New Ideas in Psychology 70 (2023) 101023

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

New Ideas in Psychology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/newideapsych

Typical coping patterns: A person-centered approach to coping

Luca Nagy *, Katalin Balázs
Department of Social and Work Psychology, Institute of Psychology, University of Debrecen, 1 University Square, 4032, Debrecen, Hungary

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Applying the person-oriented approach to coping can provide a unique perspective by revealing typical latent
Person-centered approach patterns. The study examined typical latent patterns shown by task-, emotion- and avoidance-oriented trait-based
Dispositional coping coping styles. We performed secondary analyses with Latent Profile Analysis on our former data and three in­
Coping pattern
dependent datasets containing coping measures with the CISS-48 scale (Endler & Parker, 1994). Gender dif­
Secondary data analysis
Latent profile analysis
ferences were also studied. Two basic profiles seem universal: the first is characterized by a high level of task-
oriented coping, and the second profile is with moderately high scores on all three coping styles. The finding
indicates that two fundamental latent coping profiles exist, which suggests a within-subject comparison in
practice instead of investigating the absolute value of coping styles. Comparing data before and after 2020,
COVID-19 does not seem to affect these profiles. The person-centered approach provides a possibility for the
integration of coping-related findings.

1. Introduction which LPA is applied to independent datasets with the same measure­
ment method of coping. To study the universal patterns, we investigated
The research focuses on a person-centered approach to trait-based data before and after the pandemic.
task-, emotion-, and avoidance-oriented coping styles, which Endler
and Parker (1994) differentiated. Coping is a topical issue due to the 1.1. Person-centered approach
demanding situation caused by the pandemic (e.g., Kavčič et al., 2022)
and war-related crises (e.g., Chudzicka-Czupała et al., 2023). To explore The person-centered approach focusing on individuals instead of
universal profiles, we aimed to identify larger groups of people with variables (e.g., Meyer et al., 2013; Wang & Hanges, 2011; Woo et al.,
similar coping patterns. The motivation was the increasing number of 2018) has gained popularity in the last decade. This approach differ­
studies demonstrating the utility of the person-centered approach and entiates quantitatively and qualitatively different groups in a sample,
the empirical experience that it is possible to find a low number of which sample is considered a homogeneous group in the
schemas for coping styles to be considered while speculating on research variable-centered approach (Morin et al., 2017). The person-centered
results. approach aims to find individuals with similar patterns that can be un­
The dispositional approach to coping seems more relevant than derstood and supported differently (Teng, 2021). Revealing sub­
situational coping while searching for typical patterns. Besides, coping populations enables one to consider several variables without
literature shed light on gender (e.g., Matud, 2004) and age-related dif­ collinearity in a statistical model and provides easy interpretations and
ferences (e.g., Chen et al., 2018). The practical strength of the study lies finer-grained details (Howard & Hoffman, 2018; Teng, 2021).
in the fact that it simplifies the diversity in coping into a manageable According to Howard and Hoffman (2018), the variable-centered
number of main profiles, enhancing the interpretation and integration of approach is mainly beneficial when the study focuses on the effect of
former results on coping. variables on one another. Given that the entire sample is analyzed, the
We aimed to perform Latent Profile Analysis on independent datasets conclusions are not specific. The variable-centered approaches (e.g.,
to reveal typical coping style profiles. Clustering studies on coping have SEM, CFA, regression analysis) assume a homogeneous population for
been carried out (e.g., Gaudreau and Blondin, 2004), and also Latent which a range of average parameters can be estimated (Morin et al.,
Profile Analysis has been applied (e.g., Wang et al., 2022). However, to 2017, p. 2).
our knowledge, no systematic study can be found in the literature in Through the person-centered approach (e.g., cluster analysis, latent

* Corresponding author. Institute of Psychology, P.O.B. 400, Debrecen, 4002, Hungary.

E-mail addresses: nagy.luca@arts.unideb.hu (L. Nagy), balazs.katalin@arts.unideb.hu (K. Balázs).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.newideapsych.2023.101023
Received 3 November 2022; Received in revised form 4 April 2023; Accepted 5 April 2023
Available online 20 April 2023
0732-118X/© 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
L. Nagy and K. Balázs New Ideas in Psychology 70 (2023) 101023

profile analysis, mixture models), researchers can identify subgroups by Meléndez et al., 2012, p. 1091) found that men focus on
based on the chosen variables and then compare their characteristics problem-oriented adaptation more, and women prefer emotion-focused
(Howard & Hoffman, 2018). This method is beneficial for understanding behaviors. Other results showed that women prefer looking for partners’
the relationship between the subgroups and the predictors or output support, whereas men prefer the task-oriented style (Ptacek et al., 1994).
variables. The person-centered approach provides a medium level of Folkman et al. (1987) conducted a study to compare coping patterns
specificity compared to the variable-centered approach. Furthermore, in in younger and elderly adults and set up two interpretations. The
the case of a variable-centered approach, interpreting interactions of developmental interpretation says there are stage-related changes in
three or more variables can become complicated. A person-focused how people cope as they age. In contrast, according to the contextual
approach can represent a suitable alternative and provide an answer approach, age differences result from changes in what people must cope
to how the combination of factors develops in different subgroups with in general.
(Granziera et al., 2022, p. 6). Diehl et al. (1996) found that older adults employ defense strategies
The person-centered approach inspired theoretical models and reflecting greater impulse control and a more positive appraisal of
introduced new ideas to different fields (e.g., Bouckenooghe et al., 2019; conflict situations. Teenagers and young adults exhibited more aggres­
Gabriel et al., 2015; Meeusen et al., 2018; Meyer et al., 2013; Morin, sive behaviors indicating lower levels of impulse control. In the study
Boudrias, et al., 2016; Morin et al., 2017; Sahdra et al., 2017), as it can conducted by Chen et al. (2018), older adults tended to employ
support theory development and modeling (Teng, 2021). Considering problem-focused strategies less frequently.
statistical methods, researchers can use Latent Class Analysis (LCA,
Masyn, 2013; Muthén & Muthén, 2000; Nylund-Gibson & Choi, 2018; 1.3. CISS-48
Vermunt, 2010) for discrete data and Latent Profile Analyses (LPA,
Marsh et al., 2009; Muthén & Muthén, 2000) for continuous input data. Lazarus and Folkman (1984) proposed a Cognitive Transactional
The person-centered approach is already used in many areas, such as Model (CTM) of stress and treated coping as a dynamic phenomenon.
the study of motivation (e.g., Franco et al., 2023), antisocial behavior (e. Even today, experts strongly agree with the essential and universal na­
g., Carroll et al., 2023), eating habits (e.g., Power et al., 2018), perfec­ ture of the problem-focused and emotion-focused coping methods they
tionism (e.g., Lin & Muenks, 2022), or well-being (e.g., Granziera et al., established (Parker & Endler, 1992). At the same time, these coping
2022). methods were the starting point for trait-based approaches.
Profiles resulting from LPA on mindfulness data had additional Problem-focused coping mainly involves cognitive, problem-solving
predictive value beyond that of separate mindfulness variables on life behaviors and concentrates on changing the stressor, whereas
satisfaction and effectiveness (Sahdra et al., 2017). Prejudice was emotion-focused coping is aimed at reducing and managing emotional
investigated with both LCA and LPA, and the resulting classifications distress (Folkman & Lazarus, 1980).
provided complementary results in explanatory models (Meeusen et al., The CTM gave rise to several trait theories (e.g., COPE, Carver et al.,
2018). 1989). Endler and Parker’s approach is the most prominent for our
The person-centered approach has been used in the work context (see study’s aims. They worked out a valid and reliable measure to be used as
e.g., Bouckenooghe et al., 2019; Gabriel et al., 2015; Meyer et al., 2013; an alternative for the previously developed scales (e.g., Ways of Coping
Meyer & Morin, 2016; Morin, Gagne, & Bujacz, 2016, 2017; Wang & Questionnaire, WCQ, Folkman & Lazarus, 1988) with several short­
Hanges, 2011), and its utility has been phrased (e.g., Woo et al., 2018). comings. They differentiated task- and emotion-oriented trait-based
coping styles. The task-oriented style includes problem-solving and
1.2. Coping and its co-relation with gender and age cognitive re-assessment of the problem. The emotion-oriented style is
characterized by developing emotional reactions, thinking about
Coping strategies help people adapt to stressful situations (Endler & possible actions, and focusing the persons’ attention on them (Parker &
Parker, 1994) and greatly impact physical and psychological well-being Endler, 1992). A third style emerged as well, the avoidance-oriented
while facing problems, and challenges (e.g., Endler & Parker, 1989). coping containing both task-oriented (e.g., starting an activity to dis­
Coping is a psychological construct comprising cognitive and tance the problem) and person-oriented features (e.g., looking for social
behavioral efforts that use a person’s resources to meet the expectations support) (Endler & Parker, 1990b).
posed by their environment and provide them with support in man­ The final version of their research scale is the Coping Inventory for
aging, reducing, or resolving conflicts (Folkman & Lazarus, 1980). Stressful Situations (CISS-48), which consists of 48 items (Endler &
Coping differs from defense mechanisms: coping behaviors are Parker, 1994; Wong, Reker, & Peacock, 2006). The different coping
future-oriented; they involve deliberate and conscious thoughts, be­ styles are assessed with 16 items each. A four-factor model of CISS is also
haviors, and affects (Tiringer, 2014). used: avoidance-oriented coping can be divided into two sub-factors:
Some coping theories focus on what a person thinks and does social diversion and distraction (Endler & Parker, 1994).
(Lazarus & Folkman, 1984) in challenging and stressful situations; these Seven large samples revealed the three-factor factor structures,
regard coping as situational (Tiringer, 2014). Other theories consider which showed clear overlap in both women’s and men’s samples. The
coping based on habits (Carver & Scheier, 1994); these are trait-based scale’s internal consistency is high, and test-retest reliability is accept­
approaches to coping (Tiringer, 2014). While the former approach able (Endler & Parker, 1990a, cited by Endler & Parker, 1994, p. 51).
regards coping as dynamic, the latter considers it a static response The strength of the scale relies on its psychometric properties (Green­
(Greenaway et al., 2015). Since our research aimed to identify latent away et al., 2015).
patterns presumably consistent over time, we follow the trait-based
approach. 1.4. Studies on coping with variable- or person-centered approach
Coping styles are affected by demographic factors like gender, age,
socioeconomic status, and cultural background (Tiringer, 2014), so they Most research examines coping in line with other psychological or
also seem relevant regarding the latent profiles. demographic variables. These studies look at coping styles separately as
Studies revealed that threat assessment and the nature of the stressor continuous variables, enter them into regression models, or perform
are reflected in the gender differences experienced in coping (Meléndez structural equation modeling, representing the variable-centered
et al., 2012). Folkman and Lazarus (1980) found no relationship be­ approach. For example, Cabras and Mondo (2018) found -through
tween gender and emotion-focused coping. However, other results CISS-48- that successful task-oriented coping resulted in higher levels of
showed that women tend to use emotion- and avoidance-oriented styles life satisfaction and optimism, whereas higher levels of
(e.g., Endler & Parker, 1990b; Matud, 2004). Ptacek et al. (1992, cited emotion-oriented style involved lower levels of life satisfaction and

2
L. Nagy and K. Balázs New Ideas in Psychology 70 (2023) 101023

optimism. Kurtović et al. (2018) found that task-oriented coping was 3. Material and methods
associated with a lower level of depression, anxiety, and stress than the
emotion-oriented style. Konaszewski et al. (2019) investigated the role We used secondary data analysis applying LPA on CISS-48 data. To
of resilience, self-efficacy, and a sense of coherence. All of these ap­ reach secondary datasets, we contacted all authors of studies one by one
proaches consider coping linearly; consequently, they suggest increasing (starting with the first authors) in e-mails who employed the CISS-48
or decreasing the occurrence of certain coping behavior. scale on relatively large samples of non-specific target groups.
Other studies classify participants based on their most commonly Although we found many corresponding studies, we aimed to analyze
used coping style (see e.g., Bafghi et al., 2018; Cabras & Mondo, 2018; data from the general population and excluded data collections from
Rogowska et al., 2020). While the continuous approach fails to consider very specific samples (e.g., patient groups and athletes – Urbański et al.,
the relative level of coping styles, the categorical approach enforces 2022; firemen – O’Rourke & Hyland, 2021; nurses – Rai & Tauheed,
classification even in cases where at least two different coping styles are 2013). Furthermore, a minimum number of 200 examinees was set as a
present to a roughly similar extent. sample size criterion.
In our related empirical studies in 2015–2016, we regarded coping First, we searched for such studies on Google, and ScienceDirect,
being a continuous variable. Lacking systematic results, we performed a mainly on Google Scholar. We contacted 22 authors and requested data
K-means cluster analysis on coping scores on CISS-48. For most in­ on CISS-48 and demographic variables. In 15 cases, the authors did not
dividuals, high task-oriented coping was associated with a moderate/ reply (we suspect incorrect contact information due to a change of
high rate of emotion- (Cluster 1) and avoidance-oriented styles (Cluster affiliation); two authors no longer possess the data. One of the authors
2). A third cluster mainly comprised individuals with a high level of refused to provide empirical data referring to ethical issues. Three of the
task-oriented coping (Nagy, 2020; Nagy & Balázs, 2018). contacted authors replied to our request positively. We received the data
Gaudreau and Blondin (2004) used the cluster analytical approach, obtained from a study of one Polish university student sample
investigated the coping of athletes, and found four patterns related to (Rogowska et al., 2020) and two Hungarian studies (Birke &
athletes’ positive affective state, anger-dejections state, and feelings of Kéki-Luterán, 2021; Kőváry et al., 2014). The authors sent their data as
control. Oles and Oles (2014) applied K-means cluster analysis on CISS Excel sheets or SPSS files. The sample features are detailed below. We
data of elderly individuals with visual disturbances. They found three also surveyed Mendeley Data and other data repositories but found no
patterns: all coping showed high or medium levels (1); the extremely CISS-48 data collection on large samples.
high task-oriented style was detected (2), and all coping showed low
levels (3). In this study, the analyses of patterns had a clear utility. These 3.1. CISS-48
were person-centered approaches, even if the authors did not use this
term. The studies applied the adaptations of the 48-item version of the
Recent studies used the person-centered approach itself. Kavčič et al. Coping Inventory for Stressful Situations (Endler & Parker, 1994). Par­
(2022) examined coping among Slovenian adults during the first wave ticipants are instructed to indicate to what extent they agree with the
of the pandemic. On the results of the Brief-COPE inventory (Carver, statement on a 5-point Likert scale (not at all – absolutely) when
1997), they applied the LPA revealing the engaged (1), the disengaged considering a stressful or challenging situation (Perczel-Forintos et al.,
(2), and the avoidant (3) profiles with different kinds of well-being, 2005).
stress, and anxiety. According to the results, coping behaviors seem to The scale assesses the different coping styles with 16 items for each
be „a part of an interconnected coping system"; hence studies could style, and the points for the individual items are summed for each style.
focus on „similar combinations of coping strategies within individuals" Here are some examples of items.
(Kavčič et al., 2022, p. 3). Wang et al. (2022) used the LPA to investigate
coping among Canadien teachers. They found three coping profiles, - Task-oriented style: "Schedule my time better.", "Analyze the prob­
namely, the adaptive copers (1), the problem-avoidant copers (2), and lem before reacting.",
the social-withdrawal copers (3), with different extents of - Emotion-oriented style: "Blame myself for not knowing what to do.",
problem-solving, seeking social support, disengagement, problem "Worry about what I am going to do.",
avoidance, and social withdrawal. - Avoidance-oriented style: "Watch TV.", "Phone a friend." (Endler &
Based on these results, we chose to apply LPA, which can reveal the Parker, 1994).
underlying psychological experiences to establish typologies (Williams
& Kibowski, 2015). The main assumption is that unobserved latent 3.2. Study samples
profiles drive behavior, leading to the answers in the measured vari­
ables. The schemes resulting from latent categorical models have prac­ We received three independent samples: one from a Hungarian study
tical importance in creating typologies (Costa et al., 2002). carried out on the general population (Sample 1; Kőváry et al., 2014),
another one from a study on Polish university students (Sample 2;
2. The present research Rogowska et al., 2020), and the third database was obtained from a data
collection performed by Hungarian students on young adults (Sample 3;
The present study investigates task-, emotion- and avoidance- Birke & Kéki-Luterán, 2021). Data collection in all three cases was
oriented coping styles from a person-centered perspective. Based on carried out online with convenience sampling. Hungarian students
our preceding studies and the results of Gaudreau and Blondin (2004), applied snowball sampling (Birke & Kéki-Luterán, 2021), while Polish
Oles and Oles (2014), Kavčič et al. (2022), and Wang et al. (2022), we data collection was carried out through Moodle system (Rogowska et al.,
assume that coping styles form general patterns, leading to potentially 2020).
universal profiles (H1). The Polish study participants were young adults under 40. Both of
Literature (e.g., Endler & Parker, 1990c; Tiringer, 2014) suggests the Hungarian data collections targeted mostly the same age group as
that there might be a relationship between a person’s age, gender, and 80% of the subjects were under 40. Since literature considers age an
the exhibited coping. Results suggested (e.g., Matud, 2004) that important variable in coping (e.g., Chen et al., 2018), and we aimed to
emotion- and avoidance-oriented coping is more typical for women, define typical patterns, we only used a narrowed sample from the two
while task-oriented style is more typical for men. The effect of age on Hungarian databases. This way, we could work on data related to the
coping is not evident (e.g., Chen et al., 2018; Diehl et al., 1996). Hence, same age group obtained from several sources and could subsequently
we expect that coping profiles differ in gender ratio and mean age (H2). examine their profiles. However, the narrow age range made it impos­
sible to examine age-related effects, but the small number of older

3
L. Nagy and K. Balázs New Ideas in Psychology 70 (2023) 101023

examinees could not allow that anyhow. similarities. Considering the background of the two analyses, the two
Table 1 provides a summary of the main demographic characteristics cluster-solution seems to fit the data better. Profile 1 showed a high
of the samples. value of task-oriented coping and lower emotion-oriented and
In the Hungarian study conducted on the general population, 90% of avoidance-oriented coping; the latter two had moderate values. In­
the sample had secondary or higher education roughly equal pro­ dividuals sharing Profile 2 had a more striking contrast of values: task-
portions, and 10% of respondents had elementary education. In the oriented coping had a similar average value as before, but emotion-
Polish sample, 62% of the respondents were first-year students, 37% oriented coping and avoidance had much lower average values.
were doing their MA, and the rest of the respondents were doctoral ANOVA analyses were applied on both profiles separately. The
students. In the data collection done by Hungarian students, 70% of the coping values gave the dependent variable, while the coping style types
sample had secondary education, and 29% had a university degree. were the levels of the independent within-subjects variable. The results
indicated a significant effect of the coping style (Profile 1: F(2,478) =
3.3. Statistical procedures 260.48, p < .001, Huynh-Feldt p < .001; Profile 2: F(2,114) = 234.29, p
< .001, Huynh-Feldt p < .001). The effect size (η2 = 0.42) was lower for
Secondary data analysis was performed using the RStudio statistical Profile 1 than for Profile 2 (0.73), which indicated a stronger difference
software (Version 1.3.1093, RStudio Team, 2015) with Latent Profile in the latter. Paired Bonferroni analyses showed significant differences
Analysis (LPA) in the ‘mclust’ package. The LPA is used to identify latent between task- and emotion-oriented coping styles and task- and
group profiles; this is a mixed model where each input variable is avoidance-oriented coping styles (ps < .001), but not between emotion-
assessed on a continuous scale (Harring & Hodis, 2016). LPA is based on and avoidance-oriented styles (p = 1) in Profile 1. For Profile 2, Bon­
cluster analysis and can be used to assess the differences in the fit of ferroni analyses showed significant differences in the mean values in all
alternative models, and it provides the number and nature of profiles in three comparisons (ps < .002).
the models that stand out in the comparison. For the profiles, LPA de­ The chi-squared test confirmed a gender difference between profiles
fines the mean value for each measured variable, while for individuals, it (χ2 = 13.99, df = 1, p < .001, Cramer’s V = 0.22). 104 men and 136
determines classification into clusters, which defines the size of the women had the coping pattern as in Profile 1, and 41 men and 17 women
clusters (Rosenberg et al., 2019). showed the pattern as in Profile 2. The gender distribution showed a
The basic assumption of LPA is that there are certain types or groups marginally significant difference in favor of women in Profile 1 (exact
of people with similar patterns, and each person can be categorized into binomial test: p = .045); and a significantly higher number of males in
a certain type with a given probability based on the available data. The Profile 2 (exact binomial test: p = .002).
revealed types can serve the natural desire to create schemes to reduce
information and create a parsimonious view of complex patterns 4.2. Sample 1
(Macrae & Bodenhausen, 2000).
One of the most commonly used model fit indices is the Bayesian In the Hungarian general population sample, we found a model with
information criterion (BIC). For LPA, the lowest BIC needs to be two profiles to fit the best (BIC = − 12129.3). 344 individuals shared
considered (Oberski, 2016). In a simulation study, Tein et al. (2013) Profile 1, while 201 individuals shared Profile 2, meaning both groups
found that the BIC was one of the four indices that effectively selected are sizeable. The profiles are presented in Fig. 2.
the correct number of classes in LPA. As Fig. 2 shows, Profile 1 represents people who obtained similar
We carried out univariate repeated measures analyses of variance to values for each coping style. In contrast, individuals with patterns
examine the mean differences between coping styles, after which we described as Profile 2 show high values on task-oriented coping and
performed paired Bonferroni analyses. To compare the overall gender seem to apply reasonably less avoidance- and emotion-oriented coping.
distribution of the profiles, chi-square tests were used. Whereas for the We applied one-way repeated measures analyses of variance on both
individual coping styles, binomial tests were applied. profiles separately. We treated the obtained coping values as a depen­
dent variable and coping style as an independent within-subjects vari­
4. Results able. The results indicated a significant effect of the coping style (Profile
1: F(2,400) = 84.0, p < .001, Huynh-Feldt p < .001; Profile 2: F(2,686)
4.1. Preliminary analysis - LPA of our former data = 883.06, p < .001, Huynh-Feldt p < .001). In the case of Profile 1, the
effect size (η2 = 0.18) is much lower than in the case of Profile 2 (0.59),
As a preliminary step, we analyzed our former CISS data from 2015 which indicates a greater difference in the latter. Paired Bonferroni
to 2016 with LPA. The sample size was 298 (145 men and 153 women). analyses showed significant differences in the mean values in all pairs
The mean age was 23.32 years (SD = 4.09). 93% of the sample had (ps < .01).
secondary or higher education, and 7% had elementary education. The As regards the effect of gender, the chi-squared test confirmed a
age range was between 18 and 35 years. similar gender ratio in the two profiles (χ2 = 0.02, df = 1, p = .88); 37
LPA showed a two-profile model with the best fit based on the BIC men and 164 women have the coping pattern seen in Profile 1, and 65
index (BIC = − 6769.29). 240 people shared the first profile, and 58 men and 279 women show the pattern identified in Profile 2.
individuals shared the second profile. The profiles are shown in Fig. 1.
As Fig. 1 shows, LPA indicated two profiles, one less than the K- 4.3. Sample 2
means cluster analyses had indicated before. However, the patterns have
In the case of the Polish data, LPA revealed the fit of a 4-profile model
Table 1 to be the best (BIC = − 20714.71), with 198 persons in Profile 1, 171 in
The main characteristics of the study samples. Profile 2, 115 in Profile 3, and 430 in Profile 4. The groups are presented
in Fig. 3. For the figure to be easily understandable and interpretable,
N Nmale Nfemale Mean SD
age the mean values for the coping styles are provided separately in Table 2.
Two of the profiles seem to be similar to Profile 1 found in the
Hungarian data – the general 545 102 443 25.96 5.74
population (Kőváry et al., 2014) analysis of Sample 1, and the other two are much like Profile 2 in Sample
Polish data (Rogowska et al., 2020) 914 520 394 23.04 2.60 1. Looking at Fig. 3, we can easily notice the close resemblance between
Hungarian data collected by 317 91 223 23.59 5.08 Profile 1 and Profile 2, as well as Profile 3 and Profile 4. In the case of
students (Birke & Kéki-Luterán, Profile 1 and Profile 2, the high level of the task-oriented coping style
2021)
stands out, accompanied by a low level of emotion-oriented coping and a

4
L. Nagy and K. Balázs New Ideas in Psychology 70 (2023) 101023

Fig. 1. The profile patterns in our sample of Hungarian young adults.

Fig. 2. The profile patterns in the sample from the Hungarian general population.

Fig. 3. The profile patterns in the Polish sample.

moderate level of avoidance. Profile 3 and 4 are characterized by an

Table 2
almost identical level of the three coping styles, with a low level of task-
The coping style means of the profiles in the Polish sample.
oriented coping style compared to the other two.
Task Emotion Avoidance The same kind of repeated measures analyses of variance were car­
Profile 1 51.75 33.36 41.82 ried out as before. The results for Profile 1 and Profile 2 are significant;
Profile 2 61.07 27.38 40.12 moreover, the effect sizes indicate meaningful differences (F(2,394) =
Profile 3 43.16 43.60 43.52 519.5, p < .001, Greenhouse-Geisser p < .001, η2 = 0.52; and F(2,340)
Profile 4 52.28 48.57 46.49
= 902.22, p < .001, Greenhouse-Geisser p < .001, η2 = 0.80, respec­
tively). Paired Bonferroni analyses showed significant differences in all

5
L. Nagy and K. Balázs New Ideas in Psychology 70 (2023) 101023

pairs (ps < .01).

The repeated measures analyses of variance revealed a significant
effect of coping style for Profile 3 and Profile 4. However, the corre­
sponding effect sizes were very low, supporting the idea that the dif­
ferences were negligible (Profile 3: F(2,228) = 5.37, p < .01, Huynh-
Feldt p < .01, η2 = 0.002; Profile 4: F(2,858) = 41.51, p < .001,
Huynh-Feldt p < .001, η2 = 0.06). Paired Bonferroni analyses for
dependent samples indicated that the mean values of task-oriented
coping differed from the mean values of emotion-oriented coping (p
= .033) and avoidance (p < .01), but those for the latter two did not
differ from each other (p = 1) in Profile 3. Bonferroni analyses indicated
that all coping style mean values were significantly different (p < .001)
in Profile 4. Fig. 4. The profiles patterns in the Hungarian data collected by students.
It was still a question of what makes a difference between Profile 1
and 2 and between Profile 3 and 4. The correlations between the coping 4.5. Comparison of the profiles obtained from the four samples
style pairs suggest answers. The pairwise coping style correlations are
presented in Table 3. In the subsample with coping patterns of Profile 1, The data analyses were carried out to investigate two expectations.
all coping styles were positively correlated, and the highest correlation Our first expectation was that universal coping patterns arise while
value was found between task-oriented and emotion-oriented styles. In investigating large independent samples (H1). Overall, it can be
the subsample showing Profile 2, task- and avoidance-oriented styles concluded that the typical profiles of best-fit models exhibit several
were negatively correlated, while task- and emotion-oriented styles similarities. There is at least one identifiable profile that can be char­
were positively correlated. Considering the subsample showing coping acterized by high levels of task-oriented coping and lower levels of
patterns as in Profile 3, all coping values are highly correlated. This emotion- and avoidance-oriented styles. There is another profile in
result is not likely to be an artifact, as 115 individuals show this profile. which the mean values of the three styles differ only slightly. Only in the
In contrast to Profile 3, individuals showing Profile 4 show low corre­ Polish sample were both profiles doubled, and the similar profiles
lations between the coping styles. These correlations seem to differen­ differed in the correlations of coping styles beyond a slight difference in
tiate between similar profiles. the mean values. Besides, it is important to note that there tends to be a
Gender differences can also be detected between the profiles (χ2 = considerable amount of task-oriented coping in each profile.
17.06, df = 1, p < .001, Cramer’s V = 0.14). The distribution of genders An important methodological note was suggested by one of the
shows a balanced ratio in Profile 4 (216 women and 214 men, binomial anonymous reviewers: some items of CISS could have been influenced
test: p = 1), whereas the rest of the profiles exhibit a higher number of by social distancing during the pandemic. Based on our screening, the
males (exact binomial test: ps < .001). following items may be affected: „Try to be with other people.”; „Window
shop.”; „Go out for a snack or meal.”; „Go to a party.”; „Visit a friend.”; „I
4.4. Sample 3 spend time with a special person.”; „Go for a walk.”. These items belong to
avoidance-oriented coping, particularly to the social diversion subscale
In the case of the Hungarian young adult data collection, LPA found a (Endler & Parker, 1994). Considering that the pandemic caused by
2-profile model shown in Fig. 4 to have the best fit (BIC = − 7212.904). COVID-19 could have affected the avoidance-oriented coping values
Profile 1 represents 270 respondents, and Profile 2 represents 44 through the social diversion items, it is important to compare the mean
individuals. values before and after 2020. However, looking at the data, drastic
In Fig. 4, we can again see a profile (Profile 1) with respondents who changes cannot be detected. The mean values for avoidance in the
have a roughly similar level of the three coping styles; the level of the profiles before COVID-19 varied between 27.3 and 46.2, while after,
task-oriented style, however, excels that of the other two. Profile 2 is their means varied between 33.2 and 48.8. In sum, COVID-19 did not
also similar to one of the profile types seen previously: the mean value of seem to affect either the profiles or their mean values.
task-oriented coping is outstandingly high, which is accompanied by Our second assumption (H2) was that there are gender and age dif­
low means of emotion-oriented coping and avoidance-oriented coping. ferences between the individuals sharing the different profiles. Our data
The repeated measures analyses of variance were significant for both allowed for only a gender comparison. A significant difference between
profiles (Profile 1: F(2,538) = 123.83, p < .001, Huynh-Feldt p < .001, the profiles can be identified in the preliminary sample, and Sample 2
η2 = 0.23; Profile 2: F(2,86) = 813.08, p < .001, Huynh-Feldt p < .001, and Sample 3. In the preliminary analyses, more women than men
η2 = 0.93). Paired Bonferroni posthoc analyses showed significant mean showed moderate emotion-oriented coping and avoidance in line with
differences in all pairs (ps < .01). Considering the effect sizes, the mean high task-oriented coping. In contrast, more men showed profiles with
differences are more pronounced in Profile 2. low emotion- and avoidance-oriented coping and a striking task-
The chi-squared test indicated a significant difference in gender ratio oriented style.
(χ2 = 13.49, df = 1, p < .001, Cramer’s V = 0.21). Profile 1 is more On the other hand, in the Polish sample, the profiles characterized by
typical of women (202 women and 68 men, exact binomial test: p < an outstandingly high level of task-oriented coping consist of about the
.001), whereas Profile 2 showed a balanced gender ratio (23 women and same number of men and women. In contrast, the rest of the profiles
21 men, exact binomial test: p = .76). represent mostly men. In the young adult data collection, the profile
with increased levels of emotion-oriented coping and avoidance in­
cludes mostly women. In Sample 1 (Hungarian general population),
there was no difference between profiles in the gender distributions.
Table 3
The correlation values of the coping styles by profiles of the Polish sample.
According to these analyses, the relationship between gender and coping
profiles did not lead to a clear, consistent conclusion.
Profile 1 Profile 2 Profile 3 Profile 4

Task-Emotion .71*** .33*** .93*** − .16*** 5. Discussion and conclusion

Task-Avoidance .17* − .47*** .97*** .18***
Emotion-Avoidance .37*** − .08 .94*** − .02
The present study explored the typical latent patterns of task-,
***p < .001, **p < .01, *p < .1.

6
L. Nagy and K. Balázs New Ideas in Psychology 70 (2023) 101023

emotion- and avoidance-oriented trait-based coping styles by applying We could have analyzed the overall data altogether if the language
LPA, a person-centered approach to large, secondary data sets. and the time intervals of the data gathering had been similar. However,
Furthermore, gender differences were studied among latent profiles. The two data collections were carried out during the COVID-19 pandemic
novelty of our study lies in its focus not on examining the relationship of (Sample 2 and Sample 3), while the other data were collected much
coping with other variables but on applying the person-centered before. Besides, as the patterns were very similar before and after the
approach to establish universal profiles by investigating samples pandemic, our results confirm that coping tendencies occur across sit­
distant in space and time. uations, which seem to confirm the importance of the trait-based
We identified two profiles in the preliminary study and the other two approach (Carver & Scheier, 1994).
Hungarian samples and revealed four profiles in the Polish sample. The The perception of some CISS items could have been influenced by
Polish profiles also followed two basic traces; we assume that slight social distancing during the pandemic. However, even during a lock­
differences in mean values and correlations among coping styles created down, all items could have been reformulated to be suitable. For
sub-profiles. We can conclude that at least one profile in all samples example, instead of „I visit a friend.” one could assess „I contact a
represents individuals with an outstandingly high level of task-oriented friend.”. All of these items belong to the social diversion subscale of
coping. Furthermore, there was at least one profile where respondents avoidance-oriented coping (Endler & Parker, 1994); the distraction
showed a similar level of all three coping styles. These profiles seem typical. subscale items may have also been affected to a certain extent. However,
However, a relatively high level of task-oriented coping compared to the the other two coping styles are not affected at all. The revealed profiles
other coping styles appeared as a general characteristic feature of all were very similar before and after the pandemic, suggesting that these
profiles. Even in cases where it did not prove to be outstanding, the task- items did not change a lot. Still, one should consider the modification of
oriented style had a moderate or high score. items in extreme circumstances.
Oles and Oles (2014) found similar patterns in research with elderly Applying CISS-48 to examine coping from the person-centered
individuals. One profile of the participants showed extremely high perspective is only one possibility, which is also a limitation of our
task-oriented coping. Besides, they could identify two other patterns, study. Future research could apply other scales.
one with low levels of all coping styles and another with medium and The practical importance of the result is that it points out the rele­
high levels of each coping type. In their study, the task-oriented style vance of the person-centered approach and shifts the focus when
was always relatively high. Wang et al. (2022) also found a profile in examining the individual profiles: the question should not be whether
which individuals use different coping strategies to a similar extent, the the level of task-oriented coping is high or not; research should
„adaptive copers” as they labeled this group, and another profile, concentrate on the level of emotional- and avoidance-oriented styles
namely the „problem-avoidant copers" who have extremely high compared to the level of task-oriented coping, instead. How high a score
problem-solving abilities along with a high level of problem avoidance. an individual reaches on the scale in absolute values is influenced by
Based on the coping literature, we assumed one can detect gender their typical level of coping and their behavior as respondents and their
differences in the latent profiles. In the first sample, which contains data response set (Nagybányai Nagy, 2013). In this sense, the individual level
on the Hungarian general population collected before the pandemic, of task-oriented coping can be considered a basis for comparison. The
there was no difference in the gender ratio of the profiles. As for the categorization of individuals based on their highest coping score not
Polish students’ sample, in the profile where all three coping styles were only leads to information loss but is rather impractical. Our suggested
typical, the gender ratio was balanced, whereas, in the rest of the pro­ approach to coping scores can enhance the interpretation of question­
files, there were more male respondents. Even if the results suggesting naire results both when used in therapy and to increase self-knowledge.
that more men tend to exhibit task-oriented coping is consistent with the In conclusion, our research supports the raison d’être of a person-
literature (e.g., Ptacek et al., 1994), the difference is still moderate. In centered approach to coping styles. The application of profiles can
the preliminary study and the Hungarian sample collected by students, efficiently study variables examined, usually in connection with coping
the rate of women was relatively higher in the profile that showed an (e.g., locus of control, psychological well-being). We need to admit that
increased level of emotion- and avoidance-oriented styles. Our results applying profile membership as a categorical variable in linear models
confirm that women tend to apply these two coping styles more often does not lead to a higher explained variance than applying continuous
than men (e.g., Endler & Parker, 1990c). These results should be treated variables. However, the aim and focus of a study should determine the
with caution. If a task-oriented style is more typical of men, whereas applied statistical method (e.g., Howard & Hoffman, 2018). This
emotion- and avoidance-oriented coping styles are primarily charac­ approach can support models in theory, as it can support a deeper un­
teristic of women, higher differences in gender ratios should have been derstanding of the latent coping patterns, as expressed in some studies
found between the different profiles in all samples. Therefore our results already (e.g., Gaudreau & Blondin, 2004; Wang et al., 2022).
did not support the hypothesis that men tend to be more task-oriented Considering typical coping profiles while investigating theoretical
while women tend to be more emotion- and avoidance-oriented. relations among constructs or thinking about cases in practice can have
One limitation is the sample’s narrow age range, as it only comprised utility. Depending on the situation and the controllability of the situa­
adults aged 18 to 40. Young adults exhibit more active coping behavior tion (e.g., Endler et al., 2000), emotion- and avoidance-oriented coping
and employ strategies focusing on the problem (Folkman et al., 1987). It should be strengthened or discouraged in practice, as task-oriented
seems likely that task-oriented coping is universally present to an coping is high in most cases. A limitation of our research is that we
increased extent in most people’s coping repertoire, irrespective of did not investigate the profiles related to mental health-related vari­
culture, age, and gender. Further research is needed to explore this issue. ables. That could be an important further step, as well as applying other
The analyzed data can represent young adults from the general scales and methods examining coping behaviors and strategies.
population in only two European countries. A further limitation of our
study is the sampling procedure. We mainly used Google Scholar to Ethics statement
search secondary databases, which do not provide an extensive search.
However, the number of online databases is increasing, which offers The authors of the original studies declared that their studies were
new opportunities for similar investigations. Furthermore, it would be conducted in line with the relevant and current ethical standards.
interesting to investigate these profiles in various generations, cultures, Furthermore, according to the Tri-Council Policy Statement (Govern­
or patient groups to reveal possible commonalities and differences. ment of Canada, 2019), "Research Ethics Board review is not required
As a further step, the relation of these profiles to psychological fea­ for research that relies exclusively on secondary use of anonymous in­
tures such as stress, subjective well-being, or self-esteem could be formation " (p. 17). In this study, we only used anonymous information.
studied, as did for example, Kavčič et al. (2022).

7
L. Nagy and K. Balázs New Ideas in Psychology 70 (2023) 101023

Funding Endler, N. S., & Parker, J. D. A. (1990b). Multidimensional assessment of coping: A

critical evaluation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58(5), 844–854.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.58.5.844
Supported by the ÚNKP-20-3 New National Excellence Program of Endler, N. S., & Parker, J. D. A. (1990c). State and trait anxiety, depression and coping
the Ministry for Innovation and Technology from the source of the Na­ styles. Australian Journal of Psychology, 42(2), 207–220. https://doi.org/10.1080/
tional Research, Development and Innovation Fund. 00049539008260119
Endler, N. S., & Parker, J. D. A. (1994). Assessment of multidimensional coping: Task,
emotion, and avoidance strategies. Psychological Assessment, 6(1), 50–60. https://
Author contributions doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.6.1.50
Folkman, S., & Lazarus, R. S. (1980). An analysis of coping in a middle-aged community
sample. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 21(3), 219–239. https://doi.org/
Luca Nagy: conceptualization, formal analysis, resources, data 10.2307/2136617
curation, writing – original draft, project administration, funding Folkman, S., & Lazarus, R. S. (1988). Manual for the ways of coping questionnaire. Palo
acquisition. Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
Folkman, S., Lazarus, R. S., Pimley, S., & Novacek, J. (1987). Age differences in stress and
Katalin Balázs: conceptualization, methodology, formal analysis, coping processes. Psychology and Aging, 2(2), 171–184. https://doi.org/10.1037/
data curation, writing – review & editing, supervision. 0882-7974.2.2.171
Franco, E., González-Peño, A., & Coterón, J. (2023). Understanding physical education
teachers’ motivational outcomes and feasibility beliefs to implement motivational
Data availability strategies: The role of perceived pressures from a variable- and person-centered
approach. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 64, Article 102337. https://doi.org/
The authors do not have permission to share data. 10.1016/j.psychsport.2022.102337
Gabriel, A. S., Daniels, M. A., Diefendorff, J. M., & Greguras, G. J. (2015). Emotional
labor actors: A latent profile analysis of emotional labor strategies. Journal of Applied
Acknowledgments Psychology, 100(3), 863–879. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037408
Gaudreau, P., & Blondin, J.-P. (2004). Different athletes cope differently during a sport
We would like to express our deep gratitude to Zoltán Kőváry and his competition: A cluster analysis of coping. Personality and Individual Differences, 36(8),
1865–1877. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2003.08.017
colleagues, Aleksandra M. Rogowska and her colleagues, as well as Government of Canada. (2019). Tri-council policy statement - ethical conduct for research
Mónika Birke and Hajnalka Kéki-Luterán, for the databases they pro­ involving humans, TCPS2 2018. https://ethics.gc.ca/eng/documents/tcps2-2018-en-
vided for our study. interactive-final.pdf.
Granziera, H., Collie, R. J., & Martin, A. M. (2022). Teacher well-being: A
complementary variable- and person-centered approach harnessing job demands-
References resources theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 71, Article 102121. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2022.102121
Bafghi, S. M. S., Ahmadi, N., Ardekani, S. M. Y., Jafari, L., Ardekani, B. B., Heydari, R., Greenaway, K. H., Winnifred, R. L., Parker, S. L., Kalokerinos, E. K., Smith, J. R., &
Maroufi, F., & Faraji, R. (2018). A survey of coping strategies with stress in patients Terry, D. J. (2015). Measures of coping for psychological well-being. In G. J. Boyle,
with acute myocardial infarction and individuals without a history of fixed D. H. Saklofske, & G. Matthews (Eds.), Measures of personality and social psychology
myocardial infarction. Cardiology Research, 9(1), 35–39. https://doi.org/10.14740/ constructs (pp. 322–351). London: Elsevier.
cr655w Harring, J. R., & Hodis, F. A. (2016). Mixture modeling: Applications in educational
Birke, M., & Kéki-Luterán, H. (2021). Data set on coping styles. Unpublished dataset. psychology. Educational Psychologist, 51(3–4), 354–367. https://doi.org/10.1080/
University of Debrecen. 00461520.2016.1207176
Bouckenooghe, D., Clercq, D. D., & Raja, U. (2019). A person-centered, latent profile Howard, M. C., & Hoffman, M. E. (2018). Variable-centered, person-centered, and person
analysis of psychological capital. Australian Journal of Management, 44(1), 91–108. specific approaches: Where theory meets the method. Organizational Research
https://doi.org/10.1177/0312896218775153 Methods, 21(4), 846–876. https://doi.org/10.1177/1094428117744021
Cabras, C., & Mondo, M. (2018). Coping strategies, optimism, and life satisfaction among Kavčič, T., Avsec, A., & Kocjan, G. J. (2022). Coping profiles and their association with
first-year university students in Italy: Gender and age differences. Higher Education, psychological functioning: A latent profile analysis of coping strategies during the
75(4), 643–654. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-017-0161-x COVID-19 pandemic. Personality and Individual Differences, 185, Article 111287.
Carroll, S. L., Mikhail, M. E., & Burt, S. A. (2023). The development of youth antisocial https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2021.111287, 2022 Feb.
behavior across time and context: A systematic review and integration of person- Konaszewski, K., Kolemba, M., & Niesiobędzka, M. (2019). Resilience, sense of coherence
centered and variable-centered research. Clinical Psychology Review. https://doi.org/ and self-efficacy as predictors of stress coping style among university students.
10.1016/j.cpr.2023.102253 Current Psychology, 40, 4052–4062. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-019-00363-1
Carver, C. S. (1997). You want to measure coping but your protocol’s too long: Consider Kőváry, Z., Devecsery, Á., Jakab, K., Pusztai, B., Agócs, L., Kómár, R., & Orosz, G. (2014).
the brief cope. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 4(1), 92–100. https://doi. Hungarian adaption of emotional creativity inventory (ECI). Pszichológia, 34(4),
org/10.1207/s15327558ijbm0401_6 339–362, 0.1556/pszicho.34.2014.4.2.
Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (1994). Situational coping and coping dispositions in a Kurtović, A., Vuković, I., & Gajić, M. (2018). The Effect of locus of control on university
stressful transaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66(1), 184–195. students’ mental health: Possible mediation through self-esteem and coping. The
https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.66.1.184 Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied, 152(6), 341–357. https://doi.org/
Carver, C. S., Scheier, M. F., & Weintraub, J. K. (1989). Assessing coping strategies: A 10.1080/00223980.2018.1463962
theoretically based approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56(2), Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal and coping. NY: Springer Publishing
267–283. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.56.2.267 Company.
Chen, Y., Peng, Y., Xu, H., & O’Brien, W. H. (2018). Age differences in stress and coping: Lin, S., & Muenks, K. (2022). Perfectionism profiles among college students: A person-
Problem-focused strategies mediate the relationship between age and positive affect. centered approach to motivation, behavior, and emotion. Contemporary Educational
The International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 86(4), 347–363. https:// Psychology, 71, Article 102110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2022.102110
doi.org/10.1177/0091415017720890 Macrae, C. N., & Bodenhausen, G. V. (2000). Social cognition: Thinking categorically
Chudzicka-Czupała, A. E., Hapon, N., Chiang, S. K., Żywiołek-Szeja, M., Karamushka, L., about others. Annual Review of Psychology, 51, 93–120.
Tze Min Lee, c., Grabowski, D., Paliga, M., Rosenblat, J. D., Ho, R., McIntyre, R. S., & Marsh, H. W., Lüdtke, O., Trautwein, U., & Morin, A. J. S. (2009). Classical Latent Profile
Chen, Y.-L. (2023). Depression, anxiety and post-traumatic stress during the 2022 Analysis of academic self-concept dimensions: Synergy of person- and variable
Russo-Ukrainian war, a comparison between populations in Poland, Ukraine, and centered approaches to theoretical models of self-concept, structural equation
Taiwan. Scientific Reports, 13, 3602. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-28729-3, modeling. A Multidisciplinary Journal, 16(2), 191–225. https://doi.org/10.1080/
2023. 10705510902751010
Costa, P. T., Herbst, J. H., McCrae, R. R., Samuels, J., & Ozer, D. J. (2002). The Masyn, K. E. (2013). Latent class analysis and finite mixture modeling. In T. D. Little
replicability and utility of three personality types. European Journal of Personality, 16, (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of quantitative methods (Vol. 2, pp. 551–611). Oxford
73–87. University Press.
Diehl, M., Coyle, N., & Labouvie-Vief, G. (1996). Age and sex differences in strategies of Matud, M. P. (2004). Gender differences in stress and coping styles. Personality and
coping and defense across the life span. Psychology and Aging, 11(1), 127–139. Individual Differences, 37(7), 1404–1415. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0882-7974.11.1.127 paid.2004.01.010
Endler, N. S., Macrodimitris, S. D., & Kocovski, N. L. (2000). Controllability in cognitive Meeusen, C., Meuleman, B., Abts, K., & Bergh, R. (2018). Comparing a variable-centered
and interpersonal tasks: Is control good for you? Personality and Individual and a person-centered approach to the structure of prejudice. Social Psychological and
Differences, 29(5), 951–962. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(99)00246-9 Personality Science, 9(6), 645–655. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550617720273
Endler, N. S., & Parker, J. D. A. (1989). Coping with frustrations to self-realization: Meléndez, J. C., Mayordomo, T., Sancho, P., & Tomás, J. M. (2012). Coping Strategies:
Stress, anxiety, crises and adjustment. In E. Krau (Ed.), Self-realization, success and Gender differences and development throughout life span. Spanish Journal of
adjustment (pp. 153–164). New York: Praeger. Psychology, 15(3), 1089–1098. https://doi.org/10.5209/rev_sjop.2012.v15.
Endler, N. S., & Parker, J. D. A. (1990a). Coping inventory for stressful situations (CISS): n3.39399
Manual. Toronto: Multi-Health Systems.

8
L. Nagy and K. Balázs New Ideas in Psychology 70 (2023) 101023

Meyer, J. P., & Morin, A. J. S. (2016). A person-centered approach to commitment Ptacek, J. T., Smith, R. E., & Dodge, K. L. (1994). Gender differences in coping with
research: Theory, research, and methodology. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 37, stress: When stressor and appraisals do not differ. Personality and Social Psychology
584–612. Bulletin, 20(4), 421–430. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167294204009
Meyer, J. P., Stanley, L. J., & Vandenberg, R. J. (2013). A person-centered approach to Ptacek, J. T., Smith, R. E., & Zanas, J. (1992). Gender, appraisal, and coping: A
the study of commitment. Human Resource Management Review, 23(2), 190–202. longitudinal analysis. Journal of Personality, 60(4), 747–770. https://doi.org/
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hrmr.2012.07.007 10.1111/j.1467-6494.1992.tb00272.x
Morin, A. J. S., Boudrias, J.-S., Marsh, H. W., Madore, I., & Desrumaux, P. (2016). Rai, S., & Tauheed, R. (2013). Stress and coping strategies among nurses in the University
Further reflections on disentangling shape and level effects in person-centered college hospital. Indian Journal of Health and Wellbeing, 4(5), 1231–1233.
analyses: An illustration exploring the dimensionality of psychological health. https://www.proquest.com/docview/1615264189?pq-origsite=gscholar&fromope
Structural Equation Modeling. A Multidisciplinary Journal, 23(3), 438–454. https:// nview=true.
doi.org/10.1080/10705511.2015.1116077 Rogowska, A. M., Kuśnierz, C., & Bokszczanin, A. (2020). Examining anxiety, life
Morin, A. J. S., Boudrias, J.-S., Marsh, H. W., McInerney, D. M., Dagenais-Desmarais, V., satisfaction, general health, stress and coping styles during COVID-19 pandemic in
Madore, I., & Litalien, D. (2017). Complementary variable- and person-centered Polish Sample of university students. Psychology Research and Behavior Management,
approaches to the dimensionality of psychometric constructs: Application to 13, 797–811. https://doi.org/10.2147/PRBM.S266511
psychological wellbeing at work. Journal of Business and Psychology, 32(4), 395–419. Rosenberg, J. M., Beymer, P. N., Anderson, D. J., van Lissa, C. J., & Schmidt, J. A. (2019).
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-016-9448-7 tidyLPA: An R package to easily carry out Latent Profile Analysis (LPA) Using open-
Morin, A. J. S., Gagne, M., & Bujacz, A. (2016). Person-centered methodologies in the source or commercial software. Journal of Open Source Software, 3(30), 978. https://
organizational sciences. Organizational Research Methods, 19(1), 8–9. https://doi. doi.org/10.21105/joss.00978
org/10.1177/1094428115617592 RStudio Team. (2015). RStudio. Boston, MA: Integrated Development for R. RStudio. http
Muthén, B. O., & Muthén, L. K. (2000). Integrating person-centered and variable- ://www.rstudio.com/.
centered analyses: Growth mixture modeling with latent trajectory classes. Sahdra, B. K., Ciarrochi, J., Parker, P. D., Basarkod, G., Bradshaw, E. L., & Baer, R.
Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 24(61), 882–891. https://doi.org/ (2017). Are people mindful in different ways? Disentangling the quantity and quality
10.1111/j.1530- 0277.2000.tb02070.x of mindfulness in latent profiles and exploring their links to mental health and life
Nagy, L. (2020). A megküzdési stílus és a kontrollhely hatása a félelemkeltő reklámüzenetekre effectiveness. European Journal of Personality, 31, 347–365.
adott válaszokra [The effect of coping style and locus of control on responses to fear- Tein, J.-Y., Coxe, S., & Cham, H. (2013). Statistical power to detect the correct number of
appealing advertisements], VIII. pp. 176–193). Printart-Press. classes in Latent Profile Analysis. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary
Nagy, L., & Balázs, K. (2018). Félelemkeltő egészségkommunikáció és a meggyőzési stílus Journal, 20(4), 640–657. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705511.2013.824781
[Fear-appealing communication and coping styles]. Psychiatria Hungarica, 33(2), Teng, Y. (2021). The nature of resilience: A person-centered approach using latent profile
106–124. analysis. In USF tampa graduate theses and dissertations. https://digitalcommons.usf.
Nagybányai Nagy, O. (2013). A válaszstílus jellemzők hatása az önkitöltős tesztelési edu/etd/9242.
eljárások mérési eredményességére [The effect of response style characteristics on Tiringer, I. (2014). Megküzdés (coping). In J. Kállai, J. Varga, & J. Oláh (Eds.),
measurement efficiency of self-completed test methods]. [Doctoral dissertation]. Egészségpszichológia a gyakorlatban [Health psychology in practice] (pp. 177–197).
Budapest: Lóránd Eötvös University. Budapest: Medicina Könyvkiadó.
Nylund-Gibson, K., & Choi, A. Y. (2018). Ten frequently asked questions about latent Urbański, P. K., Rogoza, R., Brewer, B., & Tasiemski, T. (2022). Coping with the COVID-
class analysis. Translational Issues in Psychological Science, 4(4), 440–461. 19 pandemic by paralympic athletes preparing for elite sport events: A longitudinal
Oberski, D. (2016). Mixture models: Latent profile and latent class analysis. In study. Scandinavian. Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 00, 1–9. https://doi.org/
J. Robertson, & M. Kaptein (Eds.), Modern statistical methods for HCI (pp. 275–287). 10.1111/sms.14270, 2022.
Switzerland: Springer. Wang, M., & Hanges, P. J. (2011). Latent class procedures: Applications to organizational
Oles, M., & Oles, P. (2014). Coping styles and quality of life in elderly patients with research. Organizational Research Methods, 14(1), 23–31. https://doi.org/10.1177/
vision disturbances. Journal of Ophthalmology. , Article 584627. https://doi.org/ 1094428110383988
10.1155/2014/584627 Vermunt, J. (2010). Latent Class Modeling with covariates: Two improved three-step
O’Rourke, N., & Hyland, J. M. (2021). Coping strategies employed by Irish firefighters, approaches. Political Analysis, 18(4), 450–469. https://doi.org/10.1093/pan/
association with stress and anxiety, and the use of Critical Incident Stress mpq025
Management (CISM) support. DBS Business Review, 4, 89–109. https://doi.org/ Wang, H., Lee, S. Y., & Hall, N. C. (2022). Coping profiles among teachers: Implications for
10.22375/dbr.v4i0.75 emotions, job satisfaction, burnout, and quitting intentions. Contemporary Educational
Parker, J. D. A., & Endler, N. S. (1992). Coping with coping assessment: A critical review. Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2021.102030, 102030.
European Journal of Personality, 6(5), 321–344. https://doi.org/10.1002/ Williams, G. A., & Kibowski, F. (2015). Latent class analysis and latent profile analysis. In
per.2410060502 L. A. Jason, & D. S. Glenwick (Eds.), Handbook of methodological approaches to
Perczel Forintos, D., Kiss, Z., Ajtay, G., & szerk. (2005). Kérdőívek, becslőskálák a klinikai community-based research: Qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods (pp. 143–151).
pszichológiában [Questionnaires in clinical psychology]. Budapest: Országos Oxford University Press.
Pszichiátriai és Neurológiai Intézet. Wong, P. T. P., Reker, G. T., & Peacock, E. (2006). The resource-congruence model of
Power, T. G., Garcia, K. S., Beck, A. D., Goodell, L. S., Johnson, S. L., & Hughes, S. O. coping and the development of the Coping Schemas Inventory. In P. T. P. Wong, &
(2018). Observed and self-reported assessments of caregivers’ feeding styles: L. C. J. Wong (Eds.), Handbook of multicultural perspectives on stress and coping (pp.
Variable- and person-centered approaches for examining relationships with 223–283). New York, NY: Springer.
children’s eating behaviors. Appetite, 130, 174–183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. Woo, S. E., Jebb, A. T., Tay, L., & Parrigon, S. (2018). Putting the “person” in the center:
appet.2018.08.010 Review and synthesis of person-centered approaches and methods in organizational
science. Organizational Research Methods, 21(4), 814–845. https://doi.org/10.1177/
1094428117752467