See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/341990749

Tropical Forest and Sustainability: An Overview

Chapter · June 2020

DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-71065-5_37-1

CITATION READS

1 2,134

1 author:

Narayan Saha
Shahjalal University of Science and Technology
33 PUBLICATIONS 279 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Ecological trade-offs between biodiversity conservation, agroforestry land-use, and management intensification - case study from Lawachara National Park,
Moulvibazar, Bangladesh View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Narayan Saha on 07 August 2020.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

T

Tropical Forest and compromising the ability of future generations to

Sustainability: An Overview meet their needs (Park and Allaby 2013). With
respect to the resources, sustainability involves
Narayan Saha natural resource management that has the objec-
Department of Forestry and Environmental tives of ensuring the future generations will have
Science, School of Agriculture and Mineral the opportunity to use their fair share of resources
Sciences, Shahjalal University of Science and and will inherit a quality environment (Bashar
Technology, Sylhet, Bangladesh 2013). In economic sense, the concept means
development that will not cause irreparable dam-
age to the environment while ensuring the inher-
Definitions itance of their fair share of all Earth’s resources for
the future generations (Bashar 2013). Sustainabil-
Forested landscapes that are bounded by the ity may be weak and strong in environmental
Tropic of Cancer and Capricorn, characterized economics in which, weak sustainability states
by experience of high temperatures and high that “man-made capital” can substitute “natural
annual rainfall, are called tropical forest (Bashar capital,” and strong sustainability assumes that
2013; Butler 2015; Park and Allaby 2013). Fig. 1 “man-made capital” and “natural capital” are
shows the tropical rain forests distributed all over complementary but not interchangeable (Barua
the world. It is a subclass of tropical forest distrib- and Khatniar 2015). Man-made capital includes
uted around the world, particularly near the equa- resources, such as infrastructure, labor, and
tor (Butler 2014). Myers (1992) defined tropical knowledge. Natural capital includes stock of envi-
rain forest as “evergreen or partly evergreen for- ronmental assets, such as fossil fuels, biodiversity,
est, that is, some trees may be deciduous, grown in and other ecosystem structures and functions rel-
areas receiving not less than 100 mm of precipi- evant for ecosystem services (Dickson et al.
tations, in any month for two out of three years, 2014). The natural resources may decline if man-
with mean annual temperatures of more than made capital is increased and may be an indicator
24 C.” These forests usually occur at altitudes of weak sustainability, for example, the degrada-
below 1,300 m and generally in Southeast Asia tion of tropical forests, if accompanied by benefits
up to only 750 m and there are several more or less to man-made capital (increased financial profits).
distinctive forest strata (Bashar 2013). Strong sustainability accepts that certain functions
Sustainability is a concept that describes com- of the environment cannot be duplicated by
munity and economic development in terms of human. The ozone layer is an example of ecosys-
meeting the needs of the present without tem service that is crucial for human existence,
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019
W. Leal Filho et al. (eds.), Life on Land, Encyclopedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-71065-5_37-1
2 Tropical Forest and Sustainability: An Overview

Tropical Forest and Sustainability: An Overview, Fig. 1 Worldwide distribution of tropical rain forests

forms part of natural capital, but is difficult for

humans to duplicate. Fig. 2 shows the principles
of sustainability.

Introduction

The idea of sustainability is not new, although it

has become a watchword in the recent years
(Hediger 1997). The definitions of sustainability
are important for tropical forest managers, policy-
makers, and also for government to take actions at
the local, regional, and international levels. The
interrelationship between tropical forest and sus-
tainability is very complex. It means how tropical
forest resources will meet the needs of the present
and future generations equally, on the one side, Tropical Forest and Sustainability: An Overview,
and ensure tropical forest biodiversity conserva- Fig. 2 Principles of sustainability (Source: Ivan 2016)
tion, on the other side. The sustainable forest
management thus needs to consider trees, wild- emerged as a powerful tool in promoting sustain-
life, and human to maintain and enhance the eco- able forest management. Following the UNCED,
nomic, social, and environmental values of the sustainable forest management has been an objec-
tropical forests (Robinson 2009). tive of forest policies in most countries
Since UNCED in 1992, several different inter- irrespective of the degree of human interventions
national processes and initiatives have developed in forests (Choudhury 2005). The International
criteria and indicators (C&I) as a framework for Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO) in 1998
sustainable forest management. C&I have defined sustainable forest management as “the
Tropical Forest and Sustainability: An Overview 3

process of managing forests to achieve one or Tropical Forests

more clearly specified objectives of management
with regard to the production of a continuous flow Ecological Perspectives
of desired forest products and services, without Covering about only 7% of the Earth’s land sur-
undue reduction of its inherent values and future face and about 30% of the world’s total forest
productivity and without undue undesirable areas, tropical forests support more than half of
effects on the physical and social environment the world’s estimated 10 million species of plants,
(Appanah and Kleine 2001).” animals, and insects (Myers 1988; Nasi 2010).
The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) While the entire forests of Europe support maxi-
of the United Nations has suggested that sustain- mum 500 tree species only, 1 ha of tropical rain
able forest management refers to the “application forest can support as many as 750 tree species
of forest management practices for the primary (Nasi 2010). Globally, approximately 1.6 billion
purpose of sustaining constant levels of carbon people depend on forests to varying degrees for
stocks over time” (FAO 2009). Sustainable forest their livelihoods, with 350 million people living in
management, therefore, attempts to develop sys- or near dense forests depending on them to a high
tems whereby resources can be harvested without degree (World Bank 2001). Tropical forest biodi-
disturbing the environment as well as interests of versity is increasingly threatened because of
the future generations. It is difficult to assess the deforestation and degradation. The annual rate of
sustainability of a system, and in the case of forest reduction of biodiversity mostly from tropical rain
management, the situation is even more complex. forests would be 17,500 per year (FAO 2017; Nasi
It is essential to consider the timeframe, ecology, et al. 2011; Wilson 1988). Tropical deforestation
economy, and sociocultural aspects while evalu- became an international concern in the early
ating the sustainability of any particular system 1980s, and the issue is becoming more complex,
(Dupuy et al. 1999). To assess the sustainability of because it introduces a wide range of political
a system, a minimum time period is required. The actors and causes global warming, soil erosion,
management system also needs to be ecologically and destruction of biological diversity
viable. The ecology can be assessed in terms of (Humphreys 1996; Myers 1989).
biological and physical components. A system is The rural poor people of tropical countries
no longer being sustainable unless it produces heavily depend on forest resources for their liveli-
sustainable economic returns and is accepted by hoods (Mukul and Saha 2017). However, extreme
the society (Biswas and Choudhury 2007). poverty sometimes leads to overexploitation of
The recent adoption of the sustainable devel- forest resources, resulting in deforestation and
opment goals (SDGs) offers an opportunity to degradation of the forest ecosystems (Rahman
strengthen the combined use of C&I and National 1998). The acceleration of forest removal in the
Forestry Programs to promote sustainability in the tropics is associated with investments in other
post-2015 development agenda (see FAO 2017). land uses, mainly agriculture for increasing food
While many countries, mostly developed coun- security or earning hard currency through exports
tries with sustainable forest governance, are able of cash crops and timber (Nasi et al. 2011;
to follow these sustainable forest management Humphreys 1996; Giam 2017). Global forest
assessment and implementation tools, developing cover loss was 2.3 million square kilometers per
countries which are focusing on accelerating eco- year, and gain was 0.8 million square kilometers
nomic development such as Bangladesh are yet to per year from 2000 to 2012, where the tropics
mainstream sustainable forest management exhibited greatest loss (2,101 square kilometers
assessment and implementation tools. Therefore, per year) and greatest gain (University of
sustainability cannot be proven or measured but Maryland 2013). The same article also reported
serves to create a sense of community, connection, that Brazil’s well-documented reduction in defor-
and purpose (McCool and Stankey 2001). estation was offset by increasing forest loss in
4 Tropical Forest and Sustainability: An Overview

Indonesia, Malaysia, Paraguay, Bolivia, Zambia, significant revenue for public institutions and
Angola, and elsewhere. governments. For instance, in Cameroon, forests
Most logging in the tropics selectively generate 25% of public revenue through timber
removes slow-growing trees of high timber value taxes and other fiscal instruments (OECD 2008).
that may take centuries to reach maturity and are Large areas of tropical forests, irrespective of
an important component of forest structure. whether protected or controlled by communities,
A large tree of the tropical forest is the home of are still being harvested unsustainably, if not ille-
many small plants and insects. Most logging oper- gally, through logging, hunting, or collection of
ations damage surrounding plants or trees, which non-timber forest products (Rashid and Mukul
are not felling, causing soil erosion, creating fire 2017; Nasi and Frost 2009). Corruption is gener-
risk, and disturbing new species to grow. Tropical ally widespread at all levels in natural resource
forest ecosystems are playing a key role in climate management.
regulation and the global carbon cycle, sequester- High timber consumption of the Global North
ing annually 2.2–2.7 Gt of carbon (Pan et al. and rampant poverty in the Global South are
2011). At the same time, tropical forests are still greatest threats to the attainment of sustainable
disappearing, releasing more carbon than these global development (Rahman 1998; Humphreys
ecosystems are sequestering, and forest degrada- 1996). Poverty in tropical forest countries is con-
tion is estimated to contribute up to 3% of annual tributing to deforestation due to increased demand
emission due to human activities, such as logging, for fuelwood and land for agriculture (Humphreys
shifting cultivation, and fuelwood harvest 1996). Rural poverty of the tropical forest coun-
(Baccini et al. 2017). tries is a great problem to face deforestation and to
take conservation initiatives. According to Fisher
Socioeconomic Perspectives et al. (2010), conservationists face three chal-
Forests are the sources of food, fuel, medicinal lenges: (i) making a better case for the long-term
plants, thatching materials, and income of the economic and social benefits of conservation;
global people. Billions of people use forest (ii) accounting for the real costs of some conser-
goods and services to meet their daily needs for vation activities to the poor; and (iii) recognizing
food, energy, and shelter (FAO 2014). Human biodiversity as a livelihood resource as well as a
populations are also indirectly benefiting from global public good.
forest services, such as climate regulation, carbon
sequestration, or water purification. Narrowing General Aspects of Management and Global
down to the forestry sector, more than 13 million Initiatives for Forest Conservation
people are employed in the formal forest sector About 5% of tropical forests were managed sus-
(i.e., production and sale of sawn wood). This tainably in 2005 (ITTO 2006). Most of the tropi-
number increases to 40–60 million people when cal forests were not managed properly because of
the informal sector (i.e., fuelwood and unrecorded the following reasons (Nasi et al. 2011): (i) lack of
minor forest products used for construction) is financial benefits from adopting improved forest
included, contributing to nearly 1% of global management versus conventional forest manage-
gross domestic products (GDP) in 2011 (FAO ment as well as consumers were unwilling to pay
2014). Beyond employment, where such data are the premium prices for timber from the well-
reliably available, the non-cash economic contri- managed forests or certified operations;
butions of forests to household and national eco- (ii) government policies for improved forest man-
nomics range between three and five times the agement were mostly biased and lacked serious
formally recognized cash contributions. Thus, for- governmental commitments to enforce forestry
est management for timber production in natural regulations, tenure security and clear use rights,
forests still plays an important role in the eco- and institutional capacity to reduce forest
nomic development strategies of many tropical encroachments; and (iii) inadequate understand-
countries, where the forestry sector generates ing of benefits from adopting improved forest
Tropical Forest and Sustainability: An Overview 5

management, lack of trained staffs, and ineffi- (2011) have assessed the economical, governance,
ciency to reduce waste in the forest. and technical conditions that shape forest man-
A wide range of actors are concerned about the agement in tropical South America with regard to
deforestation issues and involved in activities for efforts to reduce forest-based carbon emissions.
reducing deforestation and increasing forest con- They have discussed about ways to improve forest
servation. They are the government department, management that achieve environmental objec-
international civil society, the United Nations tives while promoting local and national develop-
Environment Program (UNEP), FAO, ITTO, the ment and contributing to local livelihoods. They
Tropical Forestry Action Program (TFAP), the have argued that many management practices that
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change lead toward sustainability are only likely to be
(IPCC), and non-governmental organizations adopted where there is good governance backed
(NGOs), such as conservation and research by financial incentives for effective enforcement
groups, operating at international, national, and of management regulations. They have proposed
local levels. The International Union for Conser- some policy interventions designed to lower net
vation of Nature (IUCN) and the World Resources greenhouse gas emissions by decreasing rates of
Institute (WRI) are important international NGOs. forest degradation and increasing carbon stock
Local government structures, community institu- recovery in logged-over or otherwise degraded
tions, and traditional authorities may also be key forests. Implementation of REDD+ could provide
actors at the local level. Both reports from the critical compensation to forest users for improved
United Nations Fund for Population Activities management practices in the absence of or in
(UNFPA) and the United Nations Development combination with other economic incentives.
Program (UNDP) suggest that net financial trans-
fers from South to North and other global ineq-
uities contribute to poverty (Humphreys 1996). Bangladesh Forests as a Case
Eradication of poverty is thus now the most
important policy of the global communities, not Bangladesh has a population of about 160 million
just for forests but also for development and with the highest population density in the world.
environment. The country is considered as highly vulnerable to
WRI and IUCN have collaborated with the climate change (CCG 2014). The rural poor peo-
World Bank on biodiversity conservation. They ple of Bangladesh heavily depend on forest
have also collaborated with UNEP, in consultation resources for their sustenance causing over-
with FAO and the United Nations Educational, exploitation. According to the information of the
Scientific, and Cultural Organization Bangladesh Forest Department, the total forest
(UNESCO), in the preparation of the Global Bio- area in the country was 2.60 million hectares in
diversity Strategy. Initially forest-dependent com- 2013, which is only 17.62% of the total land area
munities of the tropical countries might be of the country (Mukul et al. 2014a). The forests of
suffering due to these initiatives. the country classified on the basis of topography
Therefore, it is essential to develop systems as hill forests (0.67 million hectares), mangrove
that foster sustainable forest management through littoral forests (0.60 million hectares), coastal
achieving both forest conservation and socioeco- afforestation (0.19 ha), plain land Sal
nomic development (FAO 2017; Kanowski et al. (deciduous) forest (0.12 million hectares), fresh-
2011). The successful inclusion of sustainable water swamp forests (0.02 million hectares), and
forest management in Reducing Emissions from some privately owned forest (FIP 2017).
Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+) The deforestation rate in Bangladesh between
is needed for shifting toward better practices in 2006 and 2014 was 0.75% (Reddy et al. 2016). If
tropical forestry as well as for ensuring better the forest cover loss continues, then the potential
environmental and socioeconomic conditions of for the forest to sequester carbon will be reduced
the relevant stakeholders. However, Nasi et al. over time (FIP 2017). The loss of 23.5% of the
6 Tropical Forest and Sustainability: An Overview

dense forests recorded between 1975 and 2014 ensure food security, environmental amelioration,
indicate increased threats to high-biomass carbon and carbon sequestration, meeting the basic needs
forest ecosystems in Bangladesh (Reddy et al. of the vulnerable people and ensuring their well-
2016). Based on a study of Reddy et al. (2016) being. Bangladesh is not an exception. The forests
between 1975 and 2014, the major drivers of of Bangladesh were considered as sources of rev-
deforestation in the country were conversion of enue from very ancient times (Choudhury 2005,
forest land to agricultural land (25%) and scrub Saha 1998, GOB 1992, Mustafa 2002; Pant
land (58%). However, this study also found that in 1989). Forest Policy 1994 included forestation,
the recent period, about 34% of the deforested conservation of forests, and improvement of envi-
land was converted to agricultural land and 35% ronment as well as emphasis on the importance of
to scrub land. Based on 2000 data, IUCN reports people’s participation in forestry (Mustafa 2002;
that among the 895 varieties of inland and resident GOB 1996; Saha 1998). The Forest Act 1927 was
vertebrates of the country, 13 species have been revised in 1989 and 2000. The 1989 amendments
extinct, and 201 species are threatened (Mukul strengthened the provisions for protection of for-
et al. 2018; GED 2015). According to IUCN ests. In 2000, the revisions incorporated some
2003 report, 23% of the resident vertebrates are relaxations for privately owned forest products
threatened with extinction (GED 2015). and accommodated some aspects of social for-
According to the report of the Bangladesh estry (Biswas and Choudhury 2007).
National Herbarium in 2013, there were 3,885 In Bangladesh, forest policy is especially
vascular plants in the country, of which 5.81% dependent on international donors’ projects due
were threatened (GED 2015). to the forest sector not being a viable economic
The forest sector accounts for about 3% of the sector; this is mainly due to the imposition of
country’s GDP and 2% of the country’s total labor logging ban on natural forests for industrial and
force (FIP 2017). These figures, however, are an commercial purposes to regain forest cover since
underestimate of the overall socioeconomic 1989 (Giessen et al. 2016; Sarker et al. 2011; Saha
importance of the forest. The GDP figure does 1998).
not cover large quantities of fuelwood, fodder, In order to ensure proper utilization, preserva-
small timber, poles, thatching grass, medicinal tion, and management of natural resources of pro-
herbs, and other forest produces, extracted legally tected areas, the government introduced a
and illegally. If the value of non-timber forest co-management system to ensure the active
products, the value of recreation, and carbon involvement of all parties through the forest
locking are considered, the forestry sector contri- department, small ethnic minorities living in the
bution to the GDP could be as high as 6.4% in forest, and the participation of local people in
2014–2015 (FIP 2017). The role of forest in pov- 2004. REDD+ shall be among the main objectives
erty alleviation is also crucial. In 2015, employ- of the future forestry programs of Bangladesh. In
ment in forestry sector was about 1.5 million full- this context, the government of Bangladesh has
time equivalents, of which 0.60 million were undertaken programs relating to reducing defor-
women. There are at least 19 million people estation and forest degradation and enhancing tree
depending on forests directly for their livelihoods cover to conserve biodiversity, promote resilience
in Bangladesh. The similar number of people is to climate change, and enhance ecosystem ser-
indirectly dependent on forests for their liveli- vices, including carbon stocks.
hoods. According to the National Conservation Out of 64 districts of Bangladesh, 28 districts
Strategy Report, 2016, the contribution of pri- had no public forest in the past (Mukul et al.
vately owned village forests to the total household 2014b). Based on the implementation of the
income varied from 8.9% to 18.6% (FIP 2017). Social Forestry Program through people’s partic-
Traditionally, tropical forest deforestation cuts ipation, about 0.40 million hectares of outside
off the ability to manage various domains of sus- forest land has been brought under tree cover
tainability, for example, to reduce poverty and (GED 2015). Moreover, efforts have been made
Tropical Forest and Sustainability: An Overview 7

to increase tree density in existing forests by References

bringing more forests under protected area man-
agement system and introducing silvicultural Alamgir M, Mukul SA, Turton S (2015) Modelling spatial
distribution of critically endangered Asian elephant and
interventions like “enrichment plantation,”
Hoolock gibbon in Bangladesh forest ecosystems
“assisted natural regeneration,” etc. (GED 2015). under a changing climate. Appl Geogr 60:10–19
Climate change is the vital factor for Appanah S, Kleine M (2001) Auditing of sustainable forest
Bangladesh in various aspects. It is widely recog- management. FORSPA publication no 26/2001.131p
Baccini A, Walker W, Carvalho L, Farina M, Sulla-
nized that climate change will affect many sectors,
Menashe D, Houghton RA (2017) Tropical forests are
including forests and biodiversity and coastal a net carbon source based on aboveground measure-
zones in the country (see Mukul et al. 2019; ments of gain and loss. Science 358(6360):230–234.
Alamgir et al. 2015). The cyclones (SIDR in https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aam5962
Barua A, Khatniar B (2015) Strong or weak sustainability:
2007) and (AILA in 2009) and droughts and
a case study of emerging Asia. Asia-Pacific Develop
floods which occur during the recent years indi- J 2(21):1–31
cate that IPCC predictions on extreme climate Bashar DMA (2013) Bashar-dictionary of biodiversity.
events were on track in Bangladesh. To prevent Mohammad Publications, Dhaka, 374 pp
Biswas SR, Choudhury JK (2007) Forests and forest man-
the climate change impacts on the country, the
agement practices in Bangladesh: the question of sus-
government has carried out several initiatives in tainability. Int For Rev 9(2):627–640
the policy-making system. The establishment of Butler R (2014) Tropical rainforests of the world. https://
Climate Change Unit in January 2010 and rainforests.mongabay.com/0101.htm
Butler R (2015) Where are rainforests located? https://kids.
Bangladesh Climate Change Trust (BCCT) on
mongabay.com/elementary/002.html
January 24, 2013, and renaming of the Ministry CCG (2014) Local adaptation to climate change: the gen-
of Environment and Forests as the Ministry of der perspective. Climate Change Governance (CCG),
Environment, Forest, and Climate Change on CCG-PB-14-003, June 2014: 1–4
Choudhury JK (2005) Forests and forestry in Bangladesh.
May 14, 2018, are major initiatives to address
Paper presented at BELA, 39 pp
both climate change adaptation and mitigation. Dickson B, Blaney R, Miles L, Regan E, van
Soesbergen A, Väänänen E, Blyth S, Harfoot M, Mar-
tin CS, McOwen C, Newbold T, van Bochove J (2014)
Towards a global map of natural capital: key ecosystem
Conclusions assets. UNEP, Nairobi
Dupuy B, Maitre HF, Amselim I (1999) Tropical forest
management techniques: a review of the sustainability
The biggest challenge of the forestry sector of of forest management practices in tropical countries.
tropical countries is to halt deforestation and for- Working paper: FAO/FPIRS/04 prepared for the World
est degradation in order to meet the needs of the Bank
ever-increasing demands of forest resources. The FAO (2009) Sustainable management of forests and
REDD+: negotiations need clear terminology. Food
management and policies, however, well and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations,
intentioned, will not bring benefits to the Rome
concerned people without proper implementation. FAO (2014) State of the world’s forests 2014. Food and
The increasing demand for agricultural land Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome
FAO (2017) Using criteria and indicators for sustainable
results in the conversion of forest land. It shows forest management. Forestry policy and institutions
the poor institutional capacity of the forest man- working paper 37. Food and Agriculture Organization
agement wings of the tropical countries and the of the United Nations, Rome
lack of strong coordination with other sectors of FIP (2017) Forest investment program. Forest Department,
Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of
those countries. It is urgent to improve the insti- the People’s Republic of Bangladesh, 130 pp
tutional capacity of the forest management wings. Fisher R, Maginnis S, Jackson W, Barrow E, Jeanrenaud
Private sectors’ coordination is also needed to S (2010) Linking conservation and poverty reduction:
improve and expand tree plantations outside the landscape, people and power. In: Roe D, Elliott J (eds)
At poverty and biodiversity conservation. Earthscan,
tropical forest areas. London, Washington, DC, pp 27–41
8 Tropical Forest and Sustainability: An Overview

GED (2015) Millennium development goals – Bangladesh Mukul SA, Alamgir M, Sohel MSI, Pert PL, Turton SM,
progress report 2015. General Economic Division Herbohn J, Khan MSI, Ali Reza AHM, Munim SA,
(GED), Bangladesh Planning Commission, Govern- Laurance WF (2019) Combined effects of climate
ment of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh, 126 pp change and sea-level rise project dramatic habitat loss
Giam X (2017) Global biodiversity loss from tropical of the globally endangered Bengal tiger in the
deforestation. PNAS 114(23):5775–5777. https://doi. Bangladesh Sundarbans. Sci Total Environ
org/10.1073/pnas.1706264114 663:830–840
Giessen L, Sarker PK, Rahman MS (2016) International Mustafa MME (2002) A review of forest policy trends in
and domestic sustainable forest management policies: Bangladesh-Bangladesh forest policy trend. Policy
distributive effects on power among State Agencies in Trend Report 2002:114–121
Bangladesh. Sustainability 8(335):1–28. https://doi. Myers N (1988) Deforestation rates in tropical forests and
org/10.3390/su8040335 their climate implications. Friends of the Earth, London
GOB (1992) Forest policy-forestry master plan. Ministry December 1989, p 6
of Environment and Forests, Government of the Peo- Myers N (1989) Tropical forests and their species: going,
ple’s Republic of Bangladesh, 274 pp going . . ..? In: Wilson EO, Peter FM (eds) Biodiversity.
GOB (1996) Bangladesh economic review (in Bengali). National Academic Press, Washington, DC, pp 28–35
Finance Division, Ministry of Finance, Government of Myers N (1992) The primary source- tropical forest and
the People’s Republic of Bangladesh, 94 pp our future. W. W. Norton and Co., New York, p 416.
Hediger W (1997) Towards an ecological economics of ISBN 0393308286
sustainable development. Sustain Dev Nasi R (2010) Tropical forests and sustainability: do we
5(1997):101–109 need new management paradigms? Waseda University,
Humphreys D (1996) Forest politics: the evolution of Tokyo
international cooperation. Earthscan Publications, Nasi R, Frost PGH (2009) Sustainable forest management
London, p 299 in the tropics: is everything in order but the patient still
ITTO (2006) Status of Tropical Forest Management 2005. dying? Ecol Soc 14(2):40. http://www.
ITTO technical series no. 24. ITTO, Yokohama ecologyandsociety.org/vol14/iss2/art40/
Ivan (2016) Sustainable development and the 3 pillars of Nasi R, Putz FE, Pacheco P, Wunder S, Anta S (2011)
sustainability. https://weemss.com/blog/sustainable- Sustainable forest management and carbon in tropical
development-3-pillars-sustainability/ Latin America: the case for REDD+. Forests
Kanowski PJ, McDermott CL, Cashore BW 2:200–217. https://doi.org/10.3390/f2010200
(2011) Implementing REDD+: lessons from analysis OECD (2008) Natural resources and pro-poor growth: the
of forest governance. Environ Sci Policy economics and politics, DAC guidelines and reference
2011(14):111–117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. series. OECD Publishing, Paris
envsci.2010.11.007 Pan Y, Birdsey RA, Fang J, Houghton R, Kauppi P, Kurz
McCool S, Stankey G (2001) Representing the future: a WA, Phillips OL, Shvidenko A, Lewis SL, Canadell
framework for evaluating the utility of indicators in JG, Ciais P, Jackson RB, Pacala SW, McGuire AD,
search for sustainable forest management. In: Raison Piao S, Rautiainen A, Sitch S, Hayes D (2011)
RJ, Brown A (eds) Criteria and indicators for sustain- A large and persistent carbon sink in the world’s for-
able forest management. IUFRO. Series no 7. CAB ests. Science 333(6045):988–993. https://doi.org/
International Publishing, Oxford, UK, pp 93–105 10.1126/science.1201609
Mukul SA, Saha N (2017) Conservation benefits of tropi- Park C, Allaby M (2013) Oxford dictionary of environ-
cal multifunctional landscapes in and around a forest ment & conservation, 2nd edn. Oxford University
protected area of Bangladesh. Land 6(2):1–12 Press, Oxford, UK, 504 pp
Mukul SA, Biswas SR, Rashid AZMM, Miah MD, Kabir Rahman AA (1998) Environment and poverty 0 key link-
ME, Uddin MB, Alamgir M, Khan NA, Sohel MSI, ages for global sustainable development. The Univer-
Chowdhury MSH, Rana MP, Rahman SA, Khan sity Press Limited, Dhaka, 131 pp
MASA, Hoque MA (2014a) A new estimate of carbon Rashid AZMM, Mukul SA (2017) Managing protected
for Bangladesh forest ecosystems with their spatial areas in a changing world: new insights and opportuni-
distribution and REDD+ implications. Int J Res Land- ties. In: Mukul SA, Rashid AZMM (eds) Protected
use Sustain 1(1):33–41 areas: policies, management and future directions.
Mukul SA, Tito MR, Munim SA (2014b) Can Nova Science Publishers, USA, pp 1–12
homegardens help save forests in Bangladesh? Domes- Reddy CS, Pasha SV, Jha CS, Diwakar PG, Dadhwal VK
tic biomass fuel consumption patterns and implications (2016) Development of national database on long-term
for forest conservation in south-central Bangladesh. Int deforestation (1930–2014) in Bangladesh. Glob Planet
J Res Land-use Sustain 1(1):18–25 Chang 139:173–182
Mukul SA, Biswas SR, Rashid AZMM (2018) Biodiversity Robinson T (2009) Three pillars of sustainability and the
in Bangladesh. In: Pullaiah T (ed) Global biodiversity. fall of a nation. Huffington Post, May 7, 2009
Vol. 1. Selected countries in Asia. Apple Academic/ Saha N (1998) A study on forest industries of Bangladesh.
CRC Press, Canada, pp 93–107 Bull Kochi Univ Forest 25:1–107
Tropical Forest and Sustainability: An Overview 9

Sarker SK, Deb JC, Halim MA (2011) A diagnosis of Wilson EO (1988) The current state of biological diversity.
existing logging bans in Bangladesh. Int For Rev In: Wilson EO, Peter FM (eds) Biodiversity. National
13:461–475 Academic Press, Washington, DC, pp 1–17
University of Maryland (2013) First detailed map of global World Bank (2001) A revised forest strategy for the World
forest change. ScienceDaily. www.sciencedaily.com/ Bank Group. World Bank, Washington, DC
releases/2013/11/131114142123.htm

View publication stats