liven, ripen; ate – concentrate, decorate.

Verbs have a number of prefixes that signal that the word is a verb, for example, enjoy,
become, affirm, confirm, combine, dislike, display, forget, forgive, mistake, prefer,
perceive, receive, remember, understand.

The most reliable way to identify a verb is by its function in the sentence (predicate), by the
word order, and by the immediate surroundings. For example, the phrases "he plays; he is
playing; he played; did he play; he can play tennis" show that the word "play" is a verb.

English verbs can be described from different sides:

 Main verbs,
 Auxiliary verbs,
 Modal verbs;
 Regular and irregular verbs;
 Transitive and intransitive verbs.

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 Exercise 4
Choose the most appropriate answer.
1. He often helps other people. I ______________ he is a good man.
a) think b. am thinking c. have been thinking d. had been thinking
2. I ________________ about this project since last spring.
a) think b. am thinking c. have been thinking d. thought
3. Can you help me, please? I________________ for Mr. Smith's office.
a) look a. am looking b. have looked c. looked
4. Is that Alan over there? He________________ old and tired. Is he sick?
a) looks b. has looked c. has been looking d. looked
5. She________________ the soup in the kitchen when the telephone rang. a. has tasted
b. has been tasting c. was tasting
6. This soup________________ good. I really like it. a. is tasting b. has been tasting
c. tastes
7. Could you call a little later? We ________________ dinner now.
a) are having b. have had c. had
8. She ________________ him for quite a long time. They are good friends.
a) knows b. has known c has been knowing d. had known
9. Your bag ________________ a ton. There are too many books in it.
a) weighs b. is weighing c. has been weighing d. weighed
10. I ________________ a little boy in the room. He is sleeping on the sofa.
a) see b. am seeing c. saw d. had seen
1.2.5 The Adverbs
Dear student, adverbs are also important part of speech. They are words that modify a verb an
adjective another adverb. Adverbs often tell when, where, why, or under what conditions
something happens or happened.
 Example: He drove slowly. — How did he drive? (Adverb modifying a verb)
He drove a very fast car. — How fast was his car? (Adverb modifying
adjective)

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She moved quite slowly down the aisle. — How slowly did she move? (Adverb modifying
another adverb)
 Words in bold are adverbs and underlined are the modified ones.
 Adverbs frequently end in -ly; however, many words and phrases not ending in -ly serve
an adverbial function and an -ly ending is not a guarantee that a word is an adverb. The
words lovely, lonely, motherly, friendly, neighborly, for instance, are adjectives.
Example: That lovely woman lives in a friendly neighborhood.
If a group of words containing a subject and verb acts as an adverb (modifying the verb of a
sentence), it is called an Adverb Clause:
 When this class is over, we're going to the movies.
When a group of words not containing a subject and verb acts as an adverb, it is called an
adverbial phrase. Prepositional phrases frequently have adverbial functions (telling place and
time, modifying the verb):
o He went to the movies.
o She works on holidays.
o They lived in Somalia during the war.
And Infinitive phrases can act as adverbs (usually telling why):
 She hurried to the taxi to see her brother.
 The boy ran to catch the bus.
But there are other kinds of adverbial phrases:
 He calls his mother as often as possible.
1.2.5.1 Kinds of Adverbs
A. Adverbs of Manner
She moved slowly and spoke quietly.
B. Adverbs of Place
She has lived on the island all her life.
She still lives there now.
C. Adverbs of Frequency
She takes the boat to the mainland every day.
She often goes by herself.

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D. Adverbs of Time
She tries to get back before dark.
It's starting to get dark now.
She finished her tea first.
She left early.
D. Adverbs of Purpose
She drives her boat slowly to avoid hitting the rocks.
She shops in several stores to get the best items.
1.2.5.2 Positions of Adverbs
One of the characteristics of adverbs is their ability to move around in a sentence. Adverbs of
manner are particularly flexible in this regard.
Seriously, the minister addressed her congregation.
The minister seriously addressed her congregation.
The minister addressed her congregation seriously.
The following adverbs of frequency appear in various points in these sentences:
 Before the main verb: I never get up before nine o'clock.
 Between the auxiliary verb and the main verb: I have rarely written to my brother
without a good reason.
 Before the verb used to: I always used to see him at his summer home.
 Indefinite adverbs of time can appear either before the verb or between the
auxiliary and the main verb:
He finally showed up for batting practice.
She has recently retired.
1.2.5.3 Order of Adverbs
There is a basic order in which adverbs will appear when there is more than one. It is similar to
The Order of Adjectives, but it is even more flexible.

Verb Manner Place Frequency Time Purpose

Bety swims actively in the pool every morning before dawn to keep in shape.

Daniel walks impatiently into town every afternoon before supper to get a newspaper.

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  Notes on Adverb Order
As a general principle, shorter adverbial phrases precede longer adverbial phrases, regardless of
content. In the following sentence, an adverb of time precedes an adverb of frequency because it
is shorter (and simpler):
Daniel takes a hurried walk before breakfast every day of his life.
A second principle: among similar adverbial phrases of kind (manner, place, frequency, etc.),
the more specific adverbial phrase comes first:
E.g. My grandmother was born in a small house on the plains of northern Shewa.
She promised to meet him for lunch next Tuesday.

1.2.6 Prepositions
Dear learner, prepositions are words which show the relationship between a noun or a pronoun
object and some other words in the sentence. They are always followed by nouns or pronouns.
They are called "the biggest little words” in English because they have very important functions.
There are three Groups of Prepositions:
a. Prepositions of place, position and direction.
b. Prepositions of time.
c. Prepositions for other relationships.
PLACE POSITION DIRECTION TIME OTHER

Above Beyond on after except

across by opposite before as
along down out (of) at like
among from outside by about
at in over for with
away from in front of around during without
behind inside through from by
below into to in for
beside near towards
between off under
up

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Although prepositions are hard to generalize with separate rules, there is one simple rule about
them. And, unlike most rules, this rule has no exceptions.
Rule:
They are always followed by a "noun", never followed by a verb.
By "noun" we include:
Noun (dog, money, love)
Proper Noun (name) (Addis Ababa, Ketema)
Pronoun (you, him, us)
Noun Group (my first car)
Gerund (swimming)
If we want to follow with a verb, we must use the "-ing" form which is really a gerund or verb in
noun form.
Subject + Verb Preposition noun
The pen is on the table.
He lives in England.
Henry is looking for you.
The newspaper is under your green book.
Pascal is used to English people.
She isn't used to working.
We ate before coming.
Prepositions of Time / Place at, in, on
At For A Precise Time
In For Months, Years, Centuries And Long Periods
On For Days And Dates

Example
At In On
At 4:30 pm in March On Monday
At 3 o'clock In Winter On 6 March
At noon In the summer On 22 Dec.2012
At dinnertime In 1990 On Christmas Day
At bedtime In the next century On your birthday

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At the moment In the future On New Year's Eve
Notice that use of the prepositions of time in and on in these common expressions:
In the morning /On Monday morning
In the mornings / On Sunday mornings
In the afternoon(s) / On Sunday afternoons
In the evening(s) / On Friday evenings
When we say next, last, this, every we do not use at, in, on.
I went to New York last June (not in last June)
She is coming back next Monday. (not on next Monday)
I go home every Easter . (not at every Easter)
We'll call you this afternoon. (not in this afternoon)
Place: at, in, on
In General:
At for a POINT (dog, money, love)
In for an ENCLOSED SPACE
On for a SURFACE
At In On
At the bus stop In London On the wall
At the corner In the garden On the ceiling
At the entrance In a box On the floor
At the crossroads In a building On the carpet
At the top of the page In a car On a page
Some other common uses of at / on / in
At In On
At home In a car On a bus
At work In a taxi On a train
At school In a helicopter On a plane
At university In an elevator On a bicycle
At the top In the sky On the radio
At the bottom In the street On the left
At the side In a row On a horse
At reception In a boat On a boat

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 Review Exercise 5

Instructions: For each question, choose the best preposition that suits with the blank space
of each sentence.

1. My best friend lives ______ Boretz Road.

a. in b. on c. at
2. I'll be ready to leave ____ about twenty minutes.
a. in b. on c. at
3. Since he met his new girlfriend, Juan never seems to be ______ home.
a. on b. in c. at
4. The child responded to his mother's demands ______ throwing a tantrum.
a. with b. by c. from
5. I think she spent the entire afternoon ______ the phone.
a. on b. in c. at
6. I will wait ______ 6:30, but then I'm going home.
a. from b. at c. until
7. The police caught the thief _____ the corner of Cascade and Plum Streets.
a. in b. at c. from
8. My fingers were injured so my sister had to write the note _____ me.
a. for b. with c. to
9. I am not interested _____ buying a new car now.
a. to b. for c. in
10. What are the main ingredients ______ this casserole? a. about b. to c. of
11. My best friend, John, is named ______ his great-grandfather. a. after b. to c. about
12. Grandpa stayed up ______ two in the morning. a. since b. for c. until
13. My parents have been married ______ forty-nine years. a. since b. for c. until
14. He usually travels to Philadelphia _______ train. a. by b. at c. with
15. You frequently see this kind of violence ____ television. a. with b. in c. on
16. I told Mom we'd be home ______ an hour or so. a. to b. in c. at
17. I was visiting my best friend _____ the hospital. a. of b. at c. in

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18. The professor _______ South Africa amazed the American students with her stories.
a. from b. of c. in
19. I'll see you ____ home when I get there. a. in b. by c. at
20. It's been snowing ________ Christmas morning. a. since b. for c. until

1.2.7 Conjunctions
Dear student, conjunction is a word that connects parts of a sentence. A conjunction may be
used to indicate the relationship between the ideas expressed in a clause and the ideas expressed
in the rest of a sentence. The conjunctions in the following examples are printed in bold type.
Example: We could go to the library, or we could go to the park.
I can give you the money but I can’t help you buying it.
There are four types of conjunctions. These are:
1. Coordinating Conjunctions
2. Subordinating
3. Correlating conjunctions
4. Conjunctive Adverbs

a. Coordinating Conjunctions
 The simple, little conjunctions are called coordinating conjunctions
and but or yet for nor so
 When a coordinating conjunction connects two independent clauses, it is often (but not
always) accompanied by a comma:
Elsabet wants to play for Buna FC, but she has trouble meeting the academic requirements.
 When the two independent clauses connected by a coordinating conjunction are nicely
balanced or brief, many writers will omit the comma:
Elsabet has a great jump shot but she isn't quick on her feet.
 The comma is always correct when used to separate two independent clauses connected
by a coordinating conjunction.
 A comma is also correct when and is used to attach the last item of a serial list, although
many writers will omit that final comma:
Melese spent his summer studying basic math, writing, and reading comprehension.

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  When a coordinating conjunction is used to connect all the elements in a series, a comma
is not used:
Presbyterians and Methodists and Baptists are the prevalent Protestant congregations in
USA.
 A comma is also used with but when expressing a contrast. This is a useful rule, but
difficult to remember.
 In most of their other roles as joiners, coordinating conjunctions can join two sentence
elements without the help of a comma.
Habtu was known for his style and his insights into Western notions of male identity.
 Among the coordinating conjunctions, the most common, of course, are and, but, and or.
It might be helpful to explore the uses of these three little words. The examples below by
no means exhaust the possible meanings of these conjunctions.
AND
To suggest that one idea is chronologically sequential to another: "Dagmawit sent in her
applications and waited by the phone for a response."
To suggest that one idea is the result of another: "Demere heard the weather report and
promptly boarded up his house."
To suggest that one idea is in contrast to another (frequently replaced by but in this usage):
"Getu is brilliant and Shalom has a pleasant personality.
To suggest an element of surprise (sometimes replaced by yet in this usage): "Harar is a rich
city and suffers from many symptoms of urban blight."
To suggest that one clause is dependent upon another, conditionally (usually the first clause is
an imperative): "Use your credit cards frequently and you'll soon find yourself deep in debt."
To suggest a kind of "comment" on the first clause: "Abdu became addicted to gambling —
and that surprised no one who knew him."
BUT
To suggest a contrast that is unexpected in light of the first clause: "Joseph lost a fortune in
the market, but he still seems able to live quite comfortably."
To connect two ideas with the meaning of "with the exception of" (and then the second word
takes over as subject): "Everybody but Salah is trying out for the team."

27
 OR
To suggest that only one possibility can be realized, excluding one or the other: "You can study
hard for this exam or you can fail."
To suggest a restatement or "correction" of the first part of the sentence: "There are no wild
animals in this valley, or so our guide tells us."
To suggest a negative alternative without the use of an imperative: "They must approve his
political style or they wouldn't keep electing him President."
b. Subordinating Conjunctions
A Subordinating Conjunction sometimes called a dependent word or subordinator which comes
at the beginning of a Subordinate Clause and establishes the relationship between the dependent
clause and the rest of the sentence. It also turns the clause into something that depends on the rest
of the sentence for its meaning.
He took to the stage as though he had been preparing for this moment all his life.
Because he loved acting, he refused to give up his dream of being in the movies.
Unless we act now, all is lost.
Notice that some of the subordinating conjunctions below — after, before, since — are also
prepositions, but as subordinators they are being used to introduce a clause and to subordinate
the following clause to the independent element in the sentence.
Common Subordinating Conjunctions

After although as as if as long as as because Before even if

even though if if only in order that now that once rather than since
so that than that though till unless until when whenever
where whereas wherever while though

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Omitting That
The word ‘that’ is used as a conjunction to connect a subordinate clause to a preceding verb. In
the following sentences, we can omit the that or keep it, depending on how the sentence sounds
to us:
Isabel knew [that] she was about to be fired.
She definitely felt [that] her fellow employees hadn't supported her.
I hope [that] she doesn't blame me.
Sometimes omitting the that creates a break in the flow of a sentence, a break that can be
adequately bridged with the use of a comma:
The problem is, that production in her department has dropped.
Remember, that we didn't have these problems before she started working here.
As a general rule, if the sentence feels just as good without the that, if no ambiguity results from
its omission, if the sentence is more efficient or elegant without it, then we can safely omit the
that.
C. Correlative Conjunctions
Some conjunctions combine with other words to form what are called correlative conjunctions.
They always travel in pairs, joining various sentence elements that should be treated as
grammatically equal.
She led the team not only in statistics but also by virtue of her enthusiasm.
Polonius said, "Neither a borrower nor a lender be."
Whether you win this race or lose it doesn't matter as long as you do your best.
Here is a brief list of common correlative conjunctions.
both . . . and not only . . . but also not . . . but either . . . or
neither . . . nor whether . . . or as . . . as
a. Conjunctive Adverbs
Conjunctive adverbs are often used to show the relationship between the ideas expressed
in a clause and the ideas expressed in a preceding clause, sentence or paragraph. In the
following examples, the connecting adverbs are printed in bold type.
Example: I wanted to study; however, I was too tired.

We knew what to expect. Therefore, we were not surprised at what happened.

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 In the first example, the connecting adverb however shows that there is a conflict
between the idea expressed in the clause I was too tired and the idea expressed in the
preceding clause I wanted to study. In the second example, the connecting adverb
therefore shows that there is a cause and effect relationship between the idea expressed in
the sentence we knew what to expect, and the clause we were not surprised at what
happened.

Review Exercise 7

1. Fill in the blanks with the correct coordinate conjunctions chosen from the pairs given
in brackets.
1. I opened the door _________ looked out. (and, yet)
2. She was not in the back yard, _________ was she upstairs. (or, nor)
3. The sun had set, _________ it was still light outside. (or, yet)
4. Do you know his address _________ telephone number? (but, or)
5. He has not arrived yet, _________ have they. (and, nor)
6. I read the book, _________ did not understand it. (but, or)
7. We searched diligently, ________ found nothing. (or, yet)
8. I invited him _________ his friends. (and, but)
2. Paying attention to the expressions used in the following sentences, fill in the blanks with
the words and, but also, nor, or, than, then and when, as appropriate.
1. I have both respect ___&______ admiration for them.
2. Hardly had I finished reading over the problem, _than________ the answer leapt to my
mind.
3. It will rain either today ___or______ tomorrow.
4. He could not decide whether to tell the truth _____then____ keep silent.
5. It was not only a beautiful day, _but also__________ the first day of Spring.
6. No sooner had I opened my eyes, ___then______ I remembered where I was.
7. Scarcely had I heard the news, ___when______ my friend arrived.

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 3. Fill in the blanks with the correct sub ordinate conjunctions or similar expressions
chosen from the pairs given in brackets.
1. We recognized her at once, ____________ we had not seen her for years. (although, in case)
2. He kept reading ___________ he fell asleep. (for, until)
3. The moon will rise ____________ the sun sets. (as soon as, than)
4. It looks ____________ the train will be late. (while, as though)
5. ____________ she got her degree, she became a teacher. (After, Than)
6. Did you hear any noises ____________ the night? (during, while)

7. It looked ____________ we would not be able to leave until the next day. (as if, like)

8. We all felt tired ____________ the hot weather. (because, because of)

UNIT 2
ENGLISH TENSES
 Overview
Dear learner, under this unit, you will learn about English tenses. Tense is one of the grammar
study areas of language study. English language learners too have to know the meaning and rule
of tenses so that they can communicate effectively.
Tense can be defined as the meaning of action/verb in relation to time scale. It combines event its
time of happening. For example, let us take an action ‘ to eat.’ If the person did the action
yesterday (point of time before speaking), the verb changes from ‘eat’ to ‘ate’ and we call the
tense ‘past’.

Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
 identify forms of various tenses.
 identify the features of different kinds of tenses;
 Construct meaningful sentences of different tense types.
 Use appropriate tenses in their day-to-day conversations

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2.1. Major English Tenses and their Aspects
There are three major tenses in English namely present, past, and future. However, in addition
to time of the action (present, past, future), tense indicates aspect (simple / indefinite, continuous,
perfect, perfect continuous). Aspect indicates the manner in which the action is performed.
(1) Present tenses: the simple present, the present continuous, the present perfect, the present
perfect continuous;
(2) Past tenses: the simple past, the past continuous, the past perfect, the past perfect continuous;
(3) Future tenses: the simple future, the future continuous, the future perfect, the future perfect
continuous;
Example:
He goes to market every day. (Present tense)
The woman told me good news. (Past tense)
My friend will come tomorrow morning. (Future tense)
A. Tenses grouped under Aspects
(1) Simple tenses: the simple present, the simple past, the simple future;
(2) Continuous tenses: the present continuous, the past continuous, the future continuous;
(3) Perfect tenses: the present perfect, the past perfect, the future perfect;
(4) Perfect continuous tenses: the present perfect continuous, the past perfect continuous, the
future perfect continuous.
Beginning learners should study the simple tenses first. After that it is usually convenient to
study the tenses in pairs: the simple present and the present continuous; the simple past and the
past continuous; then the present perfect and later on the present perfect continuous; the simple
past and the past perfect.
 Note that the tenses may be called differently in different textbooks. For example, the
simple present / the present simple is also called the present indefinite; the simple past is
also called the past indefinite. Continuous tenses are also called progressive tenses; for
example, the past continuous is often called the past progressive.
 The names of the tenses are usually not capitalized in English texts (the present
continuous; the past perfect).

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Note: The word "perfect"
Students sometimes ask about the word "perfect" in the names of the perfect tenses. The names
of the tenses came from Latin. The Latin word "perfectus" means "done, completed, finished".
For example, the name "past perfect" was derived from Latin "plus quam perfectum", which
means "more than perfect", that is, earlier in the past than another past action.
1.2 Form meaning and Use of English Tenses
Dear student, general information on English tenses and their adverbs of time was provided in in
the above section. Now, we will give you forms, meaning and how to use them in
communication.

B. Present Tenses
1) SIMPLE PRESENT
Form
a) Base form of the verb: I/we/you/they do.
b) Base form of the verb + s/es: he/she/it does.
c) The verb Be: I am; he/she/it is; we/you/they are.

Meaning 1: Habitual, regular action in the present.

Adverbs of frequency: usually; regularly; every day; every week; every year; often; frequently;
sometimes; occasionally; seldom; rarely; never (i.e., zero regularity); always (i.e., regularly,
usually); on Fridays; on weekends.
Example:
I usually work till eight.
He writes two letters every day.
He plays tennis on Saturdays.
It often rains in my hometown.
Meaning 2: Stating a fact, general truth, profession, state or condition.
Adverbs of time: Usually without adverbs of time.
The sun rises in the east.
Water boils at 100 degrees Celsius.
He lives in Moscow and works at a hospital.

33
 She plays the piano well.
She likes oranges and bananas.
Meanig 3: Actions according to schedule
The simple present is used instead of the simple future for future actions according to schedule /
timetable (for example, about public transportation, movies, stores, banks).
The show starts in two hours.
The train arrives at six tomorrow.
The department opens at 9:00 a.m.
I work next Saturday.
Note: Clauses of time and condition
2) PRESENT CONTINUOUS
Form:
BE + present participle (I am doing; he/she/it is doing; we/you/they are doing).

Meaning 1: The action is going on at the present moment, at the moment of speaking.
Adverbs of time: now; right now; at the moment.
You are reading this material now.
I'm drinking coffee at the moment.
Usually, he sits by the window, but now he is sitting near the front door.
Listen! Music is playing.
Meaning 2: The action is going on at the present time but, not necessarily at the moment of
speaking.
Adverbs of time: now; at present; at the present time; at the moment; this year.
He is writing a new novel now.
He is teaching at Redwood this year.
I am studying English at Daye Campus.
They are building their own house.
Note: Verbs expressing mental or emotional state, mental or sense perception, possession, and
other types of state or condition are generally not used in the continuous tenses. Such verbs are
called state verbs or non-progressive verbs because they do not express any action or process of
action (as opposed to action verbs).

34
Examples of State verbs
understand, know, remember, forget, doubt, believe, suppose, think (in the meaning
"assume, suppose"), mean, recognize, realize, like, love, hate, want, need, prefer, smell
(in the meaning "to give off a particular scent"), taste (i.e., to have a particular flavor),
hear, see, feel, look (in the meaning "appear, seem"), seem, be, belong, own, possess,
have (in the meaning "possess"), cost, owe, include, contain, weigh, and some others.
The simple present is used instead of the present continuous with state verbs.
I see a large dog in the yard.
I understand what you mean.
She prefers bright colors.
He wants to buy a new car.
This flower smells terrible.
Meaning 2: Preplanned Future actions
The present continuous is used instead of the simple future for future actions according to
people's plans, i.e., preplanned or prearranged future actions. The phrase "be going to" is widely
used in speech and writing to show a preplanned future action.
She is leaving on Tuesday.
She is going to leave on Tuesday.
I am having dinner with Tamirat tomorrow.
We are going to buy a house this year.
The phrase "be going to" can be used in reference to events if the situation clearly indicates that
they are going to happen.
Look at those dark clouds. It is going to rain soon.
Watch out! That red car is going to turn right.
3) PRESENT PERFECT
In this subsection, you are expected to recall different uses of the present prefect tense
and use it in constructing your own sentences for different purposes.
Form:
HAVE + past participle (I/we/you/they have done; he/she/it has done).

35
Meaning 1: The action has just ended.
Adverbs of time: already; just; yet (in questions and negative sentences).
I have just done it.
She has already talked to him.
He hasn't returned from work yet.
Meaning 2: Reporting how often something has happened by now.
Adverbs of time: ever; never; once; twice; several times; always; often; sometimes.
I have never seen this film.
Have you ever been to Diredawa?
He has visited his aunt twice already.
I have often seen her in the library.
Meaning 3: It is the result of past actions by the present moment.
Adverbs of time: by now; by the present moment; up to now; so far; before (i.e., by the present
moment); since; lately.
He has written ten letters by now.
So far, she has read fourteen novels by Haddis Alemayehu.
Up to now, I haven't found this book.
She hasn't seen him lately.
Meaning 4: The action has lasted for some time by now.
Adverbs of time: for an hour; for a week; for a long time; for five years; for years; in years;
since; lately.
I have known him for a year by now.
I haven't seen Feyisa in years.
He has lived here for six years.
Hiwot has collected photographs since she was a child.
In this meaning, the present perfect may be used instead of the present perfect continuous in
certain cases. See "Note: Present perfect and present perfect continuous" below)
Note: Present perfect and simple past
The main difference between these tenses is that the present perfect expresses an action that
comes up to the present moment and always has a connection with the present moment, while the

36
simple past expresses a completed past action that started and ended in the past and has no
connection with the present moment.
She has worked as a teacher for two years. (This is the situation by the present moment;
she is still a teacher.)
She worked as a teacher for two years. She worked as a teacher from 1995 to 1997. (It
was in the past; she is no longer a teacher.)
If the time of the action is indicated as "today, this morning, this month", etc., the present perfect
is used if this period of time is not over yet at the moment of speaking; the simple past is used if
the period of time is over or if the time of the action within the period is indicated as specific
time in the past.
Present perfect: I haven't seen him today. (Today is not over yet.) I have talked to him this
morning. (It's still morning.)
Simple past: I saw him today in the morning. (The morning is over.) I talked to him at ten
o'clock today. (Today is not over yet, but ten o'clock is in the past.)
Thus, though the action in the present perfect started or happened in the past, it is always viewed
as "by now; up to now" (that is, always in connection with the present moment), so the exact
time of the past action is never indicated. If the time of the past action is indicated, the simple
past is used. Compare:
Present perfect: I have already done it. I have seen him before. I have been there twice.
Simple past: I did it yesterday. I saw him about a month ago. I was there in 2006.

Exercise 1
A. At home, being with one of your friends who are taking this distance course, tell to one
another different occasions in which we use the present prefect tense. Also, try to give
certain examples by constructing your own sentences.
B. Now, individually, identify which one of the following are present prefect tenses and
identify what type of tense the rest of the sentences are.
i. Price inflection, since two years, has caused a great crisis on the life of lower class
people.
ii. Hawi bought this grammar book last year.
iii. It has been three years since I started summer education at Hawassa University.

37
 iv. Amalo drinks milk every morning.
v. We have taken Higher Diploma training for two months.
C. Change the following sentences into present prefect tense.
1. Kabede cleaned the bedroom.
_kebede has cleaned the
bedroom_______________________________________________________
2. Amose finished her final examination.
__Amosehasjustfinishedherfinal
exam___________________________________________________
3. I was studying when Ahmed came in shouting.
________________________________________________________
4. They were washing clothes when it started to rain.
________________________________________________________

4) PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS

Form:
HAVE + BEEN + present participle (I/we/you/they have been doing; he/she/it has been
doing).

Meaning 1: The action has been going on for some time by now and is still going on.
Adverbs of time: for an hour; for a week; for a long time; for five years; for years; all day; all
morning; since.
How long have you been waiting?
I have been waiting for about an hour.
Meaning 2: The action has been going on lately. Additional context may indicate whether
the action has been finished by now.
Adverbs of time: Usually without adverbs of time.
They have been working hard lately.
I have been thinking about buying a new car.
His clothes are wet because he has been playing in the rain.
Her eyes are red. Has she been crying again?

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Note: State verbs are used in the present perfect tense instead of the present perfect continuous.
How long have you known Martha?
I've known her for many years.
She has been here since ten o'clock.
 Some state verbs can be used in the continuous tenses in some cases, including the
present perfect continuous tense.
 The difference between these tenses in such cases is not very big: the present perfect
stresses the result of some continued activity by now, while the present perfect
continuous stresses the duration of such activity by now. Compare:
He has been living here for years.
He has lived here for years.
He has been teaching English since 2002.
He has taught history since 2002.
 However, the difference in meaning between the two tenses may be significant in some
cases. For example:
What have you been doing since I left?
What have you done since I left?
As it is often difficult for language learners to decide whether this or that verb gives the same
meaning if used in the present perfect instead of the present perfect continuous, it is advisable to
apply the rules more strictly and to use the tense that is indicated in grammar books as the most
appropriate for such cases.

Review Exercise 7
I. Choose the most appropriate answer.
1. How often does Yohannes go to the swimming pool? – He _________ to the swimming pool
every day. He likes swimming.
a) goes b. is going c. has gone d. has been going
2. When is the best time to call you? – I usually __________ till nine in the evening. Call me
around ten, if you can.
a) work b. am working c. have worked d. have been working
3. Let's ask Genet to make coffee. She __________ great coffee.

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 a) makes b. is making c. has made d. has been making
4. Please be quiet. My children ___________ now.
a) sleeping b. are sleeping c. have slept d. have been sleeping
5. The sun ______________ in the east.
a) rises b. is rising c. has risen d. has been rising
6. Listen! Someone _________ the Masinko. Do you hear it? – Yes.
a) plays b. is playing c. has played d. has been playing
7. What is Linda doing? She ______________ dinner.
a) cooks b. is cooking c. has cooked d. has been cooking
8. She can't go to the movies. She _____________ her homework yet.
a) doesn't do b. isn't doing c. hasn't done d. hasn't been doing
9. Taytu _____________ Ambo several times.
a) visits b. is visiting c. has visited d. has been visiting
C. The Past Tenses
5) SIMPLE PAST
Form:

Regular verbs: base form + ending "ed" for all persons (looked, finished). Irregular
verbs: simple past form for all persons (did, came, took). The verb BE: I/he/she/it
was; we/you/they were.

Meaning: The action happened (started and ended) in the past; there is no connection with
the present.
Adverbs of time: yesterday; last week; last year; in 1984; in 2007; an hour ago; a year ago; a
long time ago.
He came back last week.
I bought a new window cleaner yesterday.
He left two hours ago.
It happened many years ago.
Note that the simple past expresses completed past actions, including actions that lasted for some
time in the past and actions that happened one after another in the past.

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 He sold cars for five years.
She waited for his call all evening yesterday, but he didn't call.
 The rules of adding "ed" to verbs are described in adding the Endings ed, ing to Verbs in
the verbs section. Irregular verbs were listed in Irregular Verbs in the section.
6. PAST CONTINUOUS
Form:
WAS/WERE + present participle (I/he/she/it was doing; we/you/they were doing).
Meaning: 1. The action (past continuous) was going on in the past when another action (simple
past) happened or the action was going on at a specific point of time in the past.
Adverbs of time: while; when; at five o'clock yesterday.
When I was reading a letter, Ali came in.
While he was sleeping, the telephone rang.
The telephone rang while she was taking a bath.
 Generally, the simple past, not the past continuous, is used when two actions in a
sentence went on for some time and ended in the past.
When she was a child, she lived in Wondo Genet with her parents.
When he lived in Addis Ababa, he worked at a library.
 The simple past, not the past continuous, is used when you enumerate past actions, even
if such actions look long.
Yesterday he cleaned his room, made dinner, watched TV for two hours, and walked in
the park.
7. PAST PERFECT
Form:

HAD + past participle for all persons (had done; had looked).

Meaning: The action (past perfect) happened before another past action (simple past) or before a
specific point of time in the past.
Adverbs of time: by the time; before; after; when (in the meanings "by the time; after"); before
last week; by two o'clock yesterday.
By the time he returned, I had finished my work on the report.
After he had washed his car, he cleaned the garage.

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 Before he cleaned the garage, he had washed his car.
When they called, she had already left. (Meaning: By the time they called, she had already
left.)
When he had arrived, we went to a restaurant. (Meaning: After he had arrived, we went
to a restaurant.)
Note: The past perfect tense is not used very often in everyday speech. It is usually required in
sentences with "by the time" and is also used in sentences with "when" if it is necessary to stress
which action happened before and which after the specified action in the past. With "before,
after", the past perfect is not really necessary because it is clear which action was before and
which after. The simple past is often used instead of the past perfect with "before, after" in
everyday speech.
After they left, he went to bed.
I called him before I called you.
However, if "before" is used in the past context in the meaning "earlier", the past perfect
is required.
He told me that he had never been there before.
 The simple past, not the past perfect, is used when you enumerate actions that happened
one after another in the past.
First I washed my car, then I cleaned the garage, and after that I went for a walk.
8. PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS
Form:
HAD + BEEN + present participle for all persons (had been doing; had been looking).
Meaning: 1. The action (past perfect continuous) lasted for some time before another action in
the past happened (simple past). 2. The action lasted for some time before a specific point of
time in the past.
Adverbs of time: by the time; before; after; when (in the meaning "by the time"); + for two
hours; for a long time.
By the time he returned, I had been working for seven hours.
He had been living in Hawassa for ten years by the time he moved to Debre Zeit.
I had been waiting for three months before they finally sent me an answer.

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Note: The past perfect continuous tense is used mostly in writing, for example, in formal
correspondence and scientific literature. In a number of cases, the past perfect may be used
instead of the past perfect continuous, with the same adverbs of time.

Review Exercises 8
Choose the most appropriate answer.
1. He _________ a new car last month, but he doesn't really like it.
a) bought b. was buying c. had bought d. had been buying
2. I burned my finger while I ____________ breakfast.
a) was cooking b. had cooked c. had been cooking
3. By the time I came back, Mike and Jane ______________ , so I couldn't tell them about it.
a) were already leaving b. had already left c. had already been leaving
4. He __________ for twenty years when he finally quit smoking.
a) smoked b. was smoking c. had been smoking

9. SIMPLE FUTURE
Form:
WILL + infinitive (without "to") for all persons (will do; will look). British English
also: I/we shall; he/she/it/you/they will.
Meaning: The action will happen in the future.
Adverbs of time: tomorrow; next week; soon; in a few days; in a year; in 2023.
Example: We will be home after eight.
We'll be glad to see you.
I think he'll return next week.
I will probably see him in a few days.
Note: No future tense is used in subordinate clauses of time and condition. We use the simple
present instead of the simple future.
We will go for a walk when it stops raining.
She will call him when he arrives.
Please call me as soon as he comes back.

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Note: Preplanned actions
The verb "will" does not express a preplanned action. The present continuous (with adverbs
referring to the future) is used instead of the simple future if it is necessary to show that future
actions are preplanned. The phrase "be going to" is widely used in speech and writing to show
preplanned future actions.
I am visiting Hanna tomorrow. I am going to visit Hanna tomorrow.
What are you doing tomorrow? What are you going to do tomorrow?
We are not going to buy a new car this summer.
Note: Actions according to schedule
The simple present is used instead of the simple future for future actions according to schedule /
timetable, usually about the work of public transportation, stores, cinema, etc.
Our plane departs at five tomorrow.
The train arrives late at night.
The bank opens at 10:00 a.m.
 The same adverbs of time as those used with the simple future tense are used with
preplanned actions and actions according to schedule.
10. FUTURE CONTINUOUS
Form:
WILL + BE + present participle for all persons (will be doing; will be looking).

Meaning: 1. The action (future continuous) will be going on when another future action
happens. (Another future action is expressed by the simple present, because the future tense
forms are not allowed in subordinate clauses of time.) 2. The action will be going on at a specific
point of time in the future.
Adverbs of time: at three tomorrow; at this time next year; when.
Example:
He will probably be sleeping when you return.
When you come to the library, I'll be sitting by the central window.
He'll be sleeping at two tomorrow.

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11. FUTURE PERFECT
Form:
WILL + HAVE + past participle for all persons (will have done; will have looked).
Meaning: The action (future perfect) will happen before another future action or before a
specific point of time in the future. (Another future action is expressed by the simple present,
because the future tense forms are not allowed in subordinate clauses of time.)
Adverbs of time: by the time; by 2025; by tomorrow; before; when (in the meaning "by the
time").
She will have typed the report by the time you return.
When he calls, I will have left already.
By tomorrow, he will have left Mekele.
By 2020, scientists will have found the cure for AIDS.
Occasionally, actions expressed by the future perfect tense occur in subordinate clauses of time
and condition. In such cases the present perfect is used instead of the future perfect because the
future tense forms are not allowed in subordinate clauses of time and condition.
I will help you after I have finished my work.
We will leave at six if it has stopped snowing by then.
 In most of such cases, the simple present can be used instead of the present perfect with
little difference in meaning, i.e., "after I finish; as soon as you receive; if it stops
snowing" in the examples above.
 The future perfect tense is not very common in speech. It is used mostly in writing, for
example, in formal correspondence and scientific literature.
12. FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS
Form:

WILL + HAVE + BEEN + present participle for all persons (will have been doing; will
have been looking).

Meaning: 1. The action (future perfect continuous) will last for some time before another future
action happens. (Another future action is expressed by the simple present, because the future
tense forms are not allowed in subordinate clauses of time.)
Meaning 2. The action will last for some time before a specific point of time in the future.

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Adverbs of time: by the time; by 2025; by tomorrow; before; when (in the meaning "by the
time"); + for two days; for a long time.
Example: By the time you return, I will have been waiting here for three days.
When he finally reaches Moyale, he will have been driving for ten hours.
He will have been studying English for five years by the time of his final
examinations.
 The future perfect continuous tense is rarely used in speech. It is used mostly in writing,
for example, in formal correspondence and scientific literature.

Unit 3 Active and Passive Voices

 Overview
Dear learner, under this unit, you will learn about active and passive voice. Voice is one of the
grammar study areas of a language. English language learners too have to know the meaning
and rule of active and passive so that they can communicate effectively.
3.1. The difference between active and passive voice
Dear learner, Sentences are either active or passive. Active construction is a sentence form in
which the subject of the sentence is usually the agent, ‘doer’. The subject of a sentence usually
establishes ‘what the sentence is about’. It often refers to something which is already known to
the listener or reader. What follows this is the new or important information.
In passive constructions, the subject still establishes ‘what the sentence is about’, but it is the
recipient of the action, not the agent.
We choose passive constructions when the new or important information is:
 What happened to the subject: E.g. I’ve been sacked.
 Who or what did it: E.g. The music was composed by Elias Melka.
 How it was done. E.g. The conference was badly organized.
 When the agent is unknown or unspecified: E.g. No one was injured.
3.2 The patterns of active and passive
We form passive constructions with a form of be (e.g. is, has been, is going to be) or get (e.g.
gets, got, will get) followed by the past participle of the main verb.
Example: The whole house was /got flooded.
If the agent is specified, this comes at the end of the clause and follows by

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 Several protesters were taken away by the police.
Note: For most learners, knowing when to use passive constructions is the greatest problem,
and they often don’t use them where they would be appropriate. The following descriptions of
wine production, for example, was written by a learner with a very good command of grammar
and vocabulary, and who was able to form passive sentences.

Exercise1
Use passive construction to re-write the following text to describe how wine is produced
In my country, we produce very good quality wine. We grow the vines mainly in the west of
the country where the winters are milder. People pick the grapes at the end of the summer- they
have to pick them at exactly the right time. When they have picked them they have to process the
grapes very quickly. We keep some wines for a long time to improve before we put it in to
bottles. We can buy my country’s wines in many other European countries.
3.3 Usage of passive constructions
Active constructions are used more often in English than passive constructions. Generally, you
need the passive voice in the following cases:
Case 1: When it is not known or not necessary to mention who performs the action.
Cotton is grown in Egypt.
His book hasn't been published yet.
His house was built a year ago.
Case 2: When it is necessary to draw more attention to the receiver of the action.
In this case, the object in the active construction becomes the subject in the passive construction
and receives more attention. A phrase with the preposition "by" is used if it is necessary to show
by whom the action is performed. Compare these pairs:
 Someone broke the kitchen window yesterday. (active construction: window –
object)
 The kitchen window was broken yesterday. (passive construction: window –
subject)
 Haddis Alemayehu wrote the novel Fikir Eskemekabir. (Fikir Eskemekabir –
object)

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If there are two objects in the active construction, i.e., direct object and indirect object,
either of them can become the subject of the passive construction, though passive
constructions in which the indirect object has become the subject are considered to be more
common.
Note: Do not use passive constructions unnecessarily. In many cases it is better to use
active constructions if you know who performs the action.
Normal: I've already bought a new computer.
Strange: A new computer has been bought by me already.
A. Tenses in the passive voice
The passive construction has the same meaning of the tense as the active construction, and the
same adverbs of time are used with the tenses in the active and in the passive.
As a rule, the present perfect continuous, past perfect continuous, future perfect continuous, and
future continuous are not used in the passive.
Simple Present
Paper is made from wood pulp.
These toys are made in China.
Dinner here is served after seven.
English is spoken in many countries of the world.
Present Continuous
A new road is being built now.
He is being examined by the doctor at the moment.
The present continuous in the passive is often replaced by active constructions in everyday
speech.
Example: A new road is under construction now.
The doctor is examining him at the moment.
Present Perfect
This information has already been checked and reported to the boss.
So far, ten employees have been fired by the new director.
They have never been invited to a boat party before.
Simple Past
His uncle was killed in the war.

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 This dress was made in India.
The telescope was invented by Galileo.

Exercise 2
Put in the correct form of the verb in Passive into the gaps. Use Simple Past.
1) The meal was cooked. . (to cook)
2) The trees __were planted______________ . (to plant)
3) The words were substituted . (to substitute)
4) The question __was answered______________ . (to answer)
5) The correct answers ___were kicked_____________ . (to tick)
Past Continuous
I couldn't use my office yesterday because it was being painted.
The new program was being tested for errors at three o'clock yesterday.
The past continuous in the passive is often replaced by active constructions in everyday
speech. For example: When I came to the hospital, the doctor was examining
Tom.
Past Perfect
By the time I returned, the work on the project had been finished.
The past perfect in the passive may be replaced by the simple past in the passive in everyday
speech when using "before" or "after" instead of "by the time".
For example: The work on the project was finished before I returned. I returned after the
work on the project was finished.
Simple Future
The construction of the new school will be completed next year.
The results of the mathematical contest will be announced tomorrow.
The award will be given to the best math student.
It will be done, I am sure.
Future Perfect
Experts say that by 2050 the cure for cancer will have been found.
Dear clients! By this time tomorrow your telephone connection will have been restored
completely.

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