Theme 3b: The changing role and status of women

3b: The changing role and status of women

The right to vote and political advancement, 1918-79

In 1918 women over 30 gained the vote in the Representation of the People Act and a
second Act in 1928 gave them equality with men in voting at 21.

Women’s gains in the workplace in the First World War were largely overturned by the
return to peacetime.

There were few women MPs in the period 1918 to 1979.

During the inter-war period, although opportunities for women in work increased, they
remained limited politically and in terms of economic advancement.

Women in politics

Democratic reform and rights for women

The 1918 general election was the first to take place under 'universal' male suffrage, with
8.4 million people added to the electorate when the act became law in February 1918, the
biggest single jump of voters in history. A surge of newly eligible working-class voters
looked set to benefit the fairly young Labour Party, but the turnout was only 57%, and
Lloyd George was untouchable as 'The Man who had won the War', with his position further
boosted by anti-German popular feeling. Women over 30 were also granted the vote for the
first time, and a small number of female MPs were steadily elected to Parliament, although
inequality in terms of voting rights remained in place in 1918, despite women's efforts
during the wartime period both in maintaining family life and in taking on more formal
wartime roles. Indeed, many of the younger women 'suffragettes' who had played a more
proactive role in supporting the war effort through campaigning and also as nurses, doctors
or drivers, etc., were still denied the right to vote.

As the 1920s progressed women achieved improved divorce and property rights, and
demands for equality with men in terms of the right to vote continued to pick up significant
momentum, until they were finally granted votes on equal terms with men (over the age of
21) in 1928. This marked the end of a long-term struggle by female campaigners, with the
female suffrage movement ('suffragettes') having campaigned vigorously (and often
violently) for 'Votes for Women' since the middle of the nineteenth century.

Of particular significance was that despite their sterling wartime efforts, many women were
excluded from the right to vote under the Representation of the People Act of 1918. This

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Theme 3b: The changing role and status of women

Act applied only to women over 30, despite men being granted the vote at 21, and younger
women who had contributed greatly to the war effort did not receive the vote after the war
on the same terms as men. The right to vote on equal terms as men was amended in 1928
by an 'Equal Franchise Act' passed by Baldwin's Government, representing a major
achievement in terms of women's social and political equality. It was felt that the
Conservatives benefited most in terms of electoral support by the equalising of the vote for
women (gaining support from the so-called 'flapper vote').

Women in politics

Women gained the right to vote, first at the age of 30 in 1918 and then at 21, on a par with
men, in 1928. Despite this, women made little advancement in politics during the inter-war
period, although Margaret Bondfield did become the first woman to hold ministerial office
during the Labour government of 1924. Women never comprised more than 5% of MPs,
with the actual numbers peaking at 15 in 1931. They had to face petty restrictions, such as
not being able to use the Commons dining room. One Labour MP, Edith Summerskill, said
it was 'like a boys' school which had decided to take a few girls'.

Political party attitudes

The Labour Party, as the proponent of women's enfranchisement and promoter of social
reform, attracted more women than the other parties – 150,000 joined between 1918 and
1924. Even so only 9 women served as Labour MPs in the inter-war period. The other
parties tended to see women in a subservient role such as delivering leaflets and organising
fundraising events. No party encouraged women to become MPs.

Local government
At a local level, women were more influential, although by 1930 less than 15% of elected
local councillors were female. The position of local councillor was often a grounding for
national office. Thelma Cazalet-Keir, for example, served as a Conservative Councillor in
London between 1924 and 1931, and then became an MP in October 1931.

Employment opportunities

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Theme 3b: The changing role and status of women

Women’s roles in the professions were limited due to prejudice and being expected to stop
work once they married.

The failures in political advancement were mirrored in limited employment opportunities.

Most women who had worked during the war were forced to give up their jobs as the men
returned. Of those remaining in employment, most were working class and worked as
domestic servants – 1.25 million in 1918. Those involved in heavy factory work such as in
the textile mills of the north-east were often the first to lose their jobs during the
Depression.

New opportunities
New opportunities emerged in clerical work and in the new factories specialising in light
industry (production of goods such as household appliances); the numbers of women
working in offices grew by 300,000 during the 1920s. However, there was little movement
towards achieving equal pay and opportunities for women in the professions remained
limited. In 1931, for example, there were 3,000 female doctors and 180,000 nurses, and only
21 female architects out of 6,000.

It was generally assumed that middle-class girls might work until marriage. Indeed some
professions such as teaching expected married women to relinquish their posts. Overall the
view was that women worked for 'pin money' (term used to describe wages only needed
for pocket money or for spending on luxuries) and paid work was nowhere near as
important as domestic and child care responsibilities.

Education
At secondary school level, expectations of girls remained low and curricula specifically for
girls focused very much on domestic subjects. However, the Sex Disqualification
(Removal) Act 1919 did remove the gender bar in the civil service and law. This gave
determined women a greater incentive to consider these professions, while most
universities abolished any bans on women studying. There were then some signs of
improvement but it was very gradual.

Changing nature/role and status of women 1939-45

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Theme 3b: The changing role and status of women

Although women undertook jobs previously reserved for men during the Second World War
they were not encouraged to keep them at the end of the war.

The impact of the war was felt throughout British society. It was a total war with 15 million
men and 7 million women, roughly one-half of the population, called into service in one
capacity or another.

In addition to the fact that many urban women saw their children evacuated to the
countryside for their own safety, in general terms women were affected in further ways by
the war effort, and as a collective group they had a significantly enhanced role during this
period of intense national crisis. From 1940 onwards many women were directed into
employment wherever there was a labour shortage.

The war brought social and sexual liberation for millions of women through a vast
expansion of employment opportunities and increased responsibilities and independence.
Their traditional domestic function and duties remained of continued significance, but this
now coexisted alongside new roles such as working in munitions factories, lorry drivers,
direct involvement in the armed services and providing key nursing support. Women
worked wherever there was a labour shortage. Over half a million women served in the
auxiliary (supporting) branches of the armed forces. At times it appeared that the country’s
future hung in the balance, and women played an increasingly vital role in keeping the war
effort ticking along. Their role was of particular importance during ‘The Battle of Britain’
during the summer of 1940, when Britain seemed to be the solitary nation opposing Hitler’s
marauding forces, and women played a key role in ensuring that public morale was
maintained and everyday life continued as normally as possible in such extreme
circumstances. For many women, the changes experienced brought a more independent
social outlook and there was greater respect for their capabilities.

Arguments for continuity in social attitudes

Perhaps the war paved the way for future advances for women but the majority of women
returned to their traditional role of wife and mother after the war ended.

Developing an argument

Below are a sample exam question, a list of key points to be made in the essay and a
paragraph from the essay. Read the question, the plan and the sample paragraph. Rewrite
the paragraph in order to develop an argument. Your paragraph should answer the

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Theme 3b: The changing role and status of women

question directly, and set out the evidence that supports your argument. Crucially, it should
develop an argument by setting out a general answer to the question and reasons that
support this.

How accurate is it to say that women enjoyed little political or economic

advancement in the years 1918 to 1979?

Key points:

 The right to vote did not lead to significant growth in the numbers of women MPs.
 Women did have some influence in local government politics.
 Women were rare in the professions.
 There were new employment opportunities particularly in light industry and clerical
work.
 Education generally provided girls with low expectations.

The flaw in the argument

Look at the following sample exam question and a paragraph written in answer to this
question. The paragraph contains an argument which attempts to answer the question.

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Theme 3b: The changing role and status of women

However, there is an error in the argument. Use your knowledge of this topic to identify the
flaw in the argument.

How accurate is it to say that the role and status of women changed little
in the years 1918 to 1939?

Changes in family life and the quest for personal freedoms, 1918-79

Family life, 1918-79

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Theme 3b: The changing role and status of women

In the period 1918-60, women's role and status in society remained largely unchanged apart
from during the wartime periods where improved opportunities were perceived largely as
temporary responses to emergency situations. Throughout the period women were
largely seen as homemakers. There were a few gains during the inter-war period, notably
in divorce law and access to birth control. However, it was in the 1960s and 1970s that
more significant changes were introduced.

Divorce legislation

Divorce, hitherto very difficult to obtain, was made easier as a result of two significant
pieces of legislation.

Matrimonial Causes Act, 1937

This Act allowed divorce if either partner had been unfaithful, as well as in case of
desertion after three years. Before this reform, the average number of divorce petitions
was below 4,800 per year. By 1951 it had risen to 38,000.

Divorce Reform Act, 1969

The Divorce Reform Act made divorce easier for couples living apart. It introduced the idea
of 'no-guilt' divorce, whereas before evidence of cruelty, desertion or adultery had to be
shown. As a result, the divorce rate grew significantly – from 45,794 in 1968 to 74,437 by
1971.

Birth control

In 1921 Dr. Marie Stopes founded the first birth control clinic in London. Despite
opposition from many members of the medical profession and conservative groups, the
demand for birth control advice saw clinics spread across the country throughout the
1920s. However, it was not until the widespread introduction of the oral contraceptive pill
in the 1960s that women really felt in control of their reproductive processes. Nonetheless,
more conservative-minded critics argued that it encouraged the sexual promiscuity
which they opposed.

Abortion Act, 1967

Abortion had been illegal in Britain but figures as to its practice vary from 100,000 to
250,000 per year. However, it is known that 35,000 more wealthy women could have
abortions in relatively safe conditions in the care of professional medical personnel while
the vast majority underwent ‘backstreet abortions’ in often insanitary environments with
considerable risk (the wire coat hanger method was a popularly known illegal abortion
procedure, although they were not the norm). Liberal MP David Steel introduced the bill,
which allowed legal termination up to 28 weeks' gestation if two doctors certified that
continued pregnancy could lead to health risks for the mother.

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Theme 3b: The changing role and status of women

The post-war period

The Second World War involved the majority of Britain's adult female population in war
work or active service. The fragmentation caused by wartime experiences meant that in the
immediate post-war period many were happy to return to their primary role of homemaker
and mother as their menfolk returned home.

The 1950s

During the 1950s the role of women as wives and mothers was emphasised by the media.

The 1950s have been viewed as a golden age of family, with women firmly seen as the
lynchpin (cornerstone). The media in particular depicted women primarily as homemakers,
despite the fact that more did work and working-class women still had largely menial
(unskilled, boring) and badly paid work in addition to their domestic duties. Beneath the
surface of an otherwise resilient and familiar post-war society there was a gradual change
in the role of women, many of whom had taken on very active roles during World War II
and didn't want to return to purely domestic positions when the conflict was over.
Consequently, from the 1950s onwards more and more women would enter the world of
employment and the idea of a 'working woman' would become much more accepted within
British society. As a result, about 50% of all women of working age had some kind of job
during the 1950s (and the number would continue to grow in later years). However, many
women retained their purely domestic roles as housewives, and the typical jobs held by
women were unskilled and lower paid than men, which would become an issue to be
addressed in the years ahead. However, by the late 1950s surveys were starting to show a
different picture, with women increasingly feeling isolated and discontented with their role
and status in society.

The 1960s and 1970s

These decades saw challenges to traditional family structures through more liberal
legislation and economic problems which meant either unemployment or the need for
both adult partners to work in order to maintain their lifestyle. If the traditional family and
women's role within it had not yet broken down, it was clearly under threat.
Spectrum of importance

Look at the following sample exam question and a list of general points which could be
used to answer the question. Use your own knowledge and the information on the opposite
page to reach a judgement about the importance of these general points to the question
posed. Write numbers on the spectrum below to indicate their relative importance. Having

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Theme 3b: The changing role and status of women

done this, write a brief justification of your placement, explaining why some of these
factors are more important than others. The resulting diagram could form the basis of an
essay plan.

To what extent did the role of women within the family change in the
years 1918 to 1979?

1. Women seen primarily as homemakers

2. Divorce legislation

3. Birth control and abortion

4. War work

5. Expectations of women in the 1950s

6. Changing role of family in the 1960s and 1970s

Support your judgement

Below are a sample exam question and three basic judgements. Read the exam question
and the three judgements. Support the judgement that you agree with most strongly by
adding a reason that justifies the judgement.

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Theme 3b: The changing role and status of women

How accurate is it to say the role of women in the family changed

significantly in the years 1918-79?

Tip: whichever option you choose you will have to weigh up both sides of the argument. You
could use words like ‘whereas’ and 'although' in order to help the process of evaluation.

Exam focus

Below are an exam-style question and a model student response. Read the essay and the
comments around it.

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Theme 3b: The changing role and status of women

To what extent did the role and status of women improve during the years
1918 to 1945?

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Theme 3b: The changing role and status of women

The struggle to improve the role and status of women, 1968-79

The 1960s saw women gaining more control over their bodies through birth control and
abortion.

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Theme 3b: The changing role and status of women

Second-wave feminism emphasised equality for women in personal relations as well as in

the public sphere.

Women became more assertive in campaigning against issues such as domestic violence
and rape.

The 1960s saw the development of female protest movements. However, women were
too diverse as a group, with different primary agendas, to be able to act effectively in
concert.

Women in politics

There were comparatively few developments in terms of women in politics during the
1960s. In the 1966 election fewer than 80 women stood for election and only 21 were
successful. Few were promoted to high office. One of these, Barbara Castle, supported
improved working conditions for women but was generally reticent (restrained,
unforthcoming) about gender issues.

Feminism, women's issues and popular culture during the 1970s

Having been liberated to a significant degree by Roy Jenkins' liberal reforms of the late
1960s affecting divorce and abortion in particular, the demands of women for greater
quality were further boosted in this decade. Women began to take on more and more jobs
that were traditionally held by men, and the greater social and sexual freedoms of the
1960s had now allowed them to enthusiastically embrace popular culture. This was
particularly evident with improved social lives and leisure opportunities that allowed
younger women in particular to embrace and enjoy the spread of the 'disco dance' culture
of the 1970s – which had replaced and transcended the rock 'n' roll era of the 1960s.

Second-wave feminism

Second-wave feminism grew as a movement to address concerns such as gender

stereotyping, limited employment opportunities for women and the demand for a greater
role in society than childcare and household responsibilities. It was also known as 'women's
liberation'.

Women's liberation
It was protests such as the Dagenham strike which stimulated the women's liberation
movement in Britain. Women had been voicing their frustrations with the lack of career
opportunities and the burden of domestic responsibilities since the 1940s, but little
progress had been made. In the 1960s, some began to see the struggle for economic
equality in terms of social inequalities, whereby women were treated as second-class

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Theme 3b: The changing role and status of women

citizens. Feminists such as Sheila Rowbotham organised a National Women's Conference

in Oxford in 1970 which stimulated local groups to campaign and protest.

This coincided with growing high-profile activism such as marches and demonstrations,
for example the attack on the Miss World contest in 1970, which was shown live on
television.

Dagenham strike, 1968

The Dagenham strike of 1968 saw sewing machinists at the Ford Motor Company striking
for equal pay. Although they were unsuccessful, their action resonated with many and was
instrumental in the passage of the Equal Pay Act of 1970.

Feminist literature
The late 1960s saw a profusion (abundance) of feminist literature, with magazines such as
Shrew and Germaine Greer's (Greer is an Australian academic closely associated with
second-wave feminism and the author of the highly influential work, The Female Eunuch)
book The Female Eunuch, which received wide publicity and argued that men's control over
women had stifled their individuality and development.

Problems with the women's liberation movement

One problem with the feminist movement was it covered so many diverse agendas.
Feminists ranged from wives who simply wanted more respect from their husbands to
radical feminists who saw men as the enemy. It was difficult in these circumstances to take
concerted action. Some joined female-only communes. Others concentrated on economic
issues while still others prioritised issues such as abortion and birth control. For example,
the National Abortion campaign was founded in 1975 to extend the provisions of the
1967 Act.

Others meanwhile, such as 'clean-up' campaigner Mary Whitehouse, promoted the role of
women as homemakers and mothers, often within the context of traditional family values
and moral conduct. These received wide publicity.

Legislation

Two important pieces of legislation were the Equal Pay Act of 1970 and the Sex
Discrimination Act of 1975.

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Theme 3b: The changing role and status of women

The Equal Pay Act, 1970

After years of struggles, the Equal Pay Act was finally passed into law in 1970 to come into
effect by 1975 (eventually implemented at the end of 1975). One reason for its passage
was it was a pre-condition of joining the European Economic Community (EEC –
organisation for economic and political cooperation between partners, first created by the
Treaty of Rome in 1957. Britain joined in 1973, and issues such as the implications of closer
political union have remained controversial). Its key purpose was to eliminate
discrimination and variations in pay between men and women, which remained an ongoing
socio-economic problem. However, the notion of equal pay is often difficult when judged,
as it was, against equal work, and in many cases women did not receive equal pay on the
basis that their jobs were different to those performed by men.

It also sought to overcome deep-rooted cultural issues and traditions which saw some
organisations (notably the civil service) not employing married women due to a
conservative belief that such women should have a primary domestic role. The emergence
of prominent female politicians during this decade such as Labour's Barbara Castle and
Margaret Thatcher of the Conservatives would further enhance the professional image of
women holding down key positions of responsibility.

For further information on the battle for equal pay, a good film to watch is Made in
Dagenham (2010), which focuses on the efforts of female Ford car workers to ensure
equal pay and conditions with their male counterparts during the late 1960s/early
1970s.

The Sex Discrimination Act, 1975

The Sex Discrimination Act 1975 (SDA) was a key piece of legislation that made it
unlawful to discriminate on grounds of sex or marital status in recruitment, promotion and
training (for employment purposes). Since their efforts during the war, women had worked
in increasing numbers but were still often viewed by employers as cheap labour. The SDA
set up the Equal Opportunities Commission to ensure that fair employment practices
were observed and that women had legal protection against discrimination in education
and employment. It established tribunals to deal with workplace and everyday sexual
harassment. Such pieces of legislation, therefore, marked a significant further step in the
drive towards greater equality for women over the course of the twentieth century.

Women were subsequently freer in terms of employment rights, while sex before
marriage and abortions became more frequent occurrences and less of a social stigma.
The conservative right, however, viewed such developments with disapproval, and
highlighted what they believed was the lack of morality created by such 'permissive'
social policies.

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Theme 3b: The changing role and status of women

Identify an argument

Look at the following series of definitions, a sample exam question and two sample
conclusions. One of the conclusions achieves a high mark because it contains an argument.

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Theme 3b: The changing role and status of women

The other achieves a lower mark because it contains only description and assertion. Identify
which is which. The mark scheme will help you.

Description: a detailed account.

Assertion: a statement of fact or an opinion which is not supported by a reason.

Reason: a statement which explains or justifies something.

Argument: an assertion justified with a reason.

How far did the women's liberation movement achieve improvements in

the position of women in Britain in the years 1968 to 1979?

Develop the detail

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Theme 3b: The changing role and status of women

Look at the following sample exam question and a paragraph written in answer to this
question. The paragraph contains a limited amount of detail. Annotate the paragraph to
add additional detail to the answer.

How far did the role and position of women improve in the years 1968 to
1979?

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