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 A VISUAL REFERENCE NG YOU = => со? THE Now =
NFOGRAPHIC GUIDE TO GRAMMAR SENTENCE STRUCTURE
VERB TYPES Sentences must contain a subject and a predicate $ and be
able to stand on their own. / The The boy young was tired this morning.
woman The coffee tasted too sprinted across the finish line.
PUNCTUATION MARKS “WHO” OR “WHOM”? | TRY IT OUT WITH
A QUESTION: > Her favorite kinds of ice ORIGINAL | Who/whom is
hungry? cream were mint, chocolate SUBSTITUTION} Не is hungry. and
strawberry. CONCLUSION + Who is correct. JARA KERN
 [y e INFOGRAPHIC — eon sea GUIDE TO --- та. GRAMMAR
VERB TYPES The turtle ACTION dived into VERBS the water.
SENTENCE STRUCTURE Sentences must contain a subject and A and be
able to stand on their own. The boy pn нар tired this morning. ЕСЕ across
the finish line. prepositional phrase The coffee the club. PUNCTUATION
MARKS “WHO” OR “WHOM”? Her favorite kinds of ice — ORIGINAL |
Who/whom is hungry? | ““. | cream were mm mint, chocolates
SUBSTITUTION} He is hungry. | and strawberry: JARA KERN
 y THING YOU NEED Yee „ы Kao INFOGRAPHIC -------
GUIDE TO -------% GRAMMAR JARA KERN Adams Media New York
London Toronto Sydney New Delhi
 Л adamsmecic Adams Media An Imprint of Simon & Schuster,
Inc. 57 Littlefield Street Avon, Massachusetts 02322 Copyright © 2020 by
Simon & Schuster, Inc. All rights reserved, including the right to reproduce
this book or portions thereof in any form whatsoever. For information
address Adams Media Subsidiary Rights Department, 1230 Avenue of the
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Sylvia McArdle, Julia Jacintho, Harini Rajagopalan, and Priscilla Yuen
Interior images © 123RF; Getty Images ISBN 978-1-5072-1238-7 ISBN
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printed with initial capital letters.
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 INTRODUCTION English is a challenging language to master,
even for native speakers. Why? Well, for starters, its been spiced by many
dialects and regional variations. It has also borrowed freely from many
other languages. Even today, new words and expressions frequently enter
the language. One of the most challenging parts of the English language is
the grammar: the standard set of rules for spelling, punctuation, sentence
structure, and word use. English grammar is difficult to grasp thanks to its
many layers of rules. That's where this book can help—it will lay out the
basic rules of grammar (along with tricks to help you avoid common
mistakes) in fifty easy-to-understand infographic spreads. With The
Infographic Guide to Grammar, you will learn all about subject-verb
agreement, sentence structure, interjections, complements, punctuation, and
more. You'll also discover the right way to use commonly confused words,
like there/their/they re, and find out what clauses аге and how to use them.
This book will help you understand the how and why behind English
grammar, giving you more confidence in your writing and speaking.
Whether you're anew English learner, a student brushing up оп your
grammar lessons, an aspiring writer, or a grammar nerd, The Infographic
Guide to Grammar teaches you everything you need and want to know
about grammar in a fun, illustrated format.
The text on this page is estimated to be only 56.43% accurate

asus sassa I I I I I | I | 1 1 „= == == == == == ee = че чш чш чш
чш чш чш чш шш шш чш чш шш чш шш "ш "ш шш "ш "ш "ш ш ee =
кж ЖЕФ
 | NNI Caffe PEOPLE PLACES THINGS Think of nouns as the
CELEBRITIES of the grammar world: Sentences are really all about them.
Nouns can be subjects or objects—or even both. DID YOU KNOW? Noun
comes from the word nomen, Г] Latin for “name.” га 2
 While all nouns serve as labels for people, places, things, or ideas,
there are some specific terms for different types. COMMON NOUN
PROPER NOUN Non-specific person, place, or thing Specific person,
place, or thing Examples: Examples: Grandma Jane, grandmother, city New
York City CONCRETE NOUN ABSTRACT NOUN Noun uou experience
Noun that is an idea, feeling, with uour senses or state of being Examples:
sunshine, song Examples: pride, exhaustion COUNT NOUN NON=-
COUNT NOUN Individual noun uou can count Noun used when uou can't
count Examples: horse, dollar Examples: food, rain COLLECTIVE NOUN
POSSESSIVE NOUN Noun that represents a Noun used to show ownership
collection or group Examples: father's key, Examples: family, hive people's
ideas (Q) coop To know: 4 Attributive Nouns: Nouns can act as adjectives
to describe other nouns. Think of chicken soup, for example. Both words
are nouns, but here chicken is being used to modify soup. In this case,
chicken is an attributive noun.
 ADJECTIVES — DETAILS AND SPECIFICS — An adjective
modifies a noun or pronoun to give more information about a person, place,
or thing. — IDENTIFYING ADJECTIVES — 1. WHICH ONE?
ADJECTIVES 2 | ANSWER: = WHAT KIND? wy 3. HOW MANY? E^
DID YOU KNOW? Adjective comes from the Middle English adjectif, El)
borrowed from Anglo-French and Late Latin.
 — TYPES ОЕ ADJECTIVES- < Point out or refer to a person,
place, or thing as specific or unspecific; can be (a> definite or indefinite
ARTICLES * Definite Example: the ° Indefinite Examples: a, an
Distinguishes the person, place, or thing being described e Examples: this,
that, these, those e Used to describe an entire group or indicate lack of
familiarity or specificity e Examples: all, another, any, both, each, less,
neither, some, etc. © INDEFINITE (> POSSESSIVE @>
INTERROGATIVE e Describes who has or owns something Examples: my,
your, his, her, its, our, their e Begins a question Examples: what, which,
whose Formed from a proper noun, and therefore always begins with a
capital letter Examples: Thai food, French terry
 VERBS Describing an Action or State A verb is a word that
indicates an action or a state of being. It tells the story of the sentence.
WHAT KIND OF VERB? ACTION VERBS Verbs that show movement or
change. The turtle dived into the water. VERBS OF BEING Verbs that
express a state, usually a variation of “to be.” The boy was tired. LINKING
VERBS These connect a sentence’s parts—and are usually forms of “be” in
disguise. If you can swap the verb without changing the sentence’s
meaning, it’s a linking verb. The coffee tasted sweet. = The coffee was
sweet. AUXILIARY VERBS These helpers express more about the main
verb. You can join the club.
 TRANSITIVE VS. INTRANSITIVE VERBS Action verbs can
be either transitive or intransitive depending on whether or not there is a
noun receiving the action (also known as a direct object). Eat, paint, kick
Sit, sneeze, arrive Example: Example: They arrived He kicked (verb) (verb)
at the party the ball (direct object). (no direct object). Some verbs can be
both transitive and intransitive: mC RE Forms of “Ве” ova
 ADVERBS An adverb tells us more about a verb, adjective, or
even another adverb (yes, English is complicated). The fastest way to spot
an adverb is to look for a word ending in -/y, though there are exceptions—
like fast, never, well, very, now, and quite. _ (Q) coop To know: 7
 7 то WHAT EXTENT? 1 How? б ном OFTEN? "ТҮ MUCH? 3
WHERE? Á UNDER WHAT CIRCUMSTANCES? ADVERBS IN
ACTION Modifying a verb: My dad drove slowly through traffic.
Modifying ап adjective: The sun was extremely bright. Modifying another
adverb: Cheetahs can run remarkably fast.
 relate action to time, telling us whether something has occurred in
the past, is happening right now, or will take place in the future. These three
main tenses are then subcategorized further, for a total of twelve possible
tenses. QUICK SELF-CHECK TIPS Not sure you're using the correct verb
form for the tense? Try these tips: Use “Yesterday” to start your past tense
sentence.
 INACTION THE 12 ENGLISH VERB TENSES PARTICULAR
USE Simple For an action that is usual or repeated Foran action that is
ongoing was/were eating am/is/are eating will/shall eat Foran action that is
completed has/have eaten will have eaten Perfect Progressive For an
ongoing action that will be completed ata definite time had been eating
has/have been eating will have been eating
 VS. As if learning about tenses wasn’t complicated enough, the
English language stumps learners with irregular verbs. In fact, some of our
most common verbs are irregular! All verbs, both INFINITIVE regular and
SIMPLE PRESENT irregular, have SIMPLE PAST PRESENT
PARTICIPLE 9 FORMS: PAST PARTICIPLE REGULAR VERBS
IRREGULAR VERBS To form the simple past or past These verbs undergo
significant participle forms, add -d or -ed changes between the infinitive, to
the infinitive (base form) of simple past, and past participle the verb. forms.
Example: Example: work—worked go—went, gone
 IRREGULAR VERBS MOST COMMON IRREGULAR VERBS
When learning English, speakers memorize most of the 200+ irregular
verbs and their simple past and past participle forms. Some of the most
common include: SIMPLE PAST be was, were been bring brought brought
do did done feel felt felt get got gotten, got go went gone lead led led run
ran run say said said see saw seen GOOD TO KNOW: Why Do We Have
Irregular Verbs? Most irregular verbs come from Old English, the earliest
spoken version of the English language, used in Great Britain before 1100.
Newer verbs are borrowed from other languages or are converted from
nouns—and tend to be regular.
 A pronoun 15 a word that takes the place of a noun to add variety
and avoid repetition. PRONOUN POWER Which sentence sounds more
natural? Jack came into the room, picked up Jack's pencil, sat down at Jack
5 desk, and began to work on Jack s final exam. Jack came into the room,
picked up his pencil, sat down at his desk, and began to work on his final
exam. _ (©) coop To know: 4 Singular They/Their The words they, their,
them, and themselves are sometimes used as singular pronouns when
talking about someone whose gender isn't specified, or someone who
chooses not to use he or she. While the gender-neutral purpose is new, the
use of the singular they Is not: The Oxford English Dictionary traces the use
as far back as 1375!
 PRONOUN CLASSIFICATIONS у= Show ownership * Mine,
yours, his, hers, ours, theirs • [hat car is ours. L DEMONSTRATIVE
RELATIVE СФ Emphasize ог reflect back to someone or something else *
Myself, yourself, yourselves, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, themselves
* You must ask yourself what you want. EEN RECIPROCAL e,
INTERROGATIVE INDEFINITE
 pH RASES Linking f Y oras A preposition connects a noun or a
pronoun to another word in the sentence to show the relationship between
the two. It often indicates the position of something in the sentence—
under, over, above, below, or beneath. SPOTTING PREPOSITIONS They
sat in the corner. М (леу AO corner MOE ENDING SENTENCES? Should
you end a sentence with a preposition? You can. While some grammar
sticklers may frown upon ending a sentence this way in formal written
English—such as a book or an article—the practice is perfectly acceptable.
In fact, when speaking, people often do: Whom are you talking with?/What
was that about? Jack and Jill went up the hill.
 COMMON PREPOSITIONS before over above for upon between
through within into after by under among of down at WHEN IS A
PREPOSITION NOT A PREPOSITION? All prepositions must be used in
prepositional phrases, which consist of the preposition and a noun or
pronoun (and sometimes adjectives and adverbs). If the word is used alone,
15 an adjective or adverb. See the difference? The flag went up the pole.
(Upis a preposition connecting went and pole.) The flag was up. (Upis an
adjective modifying flag.) Isn't that sneaky?
 Connectors Think of conjunctions as words that join two parts of
a sentence together. There are three types: coordinating, correlative, and
subordinating. Let’s get to know them. Coordinating Conjunctions
Remember the seven coordinating conjunctions easily using the mnemonic
СІІ, ап асгопут оѓ for, апа, пог, but, ог, yet, апа so. Examples: I bought
apples GA@ bananas. | waited (for) the green arrow (and) turned left.
CAAA A ZZ Id dV dV dV dV d dV d dH df d df d df dV dD dD d
0111414008111
 уу correlative Conjunctions These conjunctions come in pairs—
both must appear in the sentence for it to work. They include: as many/as |
Examples: | would rather bike than) walk. WNeithepP the boy MOP the girl
knew the answer. subordinating Conjunctions These sneaky conjunctions
are used at the beginning of dependent clauses, sections of a sentence that
add detail or indicate cause but that cannot stand alone. Look for (among
others): how until he: Í tn ougn Examples: Because she was late, she missed
the train. After | ate, | felt better. __ (0) соортокмом: 4 STARTING А
ЅЕМТЕМСЕ? While it was once considered іпсоггесї to start а sentence
with а subordinating conjunction, it is now considered OK. And that's a
good thing, as doing so can enhance flow between sentences and add
varietu. м Z Z D D D V ÁW.
REALLY? NO WAY! \
 Hooray: Yuck! Oh no! Ouch / Hey! Looking for oomph? Use an
exclamation point! PUNCTUATE! Whoa. Feeling something milder? Opt
for a period. Many off-color interjections— OK, curse words—not suitable
SALTY for print use non-letter symINTERJECTIONS bols to stand in for
the words. That ($@*#) car wouldn't start again! EN! GOOD TO KNOW:
Any part of speech can be used as an interjection, such as Good!
(adjective), /diot! (noun), and Go! (verb). Some words, however, are
exclusively interjections, such as Ouch! and Oops!
The text on this page is estimated to be only 65.23% accurate

Ad + pT mT m m m e == == == == чч чч чш чш -------------------
-7 A A ^ ^ 4 4 а ^ МЕЗЕ НОЕ L... НИН eee | 4 # 3 i i š Subjects
 БЕЗЕР». GE Em ` 4 ^ 2 UN (M n? e Y | poo k us Ta os Фа k 00
>, >> La, En Å Á— LPI | | 4) te рака) p pc be, I г. A UT | Н ү Bc c 1 b... ze.
h | њ. " Pu " T b | E. 4 ќ =ч | | qu P v I e в: Ub P > . o ae ы x ке” Ж) ae” 44
THE SENTENCE: 99 Expressing a Complete Thought A sentence 15 made
up of one or more words and expresses a complete thought in a statement,
question, request, commana, or exclamation. A sentence fragment looks
like a complete sentence but isn't, often because it is a subordinate clause.
Let's take this example: > Here, the first word is capitalized and the clause
ends with a period, but it cannot stand alone. A correct, complete sentence
needs an independent clause: >
 Sentence Types There are C categories of sentences: j compound,
complex, and compound-complex. Using all four types and mixing them up
gives your writing variety. Simple Sentence А Ехргеѕѕеѕ опе complete
thought with опе independent clause апа по dependent clause. k The small
boy ordered a large hamburger. COMPOUND COMPLEX COMPOUND-
COMPLEX
 SUBJECTS PREDICATES MAJOR PARTS OF A SENTENCE
Sentences can be very short or very long. At a minimum, though, they must
contain a SUBJECT anda PREDICATE and be able to stand оп their own.
The complete subject is the person, place, or thing that serves as the topic of
the sentence-along with all the words that describe it. To locate the subject,
ask yourself: \ “Who or what is the sentence about?” The complete
predicate is what the person, place, or thing is doing or what condition it is
in—along with all the words that modify it.
 Go find my shoes. Where’s the subject in this sentence? Some
imperative sentences—those that express commands or requests— drop the
“you” in the subject. The meaning is really: You go find my shoes.
The text on this page is estimated to be only 74.67% accurate

SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT
 SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT CHEAT SHEET singularor 1
EN Plural Verb? 4 катрте i Titles of books, • The Fellowship of the movies,
and songs | | Ringis а long movie. RA AR SUE MR I Il аа рија ГИ a aS И
le ; Depends—ignore the | e The box of Popsicles Prepositions and |
preposition or preposi- | was in the freezer. prepositional phrases | tional
phrase to make | (Box = singular— | agreement easier | ignore “of
Popsicles”) Always singular e Somebody owns that cabin. e A few of us
own that cabin. Singular pronoun, singular verb; plural pronoun, plural verb
Amount—as a single unit, such as time, money, food, fractions, or volume *
Ten dollars is the price. * Half of the pie is uneaten. Singular for collective :
noun conveying unity; Collective nouns | plural for collective i noun
conveying plurality * The United States is a big country. e The faculty were
in agreement. WHAT ABOUT SCISSORS AND PANTS?
 COMPOUND SUBJECTS TWO OR MORE SUBJECTS?
SIMPLE RULES OF THUMB [7 % ж 4 A Compound subjects consist of
two or more individual nouns or noun phrases connected by “and” or “оғ”
to forma single, longer noun phrase. They’re tricky because they can
confuse subject-verb agreement. EXCEPTION: Ifthe subjects are joined by
“and” and they can be thought of as a unit, use a singular verb. Example: 15
spaghetti and meatballs on the menu?
 MAKE IT EASIER BY FOLLOWING А. SIMPLE RULES:
SUBJECTS JOINED BY “AND” TAKE A PLURAL VERB. Why?: РЛС
PAD SE ERU EE, Y Үс и" re СС 6 опе ог the other, not both. 5 p d the
teacher nor his student “plays t the ДӨ, PLURALSUBJECTS JOINED BY
“OR” OR “NOR” TAKE A PLURAL VERB. Why?: Example: But: Only if
you have one singular and one plural subject. Examples: The students or the
teacher plays the game. The teacher or the students play the game.
 COMPLEMENTS 5 While some sentences contain only a subject
and а verb, others use more words to make things clearer, tell a story, or ask
а question. These additional sentence components are called complements,
and they fall into five categories. DIRECT OBJECT A direct object
receives EXAMPLE: the action of the verb and is usually a noun or
pronoun. Ask yourself “Who or what?” to find it. Coffee is the direct object.
EXAMPLE: | painted ту bedroom yellow. An object complement follows
and modifies or refers to a direct object. It can be a noun, pronoun,
adjective, or phrase.
 INDIRECT OBJECT An indirect object comes EXAMPLE:
between the verb and the direct object and answers the question “To
whom?” or “For whom?” Anthony is the indirect object, and ballis the
direct object. ^ Es A predicate adjective is EXAMPLE: an adjective that
comes The peach after a linking verb (e.g., tasted sour to be, appear, feel,
remain, taste, stay) to describe the subject, answering the question “What?”
PREDICATE NOMINATIVE A predicate nominative is a EXAMPLE:
noun or pronoun that also comes after a linking verb, but it renames the
subject and answers the question “Who?” or “What?” Uncle is the predicate
nominative.
 PHRASES A phrase is a group of words that adds detail to a
sentence but doesn't have a subject and a verb. Phrases can be part of
sentences but cannot stand alone. ADDING DETAIL: ete ЕЕ TYPES OF >
PHRASES 2 1 Adjective Phrases Adverb Phrases These phrases give more
detail These words modify a verb and appear about a noun, and they are
usually right after it. found right after the word or words Examples We will
playion the field they modify. Я ; A few kids{ from my school ) will be
telling us where we will play. coming over Saturday. From my school is an
adjective phrase modifying kids.
 mee GOOD TO KNOW: GERUNDS: A gerund is a present
participle that acts as a noun (subject). Try this example: Dancing made us
happy. Here, dancing is the subject, and made is the verb. Participial
Phrases Infinitive Phrases Participial phrases using a present An infinitive is
“to + verb,” and this participle are formed by adding -ing construction can
act as a subject. to a verb, and act as adjectives. To make partner ДИЙ
Example: ( Reaching high, To make partner is the infinitive phrase.
Example: Janie big goal. caught the fly ball. Reaching high is the participial
phrase. Appositive Phrases An appositive is a noun (or, rarely, a pronoun)
that gives more information about another noun or pronoun. the really tall
girl, )was late to class. The really tall girl is the appositive phrase further
describing my older sister. Example: My older sister,
 LLAUSES A clause is a phrase with a subject and a verb and any
complements the verb requires. Depending on the type, It may or may not
be able to stand alone as a sentence. Independent Clauses Because they
express a complete thought, these clauses can stand alone. Two or more
together can be joined by Me a conjunction in a sentence. Example: (single
independent clause) AS » x ЗА Example: » а 2 2 Г raked them into a pile.
#0, (two independent clauses)
 PUNCTUATION Independent clauses connected by and, but, for,
or, nor, so, or yet should be separated by a comma. Independent clauses
without a conjunction take a semicolon. > Examples: It was windy, so the
leaves fell from the trees. It was windy; the leaves fell from the trees.
Subordinate Clauses Also known as dependent clauses, these clauses do not
make sense by themselves. Look for because, when, who, whom, and other
conjunctions or relative pronouns. Example: Because it was windy, the
leaves fell from the tree. X << Because it was windy k P ç DOESN'T
MAKE SENSE ALONE; it needs to connect with the rest of the sentence.
0. P
 Categorizing Clauses: Necessary or Not? Clauses can also be
categorized by whether or not they are necessary fo the meaning of a
sentence. After alll, sometimes we need more detail, and sometimes we
don't. Also known as an essential clause or defining clause, a is essential to
the sentence’s meaning. > EXAMPLE The sandwich is on the counter in the
kitchen. The restrictive clause, that I just purchased, distinguishes the
sandwich from any and all others.
 NON—RESTRICTIVE CLAUSES Non-restrictive clauses which
has only 50,000 miles on it Omitting which has only 50,000 miles on it
does not fundamentally change the sentence’s meaning; the clause is non-
restrictive. MI)
 PARALLELISM AND LOGICAL SENTENCES Conveying
Thoughts Clearly Sometimes you must organize related thoughts, show that
actions are sequential, or build to a climax to make a point. These cases call
for parallelism, which means using the same grammatical structure for all
the similar parts of a sentence. Here's how. Ensure that you're using a
consistent voice (active or passive) and an introduction to each clause in a
series. | was worried that the | | was worried that test would be too hard, : |
would forget my | would not be prepared, : pencil, | would not be and my
pencil would be : prepared, and the test forgotten at home. | would be too
hard.
 Dont mix verb tenses. | washed, dried, and was curling my hair. |
washed, dried, and curled my hair. Present actions, attributes, or items in a
series in a simple and coherent way. Jennifer is very kind and is very
organized. Jennifer is very kind and organized. Be sure to include all the
words you need in the sentence. To learn more, | talked to the girl and
neighbor. To learn more, I talked to the girl and her neighbor. Place actions
in chronological order or items with differing degrees of importance in
increasing order Use equipment properly or risk death or injury. Use
equipment properly or risk injury or death.
The text on this page is estimated to be only 57.95% accurate

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 Using Uppercase When you capitalize, you write a word with the
first letter in uppercase and the remaining letters in lowercase. General
Capitalization Guidelines: CAPITALIZE... ...the first word of a sentence
and every first word after a period, question mark, or exclamation point.
Example: Hello! My name is Joe. ... Proper nouns; don’t capitalize the “the”
preceding proper nouns. Example: / went to the Grand Canyon. ... days of
the week, months of the year, and names of holidays. Example: / am
visiting on Friday, November 29, the day after Thanksgiving. DON’T
CAPITALIZE... ...the names of seasons. Example: /’m planning to go
camping this summer. ...people's first and last names and their nicknames.
Example: /his is my friend James; we call him Jim.
 @ 3) E Y, Ш о 9 %9 4 ...family names when used immediately
before, or instead of, a personal name. Example: Did Mom already arrive?
Aunt Ann loves the pie my mom planned on bringing. Yes, your mom is by
the dessert table. ...the names of brands, companies, and institutions, such
as schools and associations. Example: / think that Nike sneakers are the
most popular shoes at Memorial Middle School. ...the names of streets and
roads; cities; states and provinces; countries; and natural and human-made
landmarks. Example: / /ive in New Hampshire, not far from Mount
Washington. DON’T CAPITALIZE... ... words like “country” if they’re
used before the proper noun. Example: /he country of Wales is my favorite
place to visit in the United Kingdom. ...litles when they are used before
names or as a form of direct address. Example: The players learned how to
fish from Captain Mike. Example: Put me in, Coach! DON’T
CAPITALIZE... ...a title if it follows а name ог is used instead of a name.
Example: Mike, the captain, spotted the whale first. ... titles when they are
used as descriptive terms rather than as part of the name. Example: The
captain, Mike Torrez, brought us in early to avoid the storm. ...the first word
in a quote if it forms a complete sentence. Example: The scientist said, “The
planet Earth is about 25,000 miles in circumference. ” DON’T
CAPITALIZE... ...the first letter of a quote that is an incomplete sentence.
Example: /n the full report, she explains that the Earth rotates “about one
thousand miles per hour.”
 ENDING A SENTENCE Punctuation Choices When ending a
sentence, you have three choices: a period, a question mark, or an
exclamation point. THE PERIOD Examples:
 THE QUESTION MARK A question mark shows doubt in a
sentence or conveys that a question is being asked. Examples: e What did
you say? e Can you be ready when l arrive? An exclamation point expresses
strong feelings or tells you something extraordinary happened. e You don't
say! e She actually called him!
 MARKS WITH MEANING: USING THEM CORRECTLY The
apostrophe can cause confusion, but it doesn’t have to. Three basic
situations require an apostrophe: MAKING A CONTRACTION The use of
an apostrophe tells you at least one letter was omitted as two words were
joined, creating a contraction. > Do not becomes don't. > He would
becomes Ле INDICATING POSSESSION Use an apostrophe to indicate
ownership. > Diana’s car is parked on the Street. > The teacher's desk is up
front. FORMING A PLURAL (rare) Use an apostrophe to make a word
plural when readers would be confused by an “s” alone. > Count by 28. >
Dot your i’s and cross your t’s.
 QUICK CHECK: FAMILY NAMES Apostrophes can be
confusing when it comes to family names. Are you talking about something
that several people collectively own? Use an apostrophe after (not before)
the “s” that makes the word plural. > The Smiths’ car is there. Are you
sending holiday greetings? Do not use an apostrophe; use the plural form of
your name. > With love, from the Smiths. (©) соортокмом: $ ITS VS. IT'S
When do you use the possessive pronoun its or the contraction it's? Try out
the sentence with “it is” to choose correctly. Which опе?: [ts raining tonight
or It's raining tonight. It’s is correct because the sentence is: It is raining
tonight.
 | The comma creates a slight I pause in a sentence and helps I i
readers understand how items relate to one another. O соортокноит ED co
S Known as the senal, Oxford, or Harvard comma, this use separates the
last two items in a series. Depending on your instructor, audience, or
company, its use may be optional. o ЕБоид9т apples bananas and oranges.
bought apples bananas and oranges.
 COMMAS WITH A SERIES Use a comma to separate items in a
series and to eliminate confusion about how many or which one. Which
sentence is easier to understand and does more to describe the subject? -=
Her favorite flavors of ice cream were mint chocolate and strawberry. Her
favorite flavors of ice cream were mint chocolate and strawberry. In the first
sentence, it seems like there are only two flavors, while in the second it
becomes clear that we're talking about three flavors. COMMAS WITH
CLAUSES Use a comma to separate the two clauses of a compound
sentence when they are connected by for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so (our
mnemonic FANBOYS). _ The light turned green and he hit the gas. Use
commas to enclose clauses that aren’t essential to the sentence’s meaning. =
Thetires which l've had for three years need to be replaced. COMMAS IN
DATES Use a comma after the month and date, and after the year if the
sentence continues. _ The date of incorporation was Friday June 14. Friday,
June 14 2019 was а special day.
 Quotation marks show which words are yours and which belong
to someone else. QUOTATION MARKS Essa DIRECT QUOTATIONS
Most commonly, quotation marks show readers the exact words someone
said, in the exact order they were said. " She told her student, Keep your
eyes on your own paper. 52) DIALOGUE Quotation marks are used in
written dialogue to capture a conversation. Use them to open and close each
speaker’s contribution. ° 66 ° Ф е 99 Anna said, Your phone is ringing. 66 s
89 c 44 S ° 99 ІІІ getit, John said, right after | find my keys.
 QUOTING SOURCES When quoting from a source, enclose all
quoted material in quotation marks. The text said, “РП be at the park at
6:00 p.m., but | won’t wait longer than an hour. TITLES Quotation marks
are also used for titles of short works, such as short poems, short stories,
newspaper or magazine articles, book chapters, songs, and TV show
episodes. Her mother's favorite poem was “The Road Not Taken” by Robert
Frost. SLANG OR TECHNICAL TERMS Slang, jargon, and other words
outside their normal usage can be put in quotation marks or italics. Her
grandma didn’t know what “LOL” meant. (YH) сооотокном ©
PUNCTUATION AND QUOTATION MARKS Periods and commas
always go inside closing quotation marks. Colons and semicolons go
outside closing quotation marks. If a question mark or exclamation point
was originally part of the quoted text, the punctuation mark goes inside the
closing quotation mark; if it was not part of the original quote, it goes
outside the closing quotation mark.
 COLONS & SEMICOLONS Proper Punctuation: Introducing and
Connecting Semicolons Semicolons indicate a pause that is more significant
than a comma but less significant than a period. Most often, they connect
two complete thoughts that could be two separate sentences but are
logically connected. I rode to town on my horse. He started out at a trot. I
rode to town on my horse; he started out at a trot. Semicolons can also stand
in for commas when clearer punctuation is needed. “ © The contest winners
came from Sacramento, California; Nashville, Tennessee; and Tulsa,
Oklahoma.
 Colons Colons introduce more information. These must be used
after an independent clause, but what they introduce may not always be a
complete sentence. É She knew my favorite foods: chocolate and peanut
butter. If the material after the colon is a complete sentence, capitalize the
first letter. Y They were committed: It would take seven weeks to hike
overland to the base of K2. WHEN TO USE A COLON In a business letter
greeting. " Dear Colleague Between the hour and minutes їп time. " 4:30 и
алат To divide а title and subtitle. > Frankenstein: The Modern Prometheus
To name a chapter and verse of the Bible. * John 3:16
 HYPHENS, EM DASHES, SEN DASHES WORD DIVIDERS
HYPHENS and DASHES separate words and thoughts. A HYPHEN is
shorter, while EN and EM DASHES are longer. HYPHEN In general, use a
HYPHEN то: Create compound adjectives. EXAMPLES twentieth-century,
ready-made Spell out numbers. EXAMPLE sixty-four
 An ЕМ DASH —which is the longest dash—introduces a sudden
idea or gives more information. EM DASH EXAMPLES The entire group
—consisting of boys, girls, and chaperones—purchased tickets. I found my
notebook in the car—a great relief after weeks of searching. An EN DASH
is used to show a range, such as spans of time or page numbers. EN DASH
EXAMPLE The American Civil War (1861-1865) pitted pv brother against
brother. NEN
 Enclosing Extra Information Parentheses set off extra information
— material that may not be necessary (but can be helpful). NA INS Use
parentheses when you want to set off a word or phrase from the rest of the
sentence. The parentheses show that the word(s) inside could be omitted
without affecting the sentence’s meaning. | chose the spiciest chili powder
and used plenty of it
 Enclose dates and date ranges, like for birth and death dates or
historical eras (and remember to use an en dash). George Washington
(1732-1799) was the first American president. = + Political Affiliations
Politicians’ party affiliation and home state, city, or county are enclosed in
parentheses. Senator John Smith (D-MA) entered the race. 123... Series Use
parentheses when writing about items in a series using numbers or letters. I
told the students to (a) break into groups, (b) choose a team leader, and (c)
begin working. m d Alternate Endings A letter or letters in parentheses at
the end of a word indicate an alternate ending. Please make sure to tell your
child(ren).
 Square brackets are most commonly found in dictionaries, where
they enclose the history of the word being defined. Other than this usage,
there are a few key places where you'll find them. Parentheses and brackets
always come in pairs, with an opening mark and a closing mark. In
Quotations You'll often find square brackets in quoted passages when the
use of a pronoun needs clarification. The brackets show that the enclosed
text is not part of the original quote, and their use should not change the
sentence’s meaning. “She [Catherine, Duchess of Cambridge ] is known for
her commitment to charitable causes.” BRACKETS
 Inside Parentheses Use brackets when you’d normally use
parentheses but the words are already enclosed. The cofounder of the
suffragist movement (Susan B. Anthony [1820-1906 ]) pushed for the
Nineteenth Amendment. To Point Out a Mistake in Quoted Text On very
rare occasions, you'll use brackets to indicate that material you're quoting
has a mistake, but you're not correcting it. The designation "[sic]"
acknowledges the mistake and explains it's not yours. *The event took place
on April 31 [sic ]." Sic means "so" or "thus" in Latin and is used in brackets
to note "this is the way the text really appears."
 BOLD, /italics, Bold, айс, and underlining all emphasize words.
Although you should use these elements sparingly, here's when to use them:
—(9) a нна ITALICIZING PUNCTUATION Commas, periods,
exclamation points, question marks, and other forms of punctuation are
only italicized if they are part of a work’s title.
 and Underlining Examples: Did you see A Raisin in the Sun?
Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? is a great play.
ЕБЕ! ellipsis Ellipses have two main functions: MORIA
 EJ () / , () / А А / EXAMPLE: “Yesterday, while doing something
else, | found her car keys.” “Yesterday...! found her car keys.” EXAMPLES:
I'm not sure about this... What would you do if...?
 THE SLASH The slash has main uses in writing. Separates
portions of the address in a URL. Stands in for or.
 O з ДЕЗ “4 4 8Е59(ө4116 141 Тһе rate of ascent was 500
feet/hour. | Add “4 cup of milk. 2 L.I
 abbreviations dd MR. ABBREVIATIONS An abbreviation is a
series of letters that serves as a shortened version of a longer word. You still
read or speak the full word. DR. S T. DID YOU KNOW? 2 A a ЕН |
 DIY Do it yourself PRES. President & ACRONYMS An
acronym is a new word formed by the initial letters of the words it
comprises. ASAP As soon as B LT possible Bacon, lettuce, tomato
The text on this page is estimated to be only 61.18% accurate

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 IDENTIFYING YOUR PURPOSE AND AUDIENCE Content
and Connection Knowing your specific audience will guide what you write
and the words you use.
 Determine Purpose Most writing aims to reach, educate, or
persuade. Be specific: Are you making a case for why your curfew should
be extended? Explaining the origins behind the ancient city of Machu
Picchu? Ask yourself: What Is my goal? Identify Your Audience Who will
benefit from or be persuaded by your writing? Again, be specific. Ask
yourself: Whom am lI talking to? Consider Content What will make your
writing believable or persuasive? Recent research? Numbers and statistics?
Direct quotes? Ask yourself: What do | need to make sure readers know?
What facts will persuade them? Decide On Definitions If you're including
jargon or technical terms, do you need to include definitions? Ask yourself:
Will my readers know what I'm talking about? Create Connection Think of
a suspenseful story or a passionately argued opinioneditorial column: Using
the right voice and tone can create a specific mood. Ask yourself: How
would I talk to my audience in person? Call to Action Are you asking your
audience to do anything at the end of your writing? Learn more? Consider
the issue? If so, include a call to action. Ask yourself: What should my
audience want to do after reading my writing?
 Active €: assive oice Voice: Sentences with action Expressing
verbs and direct objects Action can be written in or Understand the
difference between the two. An action verb shows movement or change,
rather than a state of being. A direct object receives the action of the verb.
 A sentence in active voice is easier to understand than the same
sentence in passive voice. Use active voice whenever possible to make your
writing crisp, clear, and direct. QR Active Voice The subject is in charge.
The subject isn’t in charge. It performs the action Instead, it is acted upon
by of the verb. the verb, and the direct object becomes the subject.
Example: The boy threw the ball. The ball by the boy. Look for the
prepositional phrase; that's where you're likely to find your subject. In the
previous example, it’s Remove the auxiliary verb: ! Correct the verb tense:
becomes threw. Make the subject the direct object: fhe ball. Final: The boy
threw the ball.
 @ TRANSITIONS: Making Writing Sound Natural к USING
TRANSITIONAL WORDS AND PHRASES ша То contrast То indicate
time To indicate exceptions or signal concession өз = =. = cg >< Байы = ==
cg өз e T = == © = Е © ез
 We learn to speak when we re really young, so talking often
comes naturally. Sometimes writing doesn t. Use transitional words and
phrases to keep your sentences and paragraphs flowing. EXAMPLE
WORDS however, nevertheless, on the one hand, on the other hand,
despite, still, regardless before, during, after, while, earlier, later, after a bit
generally, in general, typically, usually of course, no doubt, sure, naturally,
certainly
 PARAGRAPH STRUCTURE Paragraphs with Purpose A
paragraph is a group of sentences united by a single topic or point.
Knowing how to construct a paragraph will help you write coherently and
persuasively. In general, there are 3 TYPES of paragraphs: 1.
INTRODUCTORY 2. BODY 3. CONCLUDING
 INTRODUCTORY PARAGRAPHS: explain the why, what, and
how of your | writing. They include: BODY PARAGRAPHS: provide
evidence. They: CONCLUDING PARAGRAPHS: summarize. They:
 FIXING REPETITION мо INTRODUCING VAR iETy B Т
Clarity is important in writing, but so is variety. Keep your readers
interested by avoiding repetition in sentence length and word choice. (©)
соортокмом: > SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS | SYNONYMS:
ANTONYMS:
 DID YOU KNOW? A thesaurus expands your vocabulary with
synonyms and antonyms. |) You can find online and print versions. AAA
SENTENCE LENGTH Remember the four basic types You can make your
writing more of sentences: simple, compound, interesting and engaging by
includcomplex, and compound-complex? ing a variety of sentence types in
Express your thoughts in a variety each paragraph. Vary the length, of
sentence types to keep your complexity, and word choices in reader
engaged. your sentences to keep your content from sounding too repetitive.
e SHORT SENTENCES For example: add emphasis or contrast. O A e
LONGER SENTENCES keep your ideas flowing. Ы If she didn't hurry,
(For a refresher, see Sentence she would miss the train. Functions in
Chapter 2.) + The tickets were sold out, and it was her only chance to get
home for the holidays.
The text on this page is estimated to be only 66.22% accurate

Foreign Words FOREIGN VISITORS: When Words Are

Borrowed English is a language of borrowed words, with influences from
German, French, and many other tongues. When using foreign words and
phrases, how do you write them? ж < ж ж ж м. ж м. PATATAS? YF wawa a
am ТА ТА Ч ^ ж жж м “ж AA Ta a a a. tar мата Та ТА ТА ТА Та 7 РА ь
ATATA DT v v < a Та n A Фа Та. Та. ТА ТА ТА. <. w.="" o="" ho=""
ta="" yv.="" soo="" a="" aaa="" aa="" eh="" a.="" m="" yi.="" ya=""
va="" ut="" n="" n.="" vara="" at="" via="" ya.="" am="" v="" vavaa="."
vay="" ax="" x="" w="" van.="" wa="" p="" ceca="" wa.="" vea="" s=""
sf="" french:="" nt="" aro.="" wv="" faux="" pas="" ss="" un="" t=""
ue.="" an="" ce="" v.a.="" nahuatl="" var="" j="" tomato="" y=""
german:="" sd="" angst="" v.a="" ata="" italicize="" don="" put="" the=""
foreign="" word="" in="" italics="" ltalics="" aren="" necessary=""
when="" it="" is:="" unfamiliar="" or="" requires="" definition=""
familiar="" used="" for="" first="" time="" again="" after="" single=""
brief="" phrase="" initial="" italicization=""/>
The text on this page is estimated to be only 68.00% accurate

& Phrases Depending on where you live, cultural and linguistic

influences may play a role in what is familiar or not familiar. For example,
Texans know Tejano music, so there is no need to italicize Tejano. ҒА” АТ
АГУ АТ АТ АГУ АГУ АТ АГУ АЛ АТ АТ АТ АТ ДУ АЛ A. АЛ АТ АЛ
АЛ ДГ? АГУ АТ A ж еле че aT Уау АГУ АГУ АГУ АГУ г Уау АГУ
АГУ АГУ АГ АЛ АЛ АЛ АЛ АЛӘ A а. Wav V m T че AU АСУ aV жу a
дь” aan АЛ д? >” С ATV АЛӘ ыу AW А“ Ам TW тАУ a а a АГУ АГУ
АГУ АГУ АСУ АГУ АГУ АСМ Уызы АСФ aCU АСҸ an ФАУ T a` еле
че че АГУ АГУ е AAA м "АГУ АГУ АГ а,“ З АГУ a am "ме АЛУ АГУ
АГУ АГУ A АСУ АЛУ АСУ АС A 7 АУ А АЛ Ei Wa. A А ФСУ АГУ
АГУ АЧ АХ Г АТО АТР n Wa, a д Va А“ АТ . ы АУА “Уа” А n nt V АГ
A ГУ ГУ АС A. arar CU Russian: V AV АГУ АГУ А“ ava av ГУ АЛУ
МГУ АГУ А“ АС A A А а. АЛ АГ” д” ње A V АГУ АГУ a” ГУ aV a м.
CU AU AT AT АГУ АГУ АГУ a. АЛ АТ 7 Mammoth МУ АГУ АГУ
АГУ А. AT АГУ aV CV АУ av У АМ АР А 2 МУ АУ aU a a a A. War 59
а“ АМ War W АУ ГУ АГУ aT e av š „Т av a Y МЭ АУ АУ АУ АУ a
Sanskrit: va aY м д АУ АУ a aT av CU ЖУ ЖӘ av Va ы“ыЧУы» ж A T
aT a a А” Avatar TY Y рК "x. A V АГУ АГУ aT АРТ АТ Chinese: ACU
A aU м. AT А те ча “А : м. АТ А? АЛ д? ЖӘ Аһ. x V АУ “А va v a ЖӘ
ЖӘ ФҸ ЖӘ ЖӘ A АУ АУ А м. Теа CT КЭ ЖЭ mU m m m ЖӘ м. VaV
aY Arabic: ке xx A. Дъ. = Alcohol Q use QUOTES СО PROPER NOUNS
Using a direct quote from a When using a foreign-language foreign-
language speaker proper noun, do capitalize, but or source? don’t italicize.
Don't italicize Would you like champagne? Enclose the entire I got it in
Champagne. statement in quotation marks
 lang & Dialect Many Shades of Language A shared language isn’t
spoken the same way by all its speakers. Slang and dialect are both
variations in language, but that’s where their similarity ends. Understand
them БеПег using the following guide. Informal, non-standard variations in
speech; often newly coined words and phrases: Frenemy / Salty / Woke Can
be used as social clues or for a sense of belonging to a group
 —ig DID YOU KNOW? The United States has no official
language, though English is most commonly spoken. zs] — Dialect —, A
variety of language spoken in a specific geographical area or by a specific
group of people: Soda / Cola / Pop Unique in vocabulary, grammar, and
pronunciation Can be standard or non-standard Indicates a speaker comes
from a specific geographical area GOOD TO KNOW: ` There are more
than twenty-five recognized dialects of American English, from North
Midland to Gulf Southern—and more than one hundred additional English
dialects spoken worldwide.
 Tips to Improve Your Writing Like any skill, your writing ability
improves over time with practice. Here are a few tips that can help. чу
 в 2% e READ GOOD WRITING Fill your eyes and ears with
good writing, and your own will improve. Read articles from such news
sources as The New York Times, The Washington Post, and more. Choose
novels and short stories that have received recognition or aska local
librarian for guidance. READ ALOUD It's one thing to write words on a
page and another to hear them spoken aloud. Your writing will have a more
natural rhythm when it flows like you're talking. Get comfortable reading
passages aloud to yourself or others. USE DIGITAL TOOLS Most word
processing programs, like Microsoft Word and Notes, come with a built-in
spellcheck and grammar function, or you can download program extensions
like Grammarly that flag common mistakes. RELY ON A
PROOFREADER OR EDITOR When it matters, ask for help. Writers and
reporters rely on proofreaders or editors, and you can too. Ask a parent,
teacher, or knowledgeable friend, classmate, or colleague to help.
 STYLE GUIDES: A Brief Overview Establishing Standards and
Rules A style guide helps writers from very different backgrounds be
consistent with grammar. There are several major style guides, and it’s
important to know which one your industry, academic institution,
publication, or company prefers, as specifics of punctuation and citations
vary. SPECIALTY STYLE GUIDES If you’re a student or scholar writing
for the behavioral sciences, or you’re a research doctor or medical scholar,
you’ll want to refer to the specialty guide for your industry, such as the APA
(American Psychological Association) or AMA (American Medical
Association) style guides. A A е A A е е е ^V ^» е ва е е е е е A а
 Y Y ы Y од Y Y Y ёч д Ç ёч Y vU uv VY G Uv у Professional
Writing and Editing AP Style (Associated Press) > General usage:
newspapers, magazines, and public relations > Guidelines: punctuation,
abbreviations, and how to write names, dates, and addresses; also covers
other “mechanics of style,” such as spelling, capitalization, and treatment of
numbers Chicago Manual of Style > General usage: writers, editors,
proofreaders, indexers, copywriters, designers, and publishers > Guidelines:
bibliographies, citations, grammar, style, and word usage Academia and
Research Turabian > General usage: students, researchers, and based on the
Chicago Manual of Style > Guidelines: bibliographies and citations MLA
(Modern Language Association) > General usage: high school students,
scholars, journal publishers, and academic and commercial presses >
Guidelines: source citations, especially to avoid accusations of plagiarism
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 CLICHES, GENERALIZATIONS, PLATITUDES, AND
JARGON There’s as much magic in knowing the right words to use as in
knowing which ones to avoid. Familiarize yourself with the common traps
shown here and the tips to keep them out of your writing. CLICHES These
worn-out, overused expressions can make your writing feel stale and overly
simple. Example: She felt like a million bucks. QUICK ТІР: Use clichés in
your first draft but find a more original way to express the O same idea in
your second and final drafts.
 GENERALIZATIONS These are broad statements made about a
group of people or things. Often, they're not true—and they can be
offensive. Example: Politicians are greedy. QUICK TIP: If a statement is
really broad or begins with “all” you might be making е а generalization.
PLATITUDES These are statements of the obvious, said as if they were
new ideas. Example: Just be yourself. q QUICK TIP: As with clichés, you
can usually find a more original way to express ® your idea. JARGON
These are technical words or phrases specific to a particular industry or
context. Example: | whiffed on my first shot off one yesterday, but luckily
my partner let me take a mulligan. (I missed my golf shot off the first hole
yesterday, but luckily my teammate let me have a do-over.) QUICK ТІР: Be
sure to define jargon terms if you're writing for an audience that won't ©
know what they mean.
 COMMONLY CONFUSED WORDS LEARN THE
DIFFERENCES TO AVOID MISTAKES Homophones are pronounced the
same way but have very different meanings; for example, eye and 1.
THEIR/THERE/THEY’RE Don’t let this trio of homophones confound
you. Their indicates There indicates a They’re is a contraction possession
by two certain location: of “they are”: or more people: I found the ball
They're going to come Their car is in the over there. over later. shop. Деле
VA (еи RE Your indicates possession: You’re is a contraction of “you are”:
That is your coat. You’re going with me. As with your, whose Who’s is a
contraction of “who is": indicates possession: Who’s coming with me?
Whose coat is that?
 m 4 ITS/IT’S Its is for possession: It’s is a contraction of “it is”;
My device needs charging; remember to check if the sentence its cord is on
the counter. sounds rights when you substitute "it is": It's snowing again.
TOO/TO/TWO Too is an adverb To is a preposition: They're ` Two
indicates meaning "also": going to the store. the number: Now she is sick
too. tenalobesnsdwerh: She had two It can also mean She was unconscious
cookies. "excessively" or “very”: : fora moment but then It is too cold.
came to. LOOSE/LOSE Loose is an adjective describing something Lose is
a verb: that is not secure or evading capture: We are going to The dog is on
the loose. lose the game. I have a loose tooth.
 Ifyou struggle to decide whether to use ТО) or in writing and
speech, just remember: Who is always the subject of the verb in the
sentence, while Whom is the object. You can use the words He (subject)
and Mim (object) to help you figure out which to use: (2) SUBSTITUTION
— If you can substitute НЕ and the sentence makes sense, you should use
WHO. If HIM makes sense, you should use WHOM. e cm =т со =з =з =з
со =з =з "- we ewe eee "- өш m єз WHO = НЕ ... WHOM = HIM Try it out
with a question: Original: WHO/WHOM is hungry? Substitution: ME is
hungry. Conclusion: WHO is correct. AN e -å ЧА "^ ми — < =< - = мо ше
ше эш w эш ои ми = = эш = = =
 eS UR ко um ко ан um ан со ан кə со со со G со со со св по UD
по UD ар ко ар өн s © SCRAMBLING ----------------. Sometimes it’s less
obvious, and you might need to pick the statement or question apart to
make the correct choice between Make a question into a statement, ог a
statement into a question, and use the substitution trick. Make a question
into a statement: Original: WHO/WHOM did you call? Substitution: I
called HIM. Conclusion: WHOM is correct. ee — — ———M—— o РЕ
and Make a statement into a question: Original: The child WHO/WHOM в
crying is on the bench. Substitution: Is HE crying on the bench?
Conclusion: WHO is correct. "o c < < < < = =< = = = = mc mc мом ом... =
— жә жән — — көк — — — — — — — — — mm чии чии — өш чии
кән тән O
 MORE COMMON MISTAKES can also cause is most commonly
used as a noun meaning “result”: The boat ride had a bad on me. is most
commonly used as a verb, and means “to impact” or “to produce a change.”
The boat ride ed me badly. You can use the acronym to remember which
word to use: emember: Affecterb, Effect-Noun. Use for physical distance
you can measure: How much is our destination? Use when you can’t
measure the distance: Before we go any , let’s make sure we’re clear.
Remember, contains , SO it is for distance you can measure.
 GOOD/WELL FEWER/LESS GOOD is an adjective @ Use
FEWER when you and modifies nouns: > can count the items a good m s
discussed: е? ive fewer apple WELL is an adverb and YOU ао. ашп
VEHEES Use LESS when you can't: e wasn't feeling well. тент - ! go well
FIGURATIVELY/LITERALLY Г ! [ ] EP e се» ( (D ig ( А ( г ( €t ( E 1 ( е»
м ( (1 ] V U ( ) FIGURATIVELY makes use of a Sugar of speech: is
figuratively tl ! | LITERALLY means “without exaggeration.” Ta Unless
you were ee thrown under the aus you cannot say I was literally tl ler the E
LIE /LAY In the present tense, the LIE/LAY choice is pretty simple. You
LAY something down, and people LIE down on their own. In the past tense,
things get confusing, so memorize this table: Lie Lay Lain Lay Laid Laid
fter hearing the news I laid the book on the table.
 COMMONLY MISUSED PHRASES Language Traps: Confusing
Phrases Knowing the proper phrase and its spelling can go a long way
toward improving your communication, whether it's professional or
personal. INCORRECT % For all intensive purposes One in the same On
accident Tongue and cheek Case and point Should/could/would of Mind
your peas and cues Make due Tow the line Nip it in the butt
 a GOOD TO KNOW: Choosing the Right Saying Have you ever
heard or said, | could саге less”? The correct phrase is actually “1 couldn't
care less,” because you’re emphasizing that it is not possible for you to care
less about the subject in question. W CORRECT For all intents and
purposes One and the same By accident Tongue in cheek Case in point
Should/could/would have Mind your p's and q's Make do Toe the line Nip
itin the bud
 MODIFIER PROBLEMS In the Wrong Place at the Wrong Time
When you're using modifiers, the words should be as close as possible to
whatever they describe or elaborate on. Otherwise, mistakes can happen.
MISPLACED MODIFIERS When a modifier is in the wrong place in a
sentence, it can modify the wrong word. Incorrect We cant sell drinks to the
attendees in glass bottles. What? The attendees are in glass bottles? Correct
We cant sell drinks in glass bottles to the attendees. LIMITING
MODIFIERS These words—which include almost, even, hardly, just,
merely, nearly, and only—should be placed directly in front of whatever
they're modifying. Incorrect We ve nearly eaten a dozen cupcakes! What?
Have you nearly eaten? Or have you eaten nearly a dozen? Correct We've
eaten nearly a dozen cupcakes!
 DANGLING MODIFIERS These words dont have anything to
hang on to in a sentence—they dangle. Incorrect Short of the goal line, the
fans held their breath as the quarterback tripped. What? Why were the fans
short of the goal line? Correct The fans held their breath as the quarterback
tripped short of the goal line. SQUINTING MODIFIERS These two-way
modifiers could describe a word on either side of them, so clarification is
key. Incorrect Running up hills quickly strengthens your leg muscles.
What? Does running quickly strengthen your muscles? Ür does it
strengthen your muscles quickly? Correct Running quickly up hills
strengthens your leg muscles. (If "quickly" describes the speed of running.)
Running up hills strengthens your leg muscles quickly. (If "quickly"
describes the speed of muscle strengthening.)
 Too Many Words Contrary to their name, run-on sentences aren’t
necessarily long. In fact, they can be short. A run-on is a sentence that
contains two or more independent clauses that are not joined properly.
Usually, a punctuation mark or conjunction is needed to fix the problem.
 Example: Dave brought his own lunch we bought hot lunch.
Insert a period: Dave brought his own lunch. We bought hot lunch. 3 Ways
to Solve Run-On Sentences | 1 | 2 Use a semicolon: Dave brought his own
lunch; we bought hot lunch. 3 Add a conjunction: Dave brought his own
lunch, but we bought hot lunch. When you use more words than necessary,
your writing is wordy. Wordiness can result from overly long transitional
phrases or too much use of passive voice. Keep It Short Instead of due to
the fact that use since or because. Instead of last but not least use finally.
Instead of a small number of use a few. Instead of the majority of use most.
Two Wrongs Don’t Usually Make a Right а 8
 = (C) воортокноми: ` WHAT ABOUT "AIN'T"? “| ain't telling
you anything you want to know, Sheriff!” should be » should be »
 FUSSY GRAMMAR When Accuracy Counts Throughout life,
you'll encounter situations in which total grammatical accuracy is in your
best interest. These instances include formal writing assignments, such as
school papers, To whom It may concern exams, and published work, and
other high-stakes situations, such as cover letters and job applications. This
alternative to the salutation Dear Sir or Between Madam ina piece of you
апа formal correspondence me should always use whom. Why wouldn’t
you say between you and I? The reason is that between is a preposition, and
it requires an object pronoun, in this case me.
 There are other instances in which you'll encounter fussy
grammarians who expect only the finest in sentence construction from you.
Be prepared with this final roundup of correct expressions. Toward VS.
Towards Drop the “s.” In American English, the proper spelling is toward,
beside, amid, The or among, not towards, reason besides, amidst, or jc
amongst. You say either The reason is... or because when explaining. The
reason is because is redundant. Fussy grammarians will tell you that since
refers to the passage of time. All | other uses should First be replaced with
VS. because. Firstly Use first without exception. You’re enumerating a list
or explaining steps. The same goes for second instead of secondly, and so
forth.
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 СЕТ GRAPHIC : PERSONAL | | THE BIBLE: er pe hesllby,
avoiding stress, A e eno YOU NEED то ee THE “Y 3 КОСАТА 4
AMERICAN GOVERNMENT сс жени |Ц 4 CORNERSTONE
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 “G = THE INFOGRAPHIC Visually Easy to GUIDE TO
interesting understand GRAMMAR This dynamic, visually driven
reference guide explores the English language's most important grammar
rules in a way that's both fun to read and simple to remember, including:
3.8] Proper punctuation Subject-verb agreement Dangling modifiers Q
Commonly misused A Capitalization rules phrases ...And many more! The
Infographic Guide to Grammar is an illustrated take on language's trickiest
grammar and syntax rules. JARA KERN has a knack for organizing ideas
and expressing them in sparkling copy, which has helped her nurture а
thriving career in copywriting. When she's not strategizing or writing, you ll
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