PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION In Judea and Babylonia, fingerprint and palm structures of the skin (Dermis and Epidermis).

He
prints were also introduced before the time of became the Grandfather of Dactyloscopy.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND: JESUS CHRIST. As they stated that the most 7. J.C. A. Mayer (1788) – Published a book which
Based on records, fingerprint were observed by the important of the human body is the skin. Apostle was an atlas of Anatomical Illustrations of
early people of the world as evidence by the Paul used his finger impressions as a distinctive fingerprints, supported by a researcher Herman
picture writing upon the smooth face of a Cliff in signature. Welcher in 1856 by printing his right palm to prove
Nova Scotia, where the outline of a hand is covered In France, numerous rocks carving and paintings to himself if the ridges change. By 1897, forty-one
by the lines representing ridges and furrows. featuring head signs and fingerprints have been years later, he again printed his right palm. The
Present day Archeologist have found various finger found on the granite wall slabs in the Neolitical following year, he published these palm prints.
impressions on clay tablets and during recent passages. Though taken two scores apart, it proved that the
exploration of Kin-Tut-Ank-Amen’s Tomb, there In Jerusalem, fingerprint relies were also found in ridge characteristics did not change.
were found slabs bearing finger impressions. clay lumps during the 4th and 5th century of the 8. Professor Johannes Evangelist Purkinje (1787-
As early as the third century, B.C. Christian era. 1869) – contributed an important landmark in the
Fingerprint was introduced in China as medium of In Babylonia, fingerprint was first intended, history of fingerprint science. It was his book
identification by using soft mud or clay by originated and used for personal identification. The “Commentatio De Examine Physiogico Organitical
impressing the fingers or palm in it. Fingerprint to magistrates ordered their peace officers in making Et Systematis Cutansi”, which means a commentary
them is HUA CHI 8th century. T’ang Dynasty arrests and property confiscations to secure the of the physiological examination system, that
refers to fingerprints being impressed upon defendants fingerprints. These facts were in clay brought a systematic classification of the fingerprint
Business contracts. tablets and are now preserved and kept in the patterns. He got his work published officially on
Some of the early practices of fingerprints British Museum. December 22, 1823 at the City of Breslau, Germany.
are credited to the Chinese Monarch who were 2.Bewick, Thomas (1753-1828) – His fingerprint He distinguished and named 9 fingerprint patterns:
successful in applying this method in their daily was engraved on wood. 1. Transverse Curves – Plain arch
business and legal documents by means of their 3.Anthropometry or Bertillon System of 2. Central Longitudinal Stria – Tented Arch
thumbprints as a sign manual. Identification based on the measurement of the 3. Oblique Strike – Loop (Ulnar or Radial)
The first Chinese ruler who devised a seal human body particularly bony structure. The 4. Oblique Loop – Loop (Ulnar or Radial)
carved from white jade. system was introduced in the police department of 5. The Almond – Whorl
Hua Chi = fingerprint. Paris, France in 1882 by Alphonse M. Bertillon. 6. The Spiral – Whorl
Lo = arches and whorls 4. Dr. Nehemiah Grew (1641-1712) – Wrote a 7. The Ellipse – Elliptical Whorl
Ki = Loops. thesis on the early study of the ridges and pores on 8. The Circle – Circular Whorl
For the Chinese, loops are look upon as presages of human fingers and palms called “Philosophical 9. The Double Whorl – Composite Twin Loop
good luck. Transaction” in 1684 which was presented before Professor Purkinje was a German Professor of
During these times, in Chinese Law “To the Royal Society in London. Physiology and Pathology of Bresdan, Germany,
divorce a wife, the husband must give a document 5. Govard Bidloo (1685) – Wrote a thesis who divided the different layers of the skin into 9
stating therein the reason or grounds that were due “Anatomia” appearance and arrangement of the major groups. He was known as the Father of
for action. The document should be signed by the ridges on thumb. Dactyloscopy.
husband’s own handwriting, but in case he is 6. Dr. Marcelo Malpighi (1628-1694) – an Italian 9. Sir William James Herchel (1883-1917) – he
unable to write, he must sign with his fingerprint.” Anatomist. In 1686, he published his book “De published a book, “The origin of Fingerprinting.”
In Holland they used Branding, Tattooing, and Externo Tactus Organo” which was described the He was credited as the Father of Chiroscopy.
Mutilation to identify the person. ridges found on the palm surface of the hand which 10. Dr. Henry Faulds (1813-1930) – he published
In Old Mexico, the Aztecs print their palms in Muds course in diverse designs and the pores which an article in British Journal Nature “On the Skin
and their tombs. served as the mouth of the sweat glands. He was Furrows of the Hand” points out that the chance
also noted for his discovery of the inner and outer prints left at the scene of crime would provide for
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positive identification of offenders when 19. John Kenneth Ferrier -An Englishman who was 1900 – Mr. Jones - One who taught fingerprint in the
apprehended. the first fingerprint instructor at the St. Louis police Philippines.
11. Sir Francis Galton (1822-1911) – a noted Department, Missouri. He was of the students of sir Generoso Reyes - The first Filipino fingerprint
British Anthropologist and cousin of Charles Darwin Edward Richard Henry. technician
began observations which lead to the publication in 20. Robert Heindel -A German Criminologist who 1927 - Capt Thomas Dugan of New York Police
1892 of his book, “Fingerprints.” He was credited had made a study of the use of fingerprint and Flaviano Guerero FBI Washington gave the first
as the first scientist of friction skin identification identification in Asia and reported that the use of examination in fingerprint in 1927. Agustin Patricio
as well as his role in promoting its use. He was able fingerprint identification had been common during of the Philippines, top the examination.
to discover the three families of fingerprint patterns the Tang Dynasty in China and that the Chinese had 1968 - Bureau of Prison - CARPETAS( Commitment
by dividing the first joint of the ten fingers into three developed a system of classifying fingerprints and conviction records) fingerprint was used.
major groups namely; ARCH, LOOP, and WHORL. based on loops and whorls for use in identifying Isabela Bernales - First Filipina fingerprint
12. Sir Edward Richard Henry (1859-1931) – he criminals. technician.
was considered as the Father of Fingerprint 21. 1998 - Dr. Edmond Locard-A first police chief People of the Phils vs. Medina - first conviction
Science because of his persistence in devising a of Lyon,France proved successfully not only that base on fingerprint and leading case decision in the
workable system of classification. fingerprints are unique but also that the pore phil. jurisprudence.
13. Juan Vucetich – an American police officer, patterns within a fingerprint are equally unique. He Agripino Ruiz – Philippine Constabulary
based his system on the patterns typed by Sir is considered “The father of poroscopy”. fingerprint expert who testified in the case of PPI vs.
Francis Galton. Vucetich claimed that he is the first Edmond Locard wrote that if 12 points (Galton's Medina. He presented ten points of identity on
official in criminal identification by means of Details) were the same between two fingerprints, it both latent and inked prints.
fingerprint left at the scene of crime. It also mark would suffice as a positive identification. Plaridel Education Institute (PEI) now Phil College
the first installation of fingerprint files a an official 22. 1904 - Maj. R. Mc Cloughry -The warden of of Criminology, was the first government
means of criminal identification which is presently the US Federal Penitentiary in Leavenworth, recognized school to teach the science of
in most Spanish speaking countries and number of Kansas when the office of the US attorney-general fingerprint and other police sciences.
other countries as well. granted permission to establish a Fingerprint Lucila Lalu- the first chop-chop lady who was
14. Dr. Henry P. De Forest – an American pioneer Bureau on Nov. 2, 1904. This is the first official identified through fingerprint.
in the fingerprint science, installed the system in National Government use of fingerprints by the US
December 1902. Federal Government. ASPECTS OF PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION
15. Alphonse Bertillon (1870) – he originated the 23. 1865 - Midlo -Wrote a book, “Human MEDICO-LEGAL ASPECTS OF IDENTIFICATION
measuring process or bodily measurements. He Anatomy” in which he included a drawing of the 1. Forensic Chemistry
was credited as the Father of Criminal thumb print showing the configuration of a whorl 2. Forensic Odontology
Identification pattern. 3. Cartography
16. John Dillenger – who tried to remove his 24. Mary K. Holland -The first American female 4. Photography
fingerprints with acid but failed in doing so. instructress in Dactyloscopy.
17. Robert James Pitts – who gained some fame as 25. 1882 - Gilbert Thompson -A Geologist in New DACTYLOSCOPY – Identification of person
the man without fingerprints among identification Mexico, adopted the first individual use of through examination and comparison of
personnel, is another fingerprint figure because of fingerprint in August 8, 1882 as a protection to fingerprint. It was derived from the Greek Words
his unsuccessful attempt to alter his fingerprints. prevent tampering (forgery) with the pay order. DACTYLOS which means a finger and SKOPIEN
18. Joseph Faurot -A Lieutenant in the New York This is the first known use of fingerprints in the which means to examine.
City Police Department and was among the first to United States.
solve crimes with identification of fingerprints. He BRANCH OF DACTYLOSCOPY
established NYPD’s Fingerprints Bureau. Fingerprint History in the Philippines 1. CHIROSCOPY – allied science of Dactyloscopy
which deals with the study of the palms of the hand.
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 Derived from the Greek words CHEIR which means Fingerprinting is one of the most reliable means of PATTERN ZONES OF PALMPRINT:
a hand and SKOPIEN which means to examine. personal identification. • Thenar zone – the base of the thumb.
2.PODOSCOPY - branch of the science of Fingerprints cannot be forged. • Hypothenar zone – the base of the little finger.
dactyloscopy which deals with the study of the sole DNA Fingerprinting is only applied to high profile • Palmar zone – base of the four fingers.
of the foot. Derived from the Greek words PODO and celebrated cases. It is also applied when • Carpal delta zone – near the wrist.
which means foot and SKOPIEN which means to fingerprinting is not applicable (ex: when corpse is ➢ Edgeoscopy-Edges and shapes of the ridges.
examine. burned). This includes the study of: endings,
3.POROSCOPY - branch of the science of puckering, and bifurcations
dactyloscopy which deals with the study of the PHALANGES OF FINGERS ➢ Ridgeology – combination of: poroscopy,
sweat pores found in the friction skin. Derived Terminal phalange/phalanx – the end joint / tip of edgeoscopy and ridge characteristics.
from the Greek words POROS which means pores fingers. Introduced by Sgt. David R. Ashbaugh (1946-
and SKOPIEN which means to examine. Middle phalange/phalanx – the middle portion of present).
fingers. Title of Book “Quantitative-Qualitative Friction
Of the different aspects of personal Proximal Phalange/phalanx – The base portion Ridge Analysis: An Introduction to Basic and
identification, it was proven beyond reasonable of fingers. Advanced Ridgeology.”
doubt and the proper authorities concerned that
fingerprints is: LAYERS OF SKIN ➢ Dermatoglyphics –study of the lines, tracings,
1.The only infallible system of identification • Subcutaneous layer ridges of the skin of fingers, palms and hands.
throughout the world. • Dermis Derived from the words:
2.It is the most convincing proofs of man’s • Epidermis 1. “derma” - means “skin” and
individuality. 1. Epidermal layer (Epidermis) – the outer layer. 2. “glyphein” - means “to study”
3. It enables to unmask the real identity of the law Sub-layers:
breaker. • Stratum Corneum – also known as corneus IMPORTANT TERMS
layer. 1. FINGERPRINT - an impression, designed by
THREE DOGMATIC PRINCIPLES OF • Stratum Mucosum – also known as transparent the ridges on the inside of the end joint of the
FINGERPRINTS: layer. fingers and thumb on any smooth surface through
1.Principle of Permanency • Stratum lucidum – also known as granucar the media of ink, sweat or any reagents capable of
(Constancy/Persistency) layer. producing visibility.
States that fingerprints are unchanging or constant • Stratum granulosum – consists of 3-4 layers. 2. DACTYLOSCOPY – the science that deals with
from birth until the decomposition of the body of the • Stratum spinosum – also called Malpighian the study of fingerprints as a means of personal
person. layer. identification that involves manual comparison of
2. Principle of Individuality fingerprints.
• Stratum Basale – also called Generating Layer.
There are no two fingerprints that are exactly 3. DACTYLOGRAPHY – the scientific study and
2. Dermal Papillae (Dermis) – the inner layer of the
alike,” analysis of fingerprints as a means of identification.
skin containing blood vessels, arrector pili muscles,
Except if two fingerprints were taken from the same 4. DACTYLOMANCY –the study of fingerprints for
sebaceous glands, sweat glands and nerves. It is
finger and the same person. the purpose of interpreting one’s personality.
where the dermal papillae are found.
Two fingerprints maybe alike in its pattern or 5. Ball Area – the large cushion area below the
3. Subcutaneous layer (Hypodermis) – the
design but considering its minute characteristics, base of the big toe.
innermost layer of skin that also contains blood
they differ. 6. Brachdactyl – abnormal shortness of fingers or
vessels, connective tissue, nerves and fat lobules (a
Fingerprints of two persons can be similar but NOT toes.
rounded division or projection of an organ or part in
Identical. 7. Bulb of Fingers (thumbs, toes) – the portion of
the body, especially in the lungs, brain, or liver).
3. Principle of Infallibility the friction skin on the tips of fingers, thumbs or
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toes in the distal phalanx, from one side of the nail 26.Hypothenar Area – the friction ridge skin on the 45.Symphalangy – end to end fusion of the
to the opposite side of the nail. palm, below the inter-digital area on the ulnar side phalanges of the fingers or toes.
8. Calcar Area – area located at the heel of the foot. of the palm. 46.Thenar Area – the large cushion of the palm
9. Carpal Delta Area – area of the palm containing 27.Interdigital – palmar area below the fingers and located at the base of the thumb.
a delta formation nearest the wrist. above the thenar and hypothenar areas. 47.Tibia – a bone in the lower leg.
10.Crease – a line or linear depression, grooves at 28.Macrodactyl – congenitally abnormal largeness 48.Tibial Area –the plantar area situated on the big
the joints of the phalanges, at the junction of the of fingers or toes. toe side of the foot.
digits and across the palmar and plantar surfaces 29.Mottled Skin – ridge detail is present, but is 49.Trauma – injury or damage.
that accommodate flexion. dissociated due to trauma or genetic causes. It lacks 50.Ulna – the larger of the two bones of the
11. Dermabrasion – a technique using chemicals, any continuous pattern flow. forearm, on the palmar side of the little finger.
wire brush, surgery or lasers 30.Orthodactyl – fingers and toes cannot be flexed. 51.Volar – related to the palmar and plantar
12. Dermal Papillae – peg-like formations (hook) 31.Palm (Palmar Area) – the friction ridge skin surfaces.
on the surface of the dermis.cause either temporary area on the side and underside of the hand. 52.Volar Pads – palmar and plantar fetal tissue
or permanent loss of ridge detail. 32. Pattern Formations – friction ridge skin growth that affects friction ridge skin development
13. Digit – a toe or finger. arrangements formed as early as the third month of and patterns.
14. Dissociated Ridges – disrupted, rather than gestation. 53.Volar Skin – friction skin.
continuous, ridges; an area of ridge units that did 33.Pentadactyl – the occurrence of five fingers or 54.Webbed Fingers – two or more fingers
not form into friction ridges. toes on hand or foot. connected along the sides by skin.
15. Distal – farthest away from the center or point 34.Phalange (Phalanx) – a finger or toe with
of attachment. The direction away from the body. proximal, medial, and distal segments. Any bones F FINGERPRINTS IN OTHER SPECIES
16. Duct – a tube or canal that delivers in the fingers or toes. • Koala - is one of the few mammals, native in
secretions or excretions. 35.Plantar Area – the friction ridge skin area on the Australia that has fingerprints.
17.Dysplasia – ridge units that did not form side and underside of the foot. • Monkeys - have fingerprints which are almost the
complete friction ridges due to a genetic cause. 36.Polydactyl – a hand or foot having more than same with human beings. It is proven that
18.Eccrine Glands – sweat glands that open on all the normal number of fingers or toes. fingerprints of monkeys are mistakenly identified
surfaces of the skin. 37.Proximal – situated at the closest point of as human fingerprints.
19.Ectrodactyl – congenital absence of all or part attachment; direction toward the body. F Friction, Epidermal or Papillary skin
of a digit. 38.Radial – the smaller of the two bones of the 1. It is an epidermal hairless skin on the ventral or
20.Fibula – the smaller of the two bones in the forearm, on the same side as the thumb. lower surface of the hands and feet.
lower leg on the little toe side. 39.Ridge Aplasia – congenital absence of friction 2. The strips of skin on the inside of the end joints of
21.Fibular Area – the plantar area situated on the skin. our fingers and thumbs by which fingerprints are
little toe side of the foot. 40.Ridge Hypoplasia – underdeveloped ridges made.
22.Friction Ridge – a raised portion of the associated with an excess of creases. • Friction Ridges are found on every Friction
epidermis on the palmar or plantar skin. 41.Scarf Skin – dry or dead skin which has scaled skin/epidermal skin/papillary skin.
23.Fulcrum Area – the area between the thumb and peeled away from the surface skin. • Minutiae are friction ridges which are
and index finger on the palm. 42.Sebaceous Gland – an oil-secreting gland considerably minute in sizes such as delta, core,
24.Hallucal – a region which corresponds to the generally associated with a hair follicle. dot, short ridge, bifurcation, recurving ridges,
distal thenar and first inter-digital region of the 43.Split Thumb – thumb that has conjoined distal etc.
palm. phalanges. C COMPONENTS OF THE FRICTION SKIN
25.Hyperdactyl - Polydactyl 44.Syndactyl – refers to webbed (uniting toes) • Ridges – are hill like, elevated, appear as black
fingers. Side-to-side fusion (union) of digits. lines with tiny white dots called pores in an inked
impression.
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 • Furrows – canal-like, depressed portions found the end joint of thumb or fingers.It is the most 3.Measurement easily taken with the aid of simple
between the ridges which appear white lines. positive means of personal identification, it has instruments.
• Pores (sometimes called islands) – are small been found out that the intricate (complicated)
opening found on skin and appear white on plain patterns of the fingers are permanent, individual The system depends upon the registration of the
impression. and never undergo a natural change, except in the characteristics of the individual under the following
• Sweat Duct – is a long-host like structure that size of the patterns during the life of an individual. headings:
serves as the passage way for the sweat. a. Descriptive data, such as color of the hair, eyes,
• Sweat Glands – produces sweat/perspiration. Fundamental Layers of the Friction Skin complexion, shape of the nose and ear.
* Friction skin is the epidermal hairless found b. Body marks, such as moles, scars and tattoo.
DEVELOPMENT OF RIDGES on the lower surface of the hands and feet covered c. Body measurements:
rd th with patterns, designs, formations of minute ridges 1. Standing height
3 - 4 month – ridges start to develop and furrows five (5) months before birth remained 2. arm reach
About 6 months - ridges are fully developed unchanged during the life of individual until 3. sitting height
• Fingerprints remain constant until during the decomposition set after death. 4. breadth of the head
decomposition stage of the skin of the corpse. Component Parts of Friction Skin 5. length of the left foot
• Fingerprint size – may Change Friction Ridges – are the raised strips of the skin 6. cheek breadth
• Ridge characteristics and pattern – Does not on the inside of the first joint of our finger or thumbs 7. length of the right ear
change were our fingerprints are made. They are given 8. length of the middle finger
name and subject to classification. It may be called 9. length of the little finger
PERSONS WHO ATTEMPTED TO ERASE Papillary or Epidermal ridges. 10. length of the left forearm
FINGERPRINTS 1. Ridge Surface 11. length of the left forearm and hand
1. John Herbert Dillinger (1902-1934) – an American a. Furrows – the canals or depressions found
criminal who attempted to erase his fingerprints between the ridges and appear as white lines in an THE PAPILLARY STRUCTURE
with the use of ACID, committed crimes over a inked finger impression. The papillary structure is composed of
period of 13 months in 1933 and 1934. While in b. Ridges – the tiny elevations or hill-like structure ridge surface, pore, duct, the sweat gland, as well
prison, Dillinger formed a gang, which included found on the epidermis of the skin containing sweat as the epidermis, stratum mucosum, nerve and the
“Baby Face” Nelson and “Pretty Boy” Floyd, pores. Ridges appear as black lines in an inked dermis. The EPIDERMIS is seen as the outer layer of
both of whom were later killed in gun battles with finger. the skin structure showing the ridges and furrows.
law officers. The“public enemy number one” in 2. Sweat pores – the tiny opening / the tiny white It is composed of several layers having different
the United States. dots. structural characteristics.
2. Roberts James Pitts - gained the fame as the “man 3. Sweat duct – the passage way.
without fingerprints” after knowing from an 4. Sweat glands – the producers of sweat. RIDGE FORMATION
inmate of a possible destruction of fingerprints. He Ridges begin to form on the human fetus
is known by name Roscoe Pitts. BERTILLON SYSTEM OF IDENTIFICATION five to six months before birth. Since the ridges are
3. Edmond Locard & Witkowsji Bertillon system of Identification is also the basis for fingerprint identification they seemed
Performed painful experiments on themselves by known as Anthropometric System of Identification in to appear as continuous lines, some short and
burning their fingertips with boiling water and oil the year 1870. curved, others long and straight, and a few like
with hot metals to find out whether it can destroy Basis: islands containing single pore structure. When we
the ridges of a finger. 1. Human skeleton does not change after 20 years. look at the tips of our fingers, or the palms of our
2.It is impossible for two human beings to have hands, we cannot see any moisture there. All we
Fingerprint - The reproduction of some smooth surfaces bones alike. see are the little lines which twist and turn. Each
of the pattern formed by the ridges on the inside of one of these little lines, however, is supplied with
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 oil or moisture. This moisture is supplied to the ➢ BRIDGE - A bridge is a short ridge which ➢ Pattern Area- is a part of loop and whorl pattern
little ridges by small holes which carry the oil to the interconnects two other parallel ridges. surrounded by the type lines and consisting of
surface from little pockets underneath the skin. ➢ ANGLE – an angle results from two or more the delta, core and the ridges.
These little pockets are known as “DUCTS.” ridges converging with one another at a point.
RIDGE COUNTING
RIDGE CHARACTERISTICS PARTS OF FINGERPRINT PATTERN R Ridge Counting – is the process of counting the
➢ APPENDAGE – is a short ridge at the top or ➢ Core – (inner terminus) - is the point or ridge ridges that touch or cross an imaginary line drawn
summit of a recurve usually at right angle. formation usually located at the center of the between the core and the delta of a loop pattern.
➢ RECURVING RIDGE – this is a kind of ridge pattern. Located at the approximate center or R Rules
formation that curves back in the direction from heart of the pattern. ➢ In a loop fingerprint pattern, locate the delta and
which it started. It looks like a hair pin. Explanation: When the core is referred as the core.
➢ CONVERGING RIDGE – this is a ridge formation center of heart of a pattern, it does not mean that ➢ Draw an imaginary line between the core and
whose closed end is angular and serves as a it is the exact central point of the fingerprint delta.
point of convergence, usually pointed. impression because there are numerous ridge ➢ Count all ridges which touch or cross the
➢ DIVERGING RIDGE – these are two ridges details outside of the type lines which are not imaginary line drawn between the core and delta.
flowing side by side and suddenly separating, considered in pattern interpretation. ➢ Incipient ridges, puckering, dissociated and
one ridge going in one way and the other ridge ➢ Delta – (outer terminus/tri-radius) - is the point creases are NOT counted.
going another way. or first ridge formation at or directly in the front ➢ Fragments and dot ridges are counted as ridges
➢ BIFURCATING RIDGE – this is a single ridge or near the center of divergence. The word delta only if they appear as thick as the surrounding
which splits into two ridges, forming a Y shape is an old Greek word, and is the 4th letter of the ridges.
structure. It is referred to as a fork. Greek alphabet. Originally refers to a “deposit ➢ DO NOT include in your counting the delta and
➢ DELTA – this is a point on a ridge formation at or of earth at the mouth of a river”. Delta is also core.
directly in front or near the center of the known as outer terminus and tri-radius.
divergence of the type lines. RIDGES SUBJECT TO RIDGE COUNTING
➢ CORE – this is a point on a ridge formation SIX DELTA FORMATIONS: (Depending on the travel of imaginary line)
usually located at the center or heart of a pattern. • Bifurcation 3 RIDGE COUNT
➢ ISLAND RIDGE – this is formed by a single ridge • Dot • Envelop
which, after bifurcating for a short distance, • Meeting of two ridges • trifurcation
reconverges and continues as a single ridge. An • Looping ridge (where no other choice of delta) 2 RIDGE COUNT
enclosure usually refers to a larger island. • Ending ridge • An island/lake/eye, and enclosure.
➢ DOT – A very short ridge and means exactly what • Starting ridge • Criss-crossing of ridges
the word dot implies. ➢ Ridge - the hill like structure or elevated part of • Bifurcation
➢ SHORT RIDGE – A short ridge is a relative term, the pattern. • Converging ridge
and is used to denote a ridge that is not as long ➢ FURROWS - the canal or depressed part of the 1 RIDGE COUNT
as the average ridge in that specific point. pattern found between the ridges. • A short ridge, long ridge, dot ridge,
➢ RIDGE ENDING – A ridge ending is the point of ➢ Divergence – two ridges that run parallel with • An abrupt ending of ridges is given one ridge
the ridge’s termination. It is considered an each other and curves in a separate direction. count.
ending ridge only if it terminates within the ➢ Typeline- is the diverging that tends to surround • Ridge that bifurcates
pattern area. the pattern area and serve as a basic boundary of
➢ TRIFURCATION – This is one single ridge fingerprint impression. RIDGE TRACING
splitting into a three-pronged fork shaped
R Ridge Tracing
pattern.
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 The process of tracing the ridges intervening shown to be exclusively made by a specific 2. Two deltas
between the tracing ridge (flows from the left delta individual. 3. At least one circuiting ridge is touched or
to the right delta) and the right delta. crossed by an imaginary line traversing between
DEFINITION OF BASIC FINGERPRINT the two deltas.
TYPES OF WHORL TRACING PATTERN TYPES
• Inner whorl (I) – result is 3 or more ridge count 1.PLAIN ARCH – this is a pattern in which the 6. CENTRAL POCKET LOOP WHORL – This is a
above or inside the right delta. ridges enter on one side of the pattern then flow pattern which possesses two deltas, with one or
• Outer Whorl (O) - result is 3 or more ridge count toward the other side, with a rise at the center. more ridges forming a complete circuit which
below or outside the right delta. 2.TENTED ARCH – this is a type of pattern where maybe oval, spiral, circular, or any variant of a
• Meeting whorl (M) – the ridge count is 0, 1, 2 majority of the ridges form an arch and one or more circle; or it is a pattern consisting of two deltas, with
either below or above the right delta. ridges at the center shape a tent in outline giving an one or more recurving ridges with an obstruction at
angle of 90% degrees or less, or one with an right angles to the inner line of flow, between which
FINGERPRINT PATTERNS upward thrust having an angle of 45% degrees or an imaginary line would touch or cross no recurving
CATEGORIES /FAMILIES/ GENERAL PATTERN more, or a pattern similar to a loop but lacking one ridge within the inner pattern area. Based on the
TYPES OF FINGERPRINTS: or two of its essential elements. definition, it presents two kinds of central pocket
• Family of loop – 60% frequency. 3.Radial Loop (R) - a fingerprint pattern that has a loop whorl patterns.
• Family of whorl - 35% frequency. downward slope or slanting of the ridges towards ELEMENTS OF A CENTRAL POCKET LOOP
• Family of arch - 5% frequency. the direction of the thumb either to the right or left WHORL
hand. 1.At least one recurving ridge or obstruction ridge
LOOP PATTERNS FREQUENCY: 4.Ulnar Loop (U) - a fingerprint pattern where the at right angle.
Radial Loop – 6%. direction of the ridges flows towards the little finger 2. Two deltas.
Ulnar Loop – 94%. side of either right or left hand. The term Ulnar 3.No recurving ridge within the pattern area is
came from the Greek term “Ulna” which means touched or crossed by an imaginary line drawn
ARCH PATTERNS FREQUENCY: little finger bone. between the two deltas.
Plain Arch – 60%. REQUISITES OF A LOOP 7. DOUBLE LOOP WHORL – This is a pattern
Tented Arch – 40%. 1. It must have a delta. consisting of two separate and distinct loop
2. It must have a core. formations, two sets of shoulders, and two deltas.
WHORL PATTERNS FREQUENCY: 3. It must have a recurving ridge that passes The loops necessarily do not have to be of the same
Plain Whorl - 71%. between the delta and core. length and size. The loops of a double loop whorl
Central Pocket Loop Whorl - 13%. 4. It must have a ridge count of at least one. do not have to possess the requirements of the plain
Double Loop Whorl - 13%. loop. It is enough that the elements mentioned are
Accidental Whorl - 3%. THE WHORL FAMILY found in such a pattern.
5. PLAIN WHORL – This is a pattern consisting of ELEMENTS OF DOUBLE LOOP WHORL
FINGERPRINT PATTERNS AND THEIR two deltas and in which at least one ridge makes a 1. Two separate loop formations
INTERPRETATION turn through one complete circuit. An imaginary 2. Two separate and distinct sets of shoulders
FINGERPRINT CLASSIFICATION – pertains to line drawn between the two deltas must touch or 3. Two deltas
the formation of a formula which is governed by cross at least one of the recurving ridges within the Elimination for double loop pattern:
certain rules of a particular system derived from the pattern area. The pattern could be a spiral, oval, The general rule states that there must be two
appearance of the ten individual impressions. circular, or any variant of a circle. separate loop formations. Types of core formation
FINGERPRINT IDENTIFICATION – is a system which are not included in the double loop whorl:
by which a particular impression of the ridge skin is ELEMENTS OF THE PLAIN WHORL 1. The S type core
1. A complete circuit 2. The interlocking type core
7
3. The formation of a loop inside another loop 8. FINGERPRINT LIFTING TAPES – there must 3. Deformities
8. ACCIDENTAL WHORL – This is a pattern be a sufficient supply of lifting tapes to be carried at TEMPORARY DISABILITIES
consisting of a combination of two different types of all times. There are 3 kinds: frosted, rubber, and One problem that a fingerprint officer may
patterns such as a loop and a whorl, a loop and a transparent. encounter is temporary disability. Occupational
central pocket-loop whorl, or any combination of 9.LATENT FINGERPRINT TRANSFER CARDS – problems pose a challenge to fingerprint
two different loop and whorl-type patterns, but it used for preserving developed, lifted latent technicians. In such cases, the appearance of the
can not be a combination of a plain arch with any fingerprints ridges are not exactly destroyed, but they are
other pattern. Unlike the other whorl type patterns, 10.FINGERPRINT CARDS – these record cards weakened and the prints show faint ridges. The
an accidental whorl can have two or more deltas. must be carried always for recording inked patterns are still present and have not changed.
ELEMENTS OF ACCIDENTAL WHORL fingerprints for comparison When such workers have stopped working for a
1.Combination of two different types of patterns 11.FLASH LIGHT – a very useful device for certain length of time, the ridges will come back
with the exception of the plain arch searching and for focusing on developed latent clear and sharp as they were before.
2. Two or more deltas prints
12 ROLLER OR TAPE MEASURE – a roll type PERMANENT DISABILITIES
FINGERPRINT KIT FOR GENERAL maybe carried for measuring a crime scene sketch One permanent disability that a fingerprint
FINGERPRINT WORK 13. PAIR OF FORCEPS – for picking up objects technician may encounter is an amputated finger.
FINGERPRINT KITS used by evidence technicians 14. GRAPH PAPER – for sketching purposes Such problem once in a while may crop up. When
at crime scenes are usually more complex and 15.EVIDENCE IDENTIFICATION TAPES OR the technician prepares to record the prints, he
contain a greater variety of instruments because of TAGS – used to identify objects or physical should make a notation on the particular block
the nature and the type of evidence being evidence where that amputated finger is to be recorded. The
examined. 16.SCISSORS – required for purposes of cutting notation should be exact as to what part of joint of
1. INK ROLLER – one of the inking devices latent print tapes the finger is amputated . Was it amputated at the
required for spreading the ink on the glass slab 17.RUBBER GLOVES – to protect the technician’s first or second joint? If so, write the information as
2. INK SLAB – a piece of glass either ¼” thick and fingers from leaving his own prints on the object. the case may be.
6 or more inches long 18.POST-MORTEM FINGERPRINTING For persons born without fingers, it is
3. CARD HOLDER – this type of gadget is for EQUIPMENT – contains hypodermic proper to make a notation missing fingers at birth or
clipping the fingerprint card to avoid movement of syringe, spoon, tissue builder solvent, tissue born without fingers. In taking the prints of persons
the card during printing cleaner having crippled fingers, it is not sufficient to write
4.FINGERPRINT INK – this is a specially 19. CARRYING CASE – a box-like structure or an or note down crippled, broken, or disabled. If the
manufactured ink for purposes of taking attaché type may suffice. There are several crime fingers are extremely bent toward the palm and
fingerprints detection equipment manufactures or suppliers of they are hard to move, then proper notation on the
5.MAGNIFYING GLASS – used to examine fingerprint equipment fingerprint card should be made. However, there
developed latent prints; a 3 inch wide reading glass 20. INKLESS INKING DEVICE – porelon pad, are cases which are rare. The recorder should
is useful sensitized fingerprint cards, purpose: not to stain make use of certain inking devices like the spatula,
6.FINGERPRINT POWDERS – there are normally the fingers. The finger is touched to the inkless pad the roller, and a curve card strip holder. Usually,
two kinds: the black and white or gray. These are then to the sensitized card and instantly a these are included in a fingerprint kit used for
applied on contrasting background. permanent readable print will be developed taking post mortem prints.
7.FINGERPRINT BRUSHES – must be carried in without staining the fingers.
pairs of three. Fiberglass brushes are preferably PROBLEMS IN RECORDING INKED DEFORMITIES
used by technicians. If magnetic powders are FINGERPRINTS Under this situation, a relatively infrequent
carried, use a magnetic device for application. 1. Temporary disabilities occurrence is the appearance of a person with extra
2. Permanent disabilities fingers. A subject may show two thumbs or two
8
little fingers on the same hand. Sometimes the 9. The thumbs should be rolled towards the 3. Invisible prints (TRUE LATENT PRINTS)- are the
extra digit may appear on the index, middle, or ring subject’s body and all other fingers away from the most common type of chance impressions.
fingers. It happens not infrequently that a subject body.
will have two split or webbed fingers. Such fingers 10. While rolling the fingers the subject’s hand FACTORS AFFECTING THE STABILITY OF
should be fully rolled and a notation be made on the should be held or controlled properly to prevent LATENT PRINTS
card. Split digits most often represent the thumbs twisting and slipping of the fingers. 1. Climate/Climatic Condition – windy, sunny
with complete nail joints. For classification 11. Proper alignment. and wet seasons affects the stability of latent print.
purposes, only the inner thumb is used while the 2. Subject Factor – Degree of acidity.
outer joint is not given any consideration. KINDS OF FINGERPRINT IMPRESSIONS 3. Nature of the Surface – whether the surface is
❖ Rolled impression is one made by rolling smooth or rough.
PROBLEMS OF THE FINGERPRINT OPERATOR an inked finger from one side of the finger
1. When the finger have fresh cut, wound or nail to the other. NO. OF RIDGE DETAILS FOR A FINGERPRINT
bandage, it will prevent the recording of the ❖ Plain impression is one made by pressing TO BE ACCEPTED AS EVIDENCE
printing. an inked finger directly down upon a There are no international rules or laws setting
2. When the hands are perspiring excessively. fingerprint card without any rolling motion. the required no. of similarities of latent and
3. If the fingers are very dry, like the fingers of a suspect’s fingerprint.
brick layer. TYPES OF FINGERPRINT CARD Other countries set points of similarities:
4. When the ridges of the fingers are very fine. • Criminal Fingerprint Card - used to record • England = 16 similarities
5. When one or more fingers are lacking or fingerprints of suspects and criminals. • United States = 12 similarites
missing. • Civilian Fingerprint Card - used in recording • European Countries = 15 similarities
fingerprints of a civilian for various purposes such
as requirement for employment, clearance, etc..
HOW TO TAKE INKED FINGERPRINT CASES INVOLVING FINGERPRINTS AS
IMPRESSION CLASSES OF LATENT PRINTS EVIDENCE
1. Cleanliness of the paraphernalia. Latent Print – Fingerprint found at the crime scene 1. People vs. Jennings
2. The right kind and quantity of ink. is generally called as latent print or likewise The first authoritative case involving fingerprint
3. Proper distribution of ink in the glass slab inking known as chance impression. Latent means as evidence in US which was decided by the
plate. something hidden or concealed. Therefore any Illinois Court in 1911.
4. Distance of the subject from the inking plate and chance impression, whether found at the crime Happened in Illinois, USA
the fingerprint card. scene, would be a latent print is not always Complete name of accused is Thomas Jennings
5. Advise of the operator to the subject is to relax concealed, some crime scene’s prints are visible
and never to aid in the operation. and not hidden. Though common usages, however, R REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES
6. The pressure exerted must be slight and the the word “latent” has been used by general 1. People of the Philippines vs. Medina
rolling must be continuous movement including the acceptance to mean crime scene prints. is the counterpart of the Jennings’ case in USA. This
lifting. 1. Visible prints - are impressions made by fingers is the first leading judicial decision in the Philippine
7. The nail of the finger should be at right angle to smeared with colored substance, such as blood, jurisprudence in the science of fingerprinting.
the glass slab, or to the card before starting the ink, grease, dirt or paint. Summary of the Case:
rolling of the fingers until the other side of the nails 2. Semi-visible prints - are molded or plastic On February 12, 1932, at night, Mariano Medina
is reached. impressions. They are prints made in plastic breaks into and enters through the window of the
8. The inking and printing must always reached materials such as soap, melted candles, wax, tar, house of James C. Rockwell. Medina took several
below the first joint of the fingers. pitch, paraffin, putty, the adhesive gun on personal properties of Rockwell. One of the
envelopes and postage stamps, and the like.
9
 properties taken by Medina is a box, which was ✓ Say thank you to the subject for his/her Begin recording prints from the thumb, then record
discovered in the vicinity of the scene of the crime. participation. any left-over finger at the back of the card.
A Constabulary Officer named Agripine 10. Split thumb
Ruiz, discovered a fingerprint in the surface of the COMMON ERRORS IN RECORDING Print it in the usual manner and make a note on the
box which was compared to the fingerprints of the FINGERPRINTS plain impression below.
accused-Medina. It was found out that the Right ➢ Use of insufficient or too much ink. 11. Two or more normal fingers joined or
Middle Finger of Medina matched with the latent ➢ The materials were not cleaned before use webbed by thin membrane of skin.Right hand
print lifted from the silver box in 10 points. A case ➢ The prints were not rolled properly. fingers are recorded in plain impressions.Left hand
was filed against the defendant and was later on ➢ The “up and down portion” of the terminal fingers are recorded with great precautions.
convicted. phalange are not properly inked and recorded. 12. WORN FINGERPRINTS
A technique known as "milking the fingers"
The Law of Multiplicity of Evidence SPECIAL CONDITIONS IN RECORDING can be used to raise the fingerprints prior to
States that the greater the number of FINGERPRINTS fingerprinting. In a situation of dry, flaky fingers,
similarities or dissimilarities the greater the 1.Amputated (Amp) or Finger missing at birth simply add a small amount of hand lotion or ridge
probability for the conclusion to be correct.The (FMB)Write “Amp” or FMB at the upper right builder prior to fingerprinting. The technique
more similarities of ridges between the suspect’s corner of the block. involves applying pressure or rubbing the fingers
print and latent print, establishes a POSITIVE result. 2. Bandaged Finger Due to Injury.Write in a downward motion from palm to fingertip.
“bandaged” on the plain impression NOT at the
F block. 13. FINGERPRINTING OLD-AGED PERSON
FINGERPRINT LIFTER 3. Presence of scar .Write the word “ scarred” on Remedies:
1. Fingerprint Tape – is the most commonly used in the plain impression. First, use just a little more ink.
lifting latent fingerprints, measured usually at 1-2 4. Presence of deformities on fingers.Make use of Second, use a lighter pressure.
inches. Spatula and Spoon in recording the prints. Hand lotion rubbed into the finger tips of aged
2. Some are made up in sizes ranging from 1 x 1.5 to 4 x 4 5. Partly amputated persons is helpful.
inches, usually used to lift palm prints and group By all means, print the remaining, then write partly 14. Fingerprinting people suffering from
of fingerprints. amputated on the plain impression. arthritis and rheumatism
3. Others are made in sheets 4 x 9.5 inches, usually used 6. Two thumbs at the same hand This situation presents problems because it is
to lift shoe and footwear prints. Ignore the outermost thumb and record the 5 difficult, sometimes impossible, to bend their
fingers. At the back record the prints of the fingers. There is also a bone condition known as
MANNER OF INKING AND PRINTING : outermost thumb and make a note. ankylosi in which the finger joints cannot be bent.
✓ Thumbs - rolled towards the subject’s body 7. Extra little finger at the same hand The procedure in printing these special conditions
(inward). Ignore the outermost little finger. Begin recording is quite similar to that employed for printing the
✓ Four other fingers - rolled away from the from the thumb. Record the print of the outermost dead person.
subject’(outward) little finger at the back of the card and make a note.
✓ The rolling of fingers should be done 180 8. Extra finger appear anywhere between any of POSTMORTEM FINGERPRINTING:
degrees. the fingers The process of recording the fingerprints of a dead
✓ Print the 2 thumbs in the box provided below Record the prints of the fully-formed and normal person.
the fingerprint card (no rolling motion) fingers, but record also the print of the extra finger
✓ Print the 4 other fingers (the right and left index, which is NOT fully formed at the back of the card PROCEDURE IN TAKING THE FINGERPRINTS
middle, ring and little fingers) simultaneously in with notation. OF A DEAD PERSON
the space provided below the fingerprint card 9. A hand has six fully formed fingers. ➢ The ink is rolled on a glass slab, and then the
(no rolling motion). slab is rolled around each of the deceased’s
10
 extended fingers, instead of rolling the fingers the fingerprint pattern in the spaces provided in the
on the slab. PROBLEMS IN RECORDING FINGERPRINTS card conspicuously or in capital letters purposely to
➢ The fingerprint card is then rolled around each OF A CORPSE facilitate the attainment of the primary classification.
of the inked fingers, making sure that each digit 1. The fingers are clenched (tight hold)
is recorded in the correct square. The plain Use finger strengtheners if possible before SYMBOLS OF THE FINGERPRINT PATTERNS IN
impressions are taken by pressing the recording fingerprints. BLOCKS
fingerprint card against the extended digits 2. The fingers are shriveled or shrunken PLAIN ARCH ………………………………….. A
without any rolling. With the use of hypodermic needle, the finger tips TENTED ARCH ………………………………. T
➢ Next, with a pair of scissors, a standard may be “blown up” with a solution of 1 part hot RADIAL LOOP………………………………R
fingerprint card is cut up into pieces. Each of gelatin and 7 parts glycerin can be injected. ULNAR LOOP ………………………………… U
the ten finger blocks is cut out, and also each of 3. The finger skin is shredding . Ten clean small PLAIN WHORL ………………………………. W
the three areas for plain prints, one for the right bottles with labels A quantity of formalin CENTRAL POCKET LOOP WHORL ……… C
hand plain fingerprints, one for those of the left DOUBLE LOOP WHORL …………………… D
hand, and one for the two plain impressions of THE CLASSIFICATION FORMULA ACCIDENTAL WHORL …………………….. X
the thumbs. The Henry, Galton and FBI system with
➢ If the finger blocks do not have printed modification and extension is adopted by almost all NOTE: The diagonal line symbol should be used in
numbers from 1 to 10 showing the sequence of English-speaking countries of the world. The loops (radial and ulnar) and must always follow the
the fingers, it would be wise for the operator to Philippines is using this system in its locally slope of the innermost sufficient recurve. Block
number them himself so he will not get the modified form. This system is derived through a numbers 1 to 5 are for the right hand fingers; while
sequence of the rolled impressions mixed up. succession of steps: first is blocking out a set of block numbers 6 to 10 are for the left hand fingers.
➢ Record other important information about the prints. Blocking out is the process of writing
dead person. below each pattern the corresponding symbol of

DIVISION OF THE CLASSIFICATION FORMULA

1. Primary classification
2. Secondary classification
a. Capital Letter Group
b. Small Letter Group
3. Subsecondary classification
4. Major Division
5. Final classification
6. Key

The position in the classification line for these divisions when applied are:

Key Major Primary Secondary Sub-secondary Final

PRIMARY CLASSIFICATION
This is the result of the summation of all the numerical values assigned to whorls appearing in a fingerprint chart which are expressed as numerators and denominators
plus the pre-established fraction of one over one 1 .

11
DIVISION OF PATTERNS AS TO NUMERICAL VALUES
1. Patterns with numerical values
All whorl type patterns
2. Patterns without numerical values
Arches and loop-type patterns

FOUR STEPS TO ATTAIN THE PRIMARY CLASSIFICATION

1. PAIRING – The ten fingerprints from the corresponding fingers are divided into pair totaling 5 pairs in all.
The first pair #1 and 2, the second pair is composed of right middle finger and right ring finger. The third pair is composed of the right little finger and the left thumb.
The fourth pair is composed of the left index finger and the left middle finger. The fifth pair is composed of the left ring finger and the left little finger.
Block numbers 1 to 5 are for the Right Hand Fingers
Block numbers 6 to 10 are for the Left Hand Fingers
2. Assigning numerical values to whorl patterns only. These numerical values assigned to the corresponding fingers are permanent. Whorls appearing in the first pair have
a numerical value of 16 for each whorl. Whorls appearing in the second pair have a numerical value of 8 for each whorl. Whorls appearing in the third pair have a numerical
value of 4 for each whorl. Whorls appearing in the fourth pair have a numerical value of 2 for each whorl. Whorls appearing in the fifth pair have a numerical value of 1 for each
whorl.
3. Knowing the numerators and denominators in the pairs
The first pattern of every pair is the denominator while the second pattern of the pair is the numerator. There are five numerators and five denominators in the pairs in a
set of ten fingerprints.
Fingers number 1, 3, 5, 7, and 9 are Denominators.
Fingers number 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 are Numerators.
4. Summing up the numerical values of whorls assigned to the fingers plus the pre-established fraction of 1/1.

To determine the exact result of the primary classification, get the total value of all the numerators and add the fraction of 1/1 and for the total value of all denominators also add
the fraction of 1/1. The pre-established fraction of 1/1 is always added, for in the absence of a numerical value this fraction 1/1 should be exhibited in the classification line to
complete the primary formula for filing purposes

SECONDARY CLASSIFICATION The classification refers to the three types of This is derived through the process of ridge-
fingerprint patterns only; namely the plain arch, counting the loops or ridge-tracing the whorl type
A) CAPITAL LETTER GROUP tented arch and radial loop. Whenever any or all of patterns appearing on the index fingers of both right
The Secondary classification is symbolized by these patterns appear in any finger or fingers, and left hands. Whenever loop patterns are shown
capital letters of the patterns represented by the two excluding the two index fingers, its symbol in small on the above mentioned fingers, each should be
index fingers after the primary classification in the letter is exhibited in the classification line as; a for ridge counted and the result of such count in number
classification line. The fingerprint pattern appearing plain arch; t for tented arch; and r for radial loop, be displayed on the right upper corner of the block
on the right index finger is the numerator while the before and/or after the Secondary Classification by where found and later on represented by a letter
fingerprint pattern from the left index finger is the Capital Letters, depending on the finger of origin. symbol (I or O) in the classification line based on the
denominator. The four fingers from the right hand are the inner and outer group division table for ridge counts
CLASSIFICATION LINE – This refers to a line numerators while the other four fingers from the left of loops.
placed on the right upper corner of the fingerprint hand are the denominators. Whorls are ridge traced and the result of such
chart where the classification formula is exhibited. tracing is represented by the letter symbols I, M, O
B) SMALL LETTER GROUP THE SUBSECONDARY CLASSIFICATION (inner, meeting, or outer) on the table for symbols of
whorls for ridge tracing. The letter symbols are then
12
placed on the right upper corner of the blocks where whorls from the two little fingers. The result of the
found and later on the same symbols are exhibited on THE MAJOR DIVISION ridge count is exhibited on the right upper corner of
the classification line. The major division is quite similar in the block where found and placed at the extreme
Under this classification, the right index, derivation to the sub-secondary classification though right of the classification line. The ridge-count of the
middle, and ring fingers are numerators while the it applies only to thumbs. This is done by ridge right little finger is the numerator while that of the left
opposite fingers from the left hand are the counting the loops and ridge tracing the whorls little finger is the denominator. Arches are
denominators. The plain arch and tented arch are appearing on the thumbs. The result of the ridge represented by a dash on the classification line.
neither ridge counted nor ridge traced. They are count of the loop is exhibited on the right upper
merely represented by a dash (-) on the classification corner of the block where that loop is found and later THE KEY CLASSIFICATION
line. on is expressed by a letter symbol in the The key classification is derived by ridge-
1. INDEX FINGER: 1-9 ridge count = I (inner) classification line. The whorls are ridge traced, as is counting the first loop in a set of prints. The ridge-
10 and above = 0 (outer) done in the sub-secondary classification and the count of the first loop may come from the right thumb
2. MIDDLE FINGER:1-10 ridge count = I (inner) letter symbol is represented on the right upper or any other finger except the little fingers. The
11 and above = 0 (outer) corner of the block where found and is also exhibited ridge-count is always placed at the extreme left of the
3. RING FINGER: 1-13 ridge count = I (inner) on the classification line. Two sets of table for classification line and is always represented as
14 and above = 0 (outer) symbols are used in loops whenever both loop numerator, no matter where it is taken. Where there
patterns appear in the thumbs. The place for the is no loop, the first whorl is ridge-counted, being
SYMBOLS FOR WHORLS AS A RESULT OF RIDGE symbol of the Major Division is on the left side of the treated as an ulnar loop; and the result of the count is
TRACING primary classification line. The right thumb is the displayed on the left upper corner of the block where
1. When the ridge being traced from the left delta to numerator while the left thumb is the denominator. found. When arches appear in all the prints the
the right delta passes inside or in front of the right TABLE A .Ridge-count and Letter Symbols for Loops symbol of the key classification is just a dash (-) on
delta and there are 3 or more intervening ridges 1. A ridge count of 1 to 11, inclusive, is a small. It is the classification line.
between the traced ridge and the right delta, the represented by capital letter S.
result of the tracing is shown as inner and 2. A ridge count of 12 to 16, inclusive, is medium. It OTHER CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS
represented by capital letter I. The symbol is is represented by capital letter M. There are some methods of classifying
exhibited on the right upper corner of the block 3. A ridge count of 17 or more, inclusive, is large. It fingerprints. These are often modification and
where found and on the classification line. is represented by capital letter L. variations of the Henry System, and include the
2. When the ridge being traced passes on either following:
inside or outside of the right delta and there are two TABLE B. To be applied only to the loop from the
or less ridges intervening between the traced ridge right thumb when the ridge count of the loop from the ➢ NCIC SYSTEM – The classification used by the
and the right delta or it actually meets the right delta, left thumb is 17 or more, making it large (L). National Crime Information Center amounts to a
the result of the tracing is known as meeting and is 1. A ridge count of 1 to 17, inclusive, is small. It is conversion of a modified Henry classification into
represented by capital letter M. The symbol is represented by capital letter S. a form suitable for computer coding.
exhibited on the right upper corner of the block 2. A ridge count of 18 to 22, inclusive, is medium. It ➢ AMERICAN OR NYSIIS SYSTEM – This method
where found and also on the classification line. is represented by capital letter M. is used by the New York State Identification and
3. When the ridge being traced passes outside or 3. A ridge count of 23 or more, inclusive, is large. It Intelligence System for filing inked fingerprints.
below the right delta and there are 3 or more ridges is represented by capital letter L. It also represents a modified Henry systems.
intervening between the traced ridge and the right ➢ VUCETIC SYSTEM – This system was developed
delta, the result of the tracing is known as outer and by Juan Vucetic and is used in most countries in
represented by capital letter O. The symbol is THE FINAL CLASSIFICATION South America.
exhibited on the right upper corner of the block The final classification is the exhibition in a
where found and on the classification line. numerical figure of the ridge count of loops and /or
13
➢ BATTLEY SYSTEM – This system is used to file can be determined with reasonable accuracy, and it are given identical classifications of the opposite
and retrieve single fingerprints. It was so happens that the corresponding finger of the other fingers and are field in the amputation group. As
developed by Henry Battley of Scotland Yard. hand is similarly scarred, both patterns are given the these fingers are missing from a prenatal cause, they
➢ FINDER SYSTEM – This is a computerized arbitrary value of whorls with meeting tracings. would have always received the identical
fingerprint reader system. It was developed by 5. If the pattern is entirely obliterated, it could have classification of the opposite finger on any previous
the FBI. been a small whorl, a small ulnar or radial loop, an occasion.
arch, or a tented arch. If the opposite finger were an If all ten fingers are amputated or missing at
CLASSIFICATION OF SCARRED PATTERNS arch or tented arch or whorl, this impression would birth, the classification will be M 32 W MMM. If both
Emphasis should be placed upon the be classified as arch, tented arch or whorl. If the hands are amputated or missing at birth, the
necessity for fully referencing all scarred patterns. In opposite finger were a large count loop, this footprints should M 32 W MMM be taken as they too,
connection with their proper classification, the impression would be given the count of the opposite bear friction ridges with definite patterns. A footprint
following rules should be observed: finger even though it could never have had that file is maintained by the FBI for identification
count. If the opposite finger were scarred in the purposes in instances where the subject has all
1. When an impression is so scarred that neither the same fashion or were amputated or missing, both fingers amputated or missing at birth.
general type of pattern nor the ridge tracing or count impressions would be classified as whorls with
can be determined with reasonable accuracy, the meeting tracings. CLASSIFICATION OF BANDAGED OR
impression should be given both the general type UNPRINTED FINGERS
value and the sub-classification value of the CLASSIFICATION OF AMPUTATIONS AND Problems in the taking of inked fingerprints,
corresponding finger of the other hand. FINGERS MISSING AT BIRTH an indication to the effect recently injured, bandaged
2. When an impression is partially scarred, that is, When one or more amputations appear upon is not sufficient to file a fingerprint card. It is obvious
large scars about the core so that the general type a fingerprint card, it may be filed separately from that a fingerprint card bearing these notations cannot
cannot be determined with reasonable accuracy, but those having no amputations in order to facilitate be properly classified or filed. If the injury is
the ridges allow reasonably accurate sub- searching. It is to be noted that before it may be filed temporary, and if possible, these prints should not be
classifications by ridge tracings or counting, the in the amputation group, the card must contain taken until after healing.
impression should be given the primary value of the definite and unequivocal statement or marking by the If fingers are injured to the extent that it is
pattern of the corresponding finger and the sub- contributor to the effect that a certain finger or impossible to secure inked impressions by special
classification value as indicated by the ridges of fingers have been amputated but which in reality inking devices, the unprinted fingers are given
partially scarred impressions. were merely injured and bandaged when previous classifications identical with the classifications of the
3. When an impression is partially scarred and the prints were submitted. fingers opposite. If only one finger is lacking
general type of pattern can be determined with If one finger is amputated, it is given a reference searches should be conducted in every
reasonable accuracy, but the ridges cannot be traced classification identical with that of the opposite possible classification. If more than one finger is
or counted so as to fall within the proper finger, including pattern and ridge count, or tracing, lacking, they should be conducted. If there are two
subsecondary classification, the impression should and referenced to every other possible classification. lacking, opposite each other, they should be
be given the ridge count or tracing value of the If two or more fingers are amputated, they classified as whorls with meeting tracings.
corresponding finger of the other hand, if the are given classifications identical with the fingers If, however, in the case of an injured finger,
corresponding finger is of the same general type. If opposite, with no additional references. observation is made of the ridges of the finger itself
the corresponding finger is not of the same general If two amputated fingers are opposite each and indicated on the print, this classification should
type, the scarred impression should be given the other, both are given the classification of whorls with be, insofar as it is possible, utilized. For example, a
probable value and referenced to all other meeting tracings. missing impression labeled ulnar loop of about 8
possibilities. When a fingerprint card bearing a notation of counts by the individual taking the prints, should be
4. When an impression is so scarred that neither the fingers missing at birth is classified, the missing searched in the subsecondary as both I and O but
general type of pattern nor the ridge tracing or count fingers should be treated as amputations in that they should not referenced as a pattern other than a loop.
14
If the finger is used as the final or key, it should be The fingerprint impression technique for a skin or drying it with an aqueous marker in water or
searched enough counts on each side of 8 to allow for dead body is more difficult than that of a living alcohol.
possible error in the counting by the contributor body, and varies according to the condition of the
using his naked eye. dead body. FINGER OF CHARRED BODY. In case where it is
1. Finger soon after death – wipe out fingers with a feared that they will disintegrate by even the
THE CLASSIFICATION OF FREAK FINGERS piece of gauze containing alcohol if they are
slightest, their photo shall be taken as they are.
In large police departments throughout the stained. In case where satisfactory roll
country, where the fingerprint method of impressions are not obtainable by the ordinary
MUMMIFIED OR ADIPOCERED FINGERS. Take
identification is used, you will find on filed four or five impressing technique, the impression paper shall
cards taken from so called “FREAK” fingers. By freak be cut to a proper size, and impressing shall be their mould with silicon, make films with strippable
fingers it means a person who has two fingers grown made onto it using such aids as a fingerprint paint or cortex, and, impress.
together, or fingers that have been split at the ends, taking pallet from a dead body.
etc. Of course, these cases are very rare, but if you 2. Stiff fingers of a clenched fist – impressing shall CHANCE FINGERPRINT IMPRESSIONS
find a man who has six fingers, you take them in their be made using an aid such as a spatula for taking Chance Impressions, defined: These are
natural sequence. If it is impossible to roll them, fingerprints from a dead body. fingerprints which are imprinted by mere chance or
simply put them in or near the space provided for 3. Blanched and wrinkled fingers without any intention to produce the print. Chance
them by making a plain impression. Remember, you A. Finger without percolate – wipe them with a print may be:
must always put a notation on the card to the effect piece of alcohol – containing gauze, soften Plastic impression – impressions made by chance
that such a deformity exists, and likewise make a them thoroughly with your finger tips, stretch on cellophane tapes or any plastic materials.
plain impression. When you make the classification, wrinkles, and then impress. a.Visible prints – impressions made by chance and
consider the five separate patterns on each hand. In B. Fingers with percolate – take their mold with visible without chemical treatment.
other words, when there is a little finger protruding silicon after drying with lycopodium powder. b.Latent prints – impressions which are visible
from the hand between the middle and ring finger, In order to obtain fingerprint impressions from grossly but made visible by the addition of some
do not count it in on your classification, but simply silicon molds, strippable paint or cortex shall substances. These are fingerprints found at the scene
use the middle and ring fingers. A notation will be be used this technique is as follows: of a crime.
sufficient at the bottom of the card, together with a Its circumference shall be pinned up.
plain impression, and it will not jumble up your files. Strippable paint or cortex shall be thinly COMMON LATENT PRINTS LOCATIONS FOR
Sometimes you will find a case like this, where the applied to it with a small flat brush, and STOLEN AUTOMOBILES
extra finger has been amputated; and as you can then be dried with a dryer. After 1. The rear view mirror
plainly see, it will make no difference in your repeating this operation several times, 2. windshield
classifications when used in future. There is no set the mold shall be stripped off the film, 3. dashboard area
rule for classification of this freak finger, and it is which shall be round the operator’s be 4. steering wheel (hub and post)
another case of using your own judgment. If you applied with ink, and then impressed. In 5. seat control lever
want to, you can have separate compartment for freak this case care should be taken to turn the 6. outside mirror
fingers, and even though you have a large collection film surface inside out. 7. top of door
of prints, it will not take you very long to search this 8. outside edges of door
compartment for the percentage of such cases will be FINGERS WITH PEELED-OFF SURFACE SKIN. 9. door handles
very small. Wind that surface skin around the operator’s finger 10. window handles
11. back area touched, when car is pushed
apply ink to it and impress. When the true skin is
FINGERPRINT IMPRESSING TECHNIQUE
exposed, take photo after applying ink to the true FINGERMARKS MAY BE MADE IN DIFFERENT
FOR A DEAD BODY
WAYS

15
1. A perspiration mark made by a clean finger ➢ Developing - is the process of making latent The latent print is powdered and lifted ready to be
2. Impression made by a dirty finger prints visible. pasted to a paper with opposite color from that of the
3. Finger marks made on envelop gums, chocolates, ➢ Methods Used in Developing Latent Print color of powder used.
cheese, melted candles, putty, and paraffin ➢ Physical or Mechanical method – principle The principle of contrast shall always be applied.
4. Blood marks involved is that the developing reagents adhered 5. The Restoration Method-
5. Marks shown on dust or stroke to the sweat that are present in the Stain fingerprint sampling process are wiped with:
6. Marks on oily or greasy objects latent print. fabric absorbing thinning scientific cleansing agent;
The technician would handle the aforementioned ➢ Chemical Method – principle involved that water absorbing fabric: then wipe with a dried fabric.
marks in the following manner: when the developing reagents comes in contact 6. Kromekote Lift Technique
1. Develop the mark by the use of powders, for those with the chemical composition of the sweat, Provides the forensic science technician with an
found on paper or notebook make use of a chemical, another chemical element is formed. There is a inexpensive and practical technique for recovering
ninhydrin is preferable. chemical reaction that taken place when the latent fingerprints from human skin.
2. Photography is recommended. If the mark is quite chemical composition of the sweat comes in The Kromekote Card is used to lift latent print in 2-3
faint or lightly seen, attempt to enhance it by using contact with the developing reagent. seconds. It is done by lifting from one side while
powder to show some few ridges. Usually, it is not pressing the other side.
advisable to brush because there is a tendency to METHODS OF DETECTING PRINTS
destroy the marks. It is worth having faint but 1. Dusting Method – is done with the use of POWDERING METHOD
decipherable marks than losing these by fingerprint brush and powder by applying amount of Developing a latent print with powder simply means
indiscriminate brushing. powder that is lightly swept on the suspected area to applying powder to the print in a manner that the
3. Here, again photography is needed. What is little by little reveal the print caused by the powder. powder will adhere to the moisture left by the ridges
important is light arrangement. This is called as the “brush on” or “powder” of the finger.
4. No development; photography is required. method.
5. No development; again photography is required 2. The Rolling Method (Rocking Method) SOLID METHOD (POWDER METHOD)
6. No development; a good photographic result may The powder is put on the suspected surface of a This solid method is also called the powder method
be obtained material/object. Then in slanting position, the since powder is used, and is the most basic method.
material/object is rolled slightly to attach powder in This is a method where latent or visible fingerprints
FACTORS AFFECTING LATENT IMPRESSIONS the fingerprint. are developed or clarified by affixing powder to
1. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS 3. The Spray Method - The powder is put into an them, and are collected by lifting them onto the lifting
2. SUBJECT FACTORS (PHYSICAL empty container specially designed for spraying. material or by photographing. It is effective for
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE INDIVIDUAL) Suspected areas where fingerprints are suspected to collection latent fingerprints from such objects as
3. NATURE OF THE SURFACE be present are sprayed to let latent print appear. glass, porcelain, metal, and painted articles. And also
4. The Transplant Method for collecting such visible fingerprints as oil/grease
DEVELOPING AND LIFTING fingerprints.

3. Lycopodium powder - This is a yellowish in color 1. The application of powder with brush
KINDS OF FINGERPRINT POWDER powder of plant spore. 2. Lifting the impressions
(Vinluan & Mendoza, 2006 p.195-222) 4. SP Black Powder- mixture of oxidizing iron and
1. Black and White powder- most common in the aluminum powder that is common in Japan. CHEMICAL DEVELOPMENT OF LATENT PRINTS
Philippines, used by law enforcement agencies. ➢ THE COLD IODINE METHOD
2. Aluminum powder- powderized aluminum of POINTS TO REMEMBER IN DEVELOPING Place about half a teaspoonful of un-sublimed
gray color. LATENT IMPRESSIONS WITH POWDER iodine crystals in a shallow glass dish and put this on
16
the bottom of a box that is large enough to hold the ➢ TETRAMETHYL BENZEDRINE METHOD (with Recognition – This includes processing of latent
instrument in question. Place the document in the chemical formula of C H oN ) – With this prints in the crime scene, preliminary screening,
16 2 2
box, face down, toward the crystals. This means that photography and lifting of the prints.
method, the invisible amount of blood stained
the side bearing or suspected to bear the latents, Identification – includes laboratory processing,
fingerprints can be detected. Fingerprint on
should face the crystals. enhancement, comparison of known and
kitchen knife, and other blades used as weapon,
unknown prints.
effectively detected.
➢ HOT IODINE METHOD Individualization – includes the method of
➢ AMINO BLACK
Place a few crystals on a shallow dish and matching the prints for identification purposes
Amino black is a protein dye which can be
place a small alcohol burner in the bottom of the followed by evaluation.
used to develop latent prints made with bloodstained
glass cage. Over this, place a tripod stand, on top of Reconstruction – this will be done if there was
friction skin. It is necessary to take samples of blood
which place the dish of crystals. Use a very low flame non-matching of prints. The condition and
stains for typing before using amino black.
on the burner. Above this dish, place the paper or position should be identified and the Automated
➢ NEO SPWA METHOD – This was invented by
document to be examined so that it is about two Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS) may be
Nobuo Yamauchi, a Japanese Fingerprint
inches above the crystals. The document must not used.
Expert, who authored a book entitled
sag in the middle. As soon as the fumes begin to
“Fingerprints Identifications.” This is method is
show, fresh latents will begin to develop. STEPS IN FINGERPRINT EXAMINATION
applied on wet surfaces (plastic bag, metal
Introduced by Sgt. Asbaugh
product, plastic product, vehicle body, bathroom
➢ THE SILVER NITRATE METHOD Code: ACE-V
tiles, weekly magazine cover, glass product,
Silver nitrate reacts with the salts of latent Analysis – general patterns and name of Specific
smooth surface with no water absorbent),
print residue to form silver chloride. This explains patterns are identified.
adherent surface of adhesive tape, the magnetic
how the silver nitrate method gained its alternative Comparison – ridge details of the fingerprints
card and crappy plastic bag.
name – the silver chloride process. are being compared.
➢ VICTORIA PURE BLUE METHOD – This is used
➢ THE NINHYDRIN METHOD Evaluation – The making of a conclusion whether
to detect latent prints on leaves, scotch tape, and
Using ninhydrin solution is another method that has the latent print and fingerprint of suspect are the
masking tape.
been found to be effective in developing latent same.
➢ EMULGEN BLACK. Used to develop latent
fingerprints on objects having traces of amino acids Verification – The opinion of an examiner should
prints on Glass, plastics, tin cans, metals, smooth
present in perspiration. The ninhydrin method is be verified by 1-2 examiner/s.
surfaces of cars, door knobs, etc.Can be used on
based on the reaction between the solution and The AFIS of PNP
wet surfaces.
amino acids. The solution may be applied to the Turned over by the Japanese Gov’t thru JICA to
surface of the specimen by spraying, dipping, the PNP on May 24, 2005.
GAS METHOD
brushing, or swabbing. The ninhydrin solution may This is a grant aid project amounting to 975M
1. SUPER GLUE / CYANOACRELATE METHOD
be sprayed into the item being examined for latent Yen (approx Php 487.5M).
The cyano bond’s brand name in the Philippines is
prints. Ninhydrin solution (destroys writings)This is Has a current entry of more than 516,950 records
mighty bond.
used to detect latent prints on absorbent materials, (both criminal and non-criminal)
• This is applicable to metals, plastic/synthetic resin,
white wood, blood stained fingerprint, paper The PNP Regional CLOs submit ten print cards
painted wood or metal, leather products, adhesive
wrapping of cigarette stick, etc. to the NHQ and are
tape (adherence surface side, not the sticky side),
➢ NINHYDRIN PETROLEUM BENZINE Encoding is the duty of the NHQ-Camp Crame,
glossy – paper.
SOLUTION. This is applied on printed materials. QC.
The advantage of this method is the non Candidate List contains the first 20, second 10,
STEPS IN LATENT FINGERPRINT EXAMINATION
destruction of written letters made by “ballpen” third 5.
Code: R-I-I-R
and other ink. AFIS is a tool used by the Fingerprint
Technician.
17
 standard fingerprint? (signatures of the suspect and dust around the fingerprint shall be removed in
CRIME-SCENE PRINTS the technician on the standard prints). advance, the press lifting shall be made by
Latent Print – Fingerprint found at the crime scene is lightly applied gelatin paper, backing shall be
generally called as latent print or likewise known as LIFTING METHOD – this method includes a method pasted together, and its periphery shall be
chance impression. Latent means something hidden where a visible fingerprint is directly lifted to lifting reinforced with cellophane tape.
or concealed. Therefore any chance impression, material, a method where a fingerprint which has b. Blood fingerprint – in cases where a blood
whether found at the crime scene, would be a latent been directly lifted is processed with powder, fingerprint has just been impressed on an
print is not always concealed, some crime scene’s chemical liquid, etc., and a method where a absorptive object, it shall be directly lifted on
prints are visible and not hidden. Though common fingerprint is lifted using lifting material processed in gelatin paper. In cases where lifting is difficult as
usages, however, the word “latent” has been used by advance with chemical liquid, etc., and then it has become slightly dryer, it is better to apply
general acceptance to mean crime scene prints. preserved as it is or photographed. These are gelatin paper to and lightly press the blood
effective for collecting dust fingerprints, oil/grease fingerprint following the technique of lifting, to
Expert in different countries differ in the fingerprints, and blood fingerprints. peel off the paper after moistening the blood, to
requirements of the minimum number such as: 1.Lifting material – all lifting materials used for stick aluminum powder or gray to the blood
Spain 10-12 points lifting under the solid method, gelatin paper, lifter, fingerprint by brushing, and to lift it onto other
Switzerland 12-14 points cellophane tape, transparent vinyl tape, and other gelatin paper.
Austria at least 12 points adhesive tapes can be used; but in most cases, c. Oil/grease fingerprint – when the surface is
England at least 16 points gelatin paper is used. dry, it shall be collected by lifting it onto bunion
France at least 17 points Lifting method – the method of lifting directly to the roll lifter as it is. If not dry , it shall be lifted after
USA at least 17 points lifting material is mostly used for collecting a dust drying in the shade. Meanwhile, in cases of fluid
Australia 12points fingerprint or oil/grease fingerprints.The method oil/grease, a fingerprint cannot be collected by
Europe 12 points using processed lifting material is to lift the material this method.
Japan 12-15 points to whose surface chemical liquid etc. has been FLAME METHOD – this is a method of
Philippines 8-12 points applied in advance this method is used for collecting developing or clarifying by affixing soot to a
Ethiopia 8 points an oil/grease fingerprint and a just fingerprint. latent or unclear fingerprint. The development
Iran/ Sweden 10 points 1. Major collecting methods – major collecting fingerprint shall be collected by lifting in onto
Columbia 7-12 points methods by tape of visible fingerprint are as lifting material or by photographing. This method
Italy 16 points follows: is suitable for collection from metal or other
Pointers to Give Fingerprint Evidence Probative a. Dust fingerprint – in cases where dust quantity is object with a porous surface.Soot-generating
Value small, a fingerprint shall be lifted directly to materials (burning materials) include magnesium
* Is the latent print really lifted from the crime scene gelatin paper (black). Whenever the fingerprint (photo flash powder), camphor, pine resin,
of the particular crime in question? (sketch, has become unclear after lifting, the transparent benzene, kerosene, edible oil, paraffin and
photograph, witnesses). plate shall be peeled off and photograph shall be candles.
* Is the latent print really left at crime scene by the taken by lifting from the rear side, or the MOLDING METHOD – this is a method of
suspect contrary? (suspects right of access to the fingerprint shall be developed by having collecting visible fingerprints with a molding
place). lycopodium stick to the peeled backing by material, a for collecting from an object with so
* Is there any possibility of tampering or substitution rolling method 7-9 days after lifting. Also if the complicated and uneven a surface that lifting with
of the lifted latent prints from the time of lifting to the transparent plate is peeled off after lifting, its lifting materials is unfeasible. This is also suitable
time of examination (proper markings and chain of impressed face is turned upwards, and the plate for collecting a latent fingerprint developed from
custody). is soaked in ethyl alcohol for 1-3 minutes, its a heated object.
* Is the standard fingerprint really taken from the gelatin film hardens and further change is The molding materials include silicon rubber,
suspect or is there any doubt in the authenticity of the prevented.For lifting fingerprint on a dust layer, plaster, “Aljix”, strippable paint, paraffin was,
18
 and plastic liquid. Collection shall be made by ACCIDENTAL WHORL – a combination of two or and derived from the Greek words CHEIR which
taking a photograph or just preserving the mold. more different types of fingerprint patterns such as a means A HAND and SKOPIEN which means TO
PHOTOGRAPHING METHOD – space age loop and whorl, a loop and a central pocket loop, or EXAMINE
technology is being used to enhance latent prints any combination of two different loop and whorl type CLASSIFICATION – a formula derived for a
that therefore were of insufficient quality to be patterns, but cannot be a combination of a plain arch complete set of ten fingerprint patterns, or the
used. While image processing has been used for or any pattern arrangement of fingerprint records into groups or
some time, the high cost of computers precluded AN EXPERT – a person who has special and subgroups for filing purposes
the use of such technology in most crime competent knowledge of a subject, and who obtained CLASSIFICATION OF APPROXIMATING
laboratories. Major advances in the “microchip” this knowledge either through study or through PATTERNS – the writing up of all the possible
industry and the resulting perforation of experience classification for a set of prints which contains one or
relatively inexpensive microcomputers have ANGLE RIDGE – an angle ridge results from two or more doubtful patterns
placed this technology within the budgets of more ridges converging with one another at a point COMBINATION – all the possible variations of
many laboratories. APPENDAGE – a short ridge at the top or summit of a classifications which a set of fingerprints may
Latent prints are examined by means of a recurve usually at right angle produce; example: A loop may be inner or outer; “I”
video camera, the video output signal of which is APPROXIMATING PATTERNS – patterns with and “O” therefore are combinations
digitized and fed into a computer. Unlike the extreme complexities in their formations, which CONVERGING RIDGE – a ridge whose closed end
human eye, the computer is capable of cannot be assigned definite, specific interpretation is angular and serves as a point of convergence;
distinguishing between hundreds of shades of BATTLEY SINGLE FINGERPRINT METHOD – a pointed and abrupt
gray, which show up as varying degrees of system of classifying and filing single fingerprints CORE – a point on a ridge formation usually located
density captured in the video (equivalent to a devised by Harry Battley, former Chief, New Scotland at the center or heart of a pattern
photographic reversal or negative) or with a Yard Fingerprint Bureau CREASES – the little white lines that is found on a
color TV monitor, highlighted in different colors. BIFURCATION – a single ridge which splits into two fingerprint that look like scars
This is particularly advantageous if the print is on ridges, forming a Y-shape structure and is referred to DACTYLOGRAPHY – the scientific study of
a textured surface detail of the print. as a fork fingerprints as a means of identification
The technology works well the other methods BLOCKING OUT – the placing on a fingerprint card DACTYLOSCOPY – the practical application of
of latent print visualization, including laser. the results of the interpretation of all ten patterns, by fingerprints; the making of identifications by
Although the procedure is still relatively new and letters, symbols, or numbers required for each of the fingerprint comparisons and the classification of
in use in only a small number of forensic science rolled prints fingerprints. Derived from the two Greek words
laboratories, it promises to be a significant BRIDGE – is a short ridge which interconnects two DACTYLOS which means A FINGER and SKOPIEN
addition to the identification technique’s arsenal other parallel ridges which means TO EXAMINE
of techniques over the next few years. CATCH OR IDENT – in fingerprint parlance, the DELTA – a point on the first ridge formation directly
DEVELOPMENT WITH LASERS – the word location or finding of a previously filed duplicate at or in front and near the center of the divergence of
laser is an acronym for light amplification by record card of the subject the typed lines
stimulated emission of radiation. The use of lasers CENTRAL POCKET LOOP WHORL – a fingerprint DERMAL PAPILLAE – are irregular blunt pegs
for detection of latent print is relatively new and pattern which possesses two deltas, one core, with composed of delicate connective tissues protruding
dates from 1976. By 1985, approximately 50 one or more ridges forming a complete circuit which and forming the ridges of the skin on the fingers,
forensic science laboratories, or approximately may be oval, spiral, circular, or a variant of a circle, palms, toes, and soles of the feet
15 percent of the crime laboratories in North in the absence of a ridge forming a complete circuit, DERMIS – is also known as the true skin; is the layer
America, used lasers. an obstruction at right angle to the line of flow will containing blood vessels, various glands and nerves
DEFINITION OF TERMS: suffice and where the dermal papillae are found
CHIROSCOPY – allied science of dactyloscopy DISSOCIATED RIDGES – unusual ridge structures
which deals with the study of the palms of the hand having no well-defined patterns; the ridges are
19
extremely short appear like a series of patches FINGERPRINT CLASSIFICATION INDEX – a two ridges intervening between the traced ridge and
caused by a disturbance of the developmental series of guide cards having tabs on which are the the right delta
process at the early fatal life of the individual various classification combinations NINHYDRIN – development of latent prints with
DIVERGING RIDGES – two ridges running side by FRAGMENTARY RIDGES – consist of disconnected ninhydrin based on the reactions between
side and suddenly separating one ridge going one sequences of short ridges embodied intensely triketohydrindene and amino acids and proteins of
way and the other ridge another way FRICTION RIDGES – raised strips of skin on the the latent secretions
DOUBLE LOOP WHORL – a pattern consisting of inside of the end joints of our fingers and thumbs by NON-NUMERICAL PATTERNS – in making up a
two separate and distinct loop formations, two sets of which fingerprints are made; also called papillary or primary classification, these are patterns which are
shoulders and two deltas epidermal ridges not given numerical values
DOT – a very short ridge and means exactly what the FURROWS – depressions or canals between the NUMERICAL PATTERNS – in deriving the primary
word dot implies ridges which may be compared with the low area in a classification, these are patterns which are assigned
DUCTS – the little pockets underneath the skin and tire tread number values, depending on which fingers they
serves as a passageway for the watery substance that INCIPIENT RIDGES – unusual type of ridges found appear. All whorl type patterns are in this group
exits at its mouth, the pore in a small percentage of patterns; short, narrow, and OUTER WHORL – symbolized by capital letter “O”
EDGEOCOPY – the study of the characteristics badly formed ridges found between two well-formed in the classification; one in which the ridge whose
formed by the sides or edges of papillary ridges as a and full-bodied ridges course being traced from the left delta toward the
means of identification INNER WHORL – symbolized by capital letter “I” in right delta passes outside the right delta with three or
ELECTRONIC EMISSION RADIOGRAPHY – has the classification; one in which the ridge whose more ridges intervening between the right delta and
been used for the detection of latent prints on various course being traced from the left delta to the right the ridge being traced
objects and on human skin delta passes inside the right delta with three or more PATTERN AREA – that part of a fingerprint which
ENCLOSURE – a bifurcation which does not remain ridges intervening between the traced ridge and the lies within the area surrounded by the type lines
open but which the legs of the bifurcation, after right delta PAPILLARY STRUCTURE – is composed of ridge
running along side by side for a short distance, come IODINE FUMING – a method of developing latent surface, pore, duct, the sweat gland, as well as the
together again to form a single ridge once more fingerprints which does not result in a permanent epidermis, stratum mucosum, nerve and the dermis.
ENVELOP – a single recurving ridge enclosing one chemical change PLAIN ARCH – a pattern in which the ridges enter on
or more rods or bars ISLAND RIDGE – is formed by a single ridge which one side of the pattern, then flow towards the other
EPIDERMIS – is seen as the outer layer of the skin after bifurcating for a short distance, reconverges side, with a rise in the center, with no angular ridge
structure showing the ridges and furrows and continues as a single ridge formation and no upthrust
FBI FINGERPRINT CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM – a LATENT PRINTS – hidden or concealed; PLAIN WHORL – a pattern in which there are two
system devised and perfected by the Federal Bureau fingerprints found at the scene of a crime deltas and in which at least one ridge makes a turn
of Investigation LOOP – a pattern in which one or more ridges start at through one complete circuit
FILING – refers to the operation of locating the one side of the pattern and run toward the upper PLAIN IMPRESSION – one made by pressing an
proper place in fingerprint file where a certain set of corner on the opposite side, then turn around and inked finger directly down upon a fingerprint card
prints belongs and depositing it there start back toward the side from which they came without any rolling motion
FILING OUT – entering on a fingerprint record card originally, forming a loop with a core in the center PODOSCOPY – the science of identification through
all known essential data about a subject, except the and delta at the edge of the pattern area friction ridge characteristics existing on the sole of
fingerprints themselves MEETING WHORL – symbolized by capital letter the human foot. Derived from the Greek words
FINGERPRINT – a reproduction on some smooth “M” in the classification; one in which the ridge PODO which means FOOT and SKOPIEN which
surfaces of the pattern or design formed by the whose course being traced from the left delta toward means TO EXAMINE
ridges on the inside of the end joint of a finger or the right delta exactly meets the right delta or passes POROSCOPY – the science of identification by
thumb inside or outside the right delta with not more than means of the pores. Derived from the Greek words

20
POROS which means PORES and SKOPIEN which SHORT RIDGE – is a relative term, and is used to of images through the action of light on sensitized
means TO EXAMINE. denote a ridge that is not as long as the average material.
POST MORTEM FINGERPRINTING – taking ridge in that specific print
fingerprints of a deceased person for identification. SUFFICIENT RECURVE – the space between The word PHOTOGRAPHY was derived from
POLYDACTYLISM – the appearance of extra-fingers shoulders of a loop, free of any appendage, and two Greek terms, PHOTO which means LIGHT and
as anatomically known. abutting at right angle GRAPHY which means WRITING. In photography the
RADIAL LOOP- the ridges is downward slope or TENTED ARCH – a type of fingerprint pattern where light writes when it strikes minute particles of a light
slanting of the ridges toward the direction of the majority of the ridges form an arch and one or more sensitive chemical compound in the film emulsion
thumb. of the ridges at the center form a tent in outline, and causes a very subtle change in these crystals.
RECORDING – the placing of the fingerprints in giving an angle of 90 degrees or less; or one with an The change is so ordinarily so slight as to be
their proper spaces on the card. upward thrust having an angle of 45 degrees or invisible, and so it is called a latent image. The
RECURVING RIDGE – a ridge that curves back in more; or a pattern similar to a loop, but lacking at development process which follows makes the image
the direction from which it started. least one of the essential elements of a loop visible. Control of what the light writes must, then,
RIDGE CHARACTERISTICS – little details in the TRIFURCATION – this is one single ridge splitting involved both control of the light and development
ridges of fingerprint patterns which are used in into a three-pronged fork shaped pattern process.
comparing and identifying fingerprints. TYPE LINES – basic boundaries of fingerprints
RIDGE COUNTING – the process of counting the formed by ridges which run parallel, starting from FUNCTIONS OF PHOTOGRAPHY IN
ridges that touch or cross an imaginary line drawn the lower corner of the pattern and flowing inward INVESTIGATIVE WORK:
between the core and delta of a loop. and upward toward the edge of the pattern area, 1. IDENTIFICATION
RIDGE COUNTER – a small pointed instrument used where they diverge or separate, then surround or a. criminal
for counting ridges. tend to surround the pattern area b. missing person
RIDGE ENDING – is the point of the ridges ULNAR LOOP – Loops whose ridges flow toward the c. lost and stolen properties
termination. It is considered an ending ridge only if direction of the little finger d. civilian
it terminates within the pattern area. UPTHRUST – an ending ridge of any length rising at 2. COMMUNICATION AND MICROFILM FILES
RIDGE HOOK – it is a ridge that divides to form two a sufficient degree from the horizontal plane a. transmission of photos (wire or radio photo)
ridges which is shorter in length than the main ridge. b. investigative report files
RIDGE TRACING – the process of tracing the ridge POLICE PHOTOGRAPHY 3. EVIDENCE
that originates from the left delta toward the right a. Recording and preserving
delta to see where it flows in relation to the right PHOTOGRAPHY: ITS MEANINGS 1. crime scene
delta. 2. vehicular accidents
RIDGEOLOGY – the study of poroscopy, POLICE PHOTOGRAPHY is the science which deals 3. homicide and murder
edgeoscopy, and ridge characteristics for the with the study of the principles of photography and 4. robbery cases
purpose of the positive identification of fingerprints. the preparation of photographic evidence. 5. fire and arson
ROD OR BAR – a single ending ridge in the center of PHOTOGRAPHY is an art form as used by the 6. object of evidence
a recurving ridge of a loop pattern. pictorialist who may purposely make a photograph 7. evidence traces
SLOUGHING PROCESS – is the result of the constant slightly out of focus to create a mood. b. Discovering and proving
activities of the living cells which continuously PHOTOGRAPHY may be define as an art and 1. by contrast control ( lighting, film, paper and filter)
multiply to replace the dead skin in the stratum certainly as a science of recording an image by the 2.by magnification(photomicrograph,
corneum. action of light on light sensitive substances (silver photomacrograph)
SEQUENCING – the placing of a group of classified halides), and by the application of several chemicals. 3. by invisible radiation (infra-red, ultra-violet, x-
sets of prints in their correct filing order before PHOTOGRAPHY in its technical aspect is defined as ray)
beginning to file or search them the art or science which deals with the reproduction 4. ACTION OF OFFENDERS
21
a. surveillance 5. Ultra-violet – the art or process of photographing longer the wavelength the less the frequency; the
b. burglary traps unseen objects by the use of ultra violet light and shorter the wavelength the greater the frequency.
c. confessions filters.
d. re-enactment of crime 6. X-ray – the process of photographing or recording BEHAVIOR OF LIGHT:
5. COURT EXHIBITS internal structure of the body. ✓ OPTICS – the branch of science concerned with
a. demonstration enlargements 7. Flash photography – applies to the techniques the behavior of light.
b. individual photos whereby exposures are made with illumination from 1. REFLECTION-When light strikes a surface and
c. projection slides one or more photoflash. rebounds, it is said to be reflected and it is called
d. motion pictures 8. Microphotography – a very small photograph as incident light. The angle at which it strikes is called
6. CRIME PREVENTION encountered in microfilming. the incident angle.
a. security clearance
7. PUBLIC RELATIONS LIGHT KINDS OF REFLECTION:
8. POLICE TRAINING Light is the basis of photography, it is the a. SPECULAR REFLECTION – if the surface is smooth
a. prepared training films physical means used to produce the image, without and polished that the reflected rays are not scattered.
b. traffic studies light, there will be no image, therefore, it is fitting b. DIFFUSE REFLECTION – when reflected light is
c. documentaries (riots and mob control, disasters, that one should understood first a few fundamentals scattered by a rough surface.
prison disorders) about the nature of light in order to effectively utilize 2. TRANSMISSION -In addition to being reflected,
9. REPRODUCTION AND COPYING different light sources, photographic lenses, and light light rays may be transmitted or allowed to pass
a. photographs sensitive films. through some media they encounter.
b. official records Light is a form of radiant energy. It radiates
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY – is that field covering from its sources in all directions until absorbed or KINDS OF TRANSMISSION:
the legal application of photography in criminal transmitted, or diverted or reflected by coming in a. TRANSPARENT – if the object permits light to pass
jurisprudence and criminal investigation. It is that contact with some substances. Light travels in the through it, as a clear pane of glass or lens.
branch of forensic science dealing with the: form of vibrations or waves and ordinarily follows a b. TRANSLUCENT – if an object scatters light to pass
1. Study of the fundamental but pragmatic straight line with a speed of 186,000 miles per through it.
principles or concepts of photography. second. In a denser medium such as glass, it travels c. OPAQUE – an object that does not permit light to
2. Application of photography in law enforcement. more slowly. The speed is important since light must pass through it.
3. Preparation of photographic evidences needed be made to pass through glass lenses so that its ray
by prosecutors and courts of law. can be controlled by bending them to a focus. 3. ABSORPTION- When light falls upon an object
TYPES OF FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY: and is neither transmitted nor reflected, it is
1. Forensic photography – the process of CLASSIFICATION OF LIGHT: absorbed.
photographing or recording crime scene or any 1. Wavelength – the distance between a point on 4. REFRACTION-A ray of light which passes
other objects for court presentation. one crest to an identical point on the next crest in a obliquely from a medium such as air through a
2.Photomicrography – the art of photographing given instant of time expressed in millimicrons (mu) substance of different density is refracted or bent.
minute objects when magnified by means of the which is equivalent in one millionth of a millimeter. It
microscope and enlarge from 10X up. was discovered that wavelengths are different for LAW OF REFRACTION:
3.Photomacrography – photographing of objects each color and that their wavelengths are very small. a. If the light ray hits perpendicular to the surface
directly enlarge to the negative and magnified from 1 2. Frequency – is the number of complete waves that between two mediums of different density, the ray is
to 9X. would pass a given point in a second of time. The not bent.
4. Infra-red – the art or process of photographing or longer the wavelength, the fewer the number of b. If light hits an object at an angle, the light is bent.
recording unseen objects by means of infra-red light. waves that will pass a point in a second. Or, the

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c. A light ray, in passing from a medium of lesser This ray of light although invisible is important in law These classifications are modified by the film
density to one of greater density, the light is bent enforcement photography because it permits result manufacture like;
away from normal. to be obtained which are not possible with only a. open bright sunlight
✓ MIRAGES – it is called refracted image. It visible light present. Some substance luminescence b. under shade bright sunlight
happens when air near the ground is much hotter in the invisible infra-red region of the spectrum when c. hazy sunlight
than air higher up. As light from the sun passes strikes by blue-green light. d. cloudy bright sunlight
from cool to warmer air, it speeds up and is 3. X- RAYS e. cloudy dull sunlight.
refracted upward. X-rays are Electro magnetic energy having a 2.Artificial Light. Almost all artificial lights sources
✓ DIFFRACTION – Light in space and not within wave length that ranges that ranges between 10 to 30 can be used in photographing of objects as long as
A Photographic rays: millicrons. Objects which are opaque as seen by the the light is capable of exposing the sensitized
Light is known to everyone. It excites the naked eye can be penetrated by x-rays. To produce material (film).
retina of the eye and make things visible. There is no a shadow photograph of one internal structure of
exaggeration to say that the man cannot live without solid objects, x-rays are suitable. TYPES OF DAYLIGHT ILLUMINATION:
light and the same is true in photography, because a.Bright sun – The sky is clear, bright, and free of
light is needed to produce a photograph. Visible SOURCES OF PHOTOGRAPHIC RAYS large cloud masses or atmospheric haze. Any
light, ultraviolet light, infra-red light, and x-ray are all 1.Natural light-The source of all daylight is the sun. shadows cast by the sun are sharply defined. An
photographic rays. The combination of color and contrast ascertain the ideal photographic condition.
1. Visible light quality of the daylight. The lighting contrast depends b. Hazy sun – The sun is partially obscured by a thin
The range of the visible light produces different upon the sunlight available in the daylight. When the haze, the edges of shadows are slightly diffused or
sensation when they strike the human eye. Colors of sun is not covered by clouds, then, the contrast is soft and are less clearly defined than those in bright
different objects are usually mixtures of light of high, on the contrary, if the sun is covered by clouds sun.
various wave length and not a special color. The the contrast is low. In the process of photographing c. Cloudy bright – The sun is largely obscured by
wavelength of the visible light is from 400 to 700 an object, the lighting contrast must be considered in clouds or haze. The sun is in evidence, but the
millimicrons which produce white light. the exposures of the film. It is suggested that shadow area not apparent. This day light condition
When light falls on any material, three things occur; recommendations given by the manufacturer of the exists when the light is bright even glaring and it
a. the light is reflected film be observed religiously to produce good and seems there should be shadows but there are few if
b. the light is absorbed presentable photographs. any.
c. the light is transmitted Color of the daylight will also affect the d. Cloudy dull – The sun is completely obscured by
2. Ultra-violet light appearance of the objects being photographed heavy layers of clouds or dense haze. Light is
The ultra-violet is divided into the near and specially in color photograph. Some of the factors completely diffused and it is difficult to determine the
far ultra-violet and ranges from about two affecting the color of the daylight are; exact position of the sun.
hundred (200) to four hundred (400) millicrons a. atmospheric vapor
wave length. The position of the ultra-violet b. atmospheric dust TYPES OF SUBJECT BRIGHTNESS:
region falls between X-ray and visible wave c. reflected light are that reached the a. Dark subject – Dark subjects reflects only about 9
length. objects and not directly coming from the percent of the light striking it and absorbs the
3.Infra-red light source. remainder. Included in this category are vehicles
Infra-red are light having wave length's greater Daylight maybe classified according to its and weapons, people in dark tone clothing, etc.
than 700 millicrons. Its wave length ranges from 700 intensity. They are; b.Average subject – Is one that reflects
to 800 millicrons. Infra-red is not a color or any kind a. bright sunlight approximately 18 percent of the light striking it and
of red. It is an invisible ray and detected by the skin b. hazy sunlight absorbs the remainder. Examples are people in
as heat. It is so called infra-red because they sojourn, c. dull sunlight medium colored clothing, most buildings, street
the red spectrum. Infra-red means below the red. scenes, and interior views.
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c. Bright subject – Reflects twice as much light as an White – Green = Magenta sensitized materials or film. It is an enclosure that
average subject. Typical subjects in this category White – Cyan = Red devoid light.
are a fair skinned and light haired person, people in White – Yellow = Blue 2. LENS- the lens is the one responsible in
light clothing, and light colored buildings. White – Magenta = Green focusing the rays of light coming from the
d. Brilliant subject – A brilliant subject reflects Magenta – Red = Blue subject. It is one of the most essential parts of
about four times as much light as an average subject Magenta – Blue = Red any camera without this lens, it is impossible to
and absorbs very little light some of the subject are Cyan – Blue = Green form a sharp image on the film. The diaphragm
people in light colored clothing on a white and sandy Cyan – Green = Blue of the lens may be large or small during the time
beach, a white sailboat against a blue sky and white Yellow – Green = Red of exposure. Its diaphragm the lesser the amount
buildings of a desert village. Yellow – Red = Green of light that will pass thru the lens.
3. FILM HOLDER- the film holder holds the film
COLORS OF LIGHT FOUND IN THE VISIBLE REFLECTIVE POWER OF COLORS: firmly inside the camera. It is
SPECTRUM The following list is the approximate percentage of always located at the opposite side of the lens of the
light that is reflected by some colors. cameras.
COLORS APPROXIMATE 4. SHUTTER- the shutter served as the barriers of
WAVELENGTH ( in mu) 75% - white 62% - chrome yellow the rays of light that will enter and affectthe inside
1. Primary Colors – also called Additive colors 27% - cardinal red the camera. It is usually placed at the path of the
a.Red(longest wavelength) 700 70% - pearl gray 55% - cream light passing thru the lens. An adjustable
b. Blue 450 18% - brown mechanism that regulates the amount of light
c. Green 550 67% - satin green 30% - sky blue reaching the film by varying the length of time
2. Complemetary colors – also called subtractive 05% - maroon light is allowed to pass through the lens.
primary colors
a. Magenta (shortest wavelength) 400 OTHER PARTS OF THE CAMERA
b. Cyan 500 CAMERA Aside from those essential parts of the camera, there
c. Yellow 590 Fundamentally, all cameras are the same, whether are other parts of any cameras which are necessary
3. Neutral colors they be cheap or expensive. Their in photographing an object. They are:
a. Gray function is to form and record the rays of light 1. the viewing system
b. White reflected by the object on the film inside the light 2. the film advancer
c. Black tight box of the camera. The difference lies on the 3. the shutter speed
THE COLOR WHEEL: qualities of the photograph is produced after 4. the lens aperture
Color Mixing development. Camera may be defined as a light tight 5. the focusing mechanism
1. Color Addition: box, with a means of forming the image, (lens),with a ✓ VIEWING SYSTEM- The viewer of any
Red + Blue + Green = White means of holding sensitized material (film-holder), camera will show the entire scene coverage
Red + Blue = Magenta and with a means of controlling the amount of light that can be recorded in the film inside the
Red + Green = Yellow that reach the film. It is device used in the camera. It is usually attached on the top or
Blue + Green = Cyan photographing of objects. side of the camera or the viewers of the
Magenta + Yellow = White taking lens itself, when the camera is a single
Magenta + Cyan = White FOUR (4) ESSENTIAL PARTS OF THE CAMERA lens reflex type.
Yellow + Cyan = White 1. LIGHT TIGHT BOX- This part of the camera is ✓ FILM ADVANCER - The advancer of the
2. Color Subtraction very essential because of its capability to camera is necessary so that the exposed film
White – Red = Cyan excluded all unwanted light that may expose the
White – Blue = Yellow
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 can be transferred to the take up spool and recording of some of the objects being photographed
the unexposed film will be on the opposite EARLY FORMS OF CAMERA: as seen in the viewer.
side of the lens for another exposure. 1. PINHOLE CAMERA – a camera of simple design REFLEX CAMERAS –The word REFLEX is commonly
✓ SHUTTER SPEED- The shutter speed will and construction, usually home made consisting of a associated with knee jerks, a fast muscular
control the opening andclosing of the shutter. box having a small aperture functioning as a lens at responses, but in photography, the term reflex
It will regulate quantity of the light that will one end, the image being projected on the film at the derived from the word reflection means that one or
reach and affect the film inside camera. other end. more mirrors are employed to form the image you
✓ LENS APERTURE- The ratio between the 2. BOX CAMERA – a simple camera is little or more see when you look into or through the camera.
diameter and the focal length of the lens is than a pinhole camera. It has a lens and shutter. In 1. SINGLE LENS REFLEX TYPE- the best way to
called the lens aperture. It is the light- the box camera, the pinhole is replaced by the lens determine the entire coverage of the camera is to
gathering power of the lens. The rays of the to enable the photographer gather more lights to be look directly behind the lens of the camera. In this
light passing thru lens aperture can be recorded. manner, the objects can be framed properly and
controlled by its opening. 3. CAMERA OBSCURA – Is a box used for sketching recorded on the film.
✓ FOCUSING MECHANISM- The sharpness of large objects. The term means dark chamber. The 2. TWIN LENS REFLEX TYPE- basically the twin
clearness of the object being photograph will box contains a mirror set at a 45 degrees angle. A lens camera has two lenses, one for the viewing and
depend upon the focusing system of the double convex lens like in a photographic camera is focusing of the object, and the other is the taking
camera. This mechanism will estimate the placed in the front end. The image of the object is lens. In this type of camera the image being
object distance from the camera and formed transmitted through the lens and appears on the photographed can be seen in flat surface as the
a sharp or clear image in the photographs. mirror. The minor reflects it upward to a ground image is reflected by the mirror behind the viewing
✓ DIAPHRAGM OR APPERTURE – A small glass screen on the top of the box. There it can be lens.
opening in a camera, usually circular in sketched easily. 3. VIEW OR PRESS CAMERA TYPE- the biggest
shape and usually variable, in the form iris and the most sophisticated among the different type
diaphragm and regulates the intensity of light MAJOR TYPES OF CAMERA of cameras is the view or press camera. This type of
which passes through the lens. There so many model of camera available in the camera is practically useless for can did or action
✓ SELF-TIMER – The time setting of the market today, but can be classified according to the photography. However, this type of camera is very
camera which is automatically operated to viewing system, namely; useful in law enforcement photography especially in
allow the photographer to participate in a. the view type the production of document and in photomicrography
photo taking. b. the single lens reflex type and photography.
✓ ACCESORY LIGHT SHOE – It is where the c. the twin lens reflex type 4. FOLDING CAMERA – have a bellow and are so
flash bulb is inserted for indoor photography d. the view of the press camera type constructed that the lens snaps into a fixed position
in the dark or in shaded areas of object to be when the camera is opened. Focusing, shutter
photographed. VIEW CAMERA - the smallest and simplest type of speed, and aperture are adjustable, example is the
✓ FLASH TERMINAL – It is where the flash camera is the view finder camera. Its view finder Polaroid camera.
bulb cord is plugged for synchronization to framed the objects that will be recorded on the film. 5. STUDIO CAMERA – construction of these cameras
the camera. Usually it is made of a simple lens that serves us the are exactly the same as that of the view camera but
✓ ISO/ASA/DIN DIAL – A camera device in viewing system of the camera. Very often the are used primarily for portraiture, copy work, small
which when adjusted it will conform with the focusing system of this type of camera is in the view object photography, and other indoor photography.
sensitivity of the film to light. finder itself, otherwise, the camera is a fixed focus 6.MINIATURE CAMERA – are precision instruments
✓ SHUTTER RELEASE BUTTON – The part of one. This type of camera can provide an excellent designed for small object films. The best known is
the camera when press will strike the film and focusing system, especially at dim light conditions. the 35mm camera which has an optical and
the image will form through the action of However, this type of camera suffers from an inherent mechanical standard which exceeds that of larger
light. defect called parallax error that prevents the cameras. Minute inaccuracies not noticeable with the
25
larger negatives could make the miniature negative FOCAL LENGTH – the minimum distance measured
worthless. The camera is so designed as to provide a from a point within the lens to the film planes defines TYPES OF SHUTTER:
lightweight instrument for difficult photo coverage. what is called the focal length of the lens. 1. Between the lens or Leaf shutter – Employs a
7.ULTRA MINIATURE CAMERA – is also known as 1. FOCUSING CONTROL- The most important on a number of thin metal plates that overlaps and
spy camera as they are often called, have been on camera is the focusing control. Focus is the means by arranged in a circle position perpendicular to the
the market for many years. This camera is designed which the object distance is estimated or calculated axis of the lens. The advantage of this type of shutter
solely for ease of operation, not for accuracy. to form sharp or clear images. There are three type is its placement in the lens helps to eliminate
and scale bed type. distortion and the shutter can be easily synchronized.
CONTROL ON A CAMERA 2. SHUTTER SPEED CONTROL 2. Focal Plane Shutter – Also known as curtain
Knowing the control on camera are necessary to The length of time that the ray of light will reach and shutter, consist of a light proof rubberized cloth
produce a sharp and normal negatives after the affect the film inside the camera can be controlled by curtain having a rectangular openings or slits, usually
photographing . There are three important controls in the shutter speed control of the camera. There are arranged to moved horizontally or vertically in some
a camera to be manipulated and adjusted to its several factors to be considered in using this control. cameras. The advantage of this shutter are that it
proper setting . They are: Some of these factors are; allows for lens interchangeability and high shutter
a. the focusing control a. the light sensitivity of the film which are speed of up to 1/1000 of a second.
b. the shutter speed determined thru its ASA number the motion of the SHUTTER SPEED – refers to the time that the shutter
c. the diaphragm control subjects on different angles, is opened, allowing light to reach the film. The
b. the purpose of the photographs to be taken and camera’s shutter speed dial scale markings are
FOCUS – is a word familiar with in other contexts others. usually: T stands for time or B stands for Bulb; 1, 2, 4,
such as to focus the attention, which means to 3. DIAPHRAGM CONTROL 8, 15, 30, 60, 125, 250, 500, 1000 and or even 2000.
concentrate on something, or to bring all aspects of The diaphragm works like pupil off the
attention to bear on something whether it can be an eye. It may be enlarged or contracted. If it enlarged, The B setting stands for Bulb – a word that goes far
object that can be seen or an abstract idea. To focus it allows more light to enter, on the contrary, when it back into camera history. Used for exposure longer
lens means to concentrate light rays on one particular is contracted or small, it allows lesser light to than 1 second. Pressure on the shutter release button
surface, which, in a camera, is the surface of the film. enter.The adjustment is done by moving the ring of will open the shutter and will remain open as long as
The point where one’s visual attention becomes the diaphragm towards the desired sized of the pressure is maintained. But once pressure is
focused is called a FOCAL POINT, and the point on opening. It is generally represented by number released shutter closes again. This setting is
the film’s surface where all the light ray concentrate known as the f-stop. In every movement, the f- customarily employed with flexible cable release.
or intersects is known as the POINT OF PRINCIPAL number will stop to indicate that the diaphragm is set
FOCUS. to that number. Very common, these numbers are The T setting stands for time – like the bulb setting,
FOCUSING – means adjusting or changing the found on the ring outside the lens barrel. the T setting is also used for the exposure of more
distance between the focal plane and the lens center. than one second. It differs from the bulb setting only
FOCAL PLANE – the surface or plane where the film SHUTTER SPEED AND F-NUMBER TOGETHER in that the shutter release button does not have held
is situated and where all the light rays passing SHUTTER -The camera shutter is an adjustable down to make an exposure. Pressure on the button
through a lens converge to form a clear image. mechanism that regulates the amount of light causes the shutter to open. It will remain open until
INFINITY FOCUS – where all objects beyond a reaching the film by varying the length of the light is the shutter release button is pressed a second time to
certain distance are in focus, regardless of difference allowed to pass through the lens. Basically, it is an close it.
in their distances. When the lens is set at infinity, the opaque barrier or curtain to shut out light. When it is DEPTH OF FIELD – the distance between the
lens to film distance is at the shortest distance to opened the light ray enters the lens and act on the nearest object and the farthest object that appear to
bring the most distant object into focus. film to make a photograph. be in focus.
FIELD – refers to that portion of the photograph in
which objects appear sharply defined.
26
DEPTH – refers to the extent, from near to far, of this c.the base – commonly made of cellulose acetate or 2. BLUE FILTER – sensitive to blue light only, green
field. other materials such as paper, plastic, or glass which and red light passes through it without exposing the
supports the emulsion layer and is coated with a non- color halides
CHARACTERISTICS OF DEPTH OF FIELD: curl anti-halation backing. 3. YELLOW FILTER – carry lea silver suspended in
1. Increasing the diameter of the lens aperture causes d.the anti-halation backing – a black dye applied gelatin. It is coated between the top and second layer
a decrease in the depth of field. on the rear surface of the film. Its function is to to absorb any penetrating blue light but allowing
2. Decreasing the diameter of the lens aperture absorb light that may penetrate the emulsion layer to green and red light to pass through
causes an increase in the depth of field. prevent it from reflecting back to the emulsion thus 4. GREEN FILTER – a layer that is orthochromatic, the
3. Depth of field is greater on the far side of the plane making the image sharper since it suppress double layer sensitive to blue light and green, but not to red,
on which the camera is focused than on the near side. image. It prevents appearance of halo formation in red light passes on to the bottom of the emulsion
4. The smaller the diameter of the lens aperture, the the photograph. The dye is removed during layer.
greater the increase in the depth of field on the far processing by one of the chemicals in the developer. 5. RED FILTER – a panchromatic layer, sensitive to
side. Its second function is to control the film from curling blue and red. It is also somewhat sensitive to green
5. The shorter the distance the camera is focused on, inwards towards the emulsion surface. light but to such a slight degree that it is not
the shallower the depth of field. IFRA-RED FILM - a special type of film which is important
6. As the distance on which the camera is focused is sensitive to infra-red radiation. It isalso sensitive to 6. FILM BASE – plastic film base
increased, the total depth of field increases until violet-green. Although the infra-red film is sensitive 7. ANTIHALATION COATING
objects at infinity are brought into focus. to blue color can be excluded by a red filter that
transmits only long red and infra-red radiation. TYPOLOGY OF FILMS:
FILM COLOR FILM is a mixture of the three basic colors 1. According to use:
FILM – a type of light sensitized material that of the visible spectrum. The hue a. BLACK AND WHITE FILM – for black and white
produces negative after development. dye are coated to be emulsion of the film and each photography (panchromatic)
A cellulose tape or plate where silver salts are hue is separated by the secondary color that absorb b.COLOR FILM – films that have name ending in color
suspended capable of recording light. the unwanted primary colors. In between the blue (color negatives for prints)
Film containing minute grains of silver halide and green hues, yellow gelatin is placed so that the c.CHROME FILMS – films with names ending in
suspended in animal gelatin and coated on celluloid blue rays of light would not affect the green hue and chrome, for color transparency – for slides films that
material. It has two parts, the emulsion and the base. in between the green and the red dye, magenta are exposed by slides, mounted in a cardboard for
Actually, there are four various layers of film, or film gelatin is placed so that the green rays of light would slide projectors; reversal type.
structure; not affect the red hue dye of the emulsion. d. X-RAY – is a material which is sensitive to x-ray
a.the thin coat of animal gelatin or top coating – ORTHOCHROMATIC FILM- Film which sensitive region of the electromagnetic spectrum.
top layer; scratch resistant coating; an over coating to all color except red. This type of film is popular in 2.According to spectral sensitivity (color
composed of a thin transparent layer of hard gelatin the market as the Kodalith film. sensitivity)
which helps protect the silver halide emulsion from X-RAY FILM- a material, which sensitive to X-ray a. NONCHROMATIC – sensitive to ultraviolet and
scratches and abrasions. The hard gelatin, which is region of the electromagnetic spectrum. blue violet colors only.
derived from cows, contains sulfur. The sulfur is very BLUE SENSITIVE FILM- a film specially treated b. ORTHOCHROMATIC – sensitive to blues and
much compatible with silver halides. that makes it more sensitive to blue greens, but not to red.
b.Emulsion – composed of silver halides and rays of light. c. PANCHROMATIC – sensitive to all colors and are
gelatin. A silver compound, when combined with a further subdivided according to their degree of
halogen, becomes silver halide. Silver halide are STRUCTURE OF COLOR FILM: sensitivity to each other.
rare compounds that are responsible in forming the 1. TOP COATING – scratch resistant coating
latent image in the photographic film. TYPES OF PANCHROMATIC FILM:

27
1. TYPE B PANCHROMATIC FILM – a black and white It is expressed in a numerical rating known as sharp image is projected on the rear wall of a
film which reproduces the various tones and hues of the ASA exposure index. The term used is to express camera.
the subject in tones of gray with a brightness range the degree of inherent sensitivity of an emulsion to
approximately the same as that seen by the eye. light or expresses the amount of light required to TYPES OF LENS
a. Long scale films – such as Kodak Plus X and Kodak produce a satisfactory negative with a given a. Simple lens – is made of glass or other transparent
Panatomic X, are used in portraiture, press, emulsion. substance, having two opposite regular surfaces.
illustrative, continuous tone copy, general outdoor b. Camera optics – are lenses which are spherical
and indoor photography. FILM SPEED RATING: and symmetrical piece of polished glass, the purpose
b. Short scale films – generally called Process Pan, 1. ASA rating ( American Standard Association) of which is to gather light rays, refract and project the
are used for copy work when complete tonal 2. DIN rating ( Deutche Industrie Normen) rays in such a way that sharp, clear and without
separation is required, Kodalith Pan and Reprolith 3. ISO rating ( International Standard Organization) distortion image is produced on the rear wall of the
Pan are short scale type B films. camera.
2. TYPE C PANCHROMATIC FILM – has greater CLASSIFICATION OF FILMS ACCORDING TO
sensitivity in red end of the spectrum than type B film. LIGHT SENSITIVITY:
d. INFRARED – sensitive to blues and infrared 1. Slow ASA 100 and below TYPES OF CAMERA LENSES:
radiation which is beyond the human eye’s 2. Medium ASA 100 to 200 a. Positive/convergent lens – has a convex shape,
sensitivity. It is used in penetrating haze because of 3. Fast above ASA 200; needs less light thicker in the center than at the edges, and have the
its longer wavelength. In investigative photography, power to focus all light rays passing through it. All
it is useful in laboratory analysis of questioned ASA PURPOSE/APPLICATION lenses used to form an image which is recorded with
documents; in the discovery of old or faded tattoos or 25 lowest condition will permit for best color a camera are positive in form. When two or more of
areas where small objects are hidden under the skin and sharpness these lenses are combined to form a compound lens
and in the construction of camera traps. 50 sharpness then it is correctly called a lens element.
e. COLORED FILM 100/200 for general purposes There are three most common simple positive
1. Color negatives – for prints, ends in the word 400 for dim light or with moving objects lenses which are; the DOUBLE CONVEX, the
color. 1000 and up for extremely lowlight condition and CONCAVE CONVEX and the PLANO CONVEX,
2. Color transparency – for slides, ends in the word for taking secret pictures by night known as the POSITIVE MENISCUS.
chrome.
GRAININESS – the granular appearance of the b. Negative/divergent lens – has a concave shape,
FILM SIZES enlarged image thicker at the edges than in the center and refracts
1. 110 – for cartridge loading pocket cameras CONTRAST – the difference in the densities of light in such a manner that the rays are spread out or
2. 126 – for older and larger cartridge loading type various areas in the negative diverged. Simple negative lenses are used in
3. 135 – commonly known as the 35 mm, so named - the difference between the darkness of highlights conjunction with simple positive lenses in all modern
because the film is 35 mm width and the brightness of shadows in the negative camera lenses. Their primary use in a lens formula is
4. 120 – variation of the 21/4 inch wide roll film that HIGHLIGHT – the dense portion of the negative to assist in the formation of a sharper image by
was first introduced for box cameras and now used HALFTONES – the subject brightness between the helping to eliminate or subdue the various defects
into professional medium formal cameras like the lightest and darkest areas is recorded on the and aberrations present in an uncorrected simple
HASSELBALD or MAMIYA negative in corresponding densities positive lens.
5. 220 – the same as the 120 but yield twice as many The type of simple negative lenses are; the
exposure LENS DOUBLE CONCAVE, the PLANO CONCAVE and
A spherical and symmetrical piece of CONVEXO CONCAVE, which is called the
FILM SPEED (sensitivity to light) polished glass that reflects light rays so that a clear, NEGATIVE MENISCUS.

28
LENS SPEED – is the largest opening of the view and decrease the dept of the field while image is surrounded by colored fingers,
diaphragm that the light can pass through; it greatly magnifying the image. For a 35mm because light is different colors is brought to
determines the maximum intensity of the light camera lenses with focal depths of 85 mm or different focal points by a lens.
entering the light tight box. It is the light transmitting more are considered telephoto. Lenses 3. Astigmatism – the inability of the lens to bring
power of the lens and its maximum aperture or f-stop beyond 58mm are included in a group of horizontal and vertical lines in the subject to
setting. telephoto lenses. For identification shots in the same plane to focus in the image.
1. FAST LENS – lens with high speed, a high lens is police work, lenses to 85 to 135 mm focal Astigmatism occurs at the edge of the image;
used during daytime or when the lighting condition is length are frequently used. Long tele-lens the image appears elliptical or cross-shaped
very bright or in taking pictures of fast moving are those beyond 200mm. because of an irregularity in the curvature of
objects. 4. Zoom lens – a special type of camera lens a lens.
2. SLOW LENS – lens with low lens speed, used with variable focal length; a fourth generic 4. Coma – coma occurs when light falling
during night time or when there is a dim light lens type designed to have a variable focal obliquely on the lens and passing through
available. length which can be adjusted continuously different circular zones is brought to a focus
between two fixed limits. The lens allows at different distances from the film plane. A
IN TERMS OF FOCUS, THERE ARE 2 TYPES OF quick adjustments to a wider or narrower spot of lines appears to have a tail, rather like
LENSES SOLD TODAY: field of vision. a comet.
1. autofocus lenses 5. Fish eye lens – lens with extreme wide angle; 5. Curvature of field – a curve, concave or
2. manual focus lenses lens that provide field of view of 180 degrees saucer shaped image of an object which has a
or more. A 60 mm fish eye lens made by flat surface. The image is different to the
GROUPS OFLENSES ACCORDING TO ANGLE OF Nikon has a 220 degree field of view that points of the object due to their differing
VIEW AND FOCAL LENGTH: produces circular image on film, rather distance from the axis.
1. Normal lens – for normal distance; By than the normal rectangular or square image. 6. Distortion – Curvilinear, which is the ability to
international standards, a 50 mm lens with produce the same enlargement in the image
focal lens from 45 to 55 mm are referred to as ABERRATION formed by the edges of the lens as in the part
normal lenses because they produce an ABERRATION in optics, is the failure of light formed by the center of the lens.
image that approximates the view angle of rays to focus properly after they pass through a
the human eye. The normal lens has a picture lens or reflect from a mirror. It is an optical Other Lens Defect
angle of 45 to 60 degrees which corresponds imperfection responsible for image distortion. These defects are usually corrected
to the viewing angle of the human eye. There are six main forms of optical aberration: when the lens is designed, however, they can occur if
2. Wide angle lens – for wide angle( but smaller 1. Spherical Aberration – the focusing at the lens is misused or through normal wear.
images). The wide angle lens has a shorter different points of rays passing through 1.Flare or Optical Flare – is a result of double
focal length than the normal lens. As a result, different parts of spherical lens. The refraction from inner lens surfaces. It exhibits self as
it covers a picture angle of 60 – 90 degrees. aberration occurs because light hitting the a misty hazy or cloudy semi-circular patch of light.
It enables photographing a widely extended outer parts of the lens is bent more sharply This double refraction may form an image called
scene from a close proximity or within the and comes to a focus sooner than that passing ghost image.
confined area. The range for wide angles for through the middle. In spherical aberration, 2.Mechanical Flare – are bright spots on the film
35mm SLR cameras include 8mm, 21mm, the image is blurred. caused by stray light from worn shiny parts of the
24mm, 28mm, and 35mm. the 28mm and 2. Chromatic aberration – the failure of the lens such as the stops, shutter, lens mount or from
35mm are the most important for general different colored light rays to focus after inside of the camera itself.
wide angle for police works. passing through a lens; focusing of light of 3.Light Loss – most corrected lens is coated with a
3. Telephoto lens – for long distance; Lens with different colors at different points resulting in substance which will reduce one type of flare and
longer focal lengths that constrict a point of a blurred image. In chromatic aberration the
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which will also increase the optics ability to transmit 3. Neutral Density Filter – used to cut down light can be used, e.g. a night club scene. In short, the
light, thus reducing the loss. transmission. They are designed to cut down amount faster the lens, the lesser the amount of light needed
4.Stray Light – can be reduced or eliminated by using of light that reaches the film during exposure. to reproduce an image.
the proper lens shade places on the front of the lens Neutral density filters are very handy when using a 2. Focal Plane – when light passes through a lens, it
or shield. high speed film under bright sunlight condition, or forms an image. The area in which this image is
FILTERS where the use of a slow shutter-speed is desired for a formed is called a focal plane. A certain distance
These are colored disk s of glass or gelatin creative effect in the photographs. behind the lens, they come to point.
which are placed in front of the camera lens to 4.Haze Filter- haze and skylight filter remove excess 3.Focal Length – the distance from the optical center
improve the quality of pictures. A filter placed in bluishness from distant view outdoors. of the lens to the focal plane, when the lens is focused
front of the lens changes the color of light that 5.Skylight Filter on infinity.
reaches the film. For example, a red filter darkens 6.Color Filters – increases contrast in black and white 4. Infinity – the distance so far that light rays are
blue sky and foliage considerably, and lightens red photographs. It lets light of its own color pass considered parallel when they reach the camera. To
objects. A filter may be used to change the through the lens to the film but holds back certain find the lens speed divide the diameter of the lens to
composition of available light, increase or decrease other colors. As a result, objects that are the same the focal length.
contrast, exclude certain colors, highlight a certain color as the filter appear light in the picture, and the 5. Lens Opening – the size of the lens opening
subject or color. blocked colors are dark. control how much light reaches the film. The
7.Correction filters – are used to equalize the color different sizes of lens opening are indicated by
Filters defined: sensitiveness of film emulsions to make them nearly numbers called f-numbers. The f-numbers on the
A homogenous medium which absorbs coincide with that of the eyes. The human eyes are diaphragm scale have the following sequence and
different wavelengths or electromagnet energy. more sensitive to green and yellow colors than film are called “full stop”.
They are dyed gelatin sheets cemented between emulsions. The film emulsion is more sensitive to • The smallest f-number on the lens, the largest
carefully selected glass. blue. To render colors in their relative brightness, as lens and the largest f-number, the smallest lens
Components: seen by the human eye, a filter is used to change the opening.
1.Gelatin – these are simply thin sheets of gelatin sensitivity of the film, making it more responsive to • The smallest f-stop number is usually marked on
dyed to the designed color and intensity. Used in yellow and greens. Usually correction filters are the lens mount to indicate lens speed.
color photo. yellow. • When you change from any lens opening to the
2.Glass sandwiches – these are made by sandwiching 8.Contrast filters – Although two colors may be next larger on (f/11 to f/80, you expose the film
a gelatin filter between two sheets of color glass. different, if their brightness value is the same they twice as much light. Changing to the next smaller
3.dyed glass – these are discs of optical glass dyed to will reproduce as almost the same shade of gray in lens opening (f/11 to f/16) cuts the light by half.
the desired color while in the melted stage, the print. To create the needed contrast, a filter is
FILTERS USEFUL IN POLICE WORKS: used. For instance, light yellow and dark blue SENSITIZED PAPER
1.UV Filter – reduces haze; useful for photographing usually photograph the same shade, to secure The results of photography in its final form is
distant objects and for taking pictures at high contrast, one of the color must be weaken by the a photograph. The materials necessary to produces a
altitude. action of a filter which leaves the other color positive print is a sensitized paper. Its emulsion is
2.Polarizer – reduces reflections from some surfaces unaffected. coated with opaque material like paper.In the
and increases color saturation by reducing glare and LENS SPEED, LENS OPENING AND STOPS preparation of photographic papers, there are three
scattered light; used primarily to reduce reflection 1.Lens speed – the speed of the lens is the maximum important factors to be considered, the type of
from the surface of shiny objects. Polarizing filter is amount of the light that lens will transmit, thus lens is emulsion, the contrast rays and the physical
also used in color photography to increase color faster than f/4 lens because f/2 lens has a larger characteristic;Each type of emulsion has its own
saturation and to reduce the reflections in the aperture and will admit more light at a given time. A substance and use in the preparation of photographs.
photographs. practical application of a fast lens is when the light The types of emulsion are;
level of a scene is very low and only available light a. silver chloride emulsion
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 b. silver bromide emulsion Basically, all the images recorded on the
c. silver chlorobromide emulsion sensitized materials by the action of the light are Agitation
The emulsion that contains silver bromide is invisible. These latent images are still temporary and Even development of the image of the sensitized
known as the silver bromide papers. Light sensitivity can be ruined when accidentally exposed to lights. materials can be obtained through the regular
of this type of emulsion is faster than the silver To make the latent image visible and permanent,. agitation of it during the development process. In
chloride paper. These photographic paper are used Chemical processing necessary. This processing is agitating the film or paper in the developing solution,
for projection printing or enlarging process wherein known as the development process of the film, that the fresh developer is brought into contact with the
the image of the negative are projected or enlarged, makes the latent images visible and permanent. The emulsion of these materials and the used solutions is
if properly developed, the silver bromide paper will developed image is the reversed of the original carried away
give a black tone. objects photographed and called as the negative.
The paper that contains silver chloride in The factors that affect the chemical Film Processing- The most crucial part in the
their emulsion is called silver chloride paper. Its development of the sensitized materials are; preparation of the photographs is the film
sensitivity to light is low and commonly used in a. concentration or strength of the working solutions processing. Once the film is destroyed during the
contact printing. Generally the size of the positive b. temperature of the chemicals involved in the developing process, everything is ruined and no
print is the same as the size of the negative used and development process. positive print can be produced. Considering that the
usually it will give blue-black tone if properly c. Time of development work is critical, utmost care must be observed in the
developed. d. Agitation of the sensitized material during the developing of film.
The combination of the two type of emulsion development process
is called silver chlorobromide papers. Its sensitivity PHOTOGRAPHIC PAPER
to light either slow or fast. The slow emulsion is used A. Concentration or Strength of the Chemicals STRUCTURE OF PHOTOGRAPHIC PAPER
for contract printing while the fast emulsion is used 1. EMULSION LAYER – contain silver halides
for projection printing. Temperature of the Solutions suspended in gelatin; the layer making the paper
The contrast range of photographic paper are Although the chemicals involved in the development light sensitive; emulsion may be composed of silver
classified by the manufacturer of the films according process are fresh and concentrated, its temperature, chloride, silver bromide, or silver chlorobromide.
to their own ideas. They produce different especially the developing solutions will affect the 2. BARYTA LAYER – a gelatin layer containing baryta
photographic papers intended for the specific metallic silver developed on the sensitized materials. crystals to increase the reflectivity of the paper, the
contrast of the negatives to be printed. Generally Very common the reactions of the various chemicals layer that makes the film glossy.
this contrast range are classified into four they are; involved in the development process of the 3. BASE – made of hard paper which must be
a. the low contrast sensitized materials are slow when the temperature chemically pure; chemical content does not change
b. the normal and medium contrast of the solutions is low and fast when the temperature react with light or other chemicals during printing.
c. the hard contrast of the solutions is high.
d. the very hard or extra hard contrast TYPES OF PHOTOGRAPHIC PRINTING PAPER:
The low contrast paper is usually suitable to a Time of Development 1. Chloride papers – have a slow speed emulsion
very contrast negative to produce normal print or Among the factors that affect the development containing silver chloride, are fine grain and produce
photograph, on the other hand, the high or hard process of the sensitized materials, time of deep blacks, used for contact printing.
contract paper is suitable to a very low contrast development is the most critical factor. Usually, too 2. Bromide papers – have a faster emulsion speed
papers is suitable to a very low contrast negative to long or too short in the duration of the development than chloride paper, achieve sensitivity through the
compensate for lack of brilliance and produce a of the sensitized materials produces too dark and too use of bromide halides. Because of the relatively
normal print or photographs. light in the image developed. The manufacturer of high sensitivity to light, these emulsions are
the sensitized material gave an instruction on how to particularly suitable for projection printing.
CHEMICAL PROCESS control the time of development that produces cool 3. Chlorobromide papers – contain both silver
density of the image. chloride and silver bromide halides. Emulsion speed
31
lies between that of chloride and bromide papers, 3. Tropical developer – in general, at temperature preservative such as sodium sulfite or sodium
used for both contact and projection printing. below 75 degrees fahrenheit, no special precautions bisulfite to prevent excessive oxidation thus
4. Variable contrast paper – combines the contrast are necessary in the developing of film. At prolonging the useful life of the developing solution
ranges in one paper this versatility is achieved with a temperature above 75 degrees fahrenheit, a and prevents the formation of colored oxidation
special chlorobromide emulsion that produces prehardener has to be used prior to development to products which causes stains.
varying contrast responses upon exposure to prevent undue swelling of the gelatin which causes .
different colored lights. frilling, separation of the emulsion from base STAGES OF FILM DEVELOPMENT:
4. Contrast developer – a special developer for thin 1. PRE-DEVELOPMENT WATER RINSE – (optional)
PAPER BASES: emulsions film which affords the greatest possible This is done by simply soaking the film in water for 2
1. Lightweight paper – is furnished in a thin or resolution, and makes negatives of the greatest to 3 minutes while agitating the water container every
lightweight stock and is intended for purposes which acutance. after 20 seconds.
frequently involve folding. 5. Compensating developer – used to produce 2. DEVELOPMENT – This is performed by soaking
2. Single weight paper – is relatively thin, it is about contrast in process film. Not to be used at the film in the developer. The chemical content of the
half as thick as double weight stock, and it is used for temperature below 50 degrees Fahrenheit because developing solution are:
all ordinary photographic purposes. stains and fog will result. a. reducer – metol-hydroquinone
3. Double weight paper – is thicker than the average b. accelerator – borax, sodium carbonate, sodium
post card. It is the heaviest stock normally used for INGREDIENTS OF MODERN DEVELOPER: hydroxide
photographic paper. It is used for large prints 1. Developing agent/reducer – The basic and most c. restrainer – potassium bromide
because they stand up better under rough treatment. important ingredient in the development solution is d. preservative – sodium sulfite, sodium bisulfite
the reducer. Metol-hydroquinone, abbreviated M-Q, 3. STOP BATH – rinse bath
FILM DEVELOPMENT is the most versatile and popular of all developer. a. Water rinse bath – helps retard the action of the
THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT The reducer agents react with the exposed silver developing agent and remove the excess developer
The theory of film development refers to halides and develop it into metallic silver which from the film, thus preventing contamination of the
the principle in photography that explains how the forms the visible image. If used alone, however, this fixing bath. A water rinse is suitable and sufficient for
LATENT IMAGE in the exposed film is converted into reducing agent will have very little effect or no effect most negatives, however, it will dilute the fixer. So, if
a negative image. The theory provides that there are on the silver halide since it has a low rate of used, it should be followed by an acid bath.
six stages of chemical processing needed to make oxidation. Therefore, it becomes necessary that an b. Acid rinse bath – sometimes referred to as stop
the latent image become visible such that it can be accelerator must be added to the developer. bath and is more effective than water rinse, as it
printed to produce a photograph. 2. Accelerator – Borax, sodium carbonate, sodium instantly neutralizes the action of the developer and
TYPES OF DEVELOPER: hydroxide are some of the alkalis used to increase stops further development. It also neutralizes the
1. Fine grain developer – during development, the the rate of oxidation of the reducing agent softens the alkalinity of the developer and prolongs the life of the
silver grains have a tendency to group together. This gelatin of the film emulsion, and speeds up solution fixing bath.
tendency is lessened when a fine grain developer is penetration. c. Hardening rinse bath – used only when it is
used. A negative fine grain is important when 3. Restrainer – The chemical most commonly used as impossible to control the temperature of the
enlargements are to be made to extreme sizes – ten restrainer is potassium bromide. Without the solutions, particularly the wash water, or when
times the original size or more. The tendency of restrainer, most developing solution act too rapidly development is done in high temperature or under
clustering also increases as the developer and develop unexposed silver halides near the tropical conditions. A typical hardener rinse contain
temperature increases from the normal 68 degrees surface of the emulsion which causes chemical fog, the following: 32 ounces of water, 1 ounce of
fahrenheit streaks, and image lacking in contrast. potassium, chrome alum, and 1 ounce sodium
2. General purpose developer – use in general 4. Preservative – All organic developing agents in an bisulfite.
purpose work and photographic laboratories where alkaline state have a strong chemical attraction with 4. FIXING BATH -The fixing bath is employed to fix or
continuous development is being done. oxygen. It is necessary therefore, to add make the developed image permanent by removing
32
all the unaffected silver salt from the emulsion. The PRINTING – is the process whereby light is • Artificial Light- light that comes to existence
basic ingredient of fixing bath are: transmitted through the negative to produce a like with the intervention of man.
a. Fixer or fixing agent – the one universally used in positive image on light sensitive material. • ASA- Arithmetically progressive rating of the
photography is sodium thiosulfate, commonly termed 1. Contact printing – as the name implies, a contact senci-sensitivity of a film to light (American
hypo, which is taken from its other chemical name print is made by placing a sheet of printing paper in Standards Association), ASA 200 film, for
hyposulfate. Its function is to convert the silver salts direct contact with a negative, emulsion to emulsion. example, is twice as fast as ASA 100.
remaining in the emulsion after development into Light is directed towards the negative and image is • Astigmatism- A lens aberration in which light
compounds that is soluble in water. formed on the sensitized coating of the paper which rays that pass obliquely through a lens are
b. Acid or neutralizer – after development, the pores is the reversed of the negative. focused, not as a point but as a line. Astigmatism
of swollen emulsion retain a considerable amount of 2. Projection printing – the negative image is is normally found in simple lens.
developer and if allowed to remain it will continue its projected onto a photographic paper by means of • Automatic Exposure Control- Camera system
action causing uneven stains in the gelatin of the enlarger machine. The negative is inserted in the where the photoelectric cell that measure the
emulsion, rendering the negative unfit for use. Acetic enlarger carrier emulsion side down and the lighting reaching film plain is linked to the
acid is added to the fixing bath to neutralize the projection lamp turned on at a predetermined shutter or lenses aperture to adjust the exposure
action of the developer remaining in the emulsion exposure time. automatically.
when the film is immersed in the fixing bath. • Blacklighting- Lighting form behind the subjects
c. Preservative – sodium sulfite is added to the fixer DEFINITION OF TERMS: directed the camera position.
as preservative to prevent oxidation of the • Aberration - Lens defects in which light rays are • Barrel Distortion- A lens aberration in which the
developing agents that are carried over into the scattered, thereby degrading the image.There shape of the image is distorted. The
fixing bath by the film, prevent decomposition of the are different forms of aberration, such as magnification decrease radially outwards, so that
fixing bath, prevents discoloration of the solution, chromatic and spherical aberrations, coma, a square objects appears barrel shaped, with
and aids in the elimination of stains. astigmatism and field curvature. the straight edges bowed towards.
d. Hardener – during development, the emulsions • Achromatic Lens - A lens constructed of • Bass Relief- A method of producing images that
become soft and swollen, frilling and scratching may different types of glass, appears to stand out slightly in relief. It is
occur if processing is continued without hardening • Acutance - The objective measurement of how produced by sand switching a positive and
the emulsion. Potassium alum is the hardening agent tell an edge is recorded in a photographic image. negative of the same images slightly out of
used to stop the swelling and toughen the gelatin, • Additve Process- The pass of combining lights of register, and the printing the combination.
leaving the emulsion expanded but firm for the different colors. A set of three primary Image. • Base- The support material for an emulsion -
washing process. • Aerial Perspective- The impression of depth in a normally plastic or paper.
5. WASHING-Washing negatives with fresh water is scene that is conveyed by haze. • Between- the lens- shutter- A leaf shutter located
the last solution to be used. The purpose of washing • Anastigmant - A compound lens, using different inside a compound lens, as close as possible to
negatives is to remove the soluble chemicals or elements to reduce optical aberrations. the aperture diaphragm.
solutions of the fixing bath. • Angle of view- The widest angle of those light • Bounce Flash- Diffusion of the light from a flash
6. DRYING – phases of drying are; removal of excess rays a accepted by lens that from an acceptably unit, by directing it towards a reflective surfaces,
water and drying by evaporation or forced air. Ethyl sharp image at the film plane. This angle is widest such as ceiling or wall. This scatters the light
alcohol is sometimes used to shortened the drying when the lens is focused at infinity. rays, giving a softer illumination.
time. • Angstrom- Unit used to measure light • Bright- field illumination- The basic lighting
7. PRINTING – covers contact printing and enlarging wavelengths. technique for photomicrography, directing light
(projecting)
• Aperture- In most lenses, The aperture is an through a thin sections of the subject. In effect a
adjustable circular hole centered on the lens axis. form of backlighting.
It is a part of the lens system that admits light. • Brightness- The subjective of illuminance.

33
• Bracketing- a method of compensating for • Color Conversion Filter- Colored filter that • Depth of focus - the maximum permissible
uncertainties in exposure, by making a series of alters the color temperature of light. distance within which the film maybe placed
exposure a single subject, each varying by • Color Couple- A chemical compound that without the exceeding. The circle of confusion in
progressive amount from the estimated correct combines with the oxidizing elements of order to produce image.
aperture/ speed setting. developer to form a color dye. It is an integral • Definition- the subjective effect of graininess
• Cable Release- a device use in pressing the part of the most part color film processing. and sharpness combined.
shutter release button of the camera during • Color Temperature- The temperature to which • Density- In photographic emulsion, the ability of
exposure period. an insert substance would have to be heated in a developed silver deposit to block transmitted
• Camera Shake- Unintentional movement of the order for it to glow at a particular color. The light.
camera during exposure, causing unsharpness in scale of color temperature significant for • Depth of Field- The distance through which the
the image. photography ranges form a reddish colors of subject may extend and still form an acceptably
• CdS Cell- Cadium sulfide cell used commonly in approximately 2000k through standards ' white" sharp image., in front of and beyond the plane of
through- the- lens light meters. Its proportionate at 5500k, to a bluish color above 6000k. critical focus. Depth of field can be increases by
resistance to the quantity of light received is the • Coma- a lens aberration in which off- axis light stopping the lens down to a smaller aperture.
basis of exposure measurement. rays focus at different distances when they pass • Depth of focus- the distance through the film
• Characteristic Curve- Curve plotted on graph through different areas of the lens. The result is plane can be moved and still records and
from two exposure and density used to describe blurring at the edges of the pictures. acceptably sharp images.
the characteristics and performance of sensitive • Complementary Colors- A pair of colors that, • Diaphragm opening- control the amount of light
emulsion. when combined together in equal proportions that passes thru the lens expose.
• Chromatic Aberration- A lens aberration in produce white light (by means of the additive • Diaphragm- an adjustable opening that controls
which light of different wavelengths (and process) the amount of light passing through a lens.
therefore colors) is focused at different distances • Compound lens- lens constructed of more than • Diffraction- The distance of light waves that
behind the lens. It can be corrected by one element, which enables various optical occurs when they strike the edge of the an
combining different types of glass. corrections to be made. opaque surface.
• Circle of Confusion- a disc from image of a point • Condenser- simple lens system that • Diffuser- material that scatters transmitted light.
in the object. The allowable circle of confusion is concentrates light into a beam. • Din- Logarithmical progressive rating of the
usually 1/1,000 of the focal length of the lens in • Contact Sheets- A print of all frames of roll of film sensitivity of a film to light ( Deutsche Industrie
inches. arranged in strips, same size, from which Norm)
• Circle of Confusion- the disc of light formed by negative can be selected for enlargement. • Diopter- measurement of the refractive ability of
an imaginary lens. When small enough, it • Contrast- Difference in brightness between alens. It is the reciprocal of the focal length, in
appears to the eye as a point, and at this size the adjacent areas of tone. In photographic emulsion, meter; a convex lens is measure in positive
image appears sharp. it is also the rate increase in density measured diopter, a concave lens in negatives diopters.
• Coating- A thin deposited surface on a lens, used against exposure. • Diverging lens- lens which causes light rays to
to reduce flare. • Converging Lens- lens which concentrates light spread outwards from the optical axis.
• Color Compensation Filter- Filter used to alter rays towards a common point. Also known as a • Dye Cloud- Zone of color in a developed silver
color of light. Available in primary and convex lens. grain, which itself has been bleached out during
complementary colors at different strengths. • Dark -field illumination - lighting technique used development.
• Color Contrast- Subjects impression of the in photomicrography, where the subjects is lit • Dye Transfer Process- Coor printing process
difference in density between two close or from all sides by a cone of light directed from that uses color separation negatives which in turn
adjacent colors. beneath the subjects. produce matrices that can absorb and transfer
colored dyes to paper.

34
• Electromagnetic Spectrum- The range of • Filter- transparent material fitted to a lens alters • Fresnel Screen- A viewing screen that
frequencies of electromagnetic from radio wave the characteristics of light passing through it, incorporates a Fresnel lens. This has a stepped
to gamma rays, including visible radiation's most commonly in color. convex surface that perform the same function as
(light) • Fish-Eye-Lens- a very wide- angle lens a condenser lens,distributing image brightness
• Electron- an elementary particles with a negative characterized by extreme barrel distortion. over the entire area of the screen, but is much
charge, normally in orbit around nucleus. • Flare- Non -image-forming light caused by thinner.
• Electronic Flash- Artificial light source scattering and reflection, that degrades the • Gamma- measure of the steepness of an
produced by passing a charges across two quality of an images. Coating is used to reduced emulsion's characteristics curve being the
electrodes in a gas. it. tangent of the angle made by extending the
• Emulsion- Light-sensitive substances composed • Flash- see electronic flash. straight line position of the curve, downwards
of halides suspended in gelatin, used for • Flash Guide Number- Notation used to until it meets the horizontals axis.
photographic film and paper. determine the aperture setting when using • Gelatin- substance used to hold halide particles
• Exposure- In photography, the amount of light electronic flash. It is proportionate to the output in suspension, in order to construct an emulsion.
reaching emulsion, being the product of intensity of the flash unit. This deposited on a backing.
and time. • Flash Synchronization- Camera system that • Grade- Clarification of photographic printing
• Exposure Latitude- For film, the increase in ensure that the peak light output from flash Units paper by contrast. Grades 0 to 4 are the most
exposure that can be made from the minimum coincides with the time that shutters fully open. common, although they are not comparable
necessary to record shadow detail, while • Flash Length- the distance measure from the across makes.
presenting detail. center of the lens to the film plane when tea lens • Graininess- The subjective impression when
• Extension- A fixed or adjustable tube placed is focus at distance objects. viewing a photography of granularity under
between the lens and camera body used to • Fluorescent Lighting- Vapor discharge lighting normal viewing conditions. The eye cannot
increase the magnification of the image. in which the inside of the lamp's jacket is coated resolve individuals grains, only overlapping
• F-stop- The notation for relative aperture which is with phosphors. These add a continuous clumps of grains.
ratio of the focal length to the diameter of the spectrum to the single emission spectra. The • Granularity- the measurements of the size and
aperture. The light gathering power of lenses is color recorded on film is difficult to predict, distribution of grains in an emulsion.
usually described by the wider f-stop they are depending on the type and age of lamp, but it is • Ground Glass Screen- Sheet of glass finely
capable of and lens aperture ring are normally generally greenish. ground to a translucent finish on one side, used to
calibrated in a standard series: F1, f1, f2; f4. F16, • Focal Length- The distance between the center make image focusing easier when viewing.
f22, f32, and so on, each these stops differing its of a lens (the principle point) and its focal point. • Gyro Stabilizer- Electrically-powered camera
adjacent stop by a factor of 2. • Focal Plane Shutter - Shutter located close to the support that incorporates a heavy gyroscope to
• Field Curvature- In this lens aberration, the focal plane, using tow blinds that form an cushion the camera from vibrations. Particularly
plane of sharpest focus is a curved surface rather adjustable gap which moves across the film area. useful when shooting from helicopters, cars and
than flat surface at the film plane. The size of the gap determines the exposure. other vehicles.
• Film- a type of light sensitized material that • Focal Points- The point on either side of a lens • Hardeners- Chemical agent, commonly chrome
produces negative after development. where light rays entering parallel to the axis or potassium alum that combines with the gelatin
• Filter- a homogeneous medium which transmits coverage. of a film to make resistant to scratching.
of absorbs different wave length of • Focus- The point at which light rays are • Hyperfocal distance- the minimum distance at
electromagnetic energy. converged by lens. The estimation or calculation which a lens records a subject sharply when
• Film Speed rating- The sensitivity of a film to of the object distance from the camera and focused infinity.
light , measure on a standard scale, normally formed a sharp images. • Hypo- Alternative name for fixer, sodium
either ASA or DIN. thiosulfate.

35
• Hypo-Eliminator- Chemical used to clean fixer • Line Film - very high contrast film. Which can • Natural light- light that comes to existence with
an emulsion to shorten washing time. developed so that the image contains only full the intervention of man.Use to make a positive
• Hyper Focal Distance- the nearest distance at density black, with a focal length. image, normally a print projection.
which the lens is focus at the particular f-number • Long- focus lens- lens with focal length longer • Neutral lens- lens with a focal length equal to the
to given maximum depth of field. than the diagonal of the film format. For 3.5mm diagonal of the film format. It produces an image
• Incident Light Reading- Exposure measurement film, anything longer than about 50mm is which appear to have man.
of the light sources that illuminates the subjects ( therefore at least twice the standard focal length . • Open Flash- method of illumination a subjects
or refracted light reading). It is therefore • Luminance- the quantity of light emitted by or with a flash unit, by leaving the camera shutter
independent of the subject's own characteristics. reflected from a surface. open, an triggering the flash discharge manually.
• Infra-Red Radiation- Electromagnetic • Masking- Blocking specific areas of an emulsion • Optical axis - line passing through the center of
radiation's from 730 nanometers to 1 mm, longer from light For example, a weak positive image , a lens system. A light ray following this line
in wavelengths that light is proportional to the when combined with the negative can be used to would not be bent.
square of the distance from the source to the mask the highlights so as to produce a less • Orthochromatic Film- film that is sensitive to
surface. contrasting print. green and blue light, but reacts weakly to red
• Ion- An atom or group of atoms with positive • Matrix- Sheet of film used in the dye transfer light.
charge, because of too few electrons ( positive) of process that carries a relief image in gelatin. This • Panchromatic Film- film that is sensitive to all
too many (negatives) is temporarily dyed when printing. the colors of the visible spectrum.
• Joule- Unit of electronic flash output, equal to one • Mean Noon sunlight- an arbitrary but generally • Panning- a smooth rotation of the camera so as to
war-second. The power of different units can be accepted color temperature of which most keep a moving subject continuously in frame.
compared with this measurement. daylight color film are balanced 5400. Kelvin, • Parallax- the apparent movement of two objects
• Kelvin- the standard unit of thermodynamic being the average color temperature of direct relative to each other when viewed from different
temperature, calculated by adding 273 to midday in Washington DC. positions.
degrees centigrade. • Mercury vapor lamp- form of lighting • Parallax- displacement of image point when
• Latent Image- the invisible image formed by sometimes encountered in available light viewed at two different points or angles.
exposing an emulsion to light. Development photography. It has discontinues spectrum and • Pentaprism- five-side prism, which rectiles the
renders it visible. reproduces as blue green on color photography. image left to right and top to bottom.
• Lens- A transparent device for converging or • Mired Value- a measurement of color • Photo Electric Cell- light sensitive cell used to
diverging rays light by refraction. Convex lenses temperature that facilitates the calculation of measure exposure. Some produce electricity
are thicker at the center that at the edges; difference between light sources. It is the when expose to light;
concave lenses are thicker at the edges, at the reciprocal of the Kelvin measurement (one • Photographic Paper- paper which is sensitive to
center. million per Kelvin) light and produces positive print after
• Lens Axis- A line through the center of curvature • Mirror Lens- compound lens that form an image development of image point when viewed at two
of a lenses. reflection from mirrors rather than refraction different points or angles.
• Lens Flare- Non- images forming reflected that through lenses. By folding the light paths, its • Photography- is driver from the Greek word
degrades the quality of the image. length is much. Shorten than that of traditional which means light and draw respectively. It is
• Lens Shade- Lens attachment that shades the lenses of the same focal length. also defined as the art or science which deals
element from non images forming light that can • Monopod- single leg of a tripod, as a light weight with the reproduction of images through the
cause flare. camera or handled shooting. action of light on sensitized materials.
• Light- is an electromagnetic energy, that excites • Nanometer- 1 x 10 meter • Police Photography- is the science that deals
the retina of light passing through it to form an with the study of principle of photography, it
image.-

36
 application to police work and the preparation of • Programmed Shutter- electronically operated • Reticulation- Crazed effect on a film emulsion
photographic evidence. with variable speeds that is linked to the cameras caused by subjecting the softened gelatin to
• Photoflood- Over-rated tungsten lump use in TTL meter. When a particular aperture setting is extremes of temperature change.
photography with the color temperature of 3400. selected the shutter speed is automatically • Reversal Film- Photographic emulsion which,
• Photomacrography- Photography at great adjusted to give a standard exposure. when developed, gives a positive image
magnification using the imaging systems of a • Range Finder- arrangement of mirror, lens and (commonly called transparency). So called of one
microscope. prism that measures distance by means of stage in the development when the film briefly
• Photon- a quantum of light and other binocular system. Used on direct view finder re-exposed, either chemically or to light thus
electromagnetic radiation , treated as an cameras for accurate focusing. reversing the image which would otherwise be
elementary particles. • Reciprocity Failure (reciprocity effect)- at very negative.
• Pincushion Distortion- a lens aberrations in short and very long exposure, the reciprocity low • Rifle Stock- Camera support that enables a
which the shape of the image is distorted. The ceases to hold true, and an extra exposure is camera normally with a long lens, to be handheld
magnification increases radially outwards, and a needed. With color film, the three dye layers more securely, in the same manner as a rifle.
square objects appears in the shape of suffer differently, causing a color cast. • Sabatier Effect- partial reversal of tone (and
pincushion, with the corner's stretched. Reciprocity failure differs from emulsion to color when applied to a color emulsion) due to
• Polarization- Restriction of the direction of emulsion. brief exposure to light during development of an
vibration of light. Normal light vibrates at right • Reciprocity Law-Exposure-Intensity X Time- emulsion light sensitive materials for which it is
angles to its direction travel in every plane; A in other words, the amount for exposure that the designed.
plane-polarizing filter (the most common in film receive in a camera is the product of the size • Sensitized Material- materials which is affected
photography) restricts this vibration to one palen of the lens aperture (intensity) and the shutter once Scoop Smoothly curving background, used
only. There are several application, the most speed (time). principally to eliminate the horizon line.
usual being to eliminate reflection from water and • Reducer- chemical used to remove silver from a • Selenium Cell- photo-electric cell which
non metallic surfaces. developed image, so reducing density. Useful for generates its own electricity in proportion to the
• Posteurization- Dark room technique that over- developed negatives. light falling on it.
converts an image into areas of flat single stone, • Reflected Light Reading-Exposure- • Sensitivity- the ability of an emulsion to respond
using tone separation. measurement of the light reflected from the to light.
• Primary Colors- a set of any three colors that subject (of incident light reading). Through the • Sensitometry- the scientific study of light
when mixed together cam be use to male any lens meters use this method, and it is well-suited sensitive materials and the way they behave.
other color, and when mixed together in equal to subjects of average reflectance. • Separation Negative- Black-and White negative
proportion produce either white (by the additive • Reflector- surface used to reflect light. Usually exposed through a strong colored filter to record
process) or block (by the subtractive process). the light at the same time. an image of a selected part of the spectrum,
Red; green and blue are one set of primary • Refraction- the bending of light rats as they pass normally one-third. Used in dye transfer
colors; cyan; magenta and yellow are another. from one transparent light-transmitting printing, and also in non-photographic printing.
• Printing- in - photographic printing technique of properties. • Shading-Photographic printing technique
selectively increasing exposure over certain • Aperture - the focal length of lens divided by the where light is held back from selected parts of
areas of the image. diameter of the entrance pupil,normally the image.
• Prism- Transparent substance shaped so as to recorded as f-stops,e.g. 50m lens with the • Sharpness- the subjective impression when
refract light in a controlled manner. maximum aperture opening 25mm in diameter viewing a photograph of acutance.
• Process lens-flat-field lens designed to give has a relative aperture of f4 (100mm/ 25mm • Short focus lens- Lens with focal length
high resolution of the image on a flat plain.This is known as resolving power.
achieved at the expense of depth of field, which
is always shallow.
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• Shorter than the diagonal of the film format. For in this way produces black( an absence of light) wavelength than light. Most films, unlike the
the 35mm format; short lenses generally range exposed to light. human eye, are sensitive to ultra- violet radiation.
shorter than 35mm. • Shutter Speed- The duration between the • Vapor Discharge Lighting- artificial produced
• Shutter- camera mechanism that control the opening and closing of the shutter. by passing an electric current through gas at low
period of time that image-focusing light is • Test Strip- test of various exposures made with an pressure in a glass envelope.
allowed to fall on the film. enlarger. • Variable Contrast Paper- printing paper with a
• Single lens reflex- camera design that allows the • Through -the- lens (TTL) Meter - Exposure single emulsion which can be used in different
image focused on the film plane system. meter built into the camera, normally located degree of contrast by means of selected filters.
• Slave Unit- device that respond to the light close to the instant - return mirror of a single • Viewfinder- simple optical system used for
emission unit, to activate additional flash reflex or to the pentaprism. viewing the subject
unit.Snoot generally fitting a light source, used to • Tone - Uniform density in an image. • Wavelength- the distance between two
throw a circle on the subject. • Tone separation- the isolation of areas of tone in successive crests. Curved mirrors rather than
• Soft Focus Filter- a glass with an irregular or an image, normally by the combination of refraction through lenses. By folding the light, its
etched surface that reduces image sharpness and varying densities of line positive and negative. length is much shorter than that of traditional
increase flare, in a controlled fashion. Normally • Toner- chemicals that add an overall color to a lenses of the same focal length.
used for flattering effect in portraiture and beauty process black and white, by means of bleaching • Wavelength of Light- The distance between
shots. and dyeing. peals in a wave of light. This distance among
• Solarization- reversal of tones in an image • Transparency - Positive image on a transparent other things determines the color.
produced by greatly overexposing the emulsion . film base, designed to be viewed by a • Wetting Agent- Chemical the weakens the
A similar appearance can be created by making transmitted light. surface tension of water, and so re reduces the
use of the Sabatier effect. • Tri-chromatic- method of reusing or risk of dying marks on film.
• Spherical Aberration- In this aberration, light reproducing specific colors by the variable • Wide- Angle Lens- lens with an angle lens of
rays from subject on the lens axis passing combination of only three equally distributed view than that considerated subjectively normal
through off-center areas of the lens focus at wave-lengths, such as blue,green, red or yellow, by the human eye (i,e more than about 50). Wide
different distances from light rays that pass magenta, cyan. angles of view are characteristic of lenses with
directly through the center of the lens. The result • Tri- Pack Film- color film constructed with three short focal lengths.
is blurring in the center of the picture. layers of emulsion, each sensitive to a different • Zone System- a method of evaluating exposure,
• Split-Field Filter- Bi- focal filter, the top half of color. When expose equally, the three colors with implication for the photographic approach,
which consist of plain glass, the lower half being give white. developed by Ansel Adams, Minor White and
a plus- diopter lens that allows a close • Tungsten-Halogen Lamp- tungsten lamp of other light. Light measurement is converted to
foreground to be focused at the same time as the improved efficiently, in which the filament is in exposure setting by dividing the tonal range into
background. closed in halogen gas, which causes the vaporize specific numbered zones.
• Spot Meter- hand-held exposure meter of great parts of the filament to be re-deposited on the • Zoom Lens- Lens with continuously variable
accuracy, measuring reflected light over a small filament rather than on the envelope. length over a certain range at any given focus
angle of view. • Tungsten Lighting- artificial lighting cause by and aperture. It is generated by differential of the
• Stop Bath- Chemical that neutralizes the action of heating a filament of tungsten to a temperature lens elements.
the developer or an emulsion effectively stopping where it emits light. • ARTIFICIAL LIGHT- light that comes to
development. • Tripod- three legged device that support the existence with the intervention of man.
• Subtractive Process- the process of combining camera during exposure. • CABLE RELEASE- a device use in pressing the
colored pigment dyes, or filter, all of which • Ultra Violet Radiation- electromagnetic shutter release button of the camera that avoid
absorb light. Combining all three primary colors radiation from 13 to 397 nanometers, short in

38
 incidental movement of the camera during • PHOTOGRAPHY- is derived from the two Greek 1. D i re c t – T h e a c tio n o f th e e xpa n s ive fo r c e
exposure period. word which means light and draw respectively. It o f g as e s o ut o f th e bu rn in g po wde r .
• CIRCLE OF CONFUSION- a disc form image of is also defined as the art or science which deals 2. Ro t ary – T h e a ct io n o f th e ri f lin g fo un d o n
a point in the object. The allowable circle of with the reproduction of images through the th e in n e r sur fa ce o f th e barre l .
confusion is usually 1/1,000 of the focal length of action of light on sensitized material. 3.T r an sl at io n al – T h e pro je ct i le h i ts th e
the lens in inches. • POLICE PHOTOGRAPHY- is the science that tar ge t an d su bse que n tly ri co ch e te d .
• DEPTH OF FOCUS- the maximum permissible deals with the study of the principle of
distance within which the film maybe placed photography, its application to police work and OR I G IN OF BAL L IS T I CS – T h e wo r d
without exceeding the circle of confusion in order the preparation of photographic evidence. “B ALL I ST I CS ” o r ig i n ate d fr o m t h e G re e k
to produce the image. • SENSITIZED MATERIAL- Materials which is wo rd “ B a ll o o r Ba l l e in ” wh i ch m e an s “t o
• DIAPHRAGM OPENING- control the amount of affected once exposed light. t hro w ” an d fro m th e La ti n wo rd “B a l l i st a ”
light that passes thru the lens exposure. • SHUTTER SPEED- the duration between the wh i ch is a Ro m an w ar m ac h in e to h ur l a
• FILM- a type of light sensitized material that opening and closing of the shutter. ja ve lin , a gi gan t ic b o w o r c at ap ul t wh i c h
produces a negative after development. • TRIPOD- three legged device that supports the th e n use d to h ur l m i ss ile s o r l arg e o bje c t s
• FILTER- a homogeneous medium which camera during exposure. o f a d is tan ce l ik e s to n e s ag ai n s t an i ma l s o r
transmits or absorbs different wavelength of • WAVE LENGTH- the distance between two th e ir e n e m y f o rc e s .
electromagnetic energy. successive crests. -Fro m th o se wo rd s t h e mo de r n te r m
• FLASH UNIT- An artificial light that synchronized fo r Fo re n s ic B a ll is t ic s w a s de r ive d t o
with the opening and closing of the shutter. It FOR EN SI C BALL I S T I CS in d i ca te t h e s c ie n ce o f mo v in g pro je c t ile .
could either be flash bulb, electronic flash and Fre n ch ar ti st L e o n ar do d a V in ci a s
cube flash. Ba l li st i cs is re gar de d as o n e o f th e can be g le an e d in his sk e t ch of
• FOCAL LENGTH- the distance measure from the h igh e st f o rm s o f u n co n te s tab le an d ac cu ra t e ste am po we r e d can n o n to h i s pr im i ti v e
center of the lens to the film plane when the lens pie ce o f co n c lus i ve e vid e n ce wi th th e wh e e l l o ck f ire arm s i n 15 00 A .D .
is focus at distance object. utmo st le g a l s ign i fi c an c e . T h u s , i t h a s a n Co l o n e l C al v in H . G o ddar d MD . , O S ,
• FOCUS- the estimation or calculation of object adv an ta ge o ve r e x tr a cte d co n fe s si o n s . T h i s US Ar my, p io n e e re d th e in tro d uc t io n o f
distance from the camera and formed a sharp sc ie n ti f ic me an s h a s be e n an e f fe ct iv e fo re n si c ba l li st i cs in 1 92 0 th ro u gh o ut t h e
images. me d ium in pro vi din g adv i ce o n f ire arm s an d Cri m in o l o gy c o urse s in th e di f fe re n t
re la te d m at te rs an d a ss i st an c e in t h e un i ve rs it ie s in th e Un i te d St ate s .
• HYPER FOCAL DISTANCE- the nearest distance
in ve st ig a tio n o f sh o o t in g in c ide n ts . In 1 92 3 , Wa i te , F is ch e r an d G r a ve l le
at which the lens is focus at a particular f-number
Fo re n s i c Ba l li st i cs i s th e st udy o f fo un de d th e B ure a u o f Fo re n si c . Wh e n
to give maximum depth of field.
re co ve re d pro j e c ti l e s to ide n ti fy th e Wa it e d ie d in 19 26 , h is p la ce a s h e ad o f t h e
• LENS- medium or system which converges or
fir e ar ms wh ic h f ire d t h e m. I t co u ld a lso b e Bure au w as t ak e n b y Co l . G o d dar d, l ik e th e
diverges rays of
ca l le d f ire arm s i de n t if i ca t io n . The Fre n ch ma n La ca ss ag n e , an e x - arm y o f f i c e r
• LIGHT- is an electromagnetic energy, that excite
e vi de n ce o b t ain e d is ge n e r a lly a c ce p te d i n wi th an a bi din g in te r e st in f ire ar ms .
the retina of light passing thru it to form an image.
• NATURAL LIGHT- light that comes to existence cr im in a l co ur t tr ia l s to e s tab l ish use o r
po s se s sio n o f a ce r ta i n we apo n . BR AN C HE S OF BALL IS T I CS
with the intervention of man. a. ) IN T ER IOR BAL LI S T IC S – tra it s o f
• PARALLAX- displacement of image point when th e mo t io n o f t h e pr o je ct il e s wh i le st i ll i n
viewed at two different points or angles. BALL I S TI CS – is th e s cie n ce o f th e mo t io n
o f pr o je c ti le . th e f ire ar m , n ame ly th e s tud ie s of
• PHOTOGRAPHIC PAPER- paper which is co mb us tio n of th e po wde r , pre ss ur e
sensitive to light and produces positive print after de ve lo pe d a n d ve lo c i ty. T h i s e x te n d s fro m
development process. Ki nd s o f M o t io n :
th e b re e ch to th e mu z zle o f th e gu n .
39
In te r io r b a l li st i cs is so sh o r t . Fro m th e pe rce i ve d re c o i l due to th e s h ar pn e s s o f th e 4. Po w de r t e m pe r at u re – a ffe c ts th e co urs e
re le ase o f t h e fi r in g pin to th e m o me n t th e blo w. o f p ro pe l lan t co mb us tio n an d g a s pre ss ur e
so un d o f th e sh o t c an b e h e ar d as it le a ve s e . P hy s ic a l a nd me nt a l co n di t io n o f t h e bui ld up in th e bo re
th e mu z zl e o c cu p i e s o n ly a bo ut 0 .0 1 sho o t e r . A ve ry s l ig h tl y bu i lt sh o o te r m a y 5. Po w de r w e ig ht – amo u n t o f po w de r i n
se co n d s in m o de r n r i f le . T h e e xp lo sio n o f a e xpe r ie n ce mo r e p e rce ive d re co i l sin ce ca si n g is dir e c tl y pro p o r tio n a l to in it i al
bul le t is 0 .0 00 2 se co n d s by me a n s o f th e y h a ve le ss bo d y m as s to a ct a s a ve lo c it y.
tre me n do u s e x plo si o n o f b ur n in g g ase s . dam pe r . 6. P ro je ct i le w e i ght – a l igh te r t h a n
T h e se in cl ude th e fo ll o win g : 8 . Ve lo ci ty o f th e b ul le t in th e b arre l st an d ard pro je c t ile w il l h ave a h i gh e r in it i al
1 . F ir in g pin h i tt in g th e p r i me r 9 . Ro t at io n o f th e bu lle t in th e b arre l ve lo c it y i mp arte d to i t an d v i ce ve rs a .
2 . I gn i t io n o f t h e pr i min g m ix ture 10 . En gr av in g s o f th e cyl in dri c al sur fa ce o f 7. Ot h e r f act o r s
3 . Co mb u st io n o f th e gun p o w de r th e bu l le t a. Ch am be r vo lume – a ffe c ts pre ss ure b ui l d
4 . E xp an s io n o f th e h e ate d g as up.
5 . P re ssur e de ve lo p e d FAC TOR S A FF E CT IN G IN T ER IO R b. Le n gth o f b arre l – po wde r ac ts o n
6 . En e r gy ge n e r ate d BALL I S TI CS : pro je c ti le lo n g e r th us in cr e a sin g in i t ia l
7 . Re co i l o f th e gun – th e e q ua l a n d 1. Bo r e e ro s io n – t h e me ch an ic a l we ar an d ve lo c it y.
o ppo si te r e a c t io n o f th e gu n a ga in s t t h e te ar o f th e in n e r sur f ace o f th e g un b arre l c. B arre l te mpe ra tur e – ca use s po wd e r t o
fo rw ar d m o ve me n t o f th e bu lle t dur in g due to me ch an ic a l abra sio n o r sl id i n g burn f a ste r , af fe ct in g pre s sure b ui ld up .
e xp lo s io n . fri c tio n . d. Ro ta tin g b an d s – i mpa rt an ae ro d yn a mi c
ro ta ti o n i n cr e a sin g r a n ge .
R EC O IL I S AF F E CT ED B Y S EV ER AL BOR E ER OS I ON CA U SE D B Y : 8. In te r io r b a ll i st ic s h a s le ss e f fe ct o n a
TH I NG S : a. He at fro m burn in g pro pe ll an t. pro je c ti le th an e x te r io r ba l li st i cs , d ue t o
a . Ti ght ne ss w it h w hi ch t he f i re a r m i s b .P re ssur e of p o wde r g ase s an d th e co m par at i ve l y sh o rt t i me t h e se f ac to r s
he l d . I f th e f ir e ar m is n o t ti gh t ly h e ld th e co mb us tio n . ac t u po n th e pr o je c ti l e .
fir e ar m ge ts a r u n n in g s tar t an d sm ack s th e c. Ch e mi c al a ct io n o f po wde r g ase s a n d b.) TR AN S IT I ON AL BALL I S TI CS – i s t h e
sh o o te r h a r de r . Wi th a f irm g ri p t h e co mb us tio n re s i due . bran ch o f sc ie n ce th a t de a ls w ith th e mo tio n
sh o o te r’ s b o d y m as s dam pe n s th e f ire arm ’ s d.Me ch an ic a l e ro s io n a s pro je c ti le p as se s o f th e pro je ct i le fro m th e t im e it le a ve s th e
mo t io n an d th e pe r ce i ve d r e co i l i s le s s . th ro ug h th e bo re . muz z le un ti l th e o n ly fo rc e s ac ti n g up o n i t
b. He ig ht o f t h e bo r e a bo v e t h e ce nt e r o f e .M ate r i al f at igu e . are d ue to e x te ri o r b a ll i st ic s .
t he st o ck l i ne o r w r ist fo r p i st o l s. If a 2. P o w de r in de x c. ) E X T ER IOR B ALL I ST I CS – th i s re fe rs t o
rif le ’s s to ck h as a lo t o f d r o p o r if a pi st o l ’ s a. P ro pe l lin g ch a rge s are de s ign e d to bur n th e mo t io n o f pro je c ti le s fro m t h e ti me i t
barre l is h i gh a b o ve th e lin e o f th e ar m t h e in th e ch a mbe r o f th e gun in s uch a m an n e r le a ve s th e mu z zl e o f th e fire arm an d th e
to rq ue e f fe ct is m uc h mo r e pr o n o un ce d an d as to d e ve lo p m ax im um pro je ct ile ve l o c it y ti me it r e a ch e s th e t a rge t . T h e f l igh t o f mo st
th e fir e ar m r ise s mo r e , i n cr e a sin g t h e wi th o u t e x ce ss ive h e a t, pre s sure o r e ro si o n . bul le t s d o e s n o t e xce e d 3 0 se c o n d s at
pe rce i ve d r e co i l. b. T h e do m in an t fa cto r use d to co n tro l max im um ran ge . T h i s br an ch in vo l ve s th e
c. Sh ap e and de s ig n o f t he b ut t p l at e o r burn in g ra te i s th e sur fa ce ar e a pe r un i t fo l lo wi n g :
t he p i st o l ’s g ri p . N ar r o w o r sh arp e d ge d we i gh t o f pro pe l lan t , wh i ch i s de te rm in e d 1. M u zz le b l a st – th e n o i se cr e a te d a t th e
butt p l ate s o r pi sto l gr ip s co n ce n tra te t h e by th e sh ape o f th e pr o pe l l an t gra in . muz z le po in t o f th e gun due to th e su dd e n
re co il e n e r gy in a sm al le r ar e a th us 3. I n it i al Ve lo cit y – th e spe e d at wh i ch th e e sc ape o f g as co mi n g in co n ta c t w i th th e a i r
mag n i fy in g th e e f fe ct to th e sh o o te r . pro je c ti le mo v e s th ro ugh an d o ut th e bo re , in th e su rro un d in g a tmo sph e r e at th e
d. We ig ht o f t he f i re a rm . L igh te r f ire arm s, un t il th e ro ta ti n g ba n ds d ise n ga ge a t th e muz z le p o in t.
h av in g le s s m as s, h ave a h i gh e r re co il muz z le . 2. M u zz le e n e r g y – e n e rg y ge n e r ate d at
ve lo c it y wh i ch se e ms to a cce n tu ate t h e th e m uz z le po in t.
40
3. Tr a je ct o r y – th e ac tu al cur ve d p ath o f 10. Mi d- ra ng e tr a je ct o ry – th e h e igh t o f th e 6. A ir re s i st ance – r e si st an ce e n co un te re d
th e b ul le t du r in g it s fl igh t fro m t h e g u n bul le t ’ s p ath abo ve th e li n e o f s igh t at by th e bu lle t wh i le in fl ig h t .
muz z le to th e t ar ge t. h al f way to th e ze ro r a n ge . 7. Pu l l o f gr av it y – do wn war d re a ct io n o f
11. Min ute o f a ngl e – a m in u te o f an g le is th e bu l le t to war d th e e arth ce n te r due to i t s
ST A GE S OF TR A JE C TOR Y : 1/ 60 o f a de gre e w h i ch fo r a ll pr a ct i ca l we i gh t .
a. str a igh t h o r i zo n t al lin e purpo se s e qu ate s to 1 in ch pe r 1 00 y ard s o f 8. Pe ne t r at io n – de p t h o f e n try o n t arge t .
b. p ar ab o la l ik e fl ig h t ran ge .
c. ve r ti c al dr o p 12. Ze ro ra n ge – th e f arth e st d is t an ce at E X T ER N AL P HY S IC AL F OR C E S AC T O N
wh i ch th e li n e o f s igh t an d th e bu l le t ’s pa t h TH E B ULL E T A S SO ON AS I T L E AV E S T H E
T ER M S R EL A T IN G T O B UL L E T ’S P A TH : in te r se ct . M UZZL E
1. Ba ck c ur v e – th is i s th a t po rt io n o f t h e 4.R a nge – th e str ai gh t d is ta n ce be tw e e n 1 IN ER T IA – T h is is a pro pe r ty o f m att e r
bul le t s tr a je cto r y t h at dr o p s be lo w t h e muz z le an d tar ge t . wh i ch te n d s to a l lo w a bo dy at re s t t o
cr it ic a l zo n e b e yo n d t h e po in t bl an k r an ge . a. A cc ura te ran ge – th e d is t an c e wi th i n re ma in a t re s t o r bo dy in mo t io n to re ma in
2. Ba lli st i c co e f f i ci e nt – th is is a n umbe r wh i ch th e sh o o te r h as co n tro l o f h i s sh o t s. in mo t io n .
th a t re l ate s to th e e ff e ct o f a ir dra g o n th e b .M ax im um r an g e – th e f arth e st d is tan c e 2. GR A V I TY – T h e fo rce th at te n d s to pu l l
bul le t ’ s f li gh t an d w h i ch c an be u se d l at e r th a t a pro je ct il e ca n be pro pe l le d fro m a an y u n su ppo r te d o bje ct to th e gro un d.
pre d ic t a b u l le t ’ s tr a j e cto r y un de r di f fe re n t fir e ar m. Al th o u gh i t i s n o t im me d ia te ly o b vio us ,
ci rc ums t an ce s th r o ug h wh at ar e ca l le d dr a g 5. Ve lo cit y – ra te o f spe e d o f th e bu l le t p e r gra vi ty be g in s to a c t o n a bul le t th e in s tan t
tab le s. un i t o f t ime . it is o u t o f th e barr e l .
3. Bo r e ce nt e r l i n e – t h is is t h e v isu a l l in e o f T h e lo n g b arre l rif le m ak e s i t 3. A IR R ES I ST AN C E – No rma l ly , i t i s
th e ce n te r o f th e b o r e . ac cur at e fo r r an ge s up to 30 00 y ard s an d str an ge to th in k o f a ir as o ffe rin g re s is tan c e
4. B ulle t t r a je ct o r y – th e b ul le t’ s p ath as i t th e we ap o n h a s a h i n ge mu z zl e ve lo ci ty o f to an y th in g a s fa st as bu ll e t , b ut th is i s
tra ve l s do wn r an ge . 10 00 to 4 00 0 f t/ se c. are in te n de d fo r in de e d th e ca se . A s a ma tt e r o f f a ct , a n
5. Criti ca l zo ne – th e ar e a o f th e b ul le t’ s sh o o t in g a t cl o se ra n ge a n d b ul le ts c arr y ar my r if le bu ll e t lo se s o ve r 23 % o f it s
pat h wh e r e i t n e i th e r r ise s n o r fa l ls g re a te r o n ly 40 0 -6 00 yar ds . fo rw ar d s pe e d o r ve lo ci ty in th e f irs t 3 0 0
th an th e di me n sio n s p e c if ie d . yard s o f t ra ve l be cau se o f a ir re s is tan ce .
6. I nitia l po i n t – th e r an ge at wh i ch th e COND I T IO NS : d. )T ER M I NA L BAL L IS T I CS – tra i ts o f t h e
bul le t ’ s tr a je cto r y f ir st cr o s se s th e l in e o f 1. Ve l o c it y – t h e s pe e d o f a b ul le t me as ure d e ff e c ts o f th e pro je c ti le o n i mp a ct o n th e
si gh t . in ft /s e c . tar ge t . T h i s in vo lve s th e fo l lo win g :
7. L in e o f si g ht – t h e v isu a l lin e o f th e 2. En e r gy – th e fa ta l e qu iv ale n t o f a bu l le t . 1.T e r m in a l a c cur ac y – size o f th e b ul l e t
al ign e d si gh t pa th . 3. Y aw – th e un st ab l e ro t at in g mo tio n o f a gro up in g o n th e t arg e t.
8.Ma x i m u m o r di na t e – th e m ax im um h e i g h t bul le t . 2.T e r m in a l e n e r gy – e n e rgy of the
o f th e pr o je ct i le ’ s p ath a b o ve th e l in e o f pro je c ti le wh e n it s tri k e s th e t arge t .
si gh t fo r a g iv e n p o in t o f im pa ct a n d o c cur s KE Y- HOL E S HO T – th e t umb l in g o f 3.T e r m in a l ve lo c i ty – spe e d o f th e bu ll e t
so me wh a t p as t t h e h a lf wa y po in t to th e ze r o th e bu lle t in it s f li gh t an d h i tt in g th e t arge t upo n str ik in g th e tar g e t.
ran ge an d it is de te r min e d b y yo ur ze r o in g si de w ay s as a re s ul t o f n o t sp in n in g o n it s 4.T e r m in a l pe n e t ra ti o n – de pth o f e n t ry o f
ran ge . ax is . th e bu l le t in th e t ar ge t.
9.Ma x i m u m po i nt bl a nk ra ng e – th e 4. G yro s co p i c ac t io n – th e st i ll n e s s o f i t s
far th e st d is tan ce a t wh i ch th e b ul le t ’ s pa th ro ta ti n g mo tio n an d at ta in i ts h igh e st TH E F OLL OW I NG AR E TH E MORE
st ays w ith in th e cr it i c al zo n e . mo me n tum fo r s tab i li ty in fl igh t pe n e tr a tin g IM P OR T AN T F AC T OR S IN T ER M I NA L
po we r . BALL I S TI CS :

41
1. ENE RG Y – T h i s i s t h e po te n t ia l f o rce th at gi ve n bo re di am e te r re qu ire d to m ak e u p 1. Sto n e s
an y b ul le t m i gh t e x e r t at an y p art i cu la r o n e po un d we i gh t . 2. Cl ubs , Kn i ve s, Sp e a rs an d D art s
po in t in it s tr a je c to r y . 3. Sl in g sh o ts to h ur l o bj e ct s
2.P ENE T R AT IO N – The ca lc ul at io n of CH OK E – I t re fe rs to th e p art i al co n str i ct io n 4. Bo ws an d arr o w s
pe n e tr at io n i s pe r h a p s th e le as t sc ie n ti f i c o f o f th e bo re at th e mu zz le ; co n s tr ic t s 5. Cro ss – bo w s
al l th e v ar io u s b al l is ti cs f ac to r s. di ame te r an d in cre ase s o f s h o t co l u m n ; 6.G un s
3. RI CO CHE T – It i s t h e te n de n c y o f a bu l l e t de gre e me a sure d a s pe r c e n t age o f pe l le ts 7.M i ss il e s
to g lan ce o f f an o b je ct o r to s k i p, l ik e a f l at fa l lin g wi th in 3 0 in c h e s cir c le at 40 y ar ds
sto n e th r o wn o u t o ve r a w a te r s urf a ce . ran ge . M EN B E H IND F IR E A R M S
e .) FOR EN S IC BAL L I ST I CS – th e s cie n ce o f g. ) WO UND B ALL IS T I CS – T h is re fe rs to th e ✓ Co l . C al vi n H . G o ddar d M .D , O S
fir e ar ms ide n t if i ca ti o n b y me an s o f t h e stu dy o f p ro je c ti le pe n e tra t io n o n ti ss ue s . Army – F ath e r o f M o de rn B al l is ti cs .
amm un i t io n fir e d th r o ugh t h e m . He p io n e e re d th e in tro du ct io n o f
Th re e B as i c K in d s o f Gu n sho t Wo un d fo re n si c b a ll i st ic s in 19 20 th ro u gh o u t
D I VI S IO N O F F O R E NS IC BA LL IS T IC S : di st in gu i she d b y t he pro x i m it y o f w e a po n th e cr im in o lo gy c o urse s in th e
a .) F I EL D N V ES T I GA T ION – re fe r s to th e ca us i ng t he m : di ff e re n t un iv e rs it ie s in th e Un ite d
wo rk o f an in ve st ig ato r i n th e f ie l d. I t 1. Co n ta ct – gun m uz z le pre sse d a ga in st , o r St ate s.
co n ce rn s mo st ly wi th th e co l le c t io n , wi th in an in ch o r t wo , o f th e bo dy . ✓ Ho ra ce S mi th – Fo u n de d th e gre a t
mark in g , pr e se r v at io n , p a ck in g an d 2. Cl o se di s ch ar ge – s ix in ch e s to tw o fe e t . fir m Sm i th an d We s so n an d pio n e e re d
tran sm is s io n o f f ir e ar m s e v ide n ce s . It 3.D is ta n ce d is ch arge – o ve r two fe e t . th e m ak in g o f b re e ch – lo ad in g r i fl e s .
in clu de s th e st udy o f cl as s ch a ra cte ri st i cs o f ✓ D an i e l B. W e s so n – An a sso c ia te
fir e ar ms an d b u lle ts . LE GAL D E FI N IT I O N OF F IR EAR M – par tn e r o f Sm ith in r e vo l ve r mak in g .
b.) T EC HN I CAL E XA M I N A T ION – re fe rs to “F ire arm s” o r “Ar ms ” are h e re in us e d ✓ Jo h n M . Bro w n in g – W iz ard o f mo de r n
th e e x am in e r s w h o e xa min e bu lle ts / o r in clu de s r i fl e s , musk e ts , carb i n e s, fir e ar ms an d fo un de d bre e ch lo ad in g
sh e l l s, w h e th e r fir e d fr o m a lso w h e th e r o r sh o t gun s , re vo l ve r s, pis to ls an d a ll o th e r sin gle sh o t r if le .
n o t c ar tr id ge s we r e lo ade d an d e je c te d de a dly w e a po n s fr o m w h i ch a bu lle t, b a ll , ✓ Jo h n T . T h o m pso n – p io n e e re d th e
mad e by th e sus pe ct e d f ir e ar m s s ubm it te d. sh o t , sh e l l o r o th e r mi ss il e may d i sc h ar g e mak in g o f T h o m pso n sub -M ach in e .
Re po r ts ar e m ade b y th e e xa m in e rs an d o ff by me an s o f gun po wde r o r o th e r ✓ D av id “ Carb in e ” Wi l l ia ms – mak e r o f
te s ti fy in co ur t r e gar d in g th e ir re po rt s. e xp lo s ive s . T h e te r m al so in cl ude s a ir ri f le s fir st k n o w n carb in e .
f. )S H OT B AL L IS T IC S – th i s re fe r s to th e e xce pt su ch as be in g o f s ma l l ca l ibe r a n d ✓ Ale xan de r Jo h n Fo r s yth – F ath e r o f
stu dy o f sh o ts fr o m smo o th bo re f ire ar m s li mi te d r an ge u se d as to ys . T h e b arre l o f th e pe r cu ss io n sy ste m.
lik e sh o tg un s an d mu sk e t s. an y f ire ar m sh a l l be co n s i de re d a co mp le t e ✓ El ish a Ki n g Ro o t – D e si gn e d
SH OT G UN – h as a s mo o th bo re , f ire fir e ar m fo r a l l p urp o se s h e re o f ( Se c . 8 7 7, ma ch in e ry o f mak in g co lt f ire ar ms .
mul t ip le pe l le ts an d al so i t ca n fi re sin g l e Re v is e d Ad mi n i str at i ve Co de se e a l so Se c. ✓ El iph a le t Re m in gto n – O n e o f th e f irs t
slu g . 29 0 N at io n a l In te r n a l Re ve n ue Co de ) . rif le mak e rs .
CON S TR U C TI ON : ✓ Jo h n Mah lo n M ar li n – Fo un de r o f
1. ch amb e r – e n clo se s sh o t gun sh e ll . T EC HN IC AL D EF IN I T ION OF F IR EAR M – Mar lin F ire ar ms Co m pan y .
2. fo r ci n g co n e – co n str i ct s th e ch a rge o f in s tru me n t u se d fo r th e pro pu l sio n o f a ✓ Jam e s Wo l fe Ri p le y – St imu l ate d th e
pe l le t s e n te r in g th e b o r e . pro je c ti le by me an s o f e xp an si ve fo r ce o f de ve lo p me n t o f t h e m o de l 1 85 5 r if le d
3. th e bo r e – th e in s id e o f a fir e ar m’ s b arre l. gas e s fro m burn in g p o wde r . – musk e t .
✓ Sa mue l Co l t – ( 1 81 4- 1 86 2) – P ro du ce d
GA U G E – i t r e fe r s to th e me a sure o f c al ibe r The fo l lo w in g a re t he st a ge s of th e fir st pr ac ti c al re v o lve r .
o f s h o t gun ; n u mb e r o f le a d b al l s o f t h e de v e lo p me nt o f m an ’ s w e apo n :
42
 ✓ He n r y D e r r in g e r – H e ga ve h i s n ame ✓ Arm al it e – O c ca sio n a ll y, th e h o me o f M at c h lo ck wa s de ve l o pe d in th e 15 t h
to a wh o le c la ss o f f ir e arm s. man u f ac tur in g co m pan y b e co me s ce n t ury . A ty pe o f m usk e t wh i ch w as
✓ Jo h n C . G ar an d – D e s ign e d th e s e m i - al mo s t a ge n e r ic te r m. I t h a ppe n s e sse n ti a ll y th e sa me as t h e f ire lo ck , e xc e pt
auto ma t ic U S Ri f le , C a l. 3 0 wi th th e co l t pro duc e dt e rm . It th a t th e s lo w m at ch wa s cl am pe d in th e t o p
✓ O li ve r F . Wi ch e ste r – O n e o f th e h ap pe n s w i th co lt pro du ce d M 16 , o f a de vi ce c a lle d se rpe n t in e , an S - sh a pe d
e ar l ie st r i fl e s an d p is to l ma k e rs . wh i ch h as be e n de s ign e d an d me t al p iv o te d to th e c e n te r . A spr in g
✓ R -J G a t lin g – Bo r n in No rth C aro lin a de ve lo pe d a t A rm al it e . T h e arm al i te de v ic e dro p pe d a li gh te d ma tc h dir e c tl y
in 1 81 8 . D e v e lo pe d th e h a n d - bus in e s s wa s fo r m e d by C h ar le s in to th e gun po w de r .
wr an k e d m ach in e gun . A D o rch e ste r an d G e o rge Su l li va n in Whe e l lo ck w a s d e ve lo pe d abo ut
de ve lo p me n t o f t h e duve r ga tl in g 19 50 . Ar ma l ite e m plo y e d Eu ge n e 15 15 . I t co n s i ste d a spr in g dr ive n wh e e l
type o f ma ch in e gun . Sto n e r , Ch ie f e n g in e e r an d o n e o f th e wh i ch wh e n re le ase o f th e tr igg e r bro u gh t a
✓ G e o r ge Luge r – W as b o rn in A us tri a to p de s ign e rs o f th e c o un try . pie ce iro n pyr i te in to co n t a ct w ith a ro t at in g
in 1 84 9 . He d id la st in g de si gn ✓ CET M E – ( Ce n tro do s E st ud io s ste e l wh e e l , th e re su lt in g s park ign ite d th e
wo r k in co n n e c tio n w i th 9m m T e ch n i co s d e Ma te r ia le s E sp e c i ale s) . po w de r.
P ara be l lu m C ar tr i dge . T h is is th e S pa n i sh go ve rn me n t Fl int lo c k w as pre v ai l in g t ype o f
✓ Jo h an n U lr i ch H am m e r l i – Ham me r li we a po n de ve lo p me n t age n cy , b ase d sm al l ar ms we a po n f o r bo th sh o ul de r gun s
we a po n s h a ve al wa ys b e e n th e in M adr id . an d h an d gun s fr o m th e e n d o f th e 1 7 t h
e p ito me of S wi ss pre ce ss io n ✓ MA US ER – P a ul an d Wi lh e lm bro t h e rs ce n t ury to t h e mi dd le o f th e 19 t h ce n tury . I t
e n gin e e r in g ab i l it y. pro du ce par ts o f th e ri fle wh i ch h ad re se mb le d th e sn ap h an c e , e x ce p t t h a t th e
✓ He ck le r an d Ko ck – Edmo n d He c k le r be e n ado pte d by th e G e rm an str ik e r p la te wa s L -sh ape d, th e bo t to m li m b
h ad b e e n a p lan t man age r go ve rn me n t in 1 87 1. o f th e L w as use d as a co ve r f o r th e p ri mi n g
w ith ma use r , an d A le x Se ide l a ✓ SIG – (S ch we ize r i sch e In d us tri a pan , to pro t e c t th e po w de r fr o m m o i stu r e
de s ign e r w ith m ause r . G e sse l sch a ft ). Ado pt e d by th e Sw i ss un t il th e u ppe r l imb wa s s tru ck by th e f li n t
✓ Se r ge i M o s s in – Co l o n e l o f th e go ve rn me n t as th e ir st an d ard s e rv i ce o f th e h am me r . T h is ac t io n pro du ce d a
Rus s ian Ar my , h e de s ign e d th e we a po n . T h e co m pan y s tar te d t o sh o we r sp ark s wh e n th e po wde r in th e p a n
Rus s ian se r vi ce r i fl e i n 18 91 . pro du ce r ai l way e n g i n e s an d c arre ge wa s un co ve re d .
✓ O sc ar M o s sb e r ge – B o r n i n Swe de n in in 1 85 3 .
18 66 an d we n t to th e Un i te d LAR G E S T GU N IN H I ST OR Y
St ate s.T h e m ak e r o f h igh qu a li ty .2 2 H IS TOR Y OF TH E F I R ST F IR EAR M S : T h e l ar ge s t gun e ve r use d in co mb at
rif le . Spo r tin g r i f le s an d pu mp a c tio n T h e f irs t sm al l arm s we re de ve lo p e d is ge n e r al ly a cce pte d to be th e G e rm a n
sh o t gun . as mi n i at ure m o de l s o f e arl y ar t il le r y “G U ST A V GU N ” bu i lt in 1 94 1 b y th e Krup p
✓ Ki ji r o N am b u – An a r my o f fi ce r g un we a po n s a n d we re a t fir st ca l le d h a n d co m pan y. It h a d an 8 0 ce n t i me te r bo re a n d
de s ign e r . H is fir st de s i gn wa s can n o n s . fir e d e ith e r a 1 0, 50 0 po un d s HE pro j e c ti l e
pr o du ce d b y th e Ka yo ba F a cto ry in Fi re lo ck w as d e ve lo pe d in th e 14 t h o r a 16 ,5 00 po un ds co n cre t e p ie r ci n g
19 04 . ce n t ury as a s i mp le smo o th bo re tub e o f pro je c ti le . T h e ty pi c al p o w de r ch ar ge w a s
✓ Fe do r T o k ar e v – Bo r n at Ego rl ik sk ay a iro n , c lo se d a t th e br e e ch e n d e xce pt fo r a n abo u t 3, 00 0 po un ds o f po wde r . T h e r an ge
in 1 87 1. D e s ign e d th e se rv i ce p is to l o pe n i n g c al le d a to u ch h o le an d s e t in to a wa s abo ut 2 3 to 2 9 mi le s an d th e mu z zl e
o f t h e So v ie t fo r ce s. ro un de d p ie ce o f w o o d fo r h o l d in g un d e r ve lo c it y wa s 2 , 70 0 f e e t. T h e gun w e i gh e d
✓ Car l W a lth e r – D e ve l o pe d a re li ab le th e arm . T h e tube w a s lo a de d wi th sh o t an d 1, 34 4 to n s an d h ad a cre w o f 5 00 me n . It
sm al l ca l ib e r au to mat i c pi sto l in po w de r a n d th e n fi re by i n se r tin g a h e ate d wa s u se d in t h e G e r man ’s dur in g th e sie ge
18 66 . wire in to th e to u ch h o l e . at Se v e st ap o l in Apr i l 19 42 .

43
 G at l i ng G un w as t h e wo r ld ’ s fir st TY P E S OF F IR E A R M S Acco rd i ng to
ge n u in e l y e f fe ct ive r a pi d f ire we apo n , M e ch an ic a l Co n st ru ct io n BLO W BA CK – In fi re arm , an a uto ma ti c an d
al th o u gh it wa s n o t a tr ue ma ch in e gu n . T h e A. S in gl e S ho t F ire a r m – ty pe o f f ire ar ms se m i -au to m at i c f ire ar m de s i gn , th a t d ire ct l y
Ame r i can in ve n to r R i ch a r d G a tl in g is be s t de s ign e d to f ire o n l y o n e sh o t fo r e ve r y uti l iz e s th e bre e ch pr e ssur e e xe r te d o n t h e
k n o wn fo r h is cr an k - o pe r a te d ma ch in e g u n , lo a di n g . h e ad o f t h e c ar tri dg e ca se s to ac tu ate th e
pat e n te d in 18 62 . G at , th e sl an g te rm fo r Ex. P i sto l s, R if le s, Sh o t gu n s – s in g le sh o t s me ch an is m. In a mm un i tio n , a le ak age o f
pi sto l , i s d e r i ve d fr o m G a tl in g’ s n ame . B.R e pe at in g Ar m s – th is ty pe is lo ade d gas re a rw ard be t we e n th e c a se an d
M ax i mu m m ac h ine gun – de ve lo pe d wi th mo re th an o n e c artr id ge in t o th e ch a mbe r w al l fro m th e mo u th o f th e c as e .
by H ira m M ax im – th e w o r l d’ s fi rs t tr u e ch a mbe r w h e n i t is fir e d ra th e r h a vi n g t o
ma ch in e g un . pe rfo r m th i s o pe ra t i o n by h an d . TY P E S O F F IR EAR M S acco rd i ng t o U S E
Sub m ac h ine gu n s a f ire ar m wi th a Ex. R i fle s , Sh o t gun s A. Mi li tar y F ire arm s
rif le d b ar r e l f ir in g pi sto l am mun it io n , C. Bo lt A ct i o n T y pe – a fi re ar m in wh i ch th e Ex. 1. P i sto ls 3. R i fle s
de s ign e d to b e f ir e d fr o m th e sh o ul de r o r bre e ch c lo s ure is (1 ) in lin e w ith th e bo re at 2. Re vo l ve r s 4. Ma ch in e G un s
th e h ip an d c ap ab le o f ful ly au to m at i c fir e . al l ti me s, ( 2) m an u al l y re ci pro ca te d to lo a d, B . P o ck e t a n d H o me D e f e n se F ire arm s
M ac h ine gu n s - a f ire a rm w ith a un lo ad an d co ck , ( 3) an d i s lo ck e d in p la c e Ex. 1. P i sto ls 3. R if le s
rif le d b ar r e l f ir in g r if le a mm un i ti o n an d by bre e c h bo l t lug s an d e n g ag in g 2. Re vo l ve r s
ca pab le o f fu l ly auto mat i c fi r e . abut me n ts usu a lly in t h e re ce i ve r. C . T ar ge t an d o ut d o o r me n ’s f ire arm s.
Ex. R i fle s , Sh o t gun s , Ma ch in e gu n s 1 . p i sto ls 2 . re vo lve rs 3 . r i fl e s
T WO GE N ER A L CL AS S ES O F FI R E AR M D . Aut o m at ic Lo a di ng T y pe – a fi re ar m
( ACC OR D IN G T O Gu n B ar re l I nt e rn a l de s ign th at fe e d s car tr idg e s , f ire s a n d UN US U AL O R M IS C E LLAN E OU S TY P E
Co n st r uct io n) e je ct s car tri dge c ase s a s lo n g as th e tr ig g e r -T h o se ty pe s o f f ire arm th a t i s un i que i n
A. Smo o th -b o r e f ir e ar ms – f ire ar ms th at is fu l ly d e pre sse d a n d th e re are c art ri dge s me ch an is m a n d co n st ruc tio n
h ave n o r i f lin g ( l an d an d gro o ve s ) av ai l able in th e fe e d sys te m . 1. G A S G UNS – th e s e w i ll be fo un d in a ll
in s ide th e ir gun b ar r e l. Ex. R i fle s , Sh o t gun s sh a pe s an d s ize s an d are use d fo r f ir in g
Ex. Sh o t g un s an d mu sk e t s E .S l i de Act io n Ty pe ( Tr o m bo ne )– a fi re ar m te ar ga s an d o th e r fo r ms o f d i sab l in g ga se s .
B . Ri f le d b o r e F ir e ar m s – Fire arm s th a t wh i ch fe a ture s a mo v abl e fo re arm wh i ch i s 2. T R AP S – th e se are de s i gn e d to be se t i n
h ave r i f lin g in s ide th e ir g un b arre l. man u a ll y a ctu a te d in mo t io n p ara l le l to th e th e wo o ds an d l e f t wh e re an im a ls w i l l
Ex. P i sto l s, Re vo lve r s , Ri f le s barre l b y th e sh o o te r. Fo re ar m mo t io n i s e n co un te r th e m . T h e y m ay f ire a bu l le t o r a
tran sm it te d to a bre e ch bo lt a sse mb ly wh i ch po i so n c h ar ge , d e pe n d in g on th e i r
M A IN T Y P ES OF F I R E AR M ( Ac c o r d in g t o pe rfo r ms a ll th e fun c t io n s o f th e f irin g cy cl e co n s tru c tio n .
Ca l ib e r o f P ro je ct i le s P ro pe l le d) as si gn e d to i t by th e de s ign . A ls o k n o wn as 3. C ANE G UN , KNI FE P I ST O LS , ET C . – m a y
✓ Art il le r y – T h o se t y pe s o f fi re ar m th at P UMP A CT IO N. de v ic e s p ri mar i ly de s ign e d f o r an o th e r
pro pe l pr o j e c ti le s mo r e th an o n e i n ch i n Ex. R i fle s , Sh o t gun s purpo se s w il l h ave a gun me ch an is m
di ame te r . F .Le v e r T y pe ( Bre ak T yp e ) – a de si g n in co rpo r ate d in th e m. Al so k n o wn a s
Ex. C an n o n s, M o r tar s, B azo o k a s wh e re in t h e bre e ch me ch an is m is cy c le d by FRE AK IS H D E VI CE .
✓ Sm al l Ar ms – P r o pe l P r o je ct i le s le s s th an an e x te rn a l le v e r ge n e ra l ly be lo w th e 4. T O O LS – th e re a re a n u mbe r o f to o l u si n g
1 in ch in d ia me te r , c an b e o pe r ate d by re ce ive r . Ex. R i fle s , S h o t g un s car tr idg e s wh i ch ar e de s ign e d to dr iv e
o n e m an . G .Se m i aut o m at ic t ype – a f ire ar m stu d, p un c h h o le s o r cut tab le s. Su ch to o l s
Ex. M a ch in e s g un s S h o ul de r ar m an d re qu iri n g a se par at e pul l o f t h e tri gge r fo r may be e n co un te re d in t h e in ve st ig at io n o f
h an d ar m s e ac h sh o t f ire d , an d wh i ch u se s th e e n e rg y an a c c ide n t.
o f d is ch arge to pe r f o rm a po r ti o n o f t h e 5. ZIP G UN S – T h e se may be in a n y fo rm ,
o pe ra ti n g o r f ir in g cy cl e . sin ce th e n am e h a s be e n app l ie d to a ll
44
h o me m ade g un s , gr e at m an y o f th i s c la s s 3. C al ibe r . 30 W in ch e ste r
wi l l be f o un d to b e e xce e d in g ly cle v e r CAL I BE R OF F IR EAR M S 2, 39 0 ft . /se c .
me ch an is ms an d mo st e f fe c t ive we apo n s. VE LO CI T Y 3. HI G H IN T ENS I T Y FIR E AR M S – ar e
6. M U LT I - B AR RE LE D G UN S – In p art i cu lar , 1. Ca l ibe r .2 2 P is to l fir e ar ms us in g c artr i dge s g i vin g a mu z zl e
o n e w i ll f in d g un s h av in g th r e e o r fo u r 1, 15 0 ft . /se c . ve lo c it y o f o ve r 2 50 0 fe e t pe r se co n d s.
barre ls a ll mo un te d i n o n e r e ce i ve r . So m e 2. C al ibe r . 22 re vo lv e r
may h av e a co mb in a ti o n o f se ve r a l d if fe re n t 1, 15 0 ft . /s e c . CAL I BE R OF F IR EAR M S
gau ge s o f sh o tg un s , o r a co mb in at io n o f 3. C al ibe r . 25 au to p i sto l VE LO CI T Y
sh o t gun b ar r e ls an d r if le b ar r e ls . 81 0 f t. / se c. 1. C al ibe r . 22 3 /5 .5 6 rif le
7. LI B ER AT O R – ma de b y th e U S go v e rn me n t 4. C al ibe r . 32 re vo lv e r 3, 24 0 ft . /se c .
fo r use in o c cu pi e d c o un tr ie s o f Eu ro p e 70 5 f t. / se c. 2. C al ibe r . 30 ga ran d
duri n g t h e r e ce n t w ar an d f ire d th e . 4 5 5. C al ibe r . 32 au to p i sto l 2, 91 0 ft . /se c .
car tr idg e , s in g le sh o t an d smo o th bo re . 90 5 f t. / se c. 3. C al ibe r . 30 M -1 4
8. FL A RE G UN S – use d in c ase s su ch a s fo r 6. C al ibe r . 38 0 auto pi sto l 2, 90 0 ft . /se c .
se n d in g s i gn a ls an d e n ab lin g to se e 95 5 f t. / se c. 4. C al ibe r . 30 AK - 47
e n e mi e s in th e d ar k . 7. C al ibe r 9 mm aut o pi sto l 2, 70 0 ft . /se c .
9. HA RP O O N G UN S – b a r be d sp e ar i n 1, 11 5 ft . /se c .
h un t in g l ar ge f ish . 8. C al ibe r 9 mm UZ I M AC H IN E G UNS
VE LO CI T Y – is th e spe e d o f th e b ul l e t 1, 03 0 ft . /se c . M AC H IN E G UN – me an s an y we apo n wh i c h
e xpre sse d i n fe e t pe r se co n d o f ti me . 9. C al ibe r su pe r .3 8 p i sto l sh o o t s o r i s de si gn e d to sh o o t ,
1. L O W PO W ER E D F IR E AR M S – a re 1, 30 0 ft . /se c . auto ma t ic a lly o r se m i -a uto ma ti c al ly , mo re
fir e ar ms us in g c ar tr i dge s g i vin g a mu z zl e 10 . Ca l ibe r .3 8 o r din ary th an o n e s h o t , wi th o u t man ua l re lo a d in g b y
ve lo c it y o f le s s th an 1, 85 0 fe e t pe r se co n d . 75 5 f t. / se c. a s in g le pu ll o f th e tr i gge r .
11 . Ca l ibe r .4 5 a . R e co i l Ope r at e d M ac h ine Gu n – th e
85 0 f t. / se c. barre l a n d th e bre e ch blo ck are lo c k e d
12 . Ca l ibe r .3 57 ma g n um to ge th e r by th e lo o k . Wh e n th e c artr id ge i s
1, 45 0 ft . /se c . fir e d th e y mo ve to th e re ar as a un i t. A s
13 . Ca l ibe r .4 4 m agn um th e y re a ch t h e ca m, t h e lo ck is mo ve d
1, 61 0 ft . /se c . upw ard , u n lo ad in g th e bre e ch bl o ck fro m
14 . 12 G au ge th e b arre l. T h e bre e c h blo ck co n tin ue s to
1, 10 0 ft . /se c . mo ve th e re ar , bu t t h e barre l re turn s
2. H IG H PO W ER ED FIR EA R M S – ar e fo rw ar d. T h i s mo t io n o f t h e bre e ch b lo ck
fir e ar ms us in g c artr i dge s g i vin g a mu z zl e e xtr ac ts th e f ire d c art rid ge ca se .
ve lo c it y be t we e n 1 9 25 an d 25 00 fe e t p e r b. G a s Ope r at e d M a ch ine gun – T h e
se co n d s. bre e ch blo ck is lo ck e d in p la ce b y th e lo ck
re st in g a ga in s t th e s h o uld e r o f th e re ce i ve r .
CAL I BE R OF F IR EAR M S As th e car tr id ge i s f ir e d, th e b ul le t mo ve s
VE LO CI T Y do wn th e b arre l . Wh e n th e b ul le t p as se s
1. Ca l ibe r .2 2 ma gn um je t ( ce n te r fir e ) th e g as po r t, so me o f th e h igh pre s sure g as
2, 10 0 ft . /se c . mo ve s in to th e ga s cy lin de r .
2. Ca l ibe r .3 0 G ara n d c. Co mb in at io n R e c o i l an d Ga s Op e r at e d
1, 99 0 ft . /se c . M ac h ine Gu n – In th i s me ch an i sm th e ga s
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pre s sure fr o m th e c ar tr i dge e xp lo s io n in th e SH OT G UN – a smo o th bo re an d bre e ch D OU BL E AC T IO N R E VOL V ER – we a po n in
ch a mbe r pa ss e s th r o u gh th e g as po rt in to lo a di n g sh o u lde r ar m , de s ign e d to f ire a wh i ch pre ssure upo n th e tr i gge r b o th co ck s
th e cy lin de r as so o n a s th e b u lle t p a sse s th e n umbe r o f le ad pe l le t s o r sh o t s in o n e an d re le ase s th e h am me r.
gas po r t. T h is pr e s su r e c aus e s th e pi sto n t o ch a rge . PA R AD O X G UN is a sh o tgun P IS T OL – a sh o r t bar re l h an d ar m de s ign e d
mo ve to th e r e ar . h av in g th e l as t f e w in ch e s o f th e mu z zle to f ire a s in g le pro j e ct i le th r o ugh a r if le d
SU BM AC HI N EG U N – Is a l i gh t , p o rt ab le rif le d so th at i t w i ll i mpa rt a s pi n to th e bo re fo r e ve r y pre ss o f t h e tr ig ge r . I t i s
ma ch in e g un w h i ch us e s p is to l pat e n te d s lu g th a t i s use d w ith i t wh e n to i s usu al ly app l ie d to s e mi - auto ma t ic lo ad in g.
si ze am mun it io n . I t d if fe r s fr o m a pi sto l in de s ire d to f ire a l arg e si n g le pr o je c ti le It is a h an d gun th a t i s ma ga z in e fe e d. It i s a
th a t i t h as a sh o u lde r sto ck wh i ch m ay o r in s te a d o f a c h ar ge o f sh o t . sm al l , po rt ab le f ire a r m th a t i s h e ld , a im e d ,
may n o t fo ld b ut i s de si gn e d to be f ire d by a. S in g le B arre le d Sh o tgun – i t is lo ade d an d f ire d w ith o n e h an d an d h a s a sh o rt
th e u se o f b o th h an d s. wi th a s in g le sh o tgun barre l an d a bre e ch lo c k an d lo ad fi rin g
car tr idg e , c lo s e d , fir e d an d t h e n de lo ade d me ch an is m. T h e o ri g in o f t h e w o rd pi sto l i s
SH OU L D ER A R M S by th e sh o o te r . n o t k n o wn f o r c e r ta in , a lth o ugh so m e
R IFL E – me an s an y w e apo n de si gn e d o r b. D o ubl e Barr e le d S h o tgun – th e t wo h is to r ian s be l ie ve th at i t m ay h a ve be e n
in te n de d to b e o pe r a t e d fr o m th e sh o u lde r barre ls ma y be si de b y s ide o r th e y m ay be de ri ve d fro m P IS T O I A , a n It al i an c it y an d
an d use s th e e n e r gy o f th e e x plo s ive in a o n e o ve r th e o th e r . E ach bar re l ma y h ave pro v in ce in T u s can y o n ce fa mo u s fo r it s iro n
fi xe d me t a ll i c car tr id ge to f ir e o n ly a sin g l e it s o wn tr ig ge r . wo rk s an d an ar e a wh e r e pr im it iv e
pro je c ti le th r o u gh a r if le d b o r e fo r e a ch c. P u mp Ac t io n Sh o t g un – o pe r at e s in th e h an d gun s we re f abr i ca te d d urin g th e e a rl y
pul l o f th e t r i gge r .T h i s i s d e s i gn e d fo r sa me m an n e r as a s li d e a ct io n r i fle s , by ye ar s o f th e 14 t h ce n t ury o r P I ST OL E , a co in
tar ge t s a t a l o n ge r d i st an c e . T h e bo re o f a me an s o f a s li d in g le v e r un de r th e barre l . th a t w as su ppo se d to be th e sa me di ame t e r
rif le h a s a n umb e r o f h e l ic a l gro o ve s c ut d. Au to Lo a di n g Sh o t gun s – th e se are th e as th e bo r e o f th e we apo n .
sp ira l ly in s ide th e sur fa ce o f th e bo r e fr o m sa me a s auto lo ad in g r if le s i n th at th e r e co i l • T h e sm al le st p is to l in th e wo rl d i s
bre e ch e n d to muz z le e n d. ac ti o n re lo a ds th e gu n fro m th e m ag az in e KO L I BR I, au to pi sto l , c al ibe r 2 .7 mm , 5
M US K E T – is an an c ie n t s mo o t h bo re an d wi th o u t a n y e ff o rt o n t h e ar t o f th e sh o o te r . sh o t s, 1 91 4.
muz z le lo a di n g mi l it a r y sh o u l de r arm • T h e mo s t po we rfu l h a n dgun in th e w o rl d
de s ign e d t o f ir e a sin gle r o un d le ad ba l l. HA ND AR M S is o n ce co n si de re d MAG N UM .4 4 n o w
Re f e rs to a l o n g smo o th b o r e d f ire arm th at R E VOL V ER – a h an d f ire a rm e qu ip pe d w ith ca l ibe r . 50 m an u fa ct ure d in Is rae l . T h e
is de s ig n e d to p r e p ar e a sin gle sh o t . T h e a ro t at in g cy lin de r , s e rvin g as a m ag a zi n e , wo rd MAG NU M w as o r i gin ate d in
musk e t , an in f an tr y w e apo n e qu i ppe d w it h a su cce ss i ve l y p la ce s a ca rtr id ge in to En g lan d.
su cce ss io n o f f ir i n g m e ch an i sm s d urin g it s po s it io n fo r f irin g .A f i re arm de s i gn e d to be
30 0 ye ar h is to r y . fir e d fro m th e h an d a n d h a v in g a r if l e d NOM EN CLA T UR E AN D FU NC T ION S
CAR BI N E – a sh o r t b ar r e l r i f le , w it h i ts barre l a n d a ro ta tin g cy lin de r co n ta in in g ✓ BA R RE L – in i ti ate s t h e p ath o f th e
barre l me as ur i n g n o t lo n ge r th an 22 in ch e s . se ve r a l c h a mbe rs e a c h o f wh ich h o lds o n e bul le t .
It fir e s a sin gle pr o je ct i le th r o ugh a r i fl e car tr idg e . ✓ FR AME – Ho u se s th e i n te rn a l par ts .
bo re e i th e r se m i -a uto mat i c o r au to m at i c, fo r 1. so li d fra me (S am u e l Co l t 18 35 ) ✓ YO KE – Co n n e ct in g p i vo t be t we e n th e
e ve ry pr e s s o f t h e tr i gge r . T h is i s t h e t ype 2. s win go u t t ype ( US A) fra me an d cy l in de r .
o f we a po n d e s ign e d f o r th e co n ve n ie n t use 3. bre a k to p ty pe (U K ) ✓ EX T R ACT O R – P u ll s t h e e mpt y sh e ll s
o f ca va lr y me n o r tr o o ps o n h o rse ba ck . fro m th e cy l in de r s im ult an e o us ly .
Ame r i can c av al r y un d e r th e co mm an d o f SI NG L E A CT I ON R E VOL V ER – we a po n in ✓ EX T R ACT O R R O AD – A ct iv a te s th e
Harry Le e , b e t te r k n o wn a s “ LIG HT HO R SE wh i ch pre ssure upo n th e tr i gge r r e le ase s e xtr ac to r an d i s a lo c k in g de vi ce .
HA RRY ” use d a sh o r t musk e t th a t w a s th e h amm e r th at mu st be ma n ua l ly co ck e d . ✓ CENT E R P IN – Se r v e s a s a lo o k in g
de ve lo pe d in to a c ar b in e . de v ic e f o r th e c yl in de r.
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✓ CENT E R P I N SRP IN G – Ho ld s th e ✓ RA CK ET – He l ps in t h e w ith dra w al o f an d pro pe l s th e b ul le t o r sh o t ch a rge
ce n t e r p in in a lo c k e d po s it io n . th e Car tr idg e s o r s h e l ls fro m th e th ro ug h th e bar re l an d o n t h e t arg e t .
✓ SID E P LAT ES – P r o v id e s a c ce s s to t h e ch a mbe r s o f th e c yl in de r. ✓ P rime r – T h e me t a l ca p co n t a in in g th e
in te r n a l p ar ts . ✓ CY LIND ER NO T CH – I t h e lp s h o ld th e h igh ly se n s it i ve pr i min g m ixt ure o f
✓ SID E P L AT E S C RE W – Ho ld th e si de cy lin de r in p la ce an d a l ign e d re ad y ch e m i ca l co mpo u n d wh i ch wh e n h i t
pl ate an d yo k e in pl a ce . fo r fir in g. o r st ru ck by th e f i rin g p in wo u ld
✓ HAM M ER B LO CK – Sa fe t y de vi ce th a t AM M UN I TI ON / CAR TR ID GE ign ite , su ch a c ti o n is c a lle d
pr e ve n ts h a mme r b lo w to pr ime r . “P E R CU SS IO N ” .
✓ D O U B LE ACT IO N SE A R – Bu il t in to th e CAR TR ID G E -T h i s r e fe rs to co m p le t e
we a po n to a l lo w do u b le ac ti o n f ire . un f ire d un it co n s is ti n g o f bu l le t , c artr id ge CLA SS IF I CA T IO N O F CAR TR ID G E
✓ HAM M ER – Str ik e s th e blo w th at ca se , gu n po wde r , an d pr ime r . A. Acc o r di ng t o t he t ype o f fi re a r ms u se d
in i t ia te s o r i gn ite s pr i me r. AM M UN I TI ON - Un d e r th e N at io n a l Re ve n u e R e v o lv e r c a rt r i dge – It h as a ri mme d bas e ,
✓ BO LT – D is e n g age c e n te r pr ime r t o Co de th e wo rd A m mun i t io n sh al l me a n wh i ch a l lo w s th e b ul l e t t o be c l amp e d in th e
al lo w o pe n in g o f cy li n de r an d bl o ck s lo a de d sh e l l fo r ri f l e s, m usk e ts , carb in e s, cy lin de r , an d i t is s tra igh t. T h e c as e i s
h am me r . sh o t gun s , re vo l ve rs a n d p i sto ls f ro m wh i c h tra di tio n a ll y m ade o f bras s o r pl a st ic .
✓ T HUM B L AT C H – Ac tua te s bo lt to a b al l , b ul le t, sh o t , s h e l l, o r o th e r m is si le s P i st o l ca rt r idg e – it h as a gro o ve in s te ad o f
re le ase th e cy l in de r . may be fir e d by me an s o f gun po w de r o r rim , a llo w in g e a sie r pa ck in g o f th e ro un d s
✓ HAND (p a wl ) – Ro t at e s th e c yl in de r o th e r e x p lo s ive s . in th e ma ga z in e . T h e ma te ri a l i s th e s am e
wh e n th e h am me r i s c o ck e d . as in a re vo l ve r ca rtr id ge . T h e se am mo ar e
✓ CY LIND ER ST O P – St o ps an d h o l ds th e Or ig i n : al so u se d in c arb in e s o r o l de r r if le de s ig n .
cy lin de r al i gn me n t fo r f irin g . Car tr idge wa s di s co v e re d in th e 1 6 t h As s a ult ri f le – i t i s lo n ge r th an a h an d
✓ T RIG G E R – A ct ua t e s th e par ts ce n t ury . T h e e arl ie s t s ma l l arm s car tr idg e we a po n o r a ca rbi n e ro un d an d ge n e r a ll y
n e ce ss ar y to fir e th e we a po n . co n s i ste d o f pre - me a sure d ch ar ge or bo tt le -n e ck e d fo r l a rge r po wd e r ca pa c it y
✓ T RIG G E R G U A RD – G u ard s th e tri gge r po w de r wr app e d i n p ape r . C artr id ge an d in c re ase d po we r. T h e ma te r ia l use d fo r
fr o m un n e ce s s ar y a ct io n to avo id de ri ve d f ro m th e L a ti n wo r d “ ch ar t a” wh i c h th e ca se is id e n t i ca l t o th e pre v io u s o n e s.
ac c ide n ta l f ir in g . me an s p ape r . I t is al so de r i ve d fro m th e Sho t c a rt r i dge – T h e re are se ve ral
✓ RE BO UND S LID E – Re t urn s tr ig ge r , Fre n ch wo rd “ car to u ch e ” me an in g a ro ll o f pro je c ti le s s pre ad in g o ut to cre at e a co n e
ac tu ate s h am me r b l o ck an d lo ck s pap e r. K in g G u st a vu s Ado lph us o f S we de n o f fire . T h e c ase is ge n e r al ly ma de o f
h am me r . is cre d it e d w i th th e in ve n ti o n o f th e f ir st pl as ti c , an d a c ap pre ve n t s th e co n te n t f ro m
✓ T RIG G E R SP RING – P r o vi de s e n e rgy car tr idg e i n 1 63 5. fa l lin g. T h e s e c artr id ge are use d in h un tin g
fo r r e tur n mo ve me n t o r re bo un d rif le s, rio t gun s an d sh o t gun s w it h a pu m p
sl ide . NOM EN CLA T UR E OF CAR TR ID G E ac ti o n . T h e se we ap o n s h a ve n o r i fl in g i n
✓ T RIG G E R LEV E L – C o n ta c ts re bo un d ✓ Bu l le t – A pr o je c ti le pro pe ll e d fro m a th e ir bar re l .
sl ide to r e tur n tr ig ge r fo r war d. fir e ar m by me an s o f e xplo si ve f o rc e Ca se le s s c a rt ri dge – th e po wd e r i s th e
✓ M AIN SP R ING – P r o vi de s e n e r gy to of ga se s c o m in g fro m b urn i n g ca si n g o f th e pro j e ct i le . A v arn ish i n g
th e h a mme r to ac ti v ate f irin g po w de r. pro te ct s it fro m m o is ture an d mo de r a te
me ch an is m. ✓ Car tr idge C a se – A tubu lar me ta l li c sh o c k s . T h e re are a fe w m a tte r s le f t a fte r
✓ ST R AI N SC RE W – C o n tr o l s te n sio n o f co n t a in e r fo r th e gun po wde r th e po wd e r h a s e xpl o de d . T h e cro ss
th e m a in s pr in g . so me ti me s c a lle d s h e ll . se c t io n i s g e n e ra l ly squ are fo r a t igh t e r
✓ T RIG G E R S T O P – P r e ve n t s e x ce ss iv e ✓ G un P o wde r – I s t h e pro pe ll an t wh i ch pa ck in g in th e m ag az in e , bu t t h e re ar e
re ar w ar d mo ve me n t a fte r h am me r th e wh e n ig n i te d by th e pr ime r f l ash i s so me e x ce p tio n s .
re le ase . co n v e rte d to g as un d e r h i gh pr e s sure
47
B. Acc o r di ng t o lo c at io n o f p r im e r ca l .2 2 – use d i n r e vo l ve r s, pi sto l s an d k il o gr am s an d 0 .4 k il o gra ms . O t h e rw i se it s
P in f i re car tr i dge s no lo n ge r use d rif le s in a bi l ity to g l ide th r o ugh th e a ir wo u ld b e
(ab so lute ) ca l .2 5 – u se d in p is to ls an d ri f le s h al te d . It wo ul dn ’ t be th e ri gh t si ze t o
R i m f i re – th e pr ime r i s lo c a te d at th e r i m ca l .3 0 – u se d in c arb i n e an d o th e r ri f le s pie r ce th ro ugh an yo n e ’s sk in o r cu t th ro u g h
o r th e b a se p o r t io n . Use in ca l .2 2, pi sto l , ca l . 32 – u se d in auto ma t ic p is to ls an d a blo ck o f w o o d wi t h o ut th e co rr e c t m as s.
re vo l ve r s a n d r i fle s re vo l ve r s T h e ma ss o f th e b ul le t de pe n ds o n t h e
Ce nt e r f i re P r im in g po wd e r i s lo c ate d at ca l .3 80 – us e d in pi st o ls ca l ibe r an d ty pe o f g un use d . A bu ll e t c a n
th e ce n te r . E co n o m i c al c an b e re pe al e d ca l .3 8 – u se d in re vo l ve rs be f ire d fro m a r e vo l ve r , pi sto l , r i fl e ,
a .R i mm e d t ype – Us e d in r e vo l ve r s c a l . 3 8 ca l .3 57 – us e d in .3 5 7 re vo l ve rs ( ma gn um ) ma ch in e gu n o r o th e r we a po n .
an d .3 5 ca l .4 4 – u se d in m ag n um re vo l ve r s
b. Se m i- R im me d – Us e d in su pe r .3 8 ca l .4 4 – u se d in au to mat i c pi sto ls BUL L ET T ER M I NOL OG Y :
c.R i m le ss – U se d in 45 pi sto l s, T h o mp so n , ca l .5 0 – u se d in ca l .5 0 m ach in e gun (n o t ✓ Ba se – T h e p o rt io n o f th e bu ll e t th a t
gre a se g un , su b m ach i n e gun use in cri me s) re ce ive s th e th r us t a n d h e at fro m t h e
T it - f i re – in wh i ch a co ppe r c ase n ip pl e burn in g g un po wde r.
co n t a in i n g th e c ap p r o tr ude d th r o ugh a h o l e BUL L ET /S LU G S ✓ Be arin g s urf a ce – T h e are a o f t h e
in th e re ar o f th e b r e e ch b lo ck to be stru c k Is a me ta ll i c o r n o n -me t al l ic cy l in dr i ca l bul le t th at co n t a ct s t h e barr e l ri f lin g .
an d de to n a te d b y th e fa l lin g h am me r. pro je c ti le pr o pe l le d fro m a fire ar m b y A t igh t fi t is re qu i re d to pre ve n t
T ai l f ire – th e o pe n in g o f th e r i fl e fo r me an s o f e xp an s iv e gase s co m in g fro m ch a mbe r pre s sure le ak s an d to
lo a di n g co m pr e s se d a s pr in g t h a t o n ce th e burn in g g un po wd e r. pro v ide g o o d co n t a ct wit h th e r if l in g
rif le h ad b e e n lo a de d an d th e br e e c h Sl ug s – lay me n ’s te r m – use in c o urt gro o ve s .
cl o se d, sn ap pe d up o n o pe ra ti o n o f th e duri n g pro c e e d in g s ✓ Can n e lu re – A r i n g de pre ss io n
tri gge r to cr u sh ag a in st th e un de rs i de o f th e aro un d th e bo dy o f a bu lle t us e d t o
blo ck , an d to de to n a t e a fl at pe r cu ss io n t a il P ro je ct i le s pro pe l le d fro m a sh o t gun ar e re ce ive th e c ase cr im p.
pro je c tin g fr o m th e r e ar o f th e c ar tri dge . te rme d sh o t s o r p e l le ts . ✓ Co re – T h e bul k o f th e ma ss i n a
R in g f i re – a ty pe o f car tr idg e use d o n ly o n bul le t . U su al ly le ad co mpo n e n t b ut
th e sabo t age c ase . T h e c h a tte l c artr id ge o f Or ig i n : so me ti me s co n ta in in g o th e r me ta l fo r
Ste yr ad van ce co m b a t r i fle an d Ste yr an ti - T h e e t ymo lo g y o f th e wo rd bu l le t w as spe ci a l purp o se s su c h a s pe n e t ra tio n
mat e ri a l s qua d m ac h in e g un . T h is i s a o rig in ate d fro m th e F re n c h wo rd an d tra c in g .
spe ci a l t ype o f c a r tr i dge wh e r e in th e “B O UL ET T E ” me a n i n g s ma l l b al l . In ✓ He ad h e ig h t – Le n gt h o f th e bu lle t
prin ti n g m ix tur e i s pl a ce d in a c ir cu l ar go ve rn me n t par l a n ce , a car tr idg e fro m th e sh o u ld e r to t h e t ip .
h o l lo w r in g ab o ut 1 /3 o f th e b ase o f th e co n t a in i n g a b ul le t is s t il l c a lle d “B AL L ✓ He e l – T h e lo ca ti o n o f th e b ul le t
car tr idg e . CAR TR ID G E” fro m the o r ig in a l wh e re th e h e e l e n ds an d th e be ar in g
te rm in o lo gy o f th e d ays wh e n b ul le ts we r e sur fa ce be gi n s .
TY P IC AL R I M M ED F IR E C AR TR ID G ES bal l s. In co mmo n po li ce p arl an ce , a bul le t ✓ Ja ck e t – J a ck e t e d bul le t h ave a
A – Ca se may be ca l le d sl ug . mat e ri a l d if fe re n t fro m th e co re
B – P r i min g m ix tur e Bu l le t s in mo de rn co n ce p t are mat e ri a l th at co ve r s so me o r th e
C – P ro pe l l an t po wde r / gun p o w de r pro je c ti le s pro pe l le d fro m ri f le d fire ar m e n tir e co r e . C o mmo n ly u se d
D – B ul le t wh i ch are cy li n dr ic a l in sh ap e . T h e co re o f mat e ri a ls i n c lu de co p pe r , br a ss ,
E – Se n s it ive Ar e a th e sl ug i s an a llo y o f le ad an ti mo n y an d ste e l an d a lum in u m.
so me ti me s t in . ✓ Me pl a t – T h e di ame t e r o f t h e fl at o r
A. Acco rd i ng t o C a li be r D e pe n d in g o n th e gu n , th e m as s o f a blun t e n d o f th e n o se o f a bu ll e t .
bul le t us ua l ly r a n ge s be t we e n 0. 02
48
 ✓ O gi ve – T h e r ad iu s o f cur ve be twe e n KEY HO LE SHO T – T h e tumb l in g o f a bu ll e t ca vi ty b urn s f ie r ce ly o n im pa c t w it h a
th e b e ar in g s ur f a ce an d t h e po in t in it s fl ig h t an d h it ti n g th e t arg e t si de wa ys ve ry h o t f l ame wh ic h w il l qu ite
usu al ly st ate d w it h r e spe ct to t h e as a re s ul ts o f sp in n i n g o n it s ax i s. (d ue t o re l iab ly i gn i te an y th in g th a t th e
ca l ib e r . de s tro ye d bar re l o r l o o se b arre l) bul le t str ik e s. Fo r ide n ti f i ca tio n
✓ P o in t – T h e mo st fo r w ar d po in t o f th e purpo se s t h e in ce n d iar y h a s a l igh t
o gi ve . blue co lo r .
✓ Sh o u lde r – T h e p la c e o n th e bu l le t ✓ Ex pl o s iv e ( Fr a g me nt a r y) - --
wh e r e th e p ar al le l s i de s e n d an d th e co n t a in s a h igh ch a n ge d e x plo si ve ,
o gi ve b e gin s . D IFF ER E NT K IND S OF B ULL E T : be c ause o f th e ir s ma ll s ize i t i s
Cl a s s if i ca t io n : ✓ Ba l l Bu l le t s - -- h a ve so f t le a d co re s di ff i cu lt to m ak e a fu se th at wi l l wo rk
in s ide a ja ck e t an d a re us e d ag a in s t re l iab ly in sm al l si ze am mun it io n .Fo r
1. Le ad bu l le t s – th o se wh i ch are ma de o f pe rso n n e l o n l y. th e re a so n th e u se o f h igh e xp lo s i ve
le a d o r a l lo y s o f th e s e me t al s ( le ad , t in an d ✓ Ar mo r P ie rc in g - -- h av e h a rde n e d bul le t s is usu a ll y li mi te d to 20 mm .
an t imo n y) wh i ch is sl i gh t ly h arde r th an pur e ste e l co re s an d are a fire d ag ain st an d abo ve .
le a d. Le ad b ul le ts ca n n o t b e u se d to sh o o t ve h i c le an d o t h e r ar mo re d t arge t is ✓ Po int e d B ul le t - - - i s mo re e f fe ct ive
wi th h i gh ve lo c i tie s b e c aus e th e i r so ft ge n e ra l . I t is a po in te d, f l at b ase bal l is ti c al ly th an th e ro un d b al l o f t h e
e xte r io r de f o r m s du r i n g a c ce le ra t io n , wh i c h bul le t wi th a gl i din g me t a l j ac k e t . sa me we i gh t
af fe ct s b a l l i st i cs . L e ad b u l le t s ma y a ls o T h e co r e i s o f h ar de n e d tun gs te n , ✓ So ft Po i nt o r M u sh ro o m B ul le t - - -
ca use j am min g an d c an b e d am age d, a ga i n , ch ro m e s te e l an d h as a ba ck e n e d ti p. wi l l e x pan d o n s tr ik i n g a n o b je ct an d
be c ause th e y ar e s o so f t, b y h o w au to m at i c ✓ Tr a ce r B u ll e t s --- co n ta in s a th e re fo r pro du ce mu ch mo r e se r io u s
we a po n s lo a d. Le ad b u lle t mu st be co m po un d at th e ba s e usua l ly s im i lar ch e ck , an d h ave co rre s po n d in g
lubr i ca te d to pr e ve n t th e le a d adh e rin g in t o bari um n i tra te s wh i c h is se t o n fir e gre a te r sto pp in g po w e r.
th e bo r e th at wi l l in te r fe r e se r io u sl y w it h wh e n th e bu l le t is pr o je cte d. T h e se ✓ Ho ll o w Po int Bu l le t - - - a b ul le t w ith
th e a c cur a cy . T h i s a c tio n is c al le d bul le t s wh e n f ire d , e mi ts a br ig h t r e d a c av it y in t h e n o se de s i gn e d t o
“ LEA D ING . fl ame fro m th e ir base , th e re by in cre a se th e e x pan si o n wh e n it h it s
2. J ac k e t e d bu l le t s – th o se w ith a c o re o f sh o w in g th e gun n e r by th e tra ce o f th e t arge t , so m e ti me s c al le d
le a d co ve r e d b y a j a ck e t o f h arde r m ate r i al fl ame , th e pa th as we ll a s t h e s tr ik i n g “E XP RE SS BU L LET . ”
su ch as g il din g me t al , a co ppe r a ll o y o f po in t o f th e b ul l e t, th e f l ame ✓ M e t a l C a se d Bu l le t - - - co lo n ia l ly us e
appr o x im ate ly 9 0 %. T h e j a ck e t e d bu lle t i s co n t in u in g to burn an d tra ce fo r to in di c ate e it h e r a me t al pa tch e d o r
usu al ly me ta l ja ck e t e d. A so f t br as s o r abo u t 60 0 y ard s. T h e se are in t e n de d fu ll p at ch e d bul le t. M e ta l pa t ch e d - --
co p pe r -p la te d so ft st e e l j a ck e t co ve r s th e pri mar i ly fo r ma ch in e gun use an d an y me ta l pa t ch e d bu l le t . Bu l le t
in s ide . T h e j a ck e te d b ul le t is us ua l ly u se d can be se e n d ay o r n igh t. T h e po in t h av in g so ft s te a l ja ck e t o fte n c lo g o r
fo r h u n t in g an d m il i ta r y use d. o f th e bu l le t co lo r e d re d i s fo r pl ate d w i th g i ld in g me t al to pre ve n t
ide n ti f i ca tio n . rust in g and re d uce fr i ct io n al
Pu rp o se o f J ack e t : ✓ In ce n di a r y -- - co n ta i n s a mi xture o f re si st an ce in t h e bo re .
T h e pur po se o f th e j ack e t i s to k e e p su ch ph o sp h o ro u s an d o th e r ✓ H ar d B a l l – th is s ty l e o f bu lle t i s a
th e bu lle t in ta c t an d fr o m n o t br e ak in g u p mat e ri a ls th at c an b e se t o n f ire by co p pe r sh e a th , t h e ja ck e t , o v e r a
wh e n i t str ik e s a t ar g e t, to pr e ve n t d am ag e im pa ct . T h e y are us e d ag ai n s t ta rge t co re o f l e a d. It i s th e st an d ard
wh i le in th e we a po n , an d to co n tr o l th a t w i ll re a d il y bu rn su ch as a ir pro je c ti le ty pe , e xpan d in g ve ry
e xpa n s io n . cra f ts o r g a so l in e de po t . It i s s im il ar li tt le , bu t g i vin g go o d pe n e tr a tio n .
in co n str uc t io n to tr ace r b ul le t, bu t ✓ D um du m b u l le t – i s an o ut - mo de le d
th e co mpo si ti o n co n ta in e d in th e an d ge n e ra l ly m is us e d te rm . The
49
 dum -d um s we r e o ut l awe d fo r us e in ✓ Ice d B u lle t – Su pe r co o le d w ate r it s f li gh t . Lik e tumb lin g mo v e me n t, it m a y
war . Al l so f t b u l l e ts , s pl i t n o s e mad e as a pro je ct il e o f so l id if ie d ca use h i tt in g th e tar g e t s ide w ays .
b ul le t s , h o l lo w po i n t bu lle ts an d bul le t s h a ve a l if e o f 3 m in u te s 5.P U L L O F G RA VIT Y – as th e bu l le t i s
ja ck e te d b u l le t s wi th th e co re max im um . mo v in g fo r w ard , it gr ad ua l ly goes
e xpo s e d ar e du mdu ms . Ex pan din g ✓ G as C he ck B ul le t – to pre ve n t th e do wn war d o n a c co u n t o f th e pu ll o f th e
b ul le t s a r e mo st ly u se d in h un t in g . me l tin g o f t h e b as e , le ad bu l le t s fo r ce o f gr av i ty.
T h is wo r d an d typ e o f b ul le t we r e in te n de d to be f i re d a t h igh e r
in ve n te d b y Br i ti sh O r din an ce fo r ce ve lo c it y h a ve th e ir gas e s p ro te ct e d SH OT G UN S H ELL
st at io n e d a t th e ir a r se n a l at D u m - wi th a s ma ll co ppe r c ups . T h e bu lle t Sho t she l l – T h e car tr id ge fo r sh o tgun . I t i s
D um, In d i a. T h e En g li sh m ade so me is c as t w it h a s li gh t ly ta pe -rin g b ase , al so c al le d a sh e l l, a n d it s bo dy may be o f
of th e se b u l le t s e xp an d in g by an d th e co p pe r ga s ch e ck is th e n me t al o r p la st i c o r pa pe r w i th a me ta l h e ad .
gr in din g o f f th e n o s e o f th e b ul le t pre s se d l igh t ly o n th e bo re ; th e cu p
ja ck e t. T h e se a r e n o w k n o wn as re ma in in g o n th e b ul le t wh e n i t is
Ho l lo w po in t b ul le t an d so f t po in t fir e d . P a rt s o f S ho t g un sh e l l :
b ul le t . ✓ W ad C ut t e r Bu l le t – A cy lin dr ic al ✓ T ube o r ca se – p a pe r pre - 19 60
✓ X- b u l le t – i s so l id co ppe r pro je c ti le , bul le t de s i gn h av in g a sh ar p wi th mo uth c lo se d by ro l le d
h e at t r e a te d fo r e x tr a to ugh n e ss wi th sh o u lde re d n o se in te n de d to cut cr imp , p l as ti c bo dy o r h ul l w ith
n o se par at e j a ck e t a n d n o le ad co re . tar ge t p ape r c le ar ly t o fa ci l it ate e as y mo uth c lo se d by p ie cr imp o r st ar
T h e b u l le t h o ld s to ge th e r fo r de e p an d a cc ura te sco r in g. cr imp , e li mi n a tin g need fo r
de pe n dab le pe n e tr a tio n . A de e p ✓ W ax B u ll e t – a bu lle t m ade fro m o ve rsh o t wa d.
fo r w ar d ca vi ty c aus e s t h e n o se to par af f in an d o th e r wax pre par a tio n ✓ P rime r – th e co l le ct i ve te r m fo r th e
pe e l b a ck in to fo ur r a zo r e d ge pe ta ls . usu al ly use d fo r sh o rt r an ge in do o r ch e m i ca l pr ime r c o mpo un d, pr im e r
Vie we d h e ad o n , th e appe ara n ce o f tar ge t sh o o tin g. cup , an v i l, an d ba tt e ry c up wh i ch ,
th e se fo ur pe t a ls gi ve s th e X -bu lle t wh e n stru ck , ign it e s th e po we r
it s n a me .T h e X -b ul le t was in t ro du ce d M OV EM E NT S O F TH E B ULL E T A S I T ch a rge .
in 1 98 9 , o u t pe n e tr at e s o th e r h un ti n g M OV E S O U T OF TH E M UZZ L E: ✓ P o wde r – th e ge n e r al te rm fo r an y
b ul le t s , an d has de ve lo pe d a 1.F O R W ARD MO VEM ENT – t h e ve lo c i t y ch e m i ca l co mpo un d o r mi xt ure u se d
re put at io n fo r de li ve r in g qu i ck , o n e de pe n ds u po n th e pr o pul s io n cre a te d b y in f ire arm s th at burn s upo n ign i tio n .
sh o t k i l ls o n a w ide var ie t y o f ga me . th e ign it io n o f th e pro pe l la n t . T h e ga se s pro du ce d by th i s ra pi d
D e si gn e d b y Bar n e s o wn e d by R an d y 2. SP I NNI NG MO V EM ENT – th is is d ue to co mb us tio n pr o pe l t h e bu lle t do w n
Br o o k s . pas s age o f th e bu l le t at th e sp ira l l an d in g s th e bo re o f th e r i fle . T h e t wo ma jo r
✓ P GU- 14 Ar mo r P ie r c in g Ince nd i a ry an d gro o v in g o f th e b arre l. type s ar e : 1) b l ac k po w de r, wh ic h
– 3 0m m am mun it io n h a s a li gh t 3.T UM B LI NG MO VEM ENT – (e n d o r e n d o lde r car tr idge s u se d an d is a
we i gh t b o d y wh i ch co n t a in s a sub - ro ta ti o n ) t h e bu lle t may be ro ta t in g o n t h e ph ys i ca l mi xtu re o f ch a rco a l, su l fur
ca l ib e r h igh de n s i t y pe n e t ra to r o f lo n g ax is o f it s f li gh t wh i le th e n o se an d th e an d sa lt pe te r; an d 2) smo k e le ss
de p le te d ur an iu m. T h e 3 0m m x 17 3 base are a lt e rn a ti n g ah e ad in i ts f li gh t . po w de r, wh i ch is th e prin c ip le ty pe
G AU - 8 /A a mmo w as amo n g th e mo s t T h is a c co un ts ma y in so me c ase s , t h e use d in mo de rn am mun i t io n an d i s
e ff e c ti ve a mmu n i ti o n use d in bul le t s h it s t h e sk in w ith i ts b as e . n itr at e d ch e m ic a l co mpo un d in
O pe r a ti o n D e s e r t Sto r m w ith pro ve n 4. WO B B LING MO V E MENT – ( t ai lw ag ) t h e gran u l ar fo rm .
pe r fo r ma n ce a ga in s t all tar ge t s, re ar e n d o f th e bu ll e ts a si de fro m s pin n in g ✓ Cri mp – th e po t io n o f a c artr i dge
in clu d in g ta n k s , ar mo re d an d l igh t may a lso v ibr ate ve r ti ca l ly o r s i de w ay s i n ca se th at i s b e n t in w ard to h o ld th e
ve h i c le s . sh o t in pl a ce .
50
 ✓ Wa ds – fo ur k in ds : ba se th e se p e l le t s are n o t ve ry e ffe c ti ve n o t s pin . I t i s s ma l le r i n d ia me te r
(un de r po wde r ) , o v e r po w de r, f i ll e r (in 0 0 bu ck sh o t , e a ch o n e i s .3 3 in c h th an a s ta n d ard sl ug , an d surro u n de d
(b o th b e t we e n pr o p e ll an t an d sh o t in d ia me te r . ), bu t c o ll e c ti ve ly th e y wi th in a sh e l l by a t wo -p ie c e pl a st ic
ac ti n g as ga s s e al ) , o v e rsh o t; r e su lt in lar ge and de stru c ti ve sabo t . Af te r e x i tin g th e barre l , th e
Re m in g to n pl a st ic “po we r pi st o n ” wo un d s . At lo n ge r d ist an ce s, sabo t s pl it s i n h a lf an d f a ll s a wa y
(1 96 3) wi th fo ur “ pe t al s ” re p la ce h o we v e r, th e sh o t s p re ad s th e fe we r be c ause o f w in d re s is tan ce .
tr a di tio n a l fe lt o r car dbo ard d is c pe l le t s h i t th e t ar ge t. T h e co mba t ✓ St e e l Sho t is ma de by cut ti n g so f t
war ds , o th e r m an u fa ct ure r s h a ve buck sh o t sh e l ls in th is ga me co n ta in ste e l w ire in to sh o t l e n gth s wh i ch ar e
si mi l ar de s ign s; mu s t be co ve re d a t 12 do ub le -o u gh t (0 0) pe l le t s . fo rme d an d gro un d. T h e s h o t is th e n
auto ps y sin ce th e y in di ca te ga uge o f ✓ Sl ug ( S L) – in st e a d o f a gro u p le ad an n e a le d an d co a te d w i th a ru st
we a po n an d b e ar m an u fa ct ure rs ’ bal l s, th e sl ug sh e l l c o n ta in s a s in g le in h ibi to r . W ad s fo r ste e l sh o t
mar k s; fe lt wa ds m ay swe l l wh e n we t , h uge bu l le t wi th an g le d gro o ve s cut amm un i t io n are mo l de d fr o m h i gh -
th e r e fo r e me a sur e af te r dr yin g. T h e in to it s s ide to s pin it a s i t tr av e l s de n s it y po l ye th yle n e . T h e y h a ve
wa d al so : 1) h e lp s co n ta in th e sh o t ; 2) do wn th e s mo o th bo re o f a sh o t gun . th i ck si de w a ll s t o pre ve n t th e p e l le t s
se a ls o ff th e sh o t p ayl o a d fro m th e T h e pe n e tra t io n o f a s lu g is be t te r fro m co n ta c tin g th e sh o t gun bo r e
ign it io n g ase s to pr e v e n t de fo r m at io n th an sh o t , bu t th e w o un d ch an n e l is sur fa ce .
an d 3 ) pr o t e c ts th e b arre l fro m le ad n o t a s wi de . Hig h - ve lo ci ty st e e l lo ad s h a ve a
b ui ld -u p. ✓ Tu ng st e n - I ro n S ho t is fo r me d fro m cu sh io n to re du ce r e c o il .
✓ Le a d sh o t – three ty pe s, v i z. po w de r e d t un g ste n an d po wde re d Tu ng st e n - I ro n a nd S t e e l : T h is sh e ll h a s a
dr o p /so f t sh o t (pure le ad ), iro n . T h e y are b le n d e d to ge th e r an d lay e r o f T un gs te n -Ir o n . I t g ive s yo u a
ch il le d /h ar d sh o t (le ad h arde n e d b y pre s se d in to a pe l le t, th e n s in te re d de n se , co m bin e d pa tt e rn , fo r c lo s e - in wo rk ,
an t imo n y) , pl ate d sh o t ( co ate d w i th o r bo n d e d to g e th e r by a h e a tin g an d t igh t T un gs te n -I ro n p at te rn at lo n ge r
cup r o n i ck e l ), st e e l sh o t. pro ce ss . T h e sh o t i s th e n co ate d wi th ran ge s. It c an be use d in an y sh o tg un
T h re e c ate go r ie s : b i r dsh o t ( fo r b ir ds an d a ru st in h ib it o r. T u n gst e n - Iro n h a s a re co m me n de d fo r ste e l s h o t .
sm al l ga me ), b u ck s h o t ( fo r l arge g ame ), si mi l ar de n si ty t o le a d, bu t i s h arde r
slu gs ( fo r de e r an d b e ar in h e a v il y po pu l at e th an bo t h le ad an d s te e l . T un g ste n - CAR TR ID G E C AS E
are a s . Iro n sh o t sh e l ls use d as a p ate n t - D e f in it io n:
pe n d in g s ix -p e t al , h i gh - de n si ty w ad T h is re f e rs to a t ub ula r me ta l li c o r
KI ND S OF S HO TS th a t de l ive r s t ig h t pa tte rn s an d n o n - me t al l i c co n ta in e r wh i ch h o ld s to ge th e r
✓ L e a d Sho t pe ll e t s an d buck s ho t are pro te ct s th e bo re o f t h e sh o tgun . th e bu l le t , g un p o w de r an d pr ime r .
fo r me d b y po u r in g me lte d le a d ✓ Fle c he t t e Sho t ( F S) – a cl us te r o f T h e c artr id ge ca se i s th e po rt io n o f
th r o ug h a s ie ve o r s w age d ( fo rme d in stur dy ste e l n e e d le s re pl a ce th e sh o t th e c artr id ge th at i s au to m at i ca l ly e j e c te d
a d ie ). W ad s fo r le a d sh o t o f t h e s tan dar d sh o t g un sh e l l. T h e se fro m th e au to m at i c f ir e arm d urin g f ir in g an d
amm un i t io n ar e mo ld e d fro m fle xib le , fle ch e tte s h ave t in y f in s at th e ir b ase th i s re m ain s a t th e s c e n e o f th e cri me . T h i s
lo w - de n s it y po lye th y l e n e pl as t ic an d to s tab i li ze th e m in f li gh t . is a f ire ar m e v ide n ce th at ca n h e l p tr ace a
h ave a cus h io n se ct io n o n th e bo tt o m Ae ro d yn a mi c s is gr e at ly i mpro ve d par ti cu la r f ire arm fro m wh i ch it wa s fi re d .
wh i ch co ll ap se s o n fir in g. The o ve r sh o t , a s is ar mo r -p ie r cin g Funct io ns :
cu sh io n h e l ps r e d uc e th e n um be r o f ca pab i li ty . 1. I t se rv e s a s a me a n s wh e re b y th e bu lle t,
de fo r me d pe ll e ts an d r e co il . ✓ Ar mo r- p ie rc in g Sl u g ( A P S) – th e gun po wde r an d pri me r are as se m ble d in to a
✓ Buck s ho t ( BS) – B uc k sh o t co n s is ts o f di sc ard in g sabo t s lu g pr o ce ss e s an un i t.
a n um b e r o f l e a d b al ls th at spre ad ae ro d yn a mi c sh ape th at k e e ps i t 2. It se rve s a s a w ate r pro o f co n ta in e r fo r th e
o ut a s th e y tr av e l . In d iv idu a ll y, st abl e in f li gh t e ve n th o u gh i t do e s gun po wde r.
51
3. It pre ve n t s th e e s c ape o f th e g as e s to t h e b .t h e sh e l lh e ad wh i c h co n ta in s th e pri mi n g car tr idg e c a se . D e si gn e d to be use d i n
re ar a s th e s ide w al ls o f th e c art ri dge ca s e mix ture auto ma t ic we apo n s lik e p is to l s, an d
are fo r ce d a ga in s t th e w al ls o f t h e ch a mb e r c. th e sh e llh e a d wh i ch co n ta in s the subm a ch i n e g un s su ch as su pe r . 38 , u z i
by th e pr e ss ur e . I t s e r ve s as t h e ga s se a l s h e ad st am p, c al ibe r , an d t h e ye a r o f 9mm , c al ibe r . 25 , a n d ca l ibe r . 32 .
at th e b r e e ch e n d o f t h e b ar r e l . man u f ac ture . c.R i m le ss – ca se s w h e re in th e d ia me te r o f
9. S ho u l de r – t h e p o rtio n wh i ch sup po r t th e th e bo dy o f th e c ar tri dge is th e sa me as th e
P a rt s o f C a rt r i dge C a se : n e ck . di ame te r o f th e c art rid ge bo dy . Us e d i n
1. R i m – T h is se r ve s th e pur po se o f l im it in g 10. E xt r a ct i ng G ro o v e – th e c ir cu lar gro o v e auto ma t ic p is to ls , T h o mp so n sub ma ch in e
th e f o rw ar d tr a ve l o f c ar tr i dge in to th e i r n e ar th e ba se o f th e ca se o r sh e l l de s ign e d gun , gre ase gun .
ch a mbe r s an d th is al so li m it th e c le aran c e , fo r a uto ma ti c wi th d r aw al o f th e ca se a ft e r d.R e b at e d r i mle s s – th i s un u sua l ca se w a s
if an y , b e t we e n t h e h e ad a n d th e sup po rt in g e ac h f ir in g . de ve lo pe d to pro v i de th e ab i li ty o f h a v in g a
sur fa ce o f th e b o lt o r b r e e ch b lo ck . CLA SS IF I CA T IO N A CCOR D I NG TO CA S E lar ge r d i ame te r c a se w ith an e x is t in g
2. P r im e r P o ck e t – It pe r fo rm s t h re e SH A P E A ND H EAD F OR M : sm al le r bo lt . T h e re bate d r i mme d ca se w as
fun ct io n s: de s ign e d to a l lo w a l arg e di ame te r c a s e
a. It h o ld s th e pr im e r se cu r e l y in ce n tr a l SH A P E: wh i le be in g ab le t o use a sm al le r , mo r e
po s it io n ; a . S t r a ig ht – al w ays pi sto l amm un i t io n . A ll st an d ard s i ze bo lt fa c e . T h e di a me te r o f th e
b .I t pro v ide s a me a n s to pr e v e n t th e e s c ap e rim sh e ll an d mo st ce n te r fire re vo l v e r rim i s sm al le r th an th e bo dy o f th e car tr id g e
o f g as t o th e r e ar o f t h e c ar tr id ge ; car tr idg e th a t ar e n o w m an u f ac ture d h a ve ca se .
c. It pro vi de s a s o l id sup po r t o f th e p ri me r str ai gh t c ase s . e . Be lt e d c a se – th e be lte d c ase a tt e mp ts
an v i ls , wi th o u t wh ic h th e la tte r co u ld n o t b e b. Bo t t le ne ck – a lw ays r i fle am mun it io n . to co m bin e th e s mo o th fe e d in g
fir e d . Mo st m o de rn ce n te r f ire ri f le o f bo t t le n e c k ch a ra cte ri st i cs o f t h e r im le s s w ith th e
3. Ve nt s o r f la s h ho l e s – T h is re fe r s to th e type , s in c e th i s c a se fo rm p r o v ide th e co n s i ste n t h e ad sp a c in g o f th e ri mme d.
h o le s in th e we b o r b o tto m o f th e pri m e r gre a te s t po we r c ap a c ity co mme n sur at e w i t h Mo st co m mo n use s i s in th e m agn um ri f l e
po ck e t th r o ugh wh i ch th e pri me r fl as h o ve r al l ca se le n g th . ca se s . T h e be lte d w as de s ign e d t o pro vi de
im par ts ig n i tio n to th e po w de r ch arge . c. T ap e re d – o bso le te . I s v e ry r are b u t po s it ive h e a d sp a cin g an d a llo w m ag az in e
4. T he He ad a nd Bo d y – T h i s co n st it ute s t h e pre se n tl y b e in g use d in car tri dge ca se s a r e fe e d in g. T h e re i s a p ro tru d in g me t al
co rk th a t p lug s t h e b r e e ch o f th e b arr e l Magn um je t c ar tri dge ca l ibe r . 22 . aro un d th e bo d y o f t h e c artr id ge ca se n e ar
ag ain st th e e s ca pe o f gas . th e r im .
5. Ne ck – T h i s i s th e par t o f th e c artr id ge H EAD FOR M S :
ca se th a t is o c cu pie d b y th e b u lle t. a .R i mm e d – de si g n e d to be u se d i n PR IM ER S
6. C an ne l u re – T h e se ar e th e se rr at e d re vo l ve r s. T h e d ia m e te r o f th e b as e o f th e T h e po r tio n o f th e c artr id ge w h i ch co n si st
gro o ve s th a t a r e so me t ime s fo un d ro lle d car tr idg e i s ve ry m uch b ig ge r th an th e o f th e br as s g il din g me t al - cu p co n ta in in g a
in to th e n e ck an d b o die s o f th e c as e s a t t h e di ame te r o f th e bo d y o f th e car tr idge . T h e h igh ly se n s it i ve mix ture of c h e m i c al
lo ca tio n o f th e b u l le t b a se s to pre ve n t th e rim me d de s ign e d wa s th e e a rl ie st a n d co m po un d, wh ich wh e n str uck by th e f iri n g
bul le t fr o m b e in g pu s h e d b ack o r lo o se n e d . pro v ide s fo r e a sy e xtr ac ti o n an d h e a d pin wo ul d de to n a te o r i gn i te . Su ch a ct io n i s
7. Cr i m p – T h i s i s t h at par t o f mo u th o f a spa c in g . Use d in c al ibe r .3 8 s pe ci a l an d ca l le d P e r cu ss io n . U se fo r ign i tin g th e
ca se th a t in t ur n e d in upo n th e bu l le t . ca l ibe r .2 2 . gun po wde r, a b lo w f ro m th e f ir in g p in o n
8. B a se - th e b o t to m p o r t io n o f th e c a se b. Se m i- r i m me d – t h e se m i -r im me d ca s e th e pr i me r cup c o mpre sse s t h e pr im i n g
wh i ch co n ta in s: wa s an at te mp t to co mbin e th e a dv an t ag e s mix ture an d th is c au se s th e c o mp o s it io n t o
a. th e pr i me r wh i ch co n t a in s th e pri min g o f th e r imm e d an d r im le s s de si gn s bu t i t de to n ate o n e xp lo de s. T h i s de t o n a tin g o n
mix ture wa s n e v e r po pu lar . T h e di ame te r o f th e r i m e xp lo s io n pr o du ce s “f l ame ” w h i ch p a sse s
is sl igh t ly gre ate r th an th e di ame te r o f th e th ro ug h th e “ e ve n t” o n “ f la sh h o le ” i n th e
52
car tr idg e s c ase and th i s ign ite s the 2. Bo xe r Pr i me r – I t wa s in ve n te d b y a n =S w is s Arm y h a s be e n usin g n o n -co rro s iv e
gun po wde r . Ame r i can in ve n to r Co l . E dw a rd M un i e r pri me r sin ce abo u t 1 91 1. T h i s wa s b ase o n
Bo xe r an d wa s pa t e n te d in J un e 2 9, 1 86 9. th e fo rm ul a o f a S wi ss in ve n to r n am e d
OR I G IN Wi th Bo xe r pri me rs t h e an vi l i s a n in te gr al ZIEG LE R : S w is s fo rmu la .
- 18 07 – A le x an de r Jo h n Fo r s yth .F irs t o n e t o par t o f th e pr ime r a ss e mbl y. Ful mir at e o f me r cur y - 40 %
co n ce i ve th e id e a o f us in g de to n a t i n g Ba rri um n it ra te -2 5 %
co m po un ds fo r i gn i t i n g po wde r ch ar ge s i n PR IM IN G COM P OU ND S :C l a s se s An t imo n y s ul f ide -2 5 %
sm al l ar m s b y p e r cu ss io n . A s co t c h ✓ Co rro si ve pr im e rs – e .g P o t as siu m Ba rri um c ar bo n ate - 8 %
P re sby to r ian mi n i ste r ch e m i st an d h un te r. A ch lo ra te – if ig n ite d pro du ce G ro un d gl as s - 4 %
we l l k n o wn a u th o r ity o n fi re ar ms .F ir st po t as si um ch lo r ide , dra ws mo is ture ✓ COR R OS I ON – T h e ch e m ic a l we ar
su cce ss fu l pr i min g mix tur e w as one fro m th e a ir an d t h i s mo i stu re spe e ds an d te ar o f th e in s ide o f th e gun
co m po se d o f P o ta ss i um ch l o ra te , ch ar co al th e ru st in g an d co rro si o n i n gu n barre l due to ru st fo rm at io n o r
an d su lf ur in po wde r f o r m. barre l. Ad va n ce s in ch e m is try ch e m i ca l re a ct io n by th e pro du ct s o f
pro du ce new co m po s it io n wh ich co mb us tio n a ft e r fir in g.
PA R T S : po t as si um ch lo ra te h as be e n ✓ ER OS IO N – T h e me ch an i c al w e ar an d
✓ P RIM E R C UP – co n ta in e r o f th e e li m in a te d . te ar o f th e in n e r sur fa ce o f th e gun
pr i min g mi xtur e m a de up o f br as s, - P o ta ss iu m c h lo r at e (in i ti ato r barre l du e to me ch an ic a l ab ra sio n o r
gl id in g me ta l o r co pp e r . an d fue l 45 % ) sl id in g fr i ct io n .
✓ P RIM ING M I XT U RE – h igh ly se n si ti ve - An t imo n y Su l fi de (e le me n ts
ch e m i ca l mi xtu r e c o n ta in e d i n th e an d fue l 23 % )
pr i me r cup s . - Ful min a te wa y c ame th e GU N PO WD ER
✓ ANV IL – th at po r t io n o f th e pr ime r st an d ard m ix ture by Fran k fo rd T h e pro pe l lan t wh i ch wh e n i gn ite d by
ag ain st wh i ch th e pr i min g m ix ture is Arse n a l k n o wn as F H - 24 h ad th e pri me r f l ash is c o n ve rt e d to g as un d e r
cr u sh e d b y a b lo w fr o m t h e f irin g th e fo l lo win g co m po s i tio n : h igh pre s sure an d th i s pro p e l s th e b ul le t o r
pin . To pr o vi de th e re s is ta n ce - sul fur - 21 .9 7 % sh o t ch an ge s th ro ugh th e barr e l an d o n th e
n e ce ss ar y to fir e th e pr i min g - P o ta ss iu m ch lo ra te - 47 .2 0 % tar ge t .
mix tur e . - An t imo n y S ul f ide - 30 .3 3 % The Fo r e r unn e r s o f Gu npo w de r i n Eu ro p e :
✓ D IS C – p ie ce o f s ma l l p ape r o n d is c ✓ No n - co rro s ive – e ve ry m an u fa ct ure G un po wde r wa s ab le to re a ch E uro pe
o f th e p in , fo il wh i ch i s pre sse d o ve r h as it s o wn fo rm ul a mix ture o f th e th ro ug h th e r ich tra de ro ute s o f th e S i l k
th e pr im in g m ix tur e . me rc uri c pri me r s o f 2 5 ye ars ago . Ro a d. T h e re f in e me n t an d ch e m ic al
Tw o fo ld pu rp o se s In gr e d ie nt s : stru c ture o f g un po wd e r w as co m p le te w h e n
a. to h e l p h o l d th e pr i min g mi xt ure in =G e r man h ave th e ir o wn co mpo si t io n it re a ch e d Euro pe , h o we ve r i t to o k a ma n
pl ac e bari um n it ra te in th e pl a ce o f P o t as si u m n ame d Fr an ci s B a co n to re co r d th e ac tu a l
b . to e x c lude mo is tur e ch lo ra te to ge th e r wi t h so me P icr i c A ci d t o ch e m i ca l s n e e de d fo r gun po w de r . B ac o n ’s
stre n gth e n m ix ture . bo o k O pu s M agn u ss e t fo urth th e m ar ve l s o f
TY P E S O F PR IM ER : T h is fo r mu la : th e wo r ld , an d al so co n t ain e d th e
1. Be r d an Pr i me r – It w as in ve n te d by -Fu l mir ate o f me r cur y - 39 % in gre di e n t s o f gu n po wde r .
Hi r a m Be rd a n an d it wa s pa te n te d i n Mar c h Ba rri um n it ra te - 4 1 % A G e r man by th e n ame o f Be rth o l d
20 , 18 66 . W it h Be r d an pr i me rs th e pr i me r An t imo n y S ul f ide - 9 % Sch w ar t z (re al n a me is CO N ST A NT I N
cup c o n t ain s o n ly th e pr im in g mi xt ure an d P i cri c Ac i d - 5 % ANK LI T ZEN ) wa s a cc re di te d w ith in ve n tin g
th e an v i l is p ar t o f th e c ar t r i dge c as e . T h i s G ro un d gl as s - 6 % th e Euro pe an r if le . S ch w art z ’s A s ia n
type o f pr ime r co n ta i n s t wo fl a sh h o le s . e th n i c it y wo u ld h e lp su ppo r t th e pre se n c e
53
o f g un po wde r in C h in a , Is la m a n d I n d ia e ve ry gra in mu st b e a m ix ture o f a ll • B lo c k P o w de r – re l ie s fo r it s
ye ar s pr io r b e fo r e i t r e a ch e d o th e r th e th re e . e xp lo s ive pro pe rt ie s o n 3 qu an t i tie s
Euro pe an co un tr ie s . ✓ PR ES S IN G – pre ss in g th e s i ze o f th e wh i ch are typ i ca l o f a ll e xp lo si ve s
gra in s . It ga ve a str o n ge r e x p lo s io n
PR OD U C TI ON PR O CE S S OF fo r a g iv e n we igh t o f gun p o w de r. FIR ST – wh e n ig n i te d it wi l l burn by
GU N PO WD ER : T h is is th e mo st d an ge ro us s t age o f it se l f w ith o u t ai d fro m th e o u ts id e a ir .
1. P R EP A R AT IO N pro du c tio n . SE CO ND – in burn in g , it gi ve s o f f a lar ge
Al l th r e e o f th e r a w m ate r i al s n e e d ✓ COR N I NG – d us t is re mo ve b y amo un t o f g a s.
puri fy in g an d pr o ce s sin g b e fo re th e y co ul d tumb l in g in s ilk w al le d dru ms . T HI RD – a co n s ide r ab le a mo un t o f h e at is
be use d fo r g un po wd e r . ✓ GLA ZI NG – T h i s is an o p tio n a l e vo l ve d .
✓ SAL T P E TE R – o r n i te r , i s th e co mmo n pro ce ss o n l y do n e to po wde r fo r 2. SM O K EL ES S PO WD ER – te r ms
n ame fo r p o t as siu m n itr ate . ce rt a in u se s . G ra ph i te du st i s a dde d smo k e le ss po w de r is mi sn o me r fo r th e
O r ig in al ly e x tr ac te d fro m p ig e o n to th e gu n po wde r a n d tu mb le d in a are n e i th e r po wde r n o r th e y are
dr o pp in gs an d o th e r n it ro ge n r i ch drum . T h e g ra in s o f th e g un po wde r smo k e le ss . T h e la tte r s te rm be in g
man ur e s i t wa s l ate r o bt ai n e d fro m e n de d u p w it h a t h in co a ti n g o f app l ie d to th e m o n l y be c aus e th e y do
im po r te d m in e r al de po s it s – m ain ly grap h i te gi v in g it a po l ish e d n o t g ive o f f h uge c lo ud o f wh ite smo k e
In d ia in th e 19 t h ce n tu r y. app e ar an ce . lik e th e bl a ck p o wde r . T h e mo st
✓ SUL P H UR – T h i s wa s i mpo r te d fro m 2. D RY ING po we r fu l p ro pe l lan t b e in g use d.
Sp ain an d pu r i f ie d b y di st i ll at io n M OLD IN G – in tro d uce d fo r e ve ry
✓ CH AR C OAL – Bo th th e w o o d use d lar ge gun s an d l a te r bl as t in g c h ar ge s th e Cl a s se s o f Sm o ke le s s Po w de r :
an d th e me th o d o f burn in g w e re dry po w de r w as fo r m e d in h e xa go n al pr is ms 1. SI NG L E – B AS E P RO P E L LA NT O R
cr u c ia l to th e qua l ity o f th e f in ish e d o r cy l in de r s in h y dra ul ic pre sse s. N IT R O C EL L U LO S E , c o n ta in s o n ly th e
gun po wde r . So f t w o o d ti mbe r w as pure n it ro g ly ce r in e ge l at in ize d wi th
th e b e st .O r ig in a l ly t h e ch ar co a l wa s Cl a s s o r Co m po si t io n : n itro ce l lu lo se .
mad e in th e tr ad i tio n al way in e ar th 1. BLA CK Po w de r – a l th o ugh i f f e a ture s lo s s 2. D OU BL E – B AS E P RO P E L LAN T ,
co ve r e d m o un d s. I n th e l ate 18 t h im po rt an t s ti l l m an u fa ct ure d by the co m po se d of n i tr o ce ll ulo se an d
ce n t ur y it wa s fo un d th a t pu tt in g th e Euro pe an s. In re ce n t ti me h as co mp le te l y n itro g ly ce ri n e as th e ir m a jo r
wo o d in se a le d ir o n cy li n de r s an d supe r se d e d by s mo k e le s s po wde r . B la c k in gre di e n t s a c co rd in g by o n e mo re
h e at in g th e se in a f ur n ac e pro d uc e d a po w de r is th e o lde st pro pe l lan t a n d t h e in gre di e n t s s uch a s:
far mo r e r e l iab le an d e ff e c ti ve mo s t d an ge r o us e xp lo s iv e to h an dl e an d a. Ce n tra l iz e
gun po wde r . sto re , be ca use it can e as i ly i gn i te d b y h e a t , b. V as e l in e P h th al ate e ste r s
fri c tio n an d s pa rk . c. In o r gan i c sa lt
✓ M I X IN G – a l l th r e e i n gre d ie n ts we re 3. TR I PL E BA S E PR OP E LLA NT – i s a
cr u sh e d in to a fin e p o wde r in a ba l l In gre die n ts : type o f pro pe l lan t po w d e r wh i ch u se s
mi ll . T h e y we r e th e n mi xe d in th e P o ta ss iu m n itr ate -7 5 % th re e p rin c ip al in gre die n ts .
pr o po r tio n s r e q uir e d fo r th e Sul fur -1 0 % • Nit ro ce l lu lo se
par ti cu la r w ay in w h ic h th e f in i sh e d Ch ar co a l -1 5 % • Nit ro g ly ce r in
gun po wde r w as to b e use d . • P ro du ce s gr ay is h s mo k e an d • n itro - gu an i di n e
✓ IN COR P OR A T IO N – ju st m ix in g th e co n s i de rab le re s idue is le ft in t h e 4. H IG H I G NI T IO N T EM P ER AT UR E
in gr e di e n t s w i ll g ive a ra pi d bur n in g barre l. PR OP E LLA NT – is a type o f pr o pe ll an t i n
mat e r i a l, b ut f o r an e xp lo s i ve m ix • Burn s wi th r e a so n a bl e gre at r ap i di ty wh i ch t h e ma in co n st itue n t i s fr o m RD X
wh e n ign it e d . gro up o f h i gh e x plo s i ve s . I t wa s mo de r ate d
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to th e pr o ce s s o f g e la ti n i z at io n an d w a s de gre e o f h ar dn e ss , h e at re si st an ce , an d R EFR AC T IV E I ND E X
th e n de ve l o pe d b y D yn am it e No b le o f o th e r spe c if i c pu rpo s e s. Re f ra ct io n re fe rs to th e ch an ge o f
G e rman y in co n jun c t io n w ith He ck le r an d dire c tio n o f a ray o f l i gh t in p as s in g th r o ug h
Ko ch fo r th e l ath e r ’ s G 11 K2 r i f le . T h i s i s a BR EAK S OF GLA S S: a me di um wh o se de n si ty is n o t un i fo rm , a s
ca se le s s car tr idge . 1. P ri mar y fra ct ure o r rad i al th ro ug h a pi e ce o f g la ss th a t h as be e n
2. Se co n dary fr a ctu r e o r c o n ce n tr i c gro un d to spe c if ic re qu ire m e n t s.T h e
GU NS HO T R E S ID U E ANA L Y S IS : FLO UR ES CE NC E re fr ac ti ve i n de x ca n be me as ure d e ith e r
Wh e n th e pr ime r i s de to n at e d , T h e F LO UR ES C ENC E e xa m in a ti o n is mi cro sco p ic a lly o r wi th a re f ra cto me t e r.
mi cro sco p ic pa r t ic le s o f gun s h o t re si du e base d o n th e fa c t th at m in e r al co n s ti tue n ts T h e l at te r m e th o d, h o we ve r, r e qu ire s th a t
are de po s i te d o n th e h an d s o f th e sh o o te r. im par t a di st in ct i ve type an d de gr e e o f th e t wo si de s of th e s am ple be
Stu di e s h a ve sh o wn th a t t h e G SR m ate r i a l fl uo re s ce n ce to th e gl as s o ri gin at in g fro m par al le l. An o th e r me t h o d k n o wn a s f lo ta tio n ,
wi l l re m a in o n th e sh o o te r ’s h an d fo r up t o o n e mo lte n ba t ch . in wh ich a ch e m i ca l so lut io n is use d w it h
abo u t 6 h o ur s. T h e par t i cle s are in th e th e re fra ct o me te r, c an be u se d wh e n th e
h igh e st co n ce n tr at io n i mme di at e ly af te r SP E C TR O GR A P H IC ANA LY S IS spe ci me n do e s n o t h a ve p ara l le l s ide s .
sh o o t in g an d a ll ar e e ve n tu al ly lo st o v e r T h e c o n s ti tue n ts o f g la ss , e spe c ia l ly
ti me , de pe n d in g o n wh a t ac ti o n th e sh o o t e r th e m in o r o r tra ce co n s t itue n ts su ch as D EN S I TY
tak e s. co n t am in an t s an d min o r e le me n t s a dde d fo r T h is a n a ly si s is b ase d o n th e re la ti ve
spe ci f i c purp o se s, le n d th e m se lve s re a di l y de n s it ie s o f t wo o r mo re p ie c e s o f gl as s.
to spe ctr o gr aph i c an aly s is , wh ic h ide n ti f i e s Co m par is o n o f th e de n si ti e s o f a k n o wn an d
T WO W AY S OF CO L L E CT I NG G UN SH O T an d me as ure s t h e q uan ti ti e s o f th e se an u n k n o wn pie ce o f gl as s m ay a id i n
R E SI D U E co n s t itue n t s. T h e pre se n c e o r abs e n ce , an d de te r min in g if th e y are si mi l ar or
1. Co tto n - t ipp e d app l i ca to r or other th e qu an t it ie s o f th e se min o r co n st it ue n t s di ss im i lar .
subs tr ate s an d di lu te n itr i c a c id so lu ti o n fo r are of mo re i mpo r tan ce in th e
co lle c tin g th e r e si du e b y al um in um stu b s spe ctro gr aph ic an al y si s th an are th e b as i c AR M S M A NUF AC T UR IN G PR OC E SS E S
wi th do ub le si de d ce l lo ph an e ta p e at ta ch e d co n s t itue n t s th at are o rdin ar il y pre se n t i n R EL AT E D T O F IR E A R M S
to th e sur fa ce fo r s ca n n in g e le ctr o n su ch co m pa ra ti ve ly gre at q uan ti t ie s t h at ID EN T IF IC A T ION
mi cro sco py . di ff e re n ce s in th e s p e ctr a l li n e s o f v ar io u s It i s ve r y i mpo r tan t th a t a b al l is ti cs
2. D e rm al n i tr ate o r par af f in t e s t fra gme n ts are o f te n d if f ic ul t to de te c t . T h e te ch n i c ian or fire arm s e x am in e r be
spe ctro gr aph , fo r t h i s re as o n , is o f gre a te st ade qu ate ly f am i li ar wi th th e v ar io u s ste ps
GLA S S F R A C TUR E va lue in de mo n str a ti n g m ajo r d i ffe re n ce s in th e m an u f ac ture o f a f ire arm to e n ab l e
G la ss w i ll fr e que n t l y be im po rt an t be twe e n t wo sa mp le s , in d ic a tin g t h e ir n o n - h im to e x pl a in th e s o urce o f c ause o f th e
fa ct o rs i n th e in ve st i gat io n o f o f fe n se s s u ch ide n ti ty , ra th e r th an in in di c at in g di ff e re n t m ark in g s fo un d o n a fi re ar m
as burg l ar y , h o u se b r e ak in g , f le e i n g t h e ac ce pt abl y pr o ve n i d e n ti ty . e vi de n ce wh ich m ay be th e ba si s o f h i s
sce n e of ve h i c l e ac c i de n ts , an d Spe ctr o gr aph an a ly s i s sh o ul d n o t be ide n ti f i ca tio n . T h e r e sh o u l d al wa ys be a
o th e rs .G la ss i s n o r m al ly a fus e d mi xtur e o f ro ut in e l y r e qu e s te d i n a l l c ase s, sin ce i t i s so un d r e a so n fo r a l l mark in g s , s cra t ch e s o r
si l ic a in th e fo r m o f n atur a l sa n d an d t wo o r n o t al w ays n e ce ss a ry o r us e fu l to th e de n t s vi si ble o n f ire a rms e v ide n ce an d it i s
mo re a lk a l in e b a se s su ch as s o d a, li me , o r in ve st ig a tio n , an d sin ce s ma l l fr ag me n ts ar e th e ro le o f th e e xa mi n e r to de te r min e h o w
po t ash . I t a l so c o n ta in s qu an ti tie s o f de s tro ye d by th e an a lys is . O th e r an d wh y th e y we re m ade , an d a l so t o
var io u s o th e r e l e me n ts an d me t al s , pre se n t e xam in at io n s h o u ld b e co m ple te d f irs t, an d in te r pre t th e i r si gn i f i can ce bo th to h im se l f
e ith e r a s in ci de n t a l i mpur it i e s in t h e b as i c spe ctro gr aph ic an a ly si s re que ste d o n ly i f an d to t h e co urt . M o st o f th e se m ark i n g s
co n s t itue n t s o r a dde d t o th e m fo r co lo r , co n s i de re d n e c e s sary . are tr an sfe r re d to th e fi re ar m e v i de n c e s b y

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de l ibe r ate o r a c ci de n ta l o pe r at io n s o f th e b. Nu mbe r o f Gro o v e s - G ro o ve s re f e rs t o th ro ug h th e a c tio n o f an a uto - lo a d in g o r
to o l s d ur i n g th e p r o c e ss o f man uf a ctur e . th e de pre sse d po r ti o n o f th e gun b arre l. re pe a ti n g fir e ar m. Str ia te d a ct io n mark s
HO W T H E B AR R EL I S M A D E c. Wi dt h o f L and s - B o th bro a ch an d but to n can be pro du ce d o n c artr id ge ca se s b y
✓ The St e e l- A rif l in g are c o n s ide r e d co n ve n t io n a l ri fl in g co n t a ct w i th a n um be r o f di f fe re n t are as
✓ D r i ll i ng t he Ho le te ch n i que s. T h e tr a n si ti o n fro m l an d to a wi th in th e f ire arm .
✓ R e a m in g t he Ho le - gro o ve is ve r y di st i n ct an d th e lan ds a n d ✓ Ch a mbe r mark s – o n e o f t h e mo st
✓ Cut R i f l ing - gro o ve s are fl at to sl i gh t ly cur ve d . co m mo n str i ate d a ct io n mark s .
✓ Bro a ch in g - d. D e pt h o f Gro o v e s Ro ug h n e s s in th e c h ambe r o f th e
✓ H a mm e r R i f l in g - e . Pit ch o f R i f f l in g – th e n umbe r o f in ch e s fir e ar m c an s cra t ch t h e o ute r w a ll s o f
✓ L a pp in g tra ve l e d by th e bu lle t to m ak e o n e co m p le t e a c artr id ge c as e w h e n lo a de d an d
turn . re mo ve d fro m th e c h ambe r . Mo st
f . Tw i st o f R i f li ng – th e d ire c tio n o f t wi s t ch a mbe r m ark s o c cur a fte r th e
R IF L I NG wh e th e r r igh t o r to th e le ft . car tr idg e is fire d . Car tr idge ca se s
e xpa n d w h e n f ire d pre s sin g o ut
Re f e r s to th e h e li c al l in e s cut in th e M AR K S F OU ND ON F IR ED BU LL ET : ag ain st th e w al l s o f th e ch a mbe r .
in te r io r o f th e b o r e o f gu n bar re l . Mo st a . L an d m ark s – mark s cau se d by t h e Wh e n th e y are p ul le d o u t th e
mo de r n p i sto ls , r e v o lve r s , ri fl e s an d lan ds . ch a mbe r , th e si de s o f th e ca rtr id ge
b. G ro o v e m a rk s – mark s cau se d by t h e ca se can be s cr at ch e d. T h e se mark s
so me sh o tgun b ar r e ls h a ve w h a t ar e
gro o ve s . Lan d a n d gr o o ve mark s to ge th e r i s are mo st ly fo un d aro un d th e b o dy o f
ca l le d r i fl in g in th e i r b arre ls . R if l in g ca l le d r i fl in g m ark s. th e f ire d c artr id ge ca se . Ch ambe r
co n s i st s o f gr o o ve s cut o r fo r me d in a c. S ki d m ark s – w h e n th e bu lle t f ir st s ta rt s mark s m ay be c ause d by the
sp ira l n a tur e , l e n g th w ise do w n th e fo rw ar d w i th o u t t urn i n g, th at th e bu lle t c a n fo l lo wi n g :
barr e l o f a f ir e ar m . T h is s pin s th e be gin t o turn , it m o ve s f o rw ard a s ma ll a. ch am be ri n g
bul le t , ma k in g it mo r e s tab le in f l igh t di st an ce an d th i s m ak e s th e fro n t in th e b. e xp an d in g dur in g fir in g
an d gi v in g mo r e ac cu r ac y. gro o ve in th e bu ll e t w ide r th an t h e re a r c. e x tra c tio n
par t. T h e s k i dd in g is m o re pro n o un c e i n ✓ Sh e ar m ark s – Wh e n a car tr idg e ca se
Pu rp o se o f R i fl i ng th e re vo l ve r an d due to wo rn o u t b arre l. is fo rce d ba ck war ds fro m r e co i l th e
Ri f lin g i s p l ace d in th e bar re l s o f d. St r i pp in g m a rk s – T h e se are s cr at ch e s pri me r im be d s it se l f in th e f iri n g pi n
fir e ar ms to im par t a s pin o r s ta bi l ity in o n th e f ire d bu l le t d ue t o wo rn o u t b arre l h o le . A s th e sl ide o f th e p is to l st art s
fl ig h t o n th e b u l le t s th a t pa ss th ro ugh i t. wh i ch c aus e th e bu lle t to ju mp . to re co i l, th e b arre l wi l l dro p s l igh tl y
Be ca use b u l le t s ar e o b lo n g o b je ct s, th e y e . Sl i pp ag e m a rk s – bul le t s fir e d fro m a as th e a ct io n o pe n s . T h e dro pp in g
mus t s pin in th e ir fl ig h t , l ik e a th ro w n wo rn -o u t bar re l , o i l y barre l s an d s l igh t ly barre l fo r ce s th e c a rtri dge ca se to
fo o t ba ll to b e a c cur at e . o ve r -s i ze d b arre ls . mo ve do wn w ard an d o ut o f th e f iri n g
f . Sh av i ng m a rk s – mo s t co m mo n ly th e s e pin h o l e . Sh e ar in g mar k s i s a l so
Co m po s it i o n o f r i fl i ng : mark s ar e fo un d o n bul le t s fire d fro m a ca l le d se co n d ary f i rin g pi n m ark ,
a . N u mbe r o f L a n ds - La n d re fe r s t o t h e re vo l ve r due to a p o o r a li gn me n t o f th e fo un d in th e pri me r n e ar th e f ir in g
rai se d me t a l b e t we e n th e gr o o ve s. The cy lin de r wi th th e bo r e . pin mar k .
lan ds an d gr o o ve s o n a b u ll e t are m e a sure d ✓ Fir in g P i n D r ag Mark s – In a si mi l ar
in th o u sa n dt h s o f an in ch o r in m il l ime te r s. M AR K S FO UND ON FIR ED C AR T R I D G E pro ce ss , s tri at e d m ar k s ca l le d fir in g
O n e way to me asu r e in d iv id ua l ri f lin g CAS E : pin dra g m ark s can be pro du ce d .
im pre s si o n s is to use a m i cr o me te r . a . St r i at e d act io n m ar ks – th e se a re Wh e n th e f irin g pi n spr in g s fo rw ar d
co m mo n t o c art ri dge ca se s th at h ave pa ss e d to s tr ik e t h e pr im e r o f a c ar tri dge , it
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 may r e ma in s l igh t l y fo r war d an d 1. Fir in g P in I mpre ss i o n s – are in de n ta t io n s CLA SS C HAR AC T ER I ST I CS – T h o se wh i c h
imb e dde d in th e p r ime r . Ce rt a in cre ate d wh e n th e fi rin g p in o f a f ire ar m are de t e rm in e pr io r to th e m an u fa ct ure r o f
b ar r e ls ( l ik e i n th e G LO C K) dro p str ik e s th e pr ime r o f ce n te r fire c artr i dg e th e f ire arm an d are wi th in c o n tro l o f m a n .
do wn s li gh t ly a s r e co il i s fo r ci n g th e ca se o r th e ri m o f a r im f ire car tr id ge ca s e . T h e se se r ve as ba s is to i de n t i fy a ce r ta i n
ac ti o n o pe n . If th e n o se of th e fi rin g pin has cl as s o r gro u p o f fire arm .
✓ Extr a cto r M ar k s – An o th e r a ct io n man u f ac tur in g i mpe rfe ct io n s o r d am ag e , a ) C a li be r (B o re D i ame te r)
mar k , u sua l ly f o un d in a str i ate d th e se p o te n ti a ll y un i que c h ar a cte r is t ic s c an e ) W id th o f gro o ve s
fo r m , ar e th o se cr e ate d by a be im pre s se d to t h e me t al o f t h e pr ime r o r b ) Num be r o f lan ds
e xtr ac to r o f mo st auto - lo ad in g o r rim o f th e ca rtr id ge c ase . f ) D ire ct io n o f tw is t
re pe a ti n g f ir e ar m s. Extr a cto r m ark s 2. Bre e ch Mark s – By f ar th e mo st co m mo n c ) N umbe r o f gro o v e s
ar e m o s tly fo un d o n sh e l l s f ire d fro m ac ti o n m ark s o n car tr id ge c a se s are bre e c h g ) P i t ch o f r if l in g
pi sto ls , r i fl e s , sh o t gu n s an d ma ch in e mark s. T h e se are f o un d ge n e ra ll y o n t h e d ) W id th o f lan ds h )
gun s . T h e e xt r a cto r is a sm al l p ar t base o f th e ca rtr id g e ca se s . Mo s t f ire d D e pth o f gro o ve s
so me ti me s r e se m b l in g a h o o k th at is car tr idg e ca se s are i de n t i fie d as h av in g
use d to r e mo ve a c artr id ge o r be e n f ire d b y a spe ci f i c fir e ar m th ro ugh t h e IND I V ID UAL CH AR A CT ER I ST I CS – T h o s e
car tr idg e ca se fr o m t h e ch am be r o f a ide n ti f i ca tio n o f bre e ch m ark s. wh i ch a re de t e rm in abl e o n ly af te r th e
fir e ar m. T h e se ar e usu al ly fo un d o n 3. E je ct o r Mar k s – a re so me ti me s cre ate d man u f ac ture o f th e f ire arm . T h e y ar e
o r ju st ah e ad o f th e r i m. wh e n ca rtr id ge s o r c artr id ge ca se s ar e ch a ra cte ri st i cs wh o s e e xi ste n ce i s be yo n d
✓ Eje ct o r M a r k s – T h e e je ct o r i s e je cte d fro m t h e a ct io n o f t h e fi re ar m. th e co n tro l o f man a n d wh i ch h ave ran do m
de s ign e d t o e x pe l th e c artr id ge ca se Eje ct o r m ark s can be e i th e r s tri ate d o r di str ibu ti o n . T h e ir e x is te n ce i n a f ire a rm i s
fr o m th e ac t io n o f th e fi re ar m. T h e im pre s se d e je c to r m ark s n o t o n ly can b e bro ugh t abo ut b y th e to o l s in th e ir n o r m al
re su lt in g i mp a ct o f t h e c art ri dge c a se use d to i de n t i fy a ca rtri dge c as e a s h av in g o pe ra ti o n re s ul ti n g t h ro ugh we ar an d te a r,
wi th th e e je cto r wi l l cau se an o th e r pas se d t h ro ug h a fir e arm ’s a c tio n t h e y c an abus e , mu ti la t io n s , c o rro s io n , e ro s io n an d
ac ti o n m ar k th a t ca n be us e d as a al so be an in di c at io n th a t t h e car tr idge ca s e o th e r fo rt ui to u s cau se s.
me an s o f i de n t i fi c a tio n . E je ct o r wa s fi re d in th e fire a rm. Eje c to r mark s ar e
mar k s c an b e s tr ia te d in n at ure b ut a fo un d o n fire d car tri dge s o f au to m at i c Bu l le t In di v i du a l Ch a r act e ri st ic s :
lo t o f t h e t ime th e y are i mpre ss e d we a po n s an d ar e l o c a te d n e ar th e r im . 1. Imp e rfe c tio n s of gro o ve s (m o s t
ac ti o n mar k s. Eje cto r m ark s a re pro n o un ce d in le ad b ul le t s)
ge n e r a l ly fo un d in car tr idg e s f ire d Ot he r m ar ks fo un d o n C a rt r i dge C as e 2. Imp e rfe c tio n s o f La n ds ( mo s t pro n o u n ce d
fr o m a uto ma ti c we ap o n s, th e mark s ✓ P ivo ta l M ark s – m ark s fo un d o n sh e ll in ja ck e te d bul le ts )
ar e lo c a te d n e ar th e r im . by tur n in g th e car tri d ge .
b. I mp re s se d A ct io n M a rk s – ✓ Mag a zin e l ip m ark in gs – th e se are So u rce s o f In d iv idu a l Ch a r act e r i st ic s o f
im pr e s se d a ct io n m ar k s , wi th a fe w mark in g s fo un d a t th e to w po in t s o f Fi re ar m s :
e xce pt io n s, ar e p r o du ce d wh e n a th e r im o f th e b ase o f th e sh e ll an d T h e we a r an d te ar o f th e to o ls / in s tru me n t s
car tr idg e ca se is f ir e d i n a fire arm . T h e th e se a re ca use d b y th e m ag a zi n e use d in th e man uf a ctu re o f f ire ar ms .
two mo st co mmo n im pr e sse d ac ti o n li ps d uri n g th e l o ad in g o f th e 1. T h e ac ti o n o f o x id at io n
mark s ar e f ir i ng p i n i mp re s s io n s an d car tr idg e s in to th e mag a zin e fo r 2. T h e car e o f th e f ir e arm by t h e h o lde r
bre e ch m a rk s . A s m e n tio n e d a t t h e e n d fir in g. 3. T h e u se o f t h e fire arm b y th e h o lde r
o f th e S tr i a te d A c tio n M ark s p ag e , T WO G EN ER AL CH A R AC T ER IS T IC S TO B E
e je ct o r m a rk s can a l so b e in th e fo rm o f CON S ID ER ED R E GA R D IN G BA LL IS T IC S SM AL L AR M S – f i re arm s wh i ch pro p e l
an impr e s se d a ct io n mar k s. E XA M INA T I ON pro je c ti le s o f le ss th an o n e in ch i n
di ame te r .
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 e ) We b le y t ype – s e v e n gro o ve s , ri gh t h an d 3. Re co r d th e m ark u se d an d th e po si ti o n o f
TY P E S O F SM AL L AR M S G EN ER A L : tw is t, n arro w lan ds an d bro ade r gro o ve s th e m ark o n th e o bj e c t.
a ) Smo o th -b o r e – fir e ar m wh i ch do n o t h av e (7 R G 3 X) 4. Re co r d an y se r ia l n umbe r o f th e o th e r
rif l in g f) A r m y t ype – fo u r gr o o ve s , ri gh t h an d di st in ct ive m ark s pre se n t o n th e o b je c t .
Ex: s h o t gun s , mus k e ts tw is t, n arro w lan ds an d bro ade r gro o ve s 5. Wh e n e ve r po ss ib le , mark th e o b je c t
(4 R G 3 X) it se l f , t ak in g c are n o t to d am age o r al te r it .
b )R i fl e d -b o r e – fir e ar m wh i ch co n t a i n 6. Al wa ys mark th e co n t a in e r in wh i ch t h e
rif l in g ma r k s . P UR PO S E OF R IFL I NG – is to i mp ac t a o bje ct i s p la ce d e ve n if th e o bje c t i tse l f is
Ex: p i sto ls , r e vo lve r s, r i fl e s mo t io n o f ro t at io n t o a bu lle t dur in g i t s alre ad y m ark e d.
pas s age in s i de th e ba rre l in o rd e r to in sur e 7. Wh e n t ag s are use d, ma k e co rre spo n di n g
SM AL L AR M S AM M UN I T ION – s ma l l ar ms gyro s co pi c in th e f l i gh t , an d so th at i t wi ll e n try in th e t ag an d a tt ach i t s e cure ly to th e
amm un i t io n co n s is ts o f c ar t r i dge s use d i n tra ve l n o se -o n to war d s th e t arge t. o bje ct .
rif le s, car b in e s , r e vo l ve r s , p is to ls , su b -
ma ch in e gu n s an d sh e l l u se d in sh o t gun . CAL I BE R HO W TO M AR K F IR E D B ULL E TS?
T h e c al ibe r o f a bul le t i s th e ir Fire d b ul le t s sh o u l d be i n i ti a le d by
EQ U I VAL E NT OF C AL IB ER S IN IN CH E S di ame te r in ce n t im e te rs , m i ll i me te r s o r th e re co ve r in g o f f ic e r w it h h is in i ti a ls o n
AND M IL L IM ET ER S : 1/ 10 0 o f an in ch . T h e ca li be rs r an ge s fro m th e o g ive o r n o se , it s an te rio r po r tio n
a ) C a li b e r . 22 – Ab o ut 5 . 59 mm . 0. 22 to 0 . 60 in ch e s . T h e c al ibe r o f a g un is to ge th e r w i th th e c o rre spo n d in g d a te o f
b ) C al ib e r . 25 – Ab o u t 6. 35 mm . de te r min e d by me as urin g th e di am e te r o f re co ve ry . I n ca se o f de fo r me d , da ma ge , o r
c ) Ca l ib e r .3 2 – A b o ut 7 . 65 mm . th e bo re o f th e gun b arre l fr o m la n d to lan d. di sf ig ure d bu l le t s, m ark at t h e b a se .D o n o t
d ) C a lib e r . 30 – Ab o ut 7 . 63 mm . (mo u se r ) mark a t th e cy l in dri ca l o r pe r iph e r al
e ) C al ib e r .3 8 – Ab o ut 9 mm . T h re e D i am e te r s o f a Bo re o f a F ire arm sur fa ce be ca use in th is p o rt io n co n t a in s th e
f ) Ca li b e r .4 5 – A b o ut 1 1 mm . 1. gro o ve d i ame te r rif l in g ma rk s o r s tri at io n s .
g ) C a lib e r . 30 – Ab o ut 7 . 56 mm . (L uge r ) 2. bo re di ame te r
3. i ma gin ary d ia me te r HO W T O M A R K FIR ED C AR T R I D G E
R IFL I NG – c o n s is t o f a n um be r o f h e l ic a l CAS E ?
gro o ve s cu t i n th e i n te r i o r sur fa ce o f th e BOR E – re fe r s t o th e cy lin dr ic a l p as sa ge o f Fire d c ar tri dge c ase sh o u ld be in it i ale d o n
bo re . T h e r i fl in g in fi r e ar m s may be d iv ide d a ba rre l th ro ugh wh ic h th e b ul le t tr ave l s. th e fo l lo w in g :
in to th e fo l lo w in g ty p e s: 1. In si de , n e ar th e o p e n mo u th .
a) St e yr t ype – 4 g r o o ve s , 4 l an d s, r igh t M AR K IN G OF P HY S I CAL E V ID ENC E 2. O ut s ide , n e ar t h e o pe n mo uth .
h an d tw is t, w ith gr o o ve s an d lan ds as e qu al Ide n ti f ic at io n is mo s t e as i ly de te rm in e d b y 3. O n t h e bo dy o f th e sh e ll .
wi dth . (4 R G - L) me an s o f mark o r l abe l w h i ch h a s be e n
b ) S m it h a nd We s so n t ype – f ive gro o ve s , pl ac e d o n th e ph y si ca l e v ide n ce . The HO W TO M AR K SH O TG U N S H ELL?
righ t h an d t w i s t, gr o o ve s an d lan ds o f e qu a l fo l lo wi n g s te p s are use d wh e n m ark in g Scr at ch a p ar t o f th e sh e l l w ith k n ife a n d
wi dth ( 5R G - L ) ph ys i ca l e vi de n ce s o r ba ll is t ic s e x h ib i ts . in i t ia l wi th in k o r an i n de l ib le pe n c i l.
c ) Br o w n in g t yp e – si x gr o o ve s , ri gh t h an d 1. Us e a di st in ct i ve m ark s uch a s i n i ti a ls o f
tw is t, n ar r o w lan ds an d b r o ade r gro o ve s th e re co v e rin g o ff i ce r . HO W TO M AR K SU S P EC T ED F IR E AR M ?
(6 R G 2 X) 2. D o n o t use “ X ” fo r mark in g be c ause “ X ” Wh e n yo u a r e m ark i n g su spe c te d f ire ar m,
d ) Co lt t ype – s ix gr o o ve s , le f t h a n d t w is t , is a un i ve r sa l m ar k an d a l mo s t e ve r ybo d y use sh arp po in te d in stru me n t l ik e s cr ibe r ,
n arro w l an d s an d b r o ade r gr o o ve s (6 L G 2 X ) use s it so mu ch s o th a t it is h ard t o n e e dl e o r sh ar p k n i fe . Sc ra tch in it ia l o f th e
di st in g ui sh o n e “ X ” fr o m an o th e r “ X ” . re co ve ri n g o f fi ce r mark o f i de n ti f ic at i o n
wi th th e d ate o f re co ve ry in th e gun b arr e l
58
cy lin de r , fr ame o f r e ce i ve r a n d / o r ✓ T h e wh o le pr in ci pl e s o f ide n t if i ca ti o n ✓ He li xo me t e r - Us e d in m e a sur in g
mag a zin e w it h sh ar p o b je ct . is b ase d o n t h e f ac t th at s in ce th e “p it ch o f r i fl in g ” . D i s t an c e tr ave le d
P ro v ide a t a g o n t h e t h re e m a i n pa rt s o f bre e ch fa ce o f e ve ry we a po n mu st be by th e b ul le t i n o n e co mp le t e
t he g un : in d iv id ua l ly d is t in c t , th e c artr i dge s ro ta ti o n .
1. ty pe o f fir e ar m ca se s wh i ch it f ire s are im prin te d ✓ M ic ro me t e r - S i mi la r i n use as c a li pe r
2. m ak e o r mo de l wi th th i s in di v idu al i t y. T h e im pri n t s ✓ Ca l ip e r- Us e fo r mak in g
3. c al ib e r o n a l l c artr id ge s ca s e s f ire d fr o m th e me a sure me n t s s uc h as bu lle t
4. se r ia l n umb e r ( mo st im po rt an t) sa me we a po n are a l way s th e s ame ; di ame te r b arre l le n g t h .
5. da te o f r e co ve r y th o se o n car tr id ge s ca se s f ire d fro m ✓ An a l yt i c al o r t o r s io n ba l a nce - Use to
6. p la ce o f r e co ve r y di ff e re n t we apo n s are di f fe re n t . de te r min e we igh ts o f bu lle ts an d
7. n a me o f s us pe c t (i f k n o wn ) pe l le t s fo r po s s ible de te r min at io n o f
8. n a me o f v i ct im ( if k n o wn ) SC I EN T IF IC E Q UI P M EN T S G EN ER A LLY type , ca l ibe r an d m ak e fro m wh ich
US ED I N F IR E AR M S ID EN T IF IC A T ION fir e d .
PR IN C IP L ES OF ID E NT IF IC A T ION ✓ Bu l le t C o m p ar i so n M i cro sc o pe -A ✓ Ono sco pe -S ma ll in str ume n t
( BUL L ET S) pie ce o f o p t ic a l e q ui p me n t fre que n tl y so me ti me s u se d in e xa m in in g th e
✓ No t wo b ar r e ls ar e mi cro s co p i ca ll y e mp lo ye d by fir e ar ms i de n t i fi c at io n in te r n a l sur f ac e o f th e gun barre l in
ide n ti c al a s th e sur f a ce o f th e ir bo re s e xpe r t i s th e b ul le t co m pa ri so n de te r min in g t h e irre gul ar it ie s i n s ide
al l po ss e s se s in d iv id ua l mi cro sco pe , w i th ca m e ra a tt a ch me n t . th e bo re o f th e g un barre l. It h a s a
ch a r a cte r i st i cs mar k i n gs o f th e ir o w n . ✓ St e re o sco p ic M ic ro sco pe - No tin y la mp th e te rm in a l po rt io n an d i s
✓ Wh e n a b ul le t i s f i r e d fro m ri f le d ca me r a a tt ac h me n t an d no in se r te d in s i de th e b o re fo r in te rn al
b ar r e l, i t b e co m e s e n gra ve d by th e ph o to mi cro gra ph ca n be t ak e n fo r e xam in at io n s.
rif l in g an d th i s e n gr a vin g w il l vary in co ur t t am pe re d se r i al n umbe r . ✓ T ape r G au ge - Use pr im ari ly fo r
it s m in u te de ta i ls wi th e ve ry ✓ Sh ado w g r aph - A se rie s of de te r min in g bo re d ia me te r .
in d iv id ua l b o r e . So it h a ppe n s th a t mi cro sco p ic le n se s of d if fe re n t ✓ E le ct r ic a l Gu n M a ke r - Use d in th e
th e e n gr a v in g o n t h e bu lle ts f ire d mag n i f ic at io n us e to de te r min e cl a ss lab o ra to ry fo r ma k i n g f ire d bu l le t s
fr o m o n e b ar r e l wi l l b e di f fe re n t fro m ch a ra cte ri st i cs o f fir e d b ul le t s an d fir e d s h e l ls an d f ire arm s sub m it te d
an o th e r b u lle t f ir e d fro m an o th e r sh e l l s. Al so fo r o rie n ta tio n fo r e x am in at io n .
b ar r e l. purpo s e s .I t can tak e ph o m igro gra ph T EC HN IQ U E S O F E X AM INA T I ON
✓ Eve r y b ar r e l le a ve s it s th um b m ark o f th e o b se r va tio n s a n d co mp ari so n s
o r f in g e r pr in t o n ve r y s in g le bu ll e t mad e in th e c ir cu la ti o n gro un d g l as s. ✓ P HY S ICA L : Ev ide n ce bu ll e ts ,
fir e d t h r o ug h i t j us t as e ve ry br e e ch ✓ CD - 6 Co mp a r i so n P ro je ct o r - Ve ry car tr idg e s c ase s an d su spe ct e d
fa ce le ave s it s th um b mar k o n th e muc h si m il ar w it h th e bul le t fir e ar ms o n c e s ub mi tte d by th e
b ase o f e ve r y f ir e d ca r tri dge s ca se . co m par i so n mi cro s co pe . No e ye str ain re que st in g par ty w i l l be ph y s ic a lly
PR IN C IP L ES OF I D EN T IF I CA T IO N be c ause th e ma gn i f ie d i ma ge e xam in e d to de te rm i n e it s mark in gs
( SH EL L S) app e ar s o n th e l arg e scre e n . Wh at or in it i al s wi l l be ph y si c al ly
✓ T h e b r e e ch f a ce an d str ik e r o f e ve ry can be se e n in th e s cre e n c an b e e xam in e d to de te rm i n e it s mark in gs
sin gle fir e ar m le a v e m ic ro s co p i ca l ph o to gra ph e d by an y k in d o f c ame r a . o r in it i al s m ade by t h e in ve s ti ga to r s
in d iv id ua l it ie s o f th e i r o wn . ✓ Bu l le t R e co v e ry Bo x - Lo n g bo x ( 12 ” x fo r ide n ti f i ca tio n pur po se s.
✓ T h e f ir e a r m le a ve s i t s “ f in ge r pr in t s” 12 ” x 9 6” ) f i lle d w ith o rdin ary c o t to n ✓ T ES T F IR I NG : T h e fir e ar ms is
o r “ th u mb mar k ” o n e ve r c artr i dge s an d se p ara te d in to se c t io n s by a n d te s t f ire d f ro m a bu l l e t re co ve r y bo x
ca se wh i ch i t f ir e s . bo ard p art it io n s. in o rd e r to o bt ain t e st b ul le t s an d
te s t car tr idg e s c ase s fo r co mp ar iso n
59
 wi th e vi de n ce b ul le t s an d car tr id ge si de s th a t are in c o n ta c t w ith th e in n e r A in d iv i dua l ch ar ac te ri st i cs o f th e
ca se s , b ut b e fo r e f ir i n g th e c artr id ge sur fa ce o f th e ch a mb e r. T h i s is as id e f ro m car tr idg e s fo un d at t h e ba se p o rt io n an d o f
wi l l b e mar k e d a t th e side o f th e ca se th e in di vi du al ch a ra cte r i st i cs o f th e c as e s th e si de o f t h e b ul le t co m e in co n t a ct w i t h
o n th e n o s e po r t io n o f th e b ul le t w i th th a t ma y be fo un d a t t h e base po rt io n wh e r e th e in n e r sur fa ce o f th e barre l .
le t te r T ( te s t) fo ll o w e d (e g T - 77 - 1 to bre e ch fa ce , e je c to r o r e xt ra c to r m ark in g s The r if le d g un barre l le av e
T -7 7 -3 ) in th e ir o r d e r o f fir in g to are fo un d . di st in ct ive mar k s u po n th e b ul le t c a ll e d
di st in g ui sh th e n u mb e r 1 te s t fro m 2 As a r ule , th e po in t o f e x am in a ti o n ST R IAT IO N S fo rm th e L at in wo r d “ST RI A ”
an d 3. A fte r th e r e co ve ry o f th e te st an d co mp ari so n is a t th e a re a o f th e pr ime r o rig in al ly me an t th e f lut in g on an
b ul le t s an d te s t ca r tri dge s ca se s , pro pe r w h e re bre e ch f a ce mar k in g s arc h i te ctur a l co lumn , an d bu l le t s tr ia tio n s
th e y w i ll b e co m p are d wi th th e to ge th e r w ith t h e f iri n g pin imp re s sio n ar e re se mb le s th e se t o a re m ark abl e de g re e ,
e vi de n ce d b u l le t an d e v ide n ce lo ca te d . P r ime rs a re so f te r me t a ls an d e ve n air we apo n s le a ve r if l in g str i at io n s o n
car tr idg e s c ase s, u n de r t h e bu l le t re ce ive pro min e n t st ria ti o n s th an a n y o th e r th e ir pe l le ts . T h e o n ly f ire arm s th at do n o t
co m par i so n m icr o s co pe to de te rm in e po rt io n s o f th e ba se . are s mo o th bo re gun s an d an t iqu e we apo n s
wh e th e r o r n o t t h e y h a ve th e Co n cl us io n i s t h e o pin io n fro m th e o f th e f l in t lo ck ty pe plu s su ch h o me ma d e
co n gr ue n cy o f str ia ti o n s o r th e sa me fin d in g s. T h is i s t h e e n d re s ul t o f th e we a po n s as “re p li c a ” gun s wh i ch h a d th e i r
in d iv id ua l ch ar a ct e r i s ti cs . e xam in at io n an d sh o uld be tak e n a pa rt barre ls bo re d th r o u g h .
✓ M IC R O SC OP I C se rio us ly a s i t in vo l ve s th e co n vi c tio n o r
E XA M INA T I ON : U n de r th e bu ll e t li be rty o f th e su spe ct . T ES T BU LL ET S
co m par i so n m i cr o s co pe , th e t wo fir e d In co n duct i ng f i re ar m s Are th o se r e co ve re d f ro m bu l le t
b ul le t s o r f ir e d sh e l ls are e xa mi n e in e xa m in at io n , t he fo l lo w ing gu ide l i ne s re co ve ry bo x fo r a c o mpa ri so n wi th th e
a J U XT AP O S IT IO N - T h at is , th e t wo mu st be co n si de re d by t he in v e st i g at o r : e vi de n ce d bul l e ts un de r th e bu ll e t
o b je ct -e vi de n ce an d th e t e s t b ul le t 1. If yo u subm i t a f ir e d b ul le t o r car tri dg e co m par i so n m i cro s co pe . A fire d o r
ar e e x am in e d a n d co mpa re d . ca se to a b a ll is t ic i an h e wi l l de te r min e th e e vi de n ce d bul le ts o r car tr idg e s c ase s a re
1. at th e sa me ti me ca l ibe r , type , an d mak e o f fir e ar m, th e y th o se re c o ve re d fro m th e cr ime
2. at th e sa me pl a ce o r le ve l we re fir e d fro m . sce n e . In te r co n n e c te d o r in te rm arr ia ge s 8 o r
3. at th e sa me dir e c ti o n 2. If yo u subm i t a f ir e d b ul le t o r car tri dg e mo re s tr ia tio n s c an b e a cce pte d by th e
4. at th e sa me ma gn i f i ca ti o n ca se to ge th e r wi th t h e s usp e c te d fire ar m, co ur t.
5. at th e sa me im age h e ca n de te rm in e wh e th e r o r n o t th e y we r e
T h is ai me d at de te r min in g wh e t h e r th e y fir e d fro m th e f ire arm . 3 Po int s o f b a si c p o s it iv e i de nt i f ic at io n
h ave co n g r ue n cy o f st r ia ti o n s o r o f th e sa m e 3. I f yo u su bm it t wo o r mo re f ire d b ul le ts t he m ark i ng s mu st b e :
in d iv id ua l ch ar a ct e r i s ti cs . an d c artr id ge ca se s, th e te s t is o n l y 1. P ro mi n e n t
co n fin e d to th e de t e rmin at io n wh e th e r o r 2. Si gn i f i can t; an d ar e
FIN D I NG S AND CO N CL U S IO NS : n o t th e y we re fi re d f ro m o n e an d th e s am e 3. Co n s i ste n t
Co n cl us io n s ar e b a s e d o n fi n d in g s. fir e ar m.
As s uc h , co n cl us io n s c an n o t be m ad e KI ND S OF FI R E AR M LIC E NS E S :
wi th o u t fi n d in g s. T h e r e fo re , a c cur a te P ER I PH ER Y 1. Re gu lar L i ce n se ( R L) – I ssue d to a
fin d in g s g ive a c cur at e co n c lus io n s. T h e se are th e si de s o f th e bu lle t are pri va te in d iv id ua l fo r h is pe r so n a l ly -
Fo r co n clu s ive n e ss o f f in d in g s , th e re in co n ta ct wi th th e in n e r s urf a ce o f t h e o wn e d f ire arm , an d to se cur ity
sh o u ld b e a t le as t th r e e te s ts to b e barre l. age n c ie s / co mp an y g uard fo r ce s fo r
co m pare d : the pr e l i m in a r y , t he fir e ar ms fo r use o f th e ir se c uri ty gu ard s.
co n fi r m at io n , a nd t h e co nc lu s io n . In f ire d STR I A TI ON S 2. Lo n g Re g ul ar Li ce n se ( L R L) – I ssue d t o
ca se s , pr o m in e n t s tr i at io n s ar e fo un d a t t h e pri va te fir ms , e st ab li s h me n t s o r
60
 co rpo r a tio n s fo r f ir e a r ms to be use d by ✓ AB R AS IO N – S cr at ch e s cau se d by us in g be co me ve ry so ft an d du c ti le an d v e ry
th e ir e m plo ye e s , n o t t o in cl ude se cur it y im pro pe r c le a n in g mat e ri a ls , o r by we ak
guar ds . fir in g am mun it io n wi th bu lle ts to wh i ch ✓ ANV IL – In a pr ime r o r a car tri dge c ase ,
3. Sh o r t Re gu l ar Li ce n se ( S RL ) – fo r a abra s ive ma te r ia l wa s adh e r in g. a fi xe d po in t ag a in s t wh i ch th e pr im in g
pri va te e mp lo ye e wh o wa s is sue d by h i s ✓ AC CE LE R AT O R – a d e vi ce use d in so me mix ture is co m pre s se d an d th e re by
e mp lo ye r a fi r e ar m c o ve r e d by lo n g auto m a t ic an d se m i - auto ma t ic w e ap o n s de to n ate d by a ct io n o f th e f ir in g p in .
re gu lar l ic e n se . to a c ce le ra te th e re a rwar d t ra ve l o f th e ✓ ARM O R P IE R CIN G B UL L ET S – H ave
4. Sp e c i al P e r m it ( SP ) – I ss ue d to bo lt o f bre e ch blo ck app ly in g le ve ra ge h arde n e d s te e l co r e s an d are f ire d
go ve r n me n t o f f i ci al s an d e mp lo ye e s fo r at th e cr it ic a l po in tin g th e bo l t ’s tra ve l ag ain st ve h i cle s an d o th e r ar mo re d
pr i va te ly o wn e d f ir e a r ms . ✓ AC CID ENT AL C HA RA CT E RI ST IC S – tar ge t s i n ge n e ra l .
5. Lo n g Ce r t i fi c ate o f Re g i str at io n ( LC R) – In d ic at io n s pe c ul i ar t o o n e we a po n o r t o ✓ ART IL L ERY – de ri v e d f ro m th e O ld
Iss ue d to go ve r n me n t age n c ie s o r o ff i ce s e ac h c artr id ge c ase an d bu l le t f ire d in Fre n ch wo r d “AT T IL IE R” , wh ich me an s to
an d go ve r n me n t o wn e d o r co n tr o l le d th e s ame gun . e qu ip . A ty pe o f f ir e arm wh ic h pro pe l s
co rpo r a tio n s fo r f ir e a r ms to be use d by ✓ AC C UR AT E O R EFF E CT I VE R ANG E – T h e pro je c ti le h a v in g mo re th an o n e i n ch in
th e ir o f f ic i al s an d e m plo y e e s , n o t to di st an ce w ith in wh i ch th e f ire r h a s di ame te r .
in clu de se cur ity gu ar d. co n t ro l o f h i s sh o t s. ✓ AUT O LO AD I NG – A f ire a rm wh i ch fi re s
6. Sh o r t Ce r t i fi c ate o f Re g is tr a ti o n ( S CR ) – ✓ ACT IO N – Bre e ch m e ch an i sm o f a gun , an d re lo a ds o n a sin gle p ul l o f t h e
Fo r a go v e r n me n t o f fi ci a l o r e mp lo ye e by wh i ch it is lo ad e d an d un lo ad e d . tri gge r so th a t th e we apo n is re a dy t o be
wh o wa s i ss ue d b y h is e mp lo ye r a ✓ AI R G UN – Is a w e a p o n o r to y de s ign e d fir e d wi th th e n e xt pu ll o f th e tr igg e r.
fir e ar m co ve r e d b y L CR . to d is ch arge n o rm al ly fro m th e s h o u lde r , ✓ AUT O MAT IC LO AD I N G T YP E – A f te r th e
in wh i ch th e e x pan din g fo r ce of fir st sh o t i s fire d , au to m at i c lo ad in g o r
BAL L I S TI CS T E S T A ND S T EN C IL : co m pre s se d a ir i s e mp lo ye d to pro pe l fe e d in g o f th e ch am b e r ta k e s pl a ce .
1. Ea ch f ir e ar m sh al l b e te st f ire d f o r th e pro je c t ile . Spe c if i ca l ly , an a ir gun ✓ BA I L – Is an o l d t e rm wh i ch me an s
bal l is ti c s, an d t h e m a k e , c a li be r, an d se ri a l mus t h ave a smo o th b o re barre l . bul le t .
n umbe r s h a l l b e ste n c ile d f o r re co r d ✓ AI R P I ST O L – Is a we a po n o r to y gun ✓ BA L L – Ea rl ie r te r m fo r bu lle t an d s ti l l
purpo se s . de s ign e d to d is ch ar ge n o rm al ly fro m be in g u se d in so m e m i li ta ry
2. Fo r ap pl i can ts i n M e tr o Ma n i la , th e o n e h a n d , th e we a po n var ie t y o f a ir te rm in o lo gy .
fir e ar ms sh al l b e te s t f ir e d a n d st e n c i le d b y pi sto l m us t h a ve e it h e r a s mo o th bo re o r ✓ BA L L B U L LET S - h a ve so f t le a d co re s
Fire arm s an d Ex p lo s i ve s O f f ic e o f th e P NP . rif le d b arre l, th e t o y v ar ie ty i s n o t in s ide a ja ck e t an d are u se d a ga in s t
T h e Ba l li st i cs te st r e po r t an d ste n c il fo r m rif le d. pe rso n n e l o n l y.
sh a l l be app e n de d to th e ap pl i ca t io n be fo r e ✓ AI R RI FL E – Spe c if i c al ly i s a w e ap o n as ✓ BA L LI ST I C S CO E FFI CI ENT – wh i ch m e an s
p ro ce ss in g. de s cr ibe d abo ve e xc e pt th a t is a r i fle d th a t th e bu lle t m ay l o se i ts sp e e d ve ry
3. In th e pr o vi n ce s , th e te s t fi rin g an d barre l. r ap id ly dur in g i ts f li g h t i n th e a ir .
ste n c il in g sh al l b e m ade in th e O f fi ce o f t h e ✓ AI R RE SI ST ANC E – re sis tan ce ✓ BA L LI ST I C IAN – a pe r so n wh o s e
P ro vi n c i al / M e tr o d i sc o m D ir e c to r o f th e P N P e n co un te re d by th e bul le t wh i le in k n o w le d ge in fi re ar ms i de n ti f ic at io n o f
co n ce rn e d. T h e b al li st i cs te s t re po r t an d fl ig h t , o t h e rw i se k n o wn a s air dr ag . ac ce pte d i n i n ve st ig a tio n .
ste n c il fo r m s h a ll b e a ppe n de d to th e ✓ AMM UNI T IO N – The ge n e ra l te rm ✓ BA L LI ST I C S – In ge n e ral te r m, is de fin e d
app l i ca tio n b e fo r e s ame is fo rw ar de d t o app l ie d to me ta l li c c ar tri dge s an d as th e sc ie n ce o f th e mo t io n o f
Fire arm s an d Exp lo si ve O ff i ce o f t h e P NP . sh o t sh e ll s u se d in f ire arm s. pro je c ti le s. T e ch n i c al ly , it re fe rs to th e
✓ ANNE A L – to so f te n m e ta ls by h e at in g. sc ie n c e o f fi re ar ms i d e n ti f ic a tio n .
D EF IN I T I ON OF T E R M S : ✓ ANNE A LIN G – i s th e pro ce ss o f mak in g
car tr idg e c ase by h e at in g a br as s to
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✓ BA R RE L – th e par t o f th e gun th ro ugh ✓ BI RD SHO T – sm a ll l e ad o r ste e l pe l le ts ✓ B UL L ET C O MP A R ISO N MI CRO S CO P E - a
wh i ch th e b u lle t p as se s fr o m bre e ch to use d in s h o t sh e l ls r an g in g in s i ze fro m pie ce o f o p ti c al e qu i pme n t fre q ue n t ly by
muz z le . #1 2 to # 4, u se d fo r s h o rt ran ge b ird an d fir e ar ms ide n ti f ic a ti o n e xpe r t is th e
✓ BA R RE L LEN G T H – is me a sure d fro m t h e sm al l g am e h un tin g . co m par i so n mi cro s co pe wi th th e ca me ra
fa ce o f th e mu z zle t o th e ba se o f th e ✓ B LA CK C AR T R ID G E – i s a c artr id ge at ta ch m e n t .
se a te d b ul le t o r b as e o f t h e ca se n e ck co n s i st in g o f th e c a se w i th i ts pr ime r ✓ B UL L ET EM BO LI SM - A special form of bullet
✓ BA R RE L T E LE SCO P E – in str u me n t u se d to po w de r ch arge an d a wa d t o t ra in th e migration when the bullet loses its momentum
mak e a vi su al in s pe c t io n o f t h e in si de o f po w de r. while inside the chamber of the heart or inside
a gun b ar r e l to se e a si gn o f h av in g be e n ✓ B LA CK P O W D E R – a me ch an i ca l m ix ture the big blood vessels and carried by circulating
fir e d r e ce n t ly to lo o k fo r l e a din g o r o f ch ar co a l su l fur an d sa lt pe te r. blood to some parts of the body where it may be
me t al fo u l in g ✓ B LAN K C A RT R ID G E – a c artr i dge wi th o u t lodged.
✓ BA R RE L T IM E – me asu r e d fro m th e fa l l o f bul le t . ✓ BULLET RECOVERY BOX – a long box
th e h amm e r to th e mu zz le o f th e gun . ✓ B LU EI NG - The coloration and protectant (12”x12”x96”) filled with ordinary cotton and
✓ BA SE – th e b o t to m po r t io n o f th e ca se applied to barrels and other exposed metal parts separated into sections by card board partitions.
wh i ch co n t ai n s th e p r ime r an d th e sh e l l of guns. ✓ BULLET – a metallic or non-metallic cylindrical
h e ad . ✓ BO AT T AI L – r e fe r rin g to th e ba se ta pe r projectile propelled from a firearm by means of
✓ BA SE W AD – co m pr e s se d pap e r o r o th e r gi ve n ce rt a in bu l le t to g i ve gr e a te r expansive force of gases coming from burning
mat e r i a ls in s id e a s h o t sh e l l, var yin g i n e ff i c ie n cy a t lo n g ran ge s . gunpowder.
si ze an d fo r m. ✓ BO LT – di se n ga ge s ce n t e r pi n to a l lo w ✓ BULLET VELOCITY – is the speed at which a
✓ BA T T E RY CUP – ty pe o f sh o t sh e l l o pe n i n g o f cy li n de r a n d b lo c k s h am me r . bullet travels forward
ign it io n fr o m wh i ch t h e c up o r pr ime r is ✓ BO LT A CT IO N T YP E RE LO A D ING – is ✓ BURR HAMMER – an expose hammer having a
h e ld . do n e by m an i pu la tio n o f th e bo lt . serrated knob at the top to provide a gripping
✓ BE A RING S U RF AC E – th e po rt io n o f a ✓ BO RE – th e in si de o f a gun b arre l surface for cocking.
bul le t th at co n t a ct s th e bo re o f th e ✓ BO RE D I AMET E R – i n ri f le d ar ms , th e ✓ CALIBER – the diameter of the inner surface in the
barr e l a s it tr ave ls fr o m c h a mbe r to di ame tri c al me a sure me n t be twe e n to p s barrel that is from land to land.
muz z le o f lan d ✓ CALIPER – an instrument used for making
✓ BED D ING – m a te r i a l a n d/o r me t h o d u se d ✓ BO T T LE N EC K C ART RID G E – a type o f measurements such as bullet diameter and bore
to f i t r if le ac t io n t o a sto ck . car tr idg e de s i gn e d to a cco mmo da te diameter.
✓ BE LT ED C A SE – car t r id ge ca se w it h a mo re po wd e r, usu a ll y fo r h i gh po we re d ✓ CAMMING-LUG BOLTS – that type which employs
ban d o r b e l t at b a se jus t a h e ad o r gun s . one or more bole locking logs which are cammed
e xtr ac to r gr o o ve s , an d wh ic h c as e ✓ B REE CH – th e re ar e x tre m it y o f th e ri f le outward from the interior of the bolt cylinder to
po s it io n in ch amb e r o f r if le . ✓ B REE CH B LO CK – th e ste e l b lo ck wh i ch unlocked the action.
✓ BE NC H R ES T - It is used for supporting a gun cl o se s th e re ar o f th e bo re ag ain st th e ✓ CANNELURES – the serrated grooves that are
when testing for accuracy. fo r ce o f th e c h ar ge . some times found rolled into the neck and bodies
✓ BE RD AN CA RT RID G E – P r i me r wi th two ✓ B REE CH BO LT – th e par t o f th e bre e ch of the cases at the location of the bullet bases to
fl ush h o le s o r ve n t w i th t h e an v i l in te gra l th a t re s i st th e re ar war d f o rc e o f th e prevent the bullets from being pushed back or
par t w i th t h e car tr idg e c ase . A lso c a lle d co mb us tio n th a t o c cu rs wh e n a c artr i dge loosened.
Euro pe an typ e o f pr i me r . is di s ch ar ge . ✓ CANNELURED BULLET – an elongated bullet with
✓ BIG BO R E – in Am e r i ca , an y f ire ar m ✓ B UL L ET – a pro je c t il e pro pe l le d fro m a grooves around it, these grooves are used for
usi n g a ce n te r f ir e c ar tr id ge w ith a fir e ar m by me an s o f t h e e xp an si ve fo r ce holding the lubricant or for crimping purposes
bul le t . 30 in ch e s i n d i ame te r o r l arge r o f g as e s co min g fro m burn in g p o w de r. ✓ CAPLACK – used by muzzle loading guns whose
✓ B UL G ING – th e s we l l i n g o f a gun barre l ignition system employs a percussion, a small
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 thimble like metal cap containing a detonating ✓ CYLINDER STOP – stops and holds the cylinder ✓ EVERLASTING CASE – brass cartridge case from
mixture. alignment for firing heavy stock intended for extended reloading life
✓ CARTRIDGE – is a complete unfired unit ✓ DEFINITIVE PROOF – after the gun is finally ✓ EXPLOSIVE (FRAGMENTARY) BULLETS – contain
consisting of bullet, cartridge case, gunpowder completed, it is again fire with a heavy charge to a high charge explosive
and primer ensure that the finished barrel and each breech ✓ EXTERIOR BALLISTICS – motion of projectiles
✓ CARTRIDGE CASE – the tubular metallic mechanism have factor of safety to ensure against from the time it leaves the muzzle of the sudden
container for the gunpowder, sometimes called accident. escape of expanding gas when it comes to instant
shell. ✓ DETONATION – chemical rearrangement of contact with the air in the surrounding
✓ CENTER FIRE CARTRIDGE – a cartridge case molecules into gas instead of solids to cause the atmosphere at muzzle point
where the priming is found in the center of the high explosives to exert full power of shock. ✓ EXTRACTING GROOVE – the circular groove
base. ✓ DIE – in hand loading ammunition, any number near the base of the case or hell designed for
✓ CHAMBER – the rear portion of the barrel where tools used to sized bullets and shells. automatic withdrawal of the case after each firing
the cartridge is inserted. ✓ DIRECT MOTION – the action of the expensive ✓ EXTRACTOR – pulls the empty shells from the
✓ CHILLED SHOT – shot gun pellets made from lead force of gases out of the burning powder. cylinder simultaneously
especially hardened by the additional of slight ✓ DOUBLE ACTION – weapon in which pressure ✓ EXTRACTOR ROD – that mechanism in revolver
amount of antimony upon the trigger both cocks and releases the that activates the extractor and is locking device
✓ CHOKED – the degree of constriction applied in hammer. ✓ FALLING BLOCK ACTION – a type of action which
the muzzle then of the shotgun to decrease the ✓ DRAWING – is the process of making case by the breechblock is pivoted at the rear of the
spread of the pressure. punching discs from a sheet of brass and then receiver so that the face of the breechblock
✓ CHRONOGRAPH – instrument which measures making these discs out into tubes closed to one swings down below the chamber to open the
the velocity of projectile end. action
✓ CLASS CHARACTERISTICS – are those that are ✓ DRIFT – is the curve taken by the bullet while in ✓ FIRING PIN – a part of the action, actuated by the
determinable even before the manufacture of a flight. trigger, that hits the primer fires the cartridge
firearm. ✓ DROP – applied to a gunstock, it means ✓ FLAT-POINT BULLET – one with a hollow point for
✓ COMPARISON CAMERA – specially designed downward bend. the purpose of increasing the mushrooming effect
camera used to photographs under the ✓ DROP SHOT – it means soft shot. up on impact
comparison of two specimens. ✓ DUMDUM BULLET – is an out molded and ✓ FLAT TRAJECTORY – a comparative term used to
✓ COMPARISON MICROSCOPE – an optical generally misused term. It was unofficial name indicate very little curvature in the flight of the
instrument designed to make simultaneous first applied to hollow point bullet made at the bullet from the muzzle to point of impact
comparison of two specimens. British arsenal at Dumdum, India. ✓ FLINT LOCK – used of muzzle loading fun fired by
✓ CONE – the reduction of diameter in a barrel ✓ EJECTOR – the mechanism in a firearm which means of apiece of flint, helps the hammer cock
where the chamber joins the bore. causes the cartridge case or shell to be thrown jaws sticking against the steel freezen
✓ CORDITE – A nitroglycine smokeless powder out from the gun ✓ FLYING FIRING PIN – a firing pin shorter than the
used mainly in England. ✓ ELONGATED BULLET – longer than an ordinary length of its travel in the breechblock
✓ CORROSION – the chemical wear and tear of the bullet; it is wide, the opposite type from the ✓ FOLLOWER – a metal platform in a clip or
inside of the gun barrel due to rust formation or round bullet magazine that pushes the cartridge upward to the
chemical action of the byproducts of combustion ✓ ENERGY – in bullets, the amount of work done, at proper angle for feeding the chamber
after firing. a given ranges expressed in foot per pounds ✓ FOLDING TRIGGER – a trigger hinged so that it
✓ CYLINDER – serves as a chamber and magazine ✓ EROSION – more or less gradual wearing a way can be folded forward close to the underside of
in a revolver of rifling by combustion gas, hat and bullet the frame
✓ CYLINDER NOTCH – it helps hold the cylinder in friction
place and aligned ready for firing
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✓ FOOT POUND – the amount of work required to ✓ GROOVE DIAMETER – in rifled arms, the ✓ INSTRUMENT VELOCITY – the velocity of a
raise one pound one foot high against the force of diametrical measurements between bottom of projectile measured by scientific instrument
gravity grooves called chronograph, at specific point on its
✓ FORENSIC – from the Greek word “FORUM” ✓ GUARD CARTRIDGE – is one loaded with trajectory, always lower than the muzzle velocity
which means market place, where people gather buckshot or a reduced charge ✓ INTERIOR BALLISTICS – motion of projectiles
together for public disputation or public ✓ GUARD COTTON – a very powerful explosive, while still inside the firearm
discussion like nitroglycerin which is a chemical compound ✓ JACKET – the outer covering of a bullet
✓ FORENSIC BALLISTICS – the science of and not a mixture ✓ JACKETED BULLET – a bullet with a core of lead
investigation and identification of firearms and ✓ GLIDING METAL – a copper zinc alloy used as a covered by a jacket of harder material such as
ammunition fired from them bullet jacket material usually 5% to 10% zinc gilding metal, a copper-alloy of approximately
✓ FOULING – the accumulation of a deposit within ✓ GUN POWDER – is the propellant which when 90%
the bore of firearm caused by solid by-products ignited by the primer flash is converted it gas ✓ KEY HOLE SHOT – the tumbling of a bullet in its
remaining after a cartridge is fired under high pressure and propels the bullet flight and hitting the target sideways as a result of
✓ FRAME – part of the firearms that houses the ✓ HAIR TRIGGER – a term loosely applied to any not spinning on its axis
internal parts trigger which can be release with a very light ✓ LANDS – the raised portions between the grooves
✓ FRAGMENTATION – the disruption of the bullet pressure in the interior surface of the gun barrel
into many pieces caused by the forces of impact ✓ HAMMER – A part of the action (in some guns) ✓ LAPPING – is the smoothening of the inner
on the bullet actuated by the trigger, the hammer drives the surface of the barrel
✓ FRONT SIGHT – a protrusion or attachment above firing pin against the primer, this igniting the ✓ LEAD BULLETS – those which are made of lead or
the barrel near the muzzle primer and further burns the propellant alloys of the metal which is slightly harder than
✓ FULL AUTOMATIC PISTOL – a firearm which ✓ HAMMER BLOCK – safely device that prevents pure lead
continues to fire as long as the trigger is hammer blow to primer ✓ LEADING – the action of a lead bullet must be
depressed and cartridges remain in the ✓ HAND (PANEL) – rotates the cylinder when the lubricated to prevent the lead adhering into the
magazine or feed belt hammer is cocked bore that will interfere seriously with the
✓ FULL METAL JACKET – a bullet designed with the ✓ HANGFIRE – occurs when a cartridge fails to accuracy
soft core of the bullet completely encased in a explode on a time or delayed in firing ✓ LEAF SIGHT – any metallic sight which is hinged
metal jacket to prevent expansion of the bullet ✓ HEADSPACE – measurement between two points at the base to permit raising it to a vertical
upon impact in a chamber which are the confining boundaries position for sighting and lowering it to a
✓ FULMINATE – one of the ingredients of the of cartridge movement during chambering and horizontal position to avoid damage and carrying
priming mixture firing leaf sight principle is usually applied to rear sight
✓ GAS – is a fluid resulting from the combustion of ✓ HELIXOMETER – used in measuring pitch of only
gun powder with a relatively great expansion and rifling distance traveled by the bullet in one ✓ LEVER TYPE (BREAK TYPE) – loading takes place
spontaneous tendency complete rotation by lever action on the firearms
✓ GAS CHECK – a cup usually copper used on the ✓ HOLLOW POINT BULLET – a bullet with a cavity in ✓ MACHINE REST – a machine used for testing the
base of a leaf the nose designed to increase the expansion accuracy of a firearm
✓ GAUGE – unit of bore measurement in shot guns, when it hits ✓ MAGAZINE – device or reservoir to hold extra
determined by the number of solid lead balls, of ✓ INCENDIARY BULLETS – contain a mixture such cartridge
the bore diameter obtainable from pond of lead as phosphorous or other material, that can be set ✓ MAGNUM – firearm designed for extra power
✓ GROOVES – spiral cuts in a bore which cause the on fire by impact. ✓ MATCH LOCK – an early form of firearm, in which
bullet to spin as it travels down the barrel ✓ INERTIA FIRING PIN – a firing pin assembled into the priming charge was ignited by a chord or
the breach block and free to move forward and match of a slow burning material
backward
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✓ MATCH SLOW – a slow burning fuse or twisted ✓ MUZZLE ENERGY – energy generated at muzzle hence, the name “PISTOL” arrived in Britain
cotton soaked in a solution of saltpeter or hemp point about 1515 as German import. In the early 20th
or on match lock weapons ✓ MUZZLE LOADER – gun loaded through the front century the so-called automatic pistol begun to
✓ MAXIMUM RANGE – the farthest distance that a and end of the bore, using loose powder and ball appear
projectile can be propelled from a firearm or shell or paper cartridges ✓ PITCH OF RIFLING – the number in inches
✓ MAYNARD PRIMER – another form of percussion ✓ MUZZLE VELOCITY – speed of the bullet at traveled by the bullet to make one complete turn
cap. Explosive pellets were sealed at proper muzzle point ✓ PLATED BULLET – a bullet covered with a thin
intervals between two strips of paper. This ✓ NECK – part of the cartridge case that is occupied coating of a copper alloy to prevent leading on
primer tape was then rolled and inserted in guns by the bullet the side of the barrel
of suitable designs ✓ NIPPLE – on muzzle loading guns, the small metal ✓ POINT BLANK RANGE – popularly used to
✓ METAL CASED BULLET – colloquially used to cone at the rear or the barrel through which the indicate the distance the bullet will travel before
indicate either a metal-patched full patched flame from the percussion cap posses to ignite it drops enough to require sight adjustment
bullet the powder charge ✓ POST SIGHT – a front sight resembling a post or
✓ METAL PATCHED BULLET – technically, a bullet ✓ OBTURATION – the sealing of the barrel by both one of generally rectangular of quadrilateral
having a metal cup over the base and extending the case expansion and bullet action design
forward over that portion of the bullet which ✓ OGIVE – the curved portion of the bullet which is ✓ POWDER CHARGE – amount of gunpowder in a
bears against the rifling symmetrical and forms the head of the projectile load
✓ METALLIC SIGHTS – normally consist of pair of of gavial shape ✓ PRESSURE – the gas pressure generated in a
front sight and rear sight ✓ ONOSCOPE – small instrument sometimes used cartridge on its being fired, usually expressed in
✓ METAL POINT – bullet having lead bearing and in examining the internal surface of the gun pounds per square inch
metal tip barrel ✓ PRIMER – the metal cap containing the highly
✓ MICROMETER – similar in use as caliper ✓ OPEN SIGHT – any sight in which there is no tube sensitive priming mixture of chemical compound
✓ MIDRANGE – usually used in connection with or aperture through which aim is taken which when hit or struck by firing pin would
trajectory referring to point midway muzzle and a ✓ OPTICAL SIGHT – sight containing series of ignite, such action is known as PERCUSSION
target game lenses to form an optical system being contained ✓ PRIMER POCKET – a hole on the base of the
✓ MISFIRE – cartridges which do not fire when in one unit cartridge case that holds the primer securely
firing pin strikes primer ✓ PARADOX GUN – smooth bore gun in which the ✓ PROJECTILE – an object projected through the
✓ MUSHROOM BULLET – colloquially any bullet final few inches of the barrel are rifled to increase barrel and out of the gun by the powder gases
designed to expand on impact the efficiency of round ball or slug ✓ PROPELLANT – refers to the gunpowder which,
✓ MUSKET – long smooth bored firearm that is ✓ PARCHING CLOTH – used to form a gas seal when ignited by the primer flash, is converted to
designed to project a single shot around the projectile of muzzle loading guns gas under high pressure and propels the bullet or
✓ MUZZLE – the forward of the barrel ✓ PARKER SIZE – a gray rust preventive finish for shot charge through the barrel and to the target
✓ MUZZLE BLAST – the noise created at the muzzle metal ✓ PROOF MARKS – is the examination and testing of
point of the gun by the reason of the sudden ✓ PENETRATION – depth of entry of the bullet on firearms by a recognized authority according to
escape of the expanding gas when it comes to the target certain rules and stamped with a mark to indicate
instant contact with the air in the surrounding ✓ PERCUSSION CAP – small metallic cup containing that they are safe for sale and used by the public
atmosphere at muzzle point fulminating material that explodes when struck ✓ PROVISIONAL PROOF – is the testing of the rough
✓ MUZZLE BRAKE – device attached to the muzzle by a gun’s hammer gun barrels and fired with a heavy charge of
of a gun designed to deflect the propelling gases ✓ PERMANENT CAVITY – the permanent hole left in powder to see if they are strong enough to
emerging from the muzzle behind the bullet and the target by the bullet’s passage finished and assembled into gun
to utilize the energy of these gases pull the gun ✓ PISTOL – a handgun that is magazine feed. They ✓ PULL OF GRAVITY – downward reaction of the
forward to counter the recoil of the weapon have been invented in the Italian town PISTOI, bullet towards earth due to its weight
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✓ PUMP ACTION – popular term for slide action ✓ RIM – serve the purpose of limiting the forward through a combination of striking energy and
✓ PYRAMIDAL SIGHT – a front sight of generally movement of cartridge into their chambers and penetration
pyramidal design this also limit the clearance ✓ SHOCKING POWER – is the power of the bullet
✓ RACHET – helps in the withdrawal of the ✓ RIM-FIRE – the primer is located at the rim at the that resulted in the instantaneous death of the
cartridge or shells from the chambers of the base portion victim
cylinder ✓ RIMLESS – used in .45 pistols, Thompson, grease ✓ SHORT CARTRIDGE – is a metallic loaded with a
✓ RAMP SIGHT – a front sight mounted at the ramp gun, submachine gun.The diameter of the body small shot
which inclines upward and forward, a rear sight of the cartridge case is the same with the base ✓ SHOT BALLISTICS – refers to the study of shots
having a sliding member which may be moved ✓ RIMMED TYPE – the diameter of the cartridge from smooth bore firearm
up and down a ramp to change the elevation of body is smaller than its base ✓ SHOT WADS – at a distance of 5 to 8 yards or
the sight ✓ RINGFIRE CARTRIDGE – a type of cartridge used more from the place of firing in the approximate
✓ RANGE – the straight distance between muzzle only on the sabotage case direction of fire, one can sometimes find wads
and target ✓ ROLLED CRIMP – one in which the mouth of the ✓ SHOTGUN – a smooth bore weapon designed to
✓ REAR SIGHT – the rear most of a pair of metallic cartridge case is bent inward into a cannelure on fire a number of load pellet in one charge
gun sights the bullet all around its circumference to retain ✓ SHOULDER – portion of a shell that support the
✓ REBOUND SLIDE – returns trigger, actuates the bullet at the proper seating depth neck
hammer block and locks hammer ✓ ROUND – one single complete cartridge ✓ SIDE PLATE – provide access to the internal parts
✓ RECEIVER SIGHT – any type of sight fastened to ✓ ROLLING BLOCK ACTION – that type of action in ✓ SIDE PLATE SCREWS – hold the side plate and
the receiver bridge which the breechblock rotates this about and axis yoke in place
✓ RECOIL – the equal and opposite reaction of the pin downward and backward from the chamber ✓ SIGNAL CARTRIDGE – is one containing vari-
gun against the forward movement of the bullet ✓ RUPTURE CASE – any cartridge which has been colored luminous balls of the roman candle
after explosion spitted in firing so that the gas has escape variety
✓ RECOIL OPERATED – pertains to automatic or ✓ SEAR – the lever in the gunlock which holds the ✓ SIGHT RADIUS – is the distance between forward
semi-automatic arms, a weapon in which the firing pin back until released by the trigger and rear sight
barrel and breechblock are locked together at ✓ SECONDARY FIRING PIN IMPRESSION – is a mark ✓ SILENCER – a device intended to be attached to
the instant firing on the side of the regular impression usually the muzzle of a firearm to prevent or reduce its
✓ REPEATER – any arm holding more than one found in pistols noise
round at a time ✓ SEMI-RIMMED CARTRIDGE – a cartridge having ✓ SKID MARKS – when the bullet first starts forward
✓ RESIDUAL PRESSURE – is the pressure remaining a shallow extractor groove and a rim projecting without turning
in the chamber after the bullet has left the barrel only slightly beyond the diameter of the body of ✓ SLIPPAGE MARKS – scratches of the fired bullet
✓ REVOLVER – a handgun with a corresponding the cartridge case due to badly worn rifling or when the bullet is
cylinder that revolves before the barrel which ✓ SET TRIGGER – an adjustable trigger design to small
consist of different chambers operate reliably with a very light trigger pull ✓ SINGLE ACTION REVOLVERS – are those in
✓ RICOCHET – the bouncing off or deflection of a ✓ SHADOWGRAPH – a series of microscopic lenses which the hammer must be manually cocked
bullet from its original trajectory of different magnifications use to determine class ✓ SINGLE SHOT FIREARM – type of firearm
✓ RIFLE – a shoulder firearm with spiral grooves or ✓ SHAVING MARKS – a shaving on the ogive designed to fire only one shot for every loading
smoothbore in the inner surface of the barrel portion of the fired bullet due to poor alignment ✓ SLIDE ACTION TYPE (THROMBONE) – loading
✓ RIFLING – spiral cuts into the bore of a rifled gun of the cylinder with the barrel takes place by back and forth manipulation of the
barrel to impart spin on the bullet, assuring point ✓ SHOAT TRIGGER – an absolute form of trigger in under forearm of the gun
in flight for better accuracy which no trigger guard was used ✓ SMOKELESS POWDER – gun powder which gives
✓ RIFLED BORE FIREARM – firearm that have rifling ✓ SHOCKLINE POWER – the force delivered by the off almost no smoke when burned
inside the gun barrel projectile on impact; the result brought about ✓ SMOOTHBORE – a barrel with no rifling
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✓ SOFT POINT – term used for bullet with partial ✓ TERMINAL ENERGY – energy of the projectile ✓ YAW – is the unstable rotating motion of the
jacketing having some portions of the bullet when it strikes the target projectiles
exposed at the front ✓ TERMINAL PENETRATION – depth of entry of the ✓ YOKE – connecting pivot between the frame and
✓ SOFT OR DROP SHOT – shotgun pellets made of bullet in the target cylinder
ordinary soft lead made into round pellets ✓ TERMINAL VELOCITY – speed of the bullet upon
✓ SORT CARTRIDGE – A metallic cartridge loaded striking the target QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION
with a small shot ✓ THUMBLATCH – actuates bolt to release the
✓ SPUR HAMMER – a hammer having cocking spur cylinder DOCUMENT – Any material containing marks,
✓ STAB CRIMP – a series of small indents at ✓ TRACER BULLETS – contain a compound at the symbols, or signs either visible , partially visible that
intervals around the cartridge case engaging a base usually barium nitrates which is set on fire may present or ultimately convey a meaning to
cannelure in the bullet jacket when the bullet projected. The flash of the smoke someone, maybe in the form of pencil, ink writing,
✓ STANDING BREECH – when a receiver is not cut from this burning projectile permits the flight of typewriting, or printing on paper.
away a its rear to a point below the line of the gun the bullet to be seen The term document applies to writings; to
bore, the solid rear wall of the receiver is the ✓ TRAJECTORY – the actual curve path of the bullet words printed, lithographed or photographed; to
standing breech during its flight from the gun muzzle to the target maps or plans; to seals, plates, or even stones on
✓ STEREOSCOPIC MICROSCOPE – no camera ✓ TRIGGER – activates the parts necessary to fire which inscriptions are cut or engraved. In its plural
attachment and no photomicrograph can be the weapon form, documents may mean; deeds, agreements,
taken for court presentation ✓ TRIGGER GUARD – the bent strip of metal that title, letters, receipts, and other written instruments
✓ STOPPING POWER – is the power of the bullet protects the trigger from accidental discharge. used to prove a fact.
that put the victim out of action instantly ✓ TRIGGER LEVEL – contacts rebound slide to The term document came from the Latin work
✓ STRIPPING MARKS – scratches on the fired bullet return trigger forward documentum, which means lesson or example (in
due to worn out barrel ✓ TRIGGER SPRING – spring that provides energy Medieval Latin, Instruction or official paper). It may
✓ SUBCALIBER BARREL – a barrel of small caliber for return movement of rebound slide have been derived also from the French word
inserted down the bore or mounted over the ✓ TRIGGER STOP – prevents excessive rearward docere, means to teach.
barrel of a large caliber gun, permitting it to be movement after hammer release QUESTIONED – Any material which some issue has
used for practice work with less powerful, ✓ TUBE SIGHT – a tube in which front and rear sight been raised or which is under scrutiny.
cheaper ammunition are mounted QUESTIONED DOCUMENT – One in which the facts
✓ TAPER GAUGE – used primarily for determining ✓ TWIST OF RIFLING – is the direction of twist appearing therein may not be true, and are contested
bore diameter of firearms whether to the right or left either in whole or part with respect to its authenticity,
✓ TARGET – an object at which the firearm is aimed ✓ UNDER SIZE BULLET – a bullet slightly smaller identity, or origin. It may be a deed, contract, will,
and discharged than the actual bore diameter of the gun barrel election ballots, marriage contract, check, visas,
✓ TELESCOPE SIGHT – an optical employing the ✓ VELOCITY – rate of speed of the bullet per unit of application form, check writer, certificates, etc.
principle of the telescope to enlarge the image of time
the target ✓ VENTS OR FLASH HOLES – is the hole in the web DISPUTED DOCUMENT – A term suggesting that
✓ TEMPORARY CAVITY – the boundary of the or bottom of the primer pocket through which the there is an
temporary displacement of tissue by the primer flash imparts ignition to the powder argument or controversy over the document, and
hydrostatic effect of the bullets passage charge strictly speaking this is true meaning. In this text, as
✓ TERMINAL ACCURACY – size of the bullet ✓ WAD - a disc of paper, felt, plastic or other well as through prior usage, however, disputed
grouping on the target material used in shells document and questioned document are used
✓ TERMINAL BALLISTICS – is the study dealing with ✓ WOUND BALLISTICS – is the study of the effects of interchangeably to signify a document that is under
the effect of the impact of the bullet on the target a projectile on a target and the conditions that special scrutiny.
affects them
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 Document is questioned because its origins, inks, pens, pencils, and papers are frequently committed on such document that is, when it is
its contents or the circumstance and story regarding maintained. already a part of the public record, falsification of
its production arouse suspicion as to its genuineness public or official document is committed. However, if
or it may adversely scrutinize simply because it LEGAL ASPECTS OF DOCUMENTS such private document is intended to become a part
displeases someone. Further, it is said to be Legal Basis of Documents: of the public record, even though falsified prior
questioned when it is disputed or attacked, either in 1. In the case of People vs. Moreno, CA, 338 O.G. thereto, falsification of a public document is
whole or in part as to its date or age, as to its source 119, a document is any written document by which a committed.
or origin, as to the material used in their production, right is established or an obligation is extinguished.
and as to its relation in some other document. 2. In the case of People vs. Nillosquin, CA, 48 O.G. WRITINGS WHICH DO NOT CONSTITUTE
4453, a document is every deed or instrument DOCUMENTS
STANDARD DOCUMENT – Are condensed and executed by person by which some disposition or This is based on some Supreme Court Rulings
compact set of authentic specimens which, if agreement is proved, evidenced or setforth. 1. A draft of a Municipal payroll which is not yet
adequate and proper, should contain a cross section 3.In relation to Criminal Jurisprudence under the Best approved by the proper authority (People vs.
of the material from a known source. They are used Evidence Rule, document is any physical Camacho, 44 Phil. 484).
by the document examiner as the basis for his embodiment of information or ideas; e.g. letter, a 2. Mere blank forms of official documents, the spaces
identification or non-identification of the questioned contract, a receipt, a book of account, a blur print, or of which are not filled up (People vs. Santiago, CA, 48
document, as for example the known handwriting an X-ray plate. O.G. 4558).
which serves to establish who wrote the disputed 3. Pamphlets or books which do not evidence any
letter. KINDS OF DOCUMENT disposition or agreement are not documents but are
Standard in questioned documents 1.PUBLIC DOCUMENT – any instrument notarized by mere merchandise ( People vs. Agnis, 47 Phil. 945).
investigation, we mean those things whose origins a notary public or competent public official with
are known and can be proven and which can be solemnities required by law. CLASSES OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS
legally used as examples to compare with other 2.OFFICIAL DOCUMENT – any instrument issued by 1. Documents with questioned signatures.
matters in question. Usually a standard const of the the government or its agents or its officers having the 2.Questioned documents alleged to have been
known handwriting of a person such case, standard authority to do so and the offices, which in containing fraudulent alterations.
has the same meaning as is understood by the word accordance with their creation, they are authorized to 3. Questioned or disputed holographic wills.
specimen of handwriting. issue and be issued in the performance of their a.HOLOGRAPHIC WILL – will entirely written in the
duties. handwriting of the testator.
EXEMPLAR – A term used by some document 3.PRIVATE DOCUMENT – every deed or instrument b.NOTARIAL WILL –signed by the testator
examiners and attorneys to characterize known executed by a private person without the intervention acknowledge before a notary public with three
material. Standard is the older term. of a notary public or of any person legally authorized, witnesses.
by which documents, some disposition or agreement 4. Documents investigated on the question of
HOLOGRAPHIC DOCUMENT – Any document is proved, evidenced or set forth. typewriting.
completely written and signed by one person; also 4.COMMERCIAL DOCUMENT – any instrument a. with a view of ascertaining their source
known as a holograph. In a number of jurisdictions a executed in accordance with the Code of Commerce b. with a view of ascertaining their date
holographic will can be probated without anyone or any Mercantile Law, containing disposition of c. with a view of determining whether or not they
having witnessed its execution. commercial rights or obligations. contain fraudulent alterations of substituted pages
5. Questioned documents on issues of their age or
REFERENCE COLLECTION – Material compiled NOTE: date.
and organized by the document examiner to assist A private document may become a public or 6. Questioned documents on issues of materials used
him in answering special questions. Reference official document when it partakes the nature of a in their production.
collections of typewriting, check writing specimens, public or official record. So if the falsifications
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7. Documents or writings investigated because it is regarding the issue, or a certain aspect of the issue, examination of documents similar to other kinds of
alleged that they identify some persons through which is involved in a court action. The purpose is to laboratory works.
handwriting. interpret technical information in his particular Dr. Wilson Harrison, a noted British Examiner
a. anonymous and disputed letters specialty in order to assist the court in administering of questioned documents said that an intelligent
b. superscriptions, registrations and justice. The document examiner testifies in court as police investigator can detect almost 75% of all
miscellaneous writings. an expert witness. forgeries by careful inspection of a document with
simple magnifiers and measuring tools.
DOCUMENT AND QUESTIONED DOCUMENT HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION EXPERT – a
EXAMINATION common name for the document examiner. HANDWRITING INVESTIGATION / ANALYSIS –
ADDITION – any matter made a part of the IDENTIFICATION – as used in this text it is the state This is more focused in determining the author of
document after its original preparation may be of being identical or absolutely the same as in writing. It is more difficult procedure and requires
referred to as addition. similarity of source or authorship of the questioned long study and experience.
CONCLUSION – A scientific conclusion results form document and the standard document.
relating observed facts by logical, common-sense INSERTION OR INTERLINEATION – The term FORMS OR ASPECTS OF QUESTIONED
reasoning in accordance with established rules of insertion and interlineations include the addition of DOCUMENT EXAMINATION
laws. The document examiner’s conclusion, in legal writing and other material between lines or A.Handwriting Examination
term is referred to as opinion. paragraphs or the addition of whole page to a (Graphology/Graphoanalysis)
DOCUMENT EXAMINER – One who studies document. 1. examination of signatures and initials
scientifically the details and elements of documents NON-IDENTIFICATION – As used in this text it 2. examination of anonymous letters
in order to identify their source or to discover other means the source or authorship of the compared 3. hand printing examination
facts concerning them. Document examiners are questioned and standard specimens is different. B. Examination of type writings and type prints
often referred to as handwriting identification OBLITERATION – the blotting out or shearing over C. Examination of inks
experts, but today the work has outgrown this latter the writing to make the original invisible to as an D.Examination of erasures, alterations or
title and involves other problems than merely the addition. obliterations, etc.
examination of handwriting. OPINION – In legal language, it refers to the 1. detection of alteration
ERASURE – The removal of writings, typewriting or document examiner’s conclusion. Actually in Court, 2. decipherment of erased writings
printing, from a document is an erasure. It may be he not only expresses an opinion but demonstrates 3. restoration of obliterated writings
accomplished by either of two means. A chemical the reasons for arriving at his opinion. Throughout E. Counterfeiting
eradication in which the writing is removed or this text, opinion and conclusion are used 1. examination of currency bills and coins and the
bleached by chemical agents; and an abrasive synonymously. like
erasure is where the writing is effaced by rubbing QUALIFICATION – The professional experience, 2. examination of fake documents
with a rubber eraser or scratching out with a knife or education, and ability of a document examiner. F. Miscellaneous aspects
other sharp with implement. Before he is permitted to testify as an expert witness, 1. determination of age of documents
EXAMINATION – It is the act of making a close and the court must rule that he is qualified in his field. 2. identification of stamps
critical study of any material and with questioned 3. examinations of seal and other authenticating
documents, it is the process necessary to discover devices
the facts about them. Various types are undertaken, DIVISIONS OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENT
including microscopic, visual photographic, EXAMINATION SCIENTIFIC METHOD IN QUESTIONED
chemical, ultra violet and infra-red examination. DOCUMENT EXAMINATION
EXPERT WITNESS – A legal term used to describe a CRIMINALISTICS EXAMINATION – This involves The document examiner strives constantly for
witness who by reason of his special training or the detection of forgery, erasure, alteration or objectives and the avoidance of personal bias.
experience is permitted to express an opinion obliteration of documents. The criminalistics a. It orders knowledge, follows in logical sequences.
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b. It classifies knowledge as the only systematic 2. Sufficient knowledge on the technical, scientific, 5. TABLE LAMPS WITH ADJUSTABLE SHADES
means to its organization and and legal aspects of document examinations (GOOSE NECK LAMPS) – used for controlled
deduction to matters of facts. 3.A broad experience in handling questioned illumination; needed in sidelight examination
c. It insists upon verification as the most reliable form document cases. wherein light is placed at a low-angle in a position
of proof. oblique to plane or document.
d. It utilizes observation or experimentation designed E. REASONS FOR UTILIZING A QUESTIONED 6. TRANSMITTED LIGHT GADGET – a device
expressly toward the control of variables. DOCUMENT EXPERT where light comes from beneath or behind glass on
1. Assurance of preparedness document is placed.
A scientific method therefore consists of the 2. Trial fiscal or judges are infrequently confronted 7. ULTRA VIOLET LAMP – this is usually used in the
following processes: with document cases; consequently, they do not detection of counterfeited bills but can actually be
A.Analysis (recognition) – properties or possess the knowledge of the documents experts used to detect security features of qualified
characteristics, observed or measured. ability of the various methods that exist for documents.
B. Comparison – properties or characteristics of the determining forgeries. 8. COMPARISON MICROSCOPE – similar to that of
unknown determined thought analysis are now 3. Avoidance of an off-hand opinion the bullet comparison microscope.
compared with the familiar or recorded properties of
known items. F. What is an off-hand opinion? TECHNIQUES IN THE EXAMINATION OF
C.Evaluation – similarities or dissimilarities in Off-hand opinion is usually a conclusion that is not QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS:
properties or characteristics will each have a certain based on thorough scientific examination. A. MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION – Any
value for identification, determined by its likelihood examination or study which is made with the
of occurrence. The weight or significance of each G. The danger of off-hand opinions microscope in order to discover minute physical
must therefore be considered. It has happened in some cases that an off-hand details. Stereoscopic examination with low and high
opinion has sent an innocent man to prison, while a power objectives is used to detect retouching,
PRELIMINARY EXAMINATION OF DOCUMENTS murderer was given a chance to escape. patching, and unnatural pen- lift in signature analysis.
– It is the initial examination conducted on a With proper angle and intensity or
document to determine whether it is genuine or not. INSTRUMENTS AND APPARATUS USED IN illumination , it aids in the decipherment of erasures,
It is not misnomer, for in reality it consists of QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATIONS some minute manipulations not perfectly pictured to
painstaking analysis more than looking at a document 1. MAGNIFYING LENS – Bank personnel and other the unaided eye and the sequence of entries done by
and expressing an off-hand opinion. people involved in currency examinations usually different writing instruments.
use and ordinary hand lens; the maximum diameter B. TRANSMITTED LIGHT EXAMINATION – In this
THE IMPORTANCE OF PRELIMINARY of which is four inches, and this appears big with its examination, the document is viewed with the source
EXAMINATION OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENT: wide frame it has a magnifying power of two times of illumination behind it and the light passing through
1. ensures preparedness the original only. Magnifying lenses of five times or the paper. Documents are subjected to this type of
2. avoidance of delay more magnifying power, with built in lighting are examination to determine the presence of erasures,
3. ensures success of the case more useful. matching of serrations and some other types of
2. SHADOWGRAPH – a pictorial image formed by alterations.
C. Who conducts the preliminary examination? casting a shadow, usually of the hands, upon a C. OBLIQUE LIGHT EXAMINATION – An
It should be conducted by a questioned document rightful surface or screen. examination with the illumination so controlled that it
expert. 3.STEREOSCOPIC BINOCULAR MICROSCOPE – grazes or strikes the surface of the document from
D. Who is a questioned document expert? a tri-dimensional (3D) enlargement is possible. one side at a very low angle. Decipherment of faded
A questioned document expert is one who has: 4. MEASURES AND TEST PLATES (TRANSPARENT handwriting, determination of outlines in traced
1. Attained the appropriate education and training GLASS) – those used for signatures and typewritings. forgery, embossed impressions, etc. are subjected to
this type of examination.
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D. PHOTOGRAPHIC EXAMINATION – This type B. INDENTED WRITING – Indented writing is a 2. Chemical methods, such as spraying, painting, or
of examination is very essential in every document term usually applied to the partially visible bathing charred pieces with solutions of different
examination. Actual observations are recorded in the depressions appearing on a sheet of paper chemical reagents.
photographs. underneath the one on which the visible writing 3. Photographic plates may be utilized by allowing
E. ULTRA VIOLET EXAMINATION – Ultraviolet appears. These depressions or indentation are due the charred paper to remain in contact with the
radiations is invisible and occurs in the wavelengths to the application of pressure on the writing emulsion sides in total darkness from one to two
just below the visible blue-violet end of the spectrum. instrument and would appear as a carbon copy if a weeks.
These visible rays react on some substances so that sheet of carbon paper had been properly inserted. D. ADDING MACHINES – The construction of an
visible light is reflected, a phenomenon known as Indentation may also appear on a blank sheet of adding machines differ greatly from the typewriter
FLUORESCENCE. paper if such is used as a backing sheet while typing but the methods and principles of identification are
This type of examination is done in a out a message on a typewriter. Methods of related. Manufacturers use different types of
darkroom after the lamp has been warmed up in examination are: numerals and from time to time change machines.
order to give a maximum output of the ultraviolet 1. Physical methods may be used by passing a strong Those factors form the basis of determining the
light. Exposure to the ultra-violet light should be to beam of nearly parallel light almost horizontally over maker of the machine and for estimating the period in
the minimum duration in order to avoid fading of the surface of the paper. which it was built.
some writing ink and typewriter ribbon. 2.Fuming the document maybe of values in some Another kind of approach is the ribbon
The exposure of a document to ultra-violet cases. impression, for the ribbon is made and operates very
light is useful when it consists of several pages and 3.Powders of various kinds may be used without similarly to the typewriter.
substitution is being suspected. The color and changing the document.
intensity of fluorescence reaction is very apparent in C. BURNED OR CHARRED PAPER – A piece of HANDLING OF DOCUMENTS AND QUESTIONED
case of substituted page. Mechanical and chemical paper may be subjected to the action of a limited DOCUMENTS
erasures will certainly change the reflectivity and amount of heat, causing it to become scorched and A. THE CARE OF DISPUTED DOCUMENTS AND
fluorescence of the area affected. retaining a certain amount of its identity or it may be DOCUMENTARY EVIDENCE:
F. INFRARED EXAMINATION – This examination subjected to intense heat, reducing it to ashes and Serious curtailment of a certain technical
of documents employs invisible radiation beyond the losing its identity. However, if the combustion is examinations is caused by improper or careless
red portion of the visible spectrum which is usually incomplete, a certain amount of success may be handling of a disputed document. This condition
recorded on a specially sensitized photographic realized provided the pieces are large enough to most frequently is brought about by ignorance of the
emulsion. form a coherent message. consequences of mishandling. The simple act of
Of primary importance is the proper packing repeatedly removing and replacing the letter in its
MISCELLANEOUS EXAMINATIONS and shipping of this type of evidence. The pieces envelope can cause a noticeable determination.
A. ERASURES – One of the common inquiries in should be placed between layers of cotton and ship 1. It is a basic requirement, that when a document
questioned document is whether or not an erasure in a strong, rigid box, exercising every precaution to becomes disputed and deposited in court or with the
was actually made on a document. In cases like this, avoid damage in transit. It is believed best not to attorney, in order to maintain its original condition, it
the following examinations are made: spray or moisten the evidence with water or any should be kept unfolded and in a separate, proper
1.Physical Inspection: using ultraviolet light, other liquid for shipping purposes. The following size envelope or folder. This is true not only for the
observation with light striking the surface at a sharp methods maybe applied to decipher the original disputed documents, but for many other important
angle, and observation under the microscope maybe message contained thereon: documentary evidence.
considered. 1.Photographic methods, using various types of filters 2. It is also advisable that right after the document
2. Fuming with iodine may cause an almost negligible and different angles of illumination may determine becomes disputed, or questioned, it is important to
stain, but in most instances not the slightest the writing contained thereon without changing the make not only the usual photo static copy, but also a
semblance of a stain remains. appearance of the charred fragments. proper photograph or photo-enlargement, done if

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possible by the document expert or under the be held firmly without crushing and prevent pattern. The hand ordinarily is not an instrument of
supervision of the document expert. movement or shifting when finally packed in a sturdy precision and therefore we may not expect every
3. When working in the preparation of case, it is container. habitual manual operation to be absolutely uniform.
often necessary for the lawyer or court to handle The greater this skill in the art of penmanship, the
repeatedly the disputed document. Should this be HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION AND less the variations there will be in the form of
necessary, instead of handling and working with the EXAMINATION individualize letters as well as in the writing as a
original document, the photograph should be used. HANDWRITING – It is the result of a very complicated whole.
4. Every touching, folding, refolding or pointing to series of facts, being used as a whole, combination of
certain parts of a document, can change the physical certain forms of visible mental and muscular habits CAUSES OF VARIATION:
condition of the case. For example, touching with wet acquired by long, continued painstaking effort. Some 1. Function of some external condition , i. e. influence
hands or fingers can create a suspicion of previous defined handwriting as visible speech. of the available space.
pencil marks, or experiments as proof of attempted 2. Abnormal conditions such as physical injury, toxic
forgery. KINDS OF WRITINGS: effects, inebriation’s, emotion and deception.
5. Pointing a document with any other instruments, a. CURSIVE – connected; writing in which one letter 3. Position of letter – all the letters are to be found
such as sharp stick, can cause slight damage which is joined to the next. initially, medially and finally. The fact of a different
although it cannot be seen by the naked eye, can b. SCRIPT – separated or printed writing. position, especially in combination with another and
show definite marks under the microscope or on the c. BLOCK – all capital letters particular letter, may modify any of them in some way
enlarged photograph. or another.
6. No test should be made to alter the conditions of BASIS OF HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION:
the document; for example, the old-fashioned ink a. In Wignore’s Principles of Judicial Proof, IMPORTANCE OF VARIATIONS
test, which was used to determine the age of the ink- handwriting is defined as a visible effect of bodily 1. Personal variation encountered under normal
writing. movements which is an almost unconscious control writing conditions is also a highly important
7. Should any test be necessary, insist that it should expression of fixed muscular habits, reacting from element of identification. The qualities of personal
be done in the presence of a chemist, or in court, or fixed mental expression of certain ideas associated variation include both its nature and its extent. It
in front of both parties involved the case. with script form. becomes necessary to determine the amount, extent,
b. Environment, education and occupation affect and exact quality of the variations.
HANDLING CHARRED DOCUMENTS: individuals so variously in the formation of these 2. It is improbable that the variety and extent of the
1. Those extremely fragile must be handed as little as muscular habits that finally the act of writing becomes variation in handwriting will be exactly duplicated in
possible and transporting them to the laboratory an almost automatic succession of acts stimulated by two individuals that such a coincidence becomes
requires extra-ordinary care. With forethought and these habits. Thus a person’s style or writing in most practically impossible and this multitude of possible
caution they can be brought from the distant fire details becomes as fixed as the habit and serve as a variations when combined is what constitutes
scene to the laboratory. continuous inseparable mark of that one person. individuality in handwriting.
2. They should be moved in the container in which c. The imitation of the style of writing by another 3. With a group of signatures of a particular writer,
they are found whenever possible. When the person becomes difficult because the other person certain normal divergence in size, lateral spacing
fragments are not packed tightly, they should be cannot by mere will power reproduce in himself all and proportions actually indicate genuineness.
padded with lightweight absorbent cotton. If jarring the muscular combination from the habit of the first Variation in genuine writing is ordinarily in
cannot be entirely eliminated jarring the box must be writer. superficial parts and in size, proportions, degree of
kept to a minimum. care given to the act, design,slant, shading, vigor,
3. Thus every precaution must be taken in handling VARIATIONS IN HANDWRITING angularity, roundness and direction of stroke.
and transporting the charred residue in order to A more or less definite pattern for each is
prevent the large pieces from becoming stored away in the subjective mind but the hand does DEVELOPMENT OF HANDWRITING OF AN
unnecessarily and badly broken. The fragment must not always produce a stereotyped duplicate of that INDIVIDUAL
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A. Children learn writing by following the school 5. The arm movement writing – the manner or 3. The likeness in form maybe general and simply
copy or model. method of writing, instead of the form alone is indicate the class or genus or the difference that does
B. After acquiring some degree of skill the children especially emphasized. not differentiate maybe nearly superficial.
no longer follow the school model. Out of these five divisions of early 4. In many systems of writing, the date and influences
C. As speed increases, conscious design and handwriting, the modern commercial hand systems of system of writing have an important bearing on the
regularity begin to break down. developed. This is characterized by free movement. question of genuine or of forgery and in other cases,
D. In the course of trial and error, modification are And the forms adopted are best suited to easy rapid the presence of European characteristics in
made, simplification and elaborations, addition and writing. These are the Zaner and Blozer system of handwriting is a vital and controlling fact.
omissions occur. arm movement writing and the Palmer system of
1. The writing pattern of each child embodies unique American arm movement. The last great revolution IMPORTANCE OF THE DESIGN OF THE LETTERS
combinations of such deviation from the standard in American handwriting was the adoption of vertical (System of Writing)
letter forms or school model, and becomes his writing which was in fact a reversion to the old May point the following:
personal habits. system of slow but legible writing. The connection 1. to the nationality of the writer
2. Although thousands learn the same system and stroke is based on the small circle and is the most 2. to the system learned
that the natural result is identity, but facts show that it distinctive round hand ever devised. It was very 3. to the date when the writing was acquired and
is not because those who were taught the same slow compared with writing based on the narrow 4. to some of the influences that have surrounded the
system or school copy a class of writers, but such ellipse like the Spencerian in which all connections writer.
impairs does not by any means produce a slavish were almost points instead of broad curves. Most
uniformity. commercial handwritings tend toward straight TERMINOLOGIES RELATED TO HANDWRITING
3. Variation begins as soon as writing begins and connecting strokes and narrow connections. IDENTIFICATION AND EXAMINATIONS
continues until each writer in the way that seems best 1. ALIGNMENT – Is the relation of parts of the whole
and easiest to him. SOME MODERN SCHOOL MODER FORMS of writing or line of individual letters in words to the
1. Palmer Copybook – commonly used in the United baseline. It is the alignment of words. The relative
SCHOOL COPYBOOK FORM (SCHOOL MODEL) States prior to 1980. alignment of letters.
It refers to standard of handwriting instruction 2. D’Nealian Copybook – commonly used in the 2. ANGULAR FORMS – Sharp, straight strokes that
taught in particular school. Classes of copybook United States since 1980. are made by stopping the pen and changing
depend on the standard school copy adopted by a 3. British Copybook direction before continuing.
writer. Countries usually differ from copybook forms 4. French Copybook 3. ARCADE FORMS – Forms that look like arches
used. 5. German Copybook rounded on the top and open at the bottom.
4. CHARACTERISTICS – any property or mark
SYSTEMS OF EARLY AMERICAN SIGNIFICANCE OF SCHOOL COPY FORMS OR which distinguishes and in document examination
HANDWRITING: SYSTEM OF CHARACTERISTICS AS BASIS IN THE commonly called to as the identifying details.
1. Old English round hand – in fact an Italian hand IDENTIFICATION OF HANDWRITING: 5. COLLATION – side by side comparison; collation
popular in 1840. 1.Similarities of form are not indicative of identity as used in this text means the critical comparison on
2. Modified round hand – early edition of the unless they concern unusual form or what are termed side by side examination.
Spencerian, and the Payson, Dunton, and Scribners deviations from the normal. Similarities are bound to 6. COMPARISON – the act of setting two or more
copybook – 1840-1860. occur in different writings but such similarities exist items side by side to weigh their identifying qualities;
3. Spencerian – there is simplification by the omission only in letters which are normal in form, the fact it refers not only a visual but also the mental act in
of extra strokes and flourishes. And a general bears no significance. which the element of one item are related to the
tendency toward plainer letters than the preceding 2. All differences in form are indicated of non- counterparts of the other.
system, some of which were very ornate – 1860-1890. identity. 7. DISGUISED WRITING – a writer may deliberately
4. Modern vertical writing 1890-1900. try to alter his usual writing habits in hopes of hiding
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his identity. The results, regardless of their 20. MANUSCRIPT WRITING – a disconnected form 31. PROPORTION OR RATIO – the relation
effectiveness are termed disguised writing. of script or semi-script writing. This type of writing is between the tall and the short letter is referred as to
8. DOWNSTROKE – The movement of the pen taught in young children in elementary schools as the the ratio of writing
toward the writer. first step in learning to write. 32. QUALITY – a distinct or peculiar character. Also,
9. FORM – the writer’s chosen writing style, the way 21. MARGINS – the amount of space left around the quality is used in describing handwriting to refer to
the writing looks, whether it is copybook, elaborated, writing on all four sides any identifying factor that is related to the writing
simplified or printed. 22. MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION – any study or movement itself.
10. GARLAND FORMS – a cup-like connected form examination which is made with the microscope and 33. RHYTHM – the element of the writing movement
that is open at the top and rounded on the bottom. other to discover minute details. which is marked by regular or periodic recurrences.
11. GESTALT – the German word that means 23. MOVEMENT – It is an important element in It may be classed as smooth, intermittent, or jerky in
complete or whole. A good gestalt needs nothing handwriting. It embraces all the factors which are its quality; the flourishing succession of motion which
added or taken away to make it look right. Also a related to the motion of the writing instrument skill, are recorded in a written record. Periodicity,
school of handwriting analysis that looks at speed freedom, hesitation, rhythm, emphasis, alternation of movement.
handwriting as a whole picture. tremors and the like. The manner in which the 34. SHADING – is the widening of the ink strokes due
12. GRAPHOANALYSIS – the study of handwriting writing instrument is move that is by finger, hand, to the added pressure on a flexible pen point or to
based on two fundamental strokes, the curve and the forearm or whole arm. the use of a stub pen.
straight strokes. 24. NATURAL WRITING – any specimen of writing 35. SIGNIFICANT WRITING HABIT – any
13. GRAPHOMETRY – analysis by comparison and executed normally without any attempt to control or characteristics of handwriting that is sufficiently
measurement alter its identifying habits and its usual quality or uncommon and well fixed to serve as a fundamental
14. GRAPHOLOGY – the art of determining execution. point in the identification.
character disposition and attitude of a person from 25. NATURAL VARIATION – these are normal or 36. SIMPLIFICATION – eliminating extra or
the study of handwriting. It also means the scientific usual deviations found between repeated specimens superfluous strokes from the copybook model.
study and analysis of handwriting, especially with of any individual handwriting. 37. SIZE – may refer to the overall size of the writing
reference to forgeries and questioned documents. 26. PEN EMPHASIS – the act of intermittently forcing or the proportions between zones
15. HANDLETTERING – any disconnected style of the pen against the paper surfaces. When the pen 38. SKILL – in any set there are relative degrees or
writing in which each letter is written separately; also point has flexibility, this emphasis produces shading, ability or skill and a specimen of handwriting usually
called handprinting. but with more rigid writing points heavy point contains evidence of the writer’s proficiency; degree,
16. LETTER SPACE – the amount of space left emphasis can occur in writing without any evidence ability, or skill of a write proficiency
between letters. of shading; the act intermittently forcing the pen 39. SLOPE/SLANT – the angle or inclination of the
17. LINE DIRECTION – movement of the baseline, against the paper with increase pressure. axis of the letters relative to the baseline. There are
may slant up, down, or straight across the page. 27. PEN HOLD – the place where the writer grasps three classes:
18. LINE QUALITY – the overall character of the ink the barrel of the pen and the angle at which he holds a. slant to the left
lines from the beginning to the ending strokes. it. b. slant to the right
There are two classes: Good line quality and Poor 28. PEN POSITION – relationship between the pen c. vertical slant
line quality. The visible records in the written stroke point and the paper 40. SPEED OF WRITING – the personal pace at
of the basic movements and manner of holding the 29. PEN PRESSURE – the average force with which which the writer’s pen moves across the paper
writing instrument is characterized by the term line the pen contracts the paper. Pen pressure as 41. SPEED (SPEEDY) WRITING – Not everyone
quality. It is derived from a combination of actors opposed to pen emphasis deals with usual of average writes at the same rate so that consideration of the
including writing skill, speed rhythm, freedom of force involved in the writing rather than the period speed of writing may be a significant identifying
movements, shading and pen positions. increases. element. Writing speed cannot be measured
19. LINE SPACE – the amount of space left between 30. PRINTSCRIPT – a creative combination of precisely from the finished handwriting but can be
lines printing and cursive writing
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interpreted in broad terms of slow, moderate, or 3. Forearm movement – the movement of the 2. Angular line – a very common fault of coordination.
rapid. shoulder, hand and arm with the support of the table Curves, large and small are not smoothly rounded
42. SYSTEM (WRITING) – the combination of the 4. Whole Forearm movement – action of the entire and there is no gradual change of direction. On the
basic design of letters and the writing movement as arm without resting, that is, blackboard writing. contrary, and angle marks almost every change are
taught in school make up the writing system. Writing direction in the line. Investigation has disclosed that
through use diverges from the system, but generally QUALITY OF MOVEMENT angles are accompanied by a lessening of writing
retains some influence of the basic training. 1. Clumsy, illiterate and halting speed.
43. TENSION – the degree of force exerted on the 2. Hesitating and painful due to weakness and illness RHYTHM IN HANDWRITING – Rhythm is a
pen compared to the degree of relaxation 3. Strong, heavy and forceful succession of connected, uniform strokes working in
44. THREADY FORM – an indefinite connective form 4. Nervous and irregular full coordination. This is manifested by clear-cut
that looks flat and wavy 5. Smooth, flowing and rapid accentuated strokes which increase and decrease in
45. VARIABILITY – the degree to which the writing which like perfect cones. Pressure is always in a
varies from the copybook model MOTOR COORDINATION – The special way in state of change moving from light to heavy or from
46. VARIATION – the act or process of changing which the various muscles used in writing work heavy to light.
47. WORD SPACE – the amount of space left together to produced written forms. Generally A. LACK OF RHYTHM – characterized by a
between words. speaking, four groups of muscles are employed in succession of awkward, independent, poorly
48. WRITING CONDITION – both the writing, those which operate respectively the joints of directed and disconnected motions.
circumstances under which the writing was prepared the finger, wrist, elbow, and shoulder. B. IMPORTANCE OF RHYTHM – by studying the
and the factors influencing the writer’s ability to write rhythm of the succession of strokes, one can
at the time of execution. It includes the writers CHARACTERISTICS OF MOTOR determine if the writer normally and spontaneously
position, the paper support and backing, and the COORDINATION or write with hesitation as if he is attempting to for
writing instrument; writing ability may be modified 1. Free, smelt rounded curves another signature.
by the condition of the writer’s health, nervous state, 2. Gradual changes of directions C. LETTER OF CONNECTIONS – determine the
or degree of intoxication. 3. Pressure is always in a state of change, moving essential expression of the writing pattern. It is a
49. WRONG HANDED WRITING – any writing from light to heavy or from heavy to light mean indicator of the neuromuscular function. Words
executed with the opposite hand that normally used. 4. Speed are formed by connection letters to one another.
It is one means of disguise. Thus, the writing of a 5. The shading impulse is distributed over a Even letters are formed by the joining of the upward
right handed person which has been executed with considerable length of the line whereas in writing and downward strokes. These types of connections
his left hand accounts for the common terminology produced with a slow motion as in the finger are:
for this class of disguise as left-hand writing. movement, the shading often has a bunchy 1. ARCADE – a rounded stroke shaped like and
50. WRITING IMPULSE – the result of the pen appearance, in which the maximum width of the arch. It is a slow mode of connection resulting from
touching down on the paper and moving across the shaded line is attained abruptly. controlled movements.
page, until it is raised from the paper. 2. GARLAND – links the downward stroke to the
FAULTY COORDINATION IS CHARACTERIZED upstrokes with a flowing curve swinging from left to
MOVEMENT IN HANDWRITING BY THE FOLLOWING: right. It is an easy, effortless mode of connection,
A. KINDS OF MOVEMENT 1. Wavering and very irregular line or strokes with written with speed.
1. Finger movement – the thumb, the first, second uncertain and unsteady progress. There is no 3. ANGULAR CONNECTIVE FORM – when the
and slightly the third fingers are in actual motion. freedom of movement along the strokes of the letter- downward strokes and upward strokes meet directly,
Most usually employed by children and illiterates. forms. The writing is obviously very slow and is angular connections is formed. This type of
2. Hand movement – produced by the movement or typical of the writing of a young child or for any one connection imposes a check on the continuity of
action of the whole hand with the wrist as the center who painstakingly draws a picture of an unfamiliar movement which is characterized by an abrupt stop
of attraction. form. and start in each turning point.
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 4. THE THREADLIKE CONNECTIVE FORM – the 11. CACOGRAPHY – a bad writing. 23. KNOB – the extra deposit of ink in the initial and
joining of downward and upward strokes is slurred to 12. CALLIGRAPHY – the art of beautiful writing terminal stroke due to the slow withdrawal of the pen
a threadlike tracing or where rounded turns used at 13. DESCENDER – opposite of ascender, the lower from the paper
both top and bottom produce a double curve. These portion of a letter. 24. LIGATURE/ CONNECTION – the stroke which
forms appear both in the shaping of letters within the 14. DIACRITIC – t crossing and dots of the letter “i” connects two stroke of letter; characterized by
word. and j. The matters of the Indian script are also known connected stroke between letters
as diacritic signs; an element added to complete a 25. LONG LETTER – those letters with both upper
THE WRITTEN STROKE certain letter, either a cross bar or a dot. and lower loops
STROKE – series of lines or curves written in 15. ENDING/ TERMINATE STROKE OF TOE – the 26. LOOP – An oblong curve such as found on the
a single letter; one of the lines of an alphabet or end stroke of a letter small letters f, g, l, and letter stroke f has two. A loop
series of lines or curves within a single letter; the 16. EYE/ EYELET/ EYELOOP – a small loop or may be blind or open. A blind loop is usually the
path traced by the pen on the paper. curved formed inside the letters. This may occur result of the ink having filled the open space.
inside the oval of the letters a, d, o; the small loop 27. MAJUSCULE – a capital letter
form by stroke that extend in divergent direction as 28. MINUSCULE – a small letter
TERMINOLOGIES CONCERNING STROKE in small letters. 29. MOVEMENT IMPULSES – this refer to the
CHARACTERISTICS 17. FOOT – lower part which rest on the base line. continuity of stroke, forged writing is usually
1. ARC – a curved formed inside the top curve of The small letter m has three feet, and the small letter produced by disconnected and broken movements
loop as in small letters h, m, n and p. n has two feet. and more motion or movement impulses than in
2. ARCH – any arcade form in the body of a letter 18. HABITS – any repeated elements or details, genuine writing.
found in small letters which contain arches. which may serve to individualize writing. 30. PATCHING – retouching or going back over a
3. ASCENDER – is the top portion of a letter or 19. HESITATION – the term applied to the irregular defective portion of a written stroke. Careful
upper loop. thickening of ink which is found when writing slows patching is common defect on forgeries.
4. BASELINE – may be actually on a ruled paper, it down or stop while the pen take a stock of the 31. PEN LIFT – an interruption in a stroke caused by
might be imaginary alignment of writing; is the ruled position. removing the writing instrument from the paper.
or imaginary line upon which the writing rests. 20. HIATUS/ PEN JUMP – a gap occurring between 32. RETRACE/ RETRACING – any part of a stroke
5. BEADED – preliminary embellished initial stroke a continuous stroke without lifting the pen. Such as which is super imposed upon the original stroke. Ex:
which usually occurs in capital letters. occurrence usually occurs due to speed; may be vertical stroke of the letters d, and t while coming
6. BEARD – is the rudimentary initial up stroke of a regarded also as a special form of pen lift distinguish downward from the top to bottom will have a
letter in a ball gaps in that of perceptible gaps and appear retracing strokes; any stroke which goes back over
7. BLUNT – the beginning and ending stroke of a in the writing. another writing stroke. In natural handwriting there
letter ( without hesitation) 21. HOOK – It is a minute curve or an ankle which may be instances in which the pen doubled back
8. BODY – the main portion of the letter, minus the often occurs at the end of the terminal strokes. It also over the course.
initial of strokes, terminal strokes and the diacritic, of sometimes occurs at the beginning of an initial 33. SHOULDER – outside portion of the top curve,
any. Ex: the oval of the letter O is the body, minus stroke. The terminal curves of the letters a, d, n, m, small letter m has three shoulders and the small letter
the downward stroke and the loop. p, u, is the hook. In small letter w the initial curve is n has two, the small letter h has one shoulder.
9. BOWL – a fully rounded oval or circular form on a the hook; the minute involuntary talon like formation 34. SPUR – a short initial or terminal stroke.
letter complete into O. found at the commencement of an initial up stroke of 35. STAFF – any major long downward stroke of a
10. BUCKLE/BUCKLEKNOT – a loop made as a the end terminal stroke. letter that is the long downward stroke of the letter b
flourished which is added to the letters, as in small 22. HUMP – upper portion of its letter m, n, h, k, - the and g.
letter k&b, or in capital letters A, K, P; the horizontal rounded outside of the top of the bend stroke or 36. STEM OR SHANK – the upright long downward
end loop stroke that are often used to complete a curve in small letter. stroke that is the trunk or stalk, normally seen in
letter. capital letters.
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37. TICK/ HITCH – any short stroke, which usually 6. RHYTHM – in the sequence of movements that leaves a record which can be seen and studies. This
occurs at the top of the letters weave the total pattern, certain similar phases recur is what constitutes individuality in handwriting.
38. TREMOR – a writing weakness portrayed by at more or less regular intervals. Writing habits learned in the early years are
irregular shaky strokes is described as writing those habits which are part of a basic system or which
tremor HANDWRITING PROBLEMS: are modifications of the system of writing found
39. WHIRL – the upstroke of a looping ascender a. A signature or handwriting contested by its author among so large a group of writers that they have only
which in reality is genuine and corresponds perfectly slight identification occur in much rapid careless
OTHER TERMINOLOGIES CONCERNING to the ordinary, and habitual signatures of that writing.
STROKES person.
1. AIRSTROKE – The movement of the pen as it is b. A signature or handwriting contested by its author GENERAL (CLASS) CHARACTERISTICS – These
raised from the paper and continues in the same which in reality was written by him but in a way characteristics refer to those habits are part of basic
direction in the air. which was different from the ordinary manner and writing system or which are modifications of the
2.COVERING STROKE – A stroke that unnecessarily which is more or less different from the common system of writing found among so large a group of
covers another stroke in a concealing action. genuine signatures of that person. writes that have only slight identification value.
3. FINAL – The ending stroke on a letter when it is at c. A signature or handwriting contested by its author 1. They might include an open top small letter t
the end of a word. which in reality was written by a third person and which occurs in any rapid careless writings,
4. UPSTROKE – Movement of the pen away from the which is a forgery written in an attempted imitation of proportion of all letters to medium letters, slant
writer. a model. connection and combination of letters.
5. SEQUENCE OF STROKES – The order in which d.A spurious signature or handwriting written by 2. General similarities can certainly form a part of the
writing strokes are placed on the paper is referred to somebody who did not attempt to imitate the basic identification but here must be a very unique
as their sequence. signature of a person and who uses a fictitious name combination of them and of individual or personal
6. SUPPORTED STROKES – Upstrokes partially and this to give his work the appearance of a writing indicate the class or genus or the difference
covering the previous down strokes. Originally signature. that does not differentiate maybe prove lack of
taught in European schools. e.An uncontested signature or handwriting, in fact, genuineness.
7. TRAIT STROKE – a school of handwriting genuine but written by an unknown person whose
analysis that assigns personality trait manners to name must be deciphered by the document INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS – They are the
individual writing strokes. examiner. characteristics which are the result of the writer’s
muscular control, coordination, age, health, nervous
QUALITIES OF THE STROKES: GENERAL CLASSES OF QUESTIONED WRITING temperament, frequency of writing, personality and
1. EXPANSION – whether the movement is extended a. Forged or simulated writings in which the attempt character. They are found in the following:
or limited in its range with respect to both vertical is made to discard one’s own writing and assume the 1. Writing movement
and horizontal dimension. exact writing personality of another person. 2. Form and design of letters
2. COORDINATION – whether the flow of movement b. Those writings that are disguised and in which the 3. Muscular control or motor control
is controlled or uncertain, smooth or jerky, writer seeks to hide his own personality without a. Loose writing – this is characterized by too much
continuous or interrupted. adapting that of another. freedom of movement and lack of regulation. This is
3. SPEED – whether the movement has been rapid or noticed especially in tall letters forms.
slow and whether the pace has been steady or HANDWRITING CHARACTERISTICS AND OTHER b. Restrained writing – there is lack of freedom and
variable. IDENTIFYING FEATURES inhibited movements. It gives you the impression
4. PRESSURE – whether the pressure exerted in the WRITING HABITS – Writing by all its that every stroke was made with great difficulty. This
movement and its upward and downward reach. thousand of peculiarities in combination is the most writing is small. There is distortion of letter forms
5. DIRECTION – left ward and right ward trend of personal and individuals thing that a man does that which may lead to illegibility.
they movement and its upward and downward reach. 4. Motor coordination
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5. Shading d.Frequent pauses by meaningless blobs, angles, c. Idiosyncrasies
6. Alignment divided letters and retouches. d. Bulbs and distinctive initial and final pen pressure
7. Pen pressure e. Careful execution of detail of letters, toward the e. Embellishment, added strokes and free movement
8. Connection end or names. endings
9. Skill f. Narrow writing. f. Abbreviation of letters
10. Pen hold g. No difference in emphasis in upstoke and g.Simple and compound curves and graceful endings
11. Rhythm downstroke. h. Labored movement producing ragged lines
12. Disconnections or pen lifts between letters h. Ornamental or flourishing connections. i. Terminal shadings and forceful endings
13. Speed i. Sinking lines. j. Presence and influence of foreign handwriting, with
14. Slant as a writing habit the introduction of Greek “e”.
15. Proportion of letters as an individual EXAMPLES OF COMMON CHARACTERISTICS:
characteristics or habit 1. Ordinary copybook form POINTS TO CONSIDER IN EXAMINING
16. Quality of stroke or line quality 2. Usual systematic slant EXTENDED WRITING
17. Variation 3. Ordinary scale or proportion or ratio a. Uniformity – Does the questioned writing have
4. Conventional spacing smooth, rhythmic and free-flowing appearance?
INDICATIONS OF SPEED (SPEEDY) WRITING b. Irregularities – Does the questioned writing
a. Smooth, unbroken strokes and rounded forms. CLASSIFICATION OF INDIVIDUAL appear awkward, ill-formed slowly drawn?
b. Frequent signs or tendencies to the right. CHARACTERISTICS c. Size and Proportion – Determine the height of the
c. Marked uncertainty as to the location of the dots 1. Permanent characteristics – this characteristics over-all writing as well as the height of the individual
small letters i, j and crosses of small letter t. can be found always in his handwriting. strokes in proportion to each other.
d. Increased spontaneity of words or small letter t 2. Common or usual – this characteristics can be d. Alignment – Are they horizontally aligned , or
connected with the following words. found in a group of writers who studied the same curving, uphill or downhill.
e. Letters curtailed or degenerated almost to system of writing. e. Spacing – determine the general spacing between
illegibility towards the end of words. 3.Occasional – this characteristics is only found letters, spacing between words. Width of the left and
f. Wide writing – width of letters is greater than the occasionally in his handwriting. right margins, paragraph indentations.
connecting spaces adjoining it. 4. Rare – this characteristics is special to the writer f. Degree of Slant – are they uniform or not
g. Great difference in emphasis between upstrokes and perhaps found only in one or two persons in a g. Formation and Design – of the letters, “t” (-) bars.
and down strokes. group of one hundred individuals. “i” dots, loops circle formation
h. Marked simplification of letters especially capital h. Initial, connecting and final strokes.
letters. HOW INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS ARE
i. Rising line. ACQUIRED: HANDPRINTING
j. Increased pen pressure. 1. Outgrowth of definite teaching The procedure and the principle involved are
k. Increase in the margin to left at the beginning of 2. Result of imitation similar to that of cursive handwriting. Specimens
the line. 3. Accidental condition or circumstances must be hand printed and reflect the style of printing
4. Expression of certain mental and physical traits of habitually used by the writer. Instructions should be
INDICATIONS OF SLOW WRITING: the writer as affected by education, by environment given to print capitals, and small letters. At least the
a. Wavering forms and broken strokes. and by occupation. investigator should about ten sheets of paper
b. Frequent signs or tendencies to the left. containing the subject handwriting. The materials of
c. Conspicuous certainly as to the location of the dots EXAMPLES OF SOME OF THE INDIVIDUAL course should approximate the materials used in the
of small letters i, j, or t crosses with scarcely CHARACTERISTICS: questioned hand printed document.
perceptible deviation from the intended direction. a. Hook to the right and hook to the left In block capital and manuscript writings,
b. Shape, position, size and angle of i dots t crossing personal individual rests principally in design,
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selection, individual letter construction, size ratios have come into dispute and solely for the purpose of block, or combination of the three or two styles of
and punctuation habits. The initial step in establishing his contentions. writing.
handwriting examination is to determine whether C. RELATIVE DATES of the questioned and the
the questioned handwriting and standards were TYPES OF STANDARDS DESIRABLE FOR standards writing standard signatures or writing must
accomplished with: COMPARISON USE IN THE TWO MOST be those written five years before or five years after
1. A fluency of movement and a certainty of execution COMMON TYPES OF QUESTIONED the date of the questioned signature or writing. The
indicative of familiarity with and a measure or skill in DOCUMENTS PROBLEMS: ideal standards are those before, on and after the
handwriting of conversely. 1. Submit collected and request standards signature date of the questioned writing. The interval of years
2. A conscious mental effort and non-rhythmic from both individual case. between the questioned and standards should not
execution denoting either unfamiliarity with or 2.When anonymous letter writings other than exceed more than five years.
disguise in the subject’s handwriting. signature are in questioned:
a.Submit request standards writings of general nature IMPORTANCE OF CONTEMPORANEOUS
STANDARDS OR EXEMPLARS from both victim and suspect’s (as much standards STANDARDS ARE:
A. STANDARD – They are known writings which writing as possible to obtain within reason). 1. Helps to determine or trace gradual changes on
indicate how a person writes. A writer manifests b.Submit request standards of the questioned text one’s hand writing or signature.
fixed habits in his writings that identify him. This fact written (or printed) at least 3 writings by the 2. Aids in tracing the development of any writing
provides the basis for an opinion of conclusion suspect’s and in some instanced by the victim. variation.
regarding any writing identification problem.
B. EXEMPLARS – Specimen of the writing of HOW TO PREPARE AND COLLECT CONDITION UNDER WHICH BOTH THE
suspects are commonly known as exemplars. The HANDWRITING STANDARDS? QUESTIONED AND THE STANDARD ARE
term standards is a general term referring to all FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN THE SELECTION OF PREPARED
authenticated writings of the suspects while STANDARDS If a questioned handwriting was executed
exemplars refers most especially to specimens of A. THE AMOUNT OF STANDARD WRITTEN – under abnormal conditions it is necessary to look for
standard writing offered in evidence or obtained or Good writing standards should be sufficient to define standards prepared under comparable
request for comparison with the questioned writing. accurately both the identifying habits as well as the circumstances such as: paper rested on the knee;
kind and extent of variation typical of the writer’s standing; sitting; lying down; and /or while on
A. TYPES OF HANDWRITING STANDARDS handwriting under any specific writing condition. moving vehicle.
1.COLLECTED STANDARDS – are known (genuine) 1. at least ten to twenty five signatures
handwriting of an individual such as signature and 2. Writing – usually four or five pages of natural WRITING INSTRUMENT ON PAPER
endorsements on canceled checks, legal papers, writing. Same instrument used in the preparation of
letters, commercial, official, public and private B. SIMILARLY OF SUBJECT MATTER – The style the questioned document must be obtained in the
document and other handwriting such as letters, of writing contained in the standard or exemplars standards. If the signature was written by ball pen in
memoranda, etc. Written in the course of daily life, should be similar to the style of the questioned ruled paper and above a typewritten name,
both business and socials. writings. If the questioned writings are hand printed, standards prepared under similar conditions should
2. REQUEST STANDARDS – are signature or other then get hand printed standard or exemplar. be selected. If the questioned handwriting was
handwritings (or hand printings) written by an 1. Compare conventional copy book from with written a pencil, then standards written should be
individual upon request for the purpose of conventional to the copybook form standard; and contemporaneous with the standards exemplars.
comparison with other handwriting or for specimen compare highly individualized questioned signature
purposes. with highly individualized standards signature. DISGUISES IN HANDWRITING
3. POST LITEN MOTAN EXEMPLARS – Writings 2. Extended writing – determine whether the A. COMMON DISGUISES
produced by the subject after evidential writings questioned writing is purely cursive, or script, or 1. Abnormally large writing
2. Abnormally small writing
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3. Alteration in slant (usually backhand) c. Included in this class of admissible standards are GENUINENESS OF STANDARD DECIDED BY
4. Usually variation in slant within a single unit of writings voluntarily prepared by a party in the COURT – The sufficiency of the proof of the
writing (within a single signature) presence of an investigator. genuineness of a standard of writing is a matter to be
5. Printed forms instead of cursive forms. 2. STANDARD WRITINGS ADMITTED decided by the court.
6. Diminution in the usual speed of writing. If the party whom a handwriting standard is to
7. Unusual widening or restriction of lateral spacing. be admitted, the genuineness of the standards, the OTHER SIGNIFICANT TERMS:
courts could hold that further proof of genuineness is ✓ CROSS MARK – Historically, many who
unnecessary. could not write signed with a cross mark or
B. KINDS OF DISGUISES 3. RECORD MAINTAINED IN REGULAR COURSE crude X. This authenticating mark is still used
1. Change of slant – from right to left or vice versa. OF BUSINESS AS STANDARD WRITINGS - today by illiterates, and if properly
2. Change of letter, either from cursive to block style Generally, the context of records maintained in the witnessed, it can legally stand for a signature.
or vice versa. regular course of business are admissible as an Ballot marks are also referred to as cross
3. Change from cursive (conventional style) to block exemption to the hearsay rule, as proof of their marks because of the common practice of
form or vice versa. contents. marking with an X.
4. Change of style from small to big or vice versa. 4. GOVERNMENT DOCUMENT AS STANDARD ✓ EVIDENTIAL SIGNATURE – Is not simply a
5. Deteriorating one’s handwriting. WRITINGS signature – it is a signature, signed at a
6. Using the wrong hand (AMBIDEXTROUS) Signatures of government officials on particular time and place, under particular
document treated as authentic and produced from conditions, while the signer was at a
ADMISSIBILITY OF STANDARD WRITINGS official archives maybe admitted in evidence as particular age, in a particular physical and
Standard used by the document examiner in standard of comparison whether being as issue as to mental condition, using particular
an identification writings on which the document the forgery of the signature of the same person on implements, and with a particular reason and
examiner bases his conclusion cannot be introduced, other documents. purpose for recording his name.
then the document examiner may not be able to 5. ANCIENT WRITINGS-The courts have admitted ✓ FRAUDULENT SIGNATURE – A forged
provide convincing or his testimony maybe writings on ancient document as standard for signature. It involves the writing of a name as
weakened. comparison. a signature by someone other than the person
6. OTHER WRITINGS STANDARDS himself, without his permission, often with
THE FOLLOWING ARE STANDARD WRITINGS Among writings admissible as standard are some degree of imitation.
WHICH ARE ADMISSIBLE FOR COMPARISON signature on spelling motion or other instruments, ✓ FREEHAND SIGNATURE – A fraudulent
PURPOSES: such as an appearance bond, which may without signature that was executed purely by
further proof of genuineness be used as a standard. simulation rather than by tracing the outline
1. STANDARD WRITINGS WITNESSED 7. FAMILIARITY SOMETIMES ESTABLISHES of a genuine signature.
a. The courts accept as sufficient proof that evidence STANDARD WRITINGS ✓ GUIDED SIGNATURE – A signature that is
in the form of uncontradicted testimony of a Testimony to the genuineness of a collection executed while the writer’s hand or arm is
competent eye witness to the execution of writing is of standard of writing by witnesses who are familiar steadied in any way. Under the law of most
sufficient to permit the use of such writings as with a person’s handwriting. jurisdictions such a signature authenticates a
standard to test other writing. legal document provided it is shown that the
b. It was not necessary for the witness actually to OPINION EVIDENCE – The court seem to be in writer requested the assistance. Guided
have watched the pen of the writer as it passed over general agreement that proof of the genuineness of a signatures are most commonly written during
the paper where it appeared that there was no other standard cannot be established by the opinion of a serious illness or on a deathbed.
person present at the time but he write and the experts testifying from a comparison of the writing ✓ IMITATED SIGNATURE – synonymous with
witnesses, that the writing was done in the witness sought to be used as standard with another writing. freehand forgery
presence and that writer then gave them the paper.
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 ✓ MODEL SIGNATURE – a genuine signature paper imprints the signature outline in carbon on the
that has been used to prepare an imitated or CLASSES OF FORGED SIGNATURES bottom of the document. This type could be easily
traced forgery. (CATEGORIES OF FORGERY OF SIGNATURES) detected by the smattering of carbon remnants on the
✓ THEORY OF COMPARISON – the act of a. SIMULATED OR FREEHAND IMITATION forged document.
setting two or more signature in an inverted FORGERY – It is fraudulent signature which was 2. INDENTATION PROCESS – The document
position to weigh their identifying executed purely by simulation rather than by tracing containing the model signature is placed on top of the
significance, the reason being that those we the outline of a genuine signature can be referred as forged document. The forger traces with
fail to see under normal comparison may freehand imitation or simulated forgery. Or it refers considerable pressure over the genuine signature
readily be seen under this theory. to the free-hand drawing in imitation of model using pencil, pen stylus or similar sharp pointed
signature. instruments and creates an indented signature
THE EXAMINATION OF SIGNATURES IS 1. SIMULATED WITH THE MODEL BEFORE THE outline on the document being forged. Later, this
CONSIDERED A SPECIALIZED BRANCH OF FORGER – The forger makes an effort to obtain a impression outline is overwritten using pencil, or
HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION FOR THE reproduction of the model signature. He works directly with a fountain pen or any other similar
FOLLOWING REASONS: slowly, stroke after stroke. writing instruments.
1. A signature is a word most practiced by many 1.1 DIRECT TECHNIQUE – forger works directly with 3. TRANSMITTED LIGHT PROCESS – The document to
people and therefore most fluently written. ink. be forged is placed on top of the document
2. A signature is a means to identify a person and 1.2 INDIRECT TECHINIQUE – forger works first with containing the genuine signature. The two
have a great personal significance. pencil and afterwards covers the pencil strokes with documents are superimposed over a light source on
3. A signature is written with little attention to ink. a transparent flat surface. The forger traces the
spelling and some other details. 2. SIMULATED FREE HAND FORGERY signature outline, with either pencil or fountain pen
4. A signature is a word written without conscious TECHNIQUE – used by forgers who have a certain following the design of the genuine signature set in
thought about the mechanics of its production and is skill in writing. After some practice, the forger tries bold relief by the light in back of it.
written automatically. to write a copy of the model quickly. c. SPURIOUS SIGNATURE (SIMPLE FORGERY) –
5. A signature is the only word the illiterate can write b. TRACED FORGERY (TRACED SIGNATURE) – A fraudulent signature in which there was no
with confidence. Any fraudulent signature which was executed by apparent attempt of stimulation or limitation. Forger
actually following the outline of a genuine signature does not try to copy a model by writes something
TYPES OF SIGNATURES with a writing instrument. resembling what we ordinarily call a signature. For
1.FORMAL (CONVENTIONAL OR COPYBOOK 1. DIRECT TRACING – tracing is made by transmitted this, he uses a false (spurious) name and makes a
FORM) – complete correct signature for an light. rapid stroke, disturbing his usual writing by
important document such as will. 2. INDIRECT TRACING – forger uses a carbon paper adopting a camouflage called disguise.
2.INFORMAL (CURSORY) – usually for routine and place document on which he will trace the forged 1. This kind of forgery is easily detected as
documents and personal correspondence. signature under the document bearing the model fraudulent in view of the fact that it is widely different
a. Personalized signature with a carbon paper between the two. from the other genuine signature even in general
b. Semi-personalized appearance alone. The only question is to tackle the
3. CARELESS SCRIBBLE – for the mail carrier, TYPES OF TRACED SIGNATURE determination of the probably writer of the forgery.
delivery boy or the autograph collector. 1. CARBON PROCESS – the forger places the Seldom are these fraudulent signature disguised.
document to be forged on the bottom, inter-leaves a 2. Further, in this type of forgery, the forger having a
FORGERY – Forgery is strictly speaking, a legal piece of carbon paper and places on top a document writing habit of his own can be identified through
term which involves not only a non-genuine containing the genuine signature. The forger then handwriting comparison.
document but also and intent to fraud. However, it is traces over the genuine signature with a pencil, pen d. FORGERY BY MEANS OF A STAMPED
also used synonymously with fraudulent signature or stylus, or other sharp pointed instrument. The FACSIMILE OF A GENUINE OR MODEL – some
spurious document. pressure of this over-tracing against the carbon
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individuals very often used a stamped facsimile of f. Repeated characteristics
their signature. g. Characteristics written with speed INDICATIONS OF FORGERY BY MEANS OF
e. FORGERY BY COMPUTER SCANNING STAMPED FACSIMILE OF A GENUINE
INDICATION OF GENUINENESS SIGNATURE
SUGGESTED STEPS IN THE EXAMINATION OF a. Carelessness a. flat strokes
SIGNATURE: b. Spontaneity b. no contrast between upstrokes and down strokes
a. STEP 1 – Place the questioned and the standard c. Alteration of thick and thin strokes c. deposit of ink at the junction of two strokes or
signatures in the juxta-position or side-by-side for d. Speed where two strokes cross each other
simultaneous viewing of the various elements and e. Simplification d. no variation – all signature will superimpose over
characteristics. f. Upright letters are interspersed with slanting each other
b. STEP 2 – The first element to be considered is the letters
handwriting movement or the manner of execution. g. The upward strokes to a threadlike tracing PROCEDURE IN THE COMMON SIGNATURE
The fundamental difference existing between a h. Rhythm PROBLEMS
genuine signature and an almost perfect forgery is in i. Good line quality a. Genuine signature which the writer refuses to
the manner of execution. j. Variation admit not genuine- Generally presence of tremors,
c. STEP 3 – Second elements to examine is the quality remnants of carbon, retouching indicates forgery.
of the line, the presence or tremors, smooth, fluent or INDICATIONS OF SIMULATED (DIRECT AND Produced, the probability of genuineness.
hesitation. Defect in line quality is only appreciated INDIRECT TECHNIQUES) AND TRACED b. Genuine signature deliberately modified –
when simultaneous viewing is made. FORGERIES: Examination of this kind of signature is confidently
d. STEP 4 – Examine the beginning and ending lines, a. Tremulous and broken connecting strokes discover that the modification is only on the
they are very significant, determine whether the between letters, indicating points at which the writer prominent features of the letter designs that are
appearance blunt, club-shaped, tapered or has temporarily struck. pointed out by the disclaimer, while the rest appear
vanishing. b. No rhythm to be normal. There are unnatural tremors and
e. STEP 5 – Design and structure of the letters – c. Carefulness or unusual care and deliberation retouching. The minute details in genuine signatures
Determine as to roundness, smoothness, angularity d. No contrast between upward and downward are present.
and direction. Each individual has a different strokes
concept of letter design. e. Slow writing- angular writing FORGERY, COUNTERFEITING AND
f. STEP 6 – Look for the presence of retouching or f. Blunt beginning and endings FALSIFICATION
patching. g. Placement of diacritical marks just over the stem ✓ COUNTERFEITING – It is the crime of
g. STEP 7 – Connecting strokes, slant, ratio, size, of letters making, circulating or uttering false coins and
lateral spacing. h. Absence of spontaneity- lack of smoothness of banknotes. Literally, it means to make a copy
h. STEP 8 – Do not rely so much in the similarity or letters of; or imitate; to make a spurious semblance
difference of the capital letters, for these are the often i. Restrained writing – there is lack of freedom or of, as money or stamps, with the intent to
changed according to the whim of the writer. inhibited movements. It gives the impression that deceive or defraud. Counterfeiting is
every stroke is made with great difficulty. This something made to imitate the real thing used
CHARACTERISTICS /PRINCIPLES THAT SUPPLY writing is small for gain. The word is usually applied to a
MOST CASES: j. No variation form of forgery involving money. The right to
a. Pen pressure make coin and print paper money is limited
b. Movement INDICATIONS OF SIMPLE OR SPURIOUS by law to government and most nations
c. Proportion FORGERY – Writing habits of the writer which prohibits not only the making of coin of their
d. Unusual distortion of the forms of letters include his general and individual characteristics is own but also the making of coins or paper of
e. Inconspicuous characteristics evident in the forged signature. any other government.
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 ✓ FALSIFICATION – The act or process of 5. The background is composed of multi-colored fine
making the contents of a document not the BANK NOTE PAPER pattern of lines in varying tones and shades
intended content. Paper bank notes get a lot of handling. If a interlacing with each other. These shadings or toning
✓ FORGERY – The act of falsely making or good grade of paper is not used, they would soon are intricately printed in such a way that the contrast
materially altering, with intent to defraud, any wear out and have to be replaced. Even with the best or shifting of colors creates the impression of life and
writing which if genuine, might be of legal paper, the old two peso bill usually wears out and has vividness to the notes.
efficacy or the foundation of a legal liability. to be replaced at the end of thirty days. Government
buys the very best grade of paper they can get, in COUNTERFEIT
MAKING OF PAPER MONEY order that the paper will last as long as possible. 1. It appears dead.
✓ ENGRAVING – It is the process by which the Special paper also makes it difficult for the 2. The eyes do not sparkle.
line to be printed are cut into pieces of metal counterfeiter to duplicate it. It is usually the use of 3. It appears blurred, dull, smudgy and poorly
by hand or with a machine. Ink is rubbed wrong paper that causes the counterfeited bank note printed.
over the plate to fill the cuts in the metal and to be detected by ultraviolet light. 4. Hair is lifeless.
the extra ink wiped-off the top. The pressure 5. The face and or forehead are often naturally white
of the paper on the plate causes the ink in the CHARACTERISTICS OF GENUINE AND or pale due to absence of most of the details.
holes to be lifted on the surface of the paper. COUNTERFEIT PAPER NOTE OR BILL 6. The concentric lines depicting the eyes often
The ink lines will be felt to be raised above merged into solid printed areas.
the surface. The engraving process is used a. MAIN PRINT 7. The background often blends with the portrait and
for the production of all genuine bank notes. GENUINE is usually scratchy.
✓ LETTERPRESS PRINTING – is the most 1. The fingers will readily feel the main print on the 8. The lines are thick with rough edges.
common form of printing books, magazine, front and back on fairly new notes. 9. The multi-colored prints on the genuine notes are
letterheads and the usual printing in common 2. This is due to the measurable thickness of the ink extremely difficult to duplicate and as a result,
uses. In the process, the letters are made on deposited on the paper which gives the prints an counterfeit notes are usually off-color and not of the
raised pieces of metal which covered with ink embossed effect. right shade or tone.
and then impressed upon the paper in the
same form as a rubber stamp or cliché. The COUNTERFEIT c. WATERMARK
serial numbers of a bank note are usually 1. The fingers will hardly feel the main prints of the GENUINE
added by this letterpress process after the front and back even on new notes. 1. The watermark underneath the security lacework
note has been produced by an engraving. 2. This is brought about by offset print the most on the right hand side of the note is the same on the
✓ OFFSET PRINTING – is the method a common process employed by counterfeiters. colored portrait.
photograph is taken of the desire material 3. The prints are mere stains on the coating of the 2. The design is placed by means of dandy roll
and a print is made on a specially prepared sensitized paper which is glossy. during the manufacture of the paper.
aluminum plate. The plate is kept wet with 3. Sharp details of the outline or the light and shadow
water. When ink is applied, it sticks only b. PORTRAIT effect are discernible when viewed with the aid of
these parts of the plate where printing is GENUINE transmitted light.
desired. The aluminum plate is then put in 1. Appears life-like 4. The relief of features can be felt by running the
contact with rubber roller which transfers the 2. The eyes sparkle finger on the design.
ink to the papers. The offset process is quite 3. The tiny dots and lines forming the details of the
used in small printing plants. Because it was face, hair, etc. are clear, sharp and well defined. COUNTERFEIT
photographic process, it is the most common 4. Each portrait stands out distinctly from 1. This is imitated by printing white ink or dry block
modern used by counterfeit to make false background. This is noticeable along the shoulders. on the finished paper.
paper money.
83
2. Sometimes wax or other oily medium is stamped 1. On counterfeit, these geometric patterns are often 1. The lines and dots composing the vignettes are
to give transparency to the portion where the blurred, round on the edges and blotch on the joints. fine, distinct and sharp.
designing appears. Its continuity could not be traced. The color appears 2. The varying color tone gives a bold look to the
3. Printed outline is placed on the inner sheet where faded. picture that makes it stands out of the paper.
merely a paper cutout is placed inside. As a result
course or harsh and occasional irregular lines and g. COLOR OF EACH DENOMINATION COUNTERFEIT
sometimes opaque areas very obvious. Genuine notes have polychrome background with 1. On counterfeit usually dull and poorly printed.
one predominant color for each denomination. You 2. It appears dirty.
d. METALLIC THREAD should know whose portrait is/are printed on each 3. The lines are comparatively thicker with rough
GENIUNE bill. edges.
1. This is a special thread placed vertically on the 4. There is no variation in color tone so that the
paper during manufacture. PhP 1,000.00 - Blue - Jose Abad Santos, Josefa picture appears flat.
2. On the surface of the paper where this thread is Llanes Escoda, Vicente Lim
located are patterns of short vertical lines. 500.00 - Yellow - Benigno S. Aquino/Corazon Aquino j. CLEARNESS OF PRINT
200.00 - Green (Dark in one side and light in another GENUINE
COUNTERFEIT side) 1. The registry of the different printed features is
1. Counterfeit by means of printing on the back of 100.00 - Mauve - Manuel A. Roxas perfect. The lines are very clear and sharp.There are
the note, on the inner side of the paper, insertion of 50.00 - Red - Sergio Osmena no burrs clinging to the sides.
twin thread or simply folding the note vertically 20.00 - Orange - Manuel L. Quezon
where the thread appears on the genuine bill. 10.00 - Brown - Apolinario Mabini and Andres COUNTERFEIT
Bonifacio 1. In general, a spurious not exhibits a second hand
e. COLORED FIBERS OR SECURITY FIBERS 5.00 - Green - Emilio Aguinaldo look. It is dirty due to the sputtering of ink on the
GENUINE interior area. Over-inked areas are visible instantly.
1. These fibers are scattered on the surface of the h. SERIAL NUMBERS The shadings and ornamentations of the letters and
paper at random and can be readily picked off by GENUINE figures are thick and usually merged.
means of any pointed instrument. 1.The prefix letter/s and numbers (six of them except
2. The colors of these fibers are red and blue. on replacement note) are clearly printed. EXAMINATION OF SUSPECTED COUNTERFEIT
2.They have peculiar style and are uniform in size BANKNOTE
COUNTERFEIT and thickness. As well as inspection under ultraviolet light,
1. On counterfeit, this is simulated by printed lines, 3. Spacing of the numbers is uniform and alignment is the investigator should look at the banknote with a
cannot be picked off, but can be easily erased with even. hand lens. He should pay particular attention to the
ordinary rubber or by agitating with wet fingers. quantity of the portrait in the bank note. This is the
COUNTERFEIT one extremely fine detail of a good engraved plate.
f. LACEWORK DESIGN 1. On counterfeit, the letters and numbers are poorly The color of the ink should be compared with the
GENUINE printed. They are usually of different style. color of a genuine banknote. It is very difficult for
1. The geometric pattern which looks like a delicate 2. Most often, they are evenly spaced and poorly counterfeiter to match exactly the same shade of ink
lacework along the border on both surfaces, aligned. by a genuine manufacturer.
embellishing the portraits, value panel and vignettes 3. The numbers are too big or too small, too thick or
are multicolored and composed of harp lines which too thin and in certain cases shaded on the curves. CHARACTERISTICS OF U.S. PAPER MONEY
are continuous and traceable even at the joints. A. TYPES:
i. VIGNETTE 1. Federal Reserve note – with GREEN treasury seal
COUNTERFEIT GENUINE and serial number.
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2. United States Note – with RED treasury seal and 2. COUNTERFEIT – coins feel greasy and appear
serial number. slimy. The beading composed of tiny round dots COUNTERFEIT PASSPORT
3. Silver Certificate – with BLUE treasury seal and surrounding the genuine coin appear irregular and Passports are rarely counterfeit, because they
serial number. elongated depressions and are not sharp and are quite complicated in design and manufacture.
prominent as in the genuine. The letterings and The most usual method of forgery is to steal a
SALIENT FEATURES COMMON TO ALL TYPES: numerals are low and worn out due to the lack of genuine passport and make change in it. Many safety
Portrait – every denomination has the sharpness of details. The readings are uneven and features are incorporated in passport and are easily
following: show signs of filing. detected by close inspection. Ultraviolet light is very
useful in this type of examination.
$ 1 - Washington D. COUNTERFEIT METAL MONEY OR COIN The investigator should look particularly at
$ 2 - Jefferson Coin made of gold was to widely use but are the photograph in any passport as identification card.
$ 5 - Lincoln not now often see. Government kept their gold in the This is always necessary because sometimes forgers
$ 10 - Hamilton form of heavy bars called bullions and then issue remove and change or substitute the picture. Hence,
$ 20 - Jackson papers for the value of gold.Metal coins issued the position of perforation caused by staples and
$ 50 - Grant nowadays are mostly in amount for less than its face another pasting device should be studied carefully.
$ 100 - Franklin value. In most countries, the possession of gold coins
$ 500 - McKinley is now forbidden except for coin collectors. B. ACTS PUNISHABLE UNDER ART. 161:
$ 1000 – Cleveland 1. Forging the great seal of the Government of the
$ 5000 – Madison E. EXAMINATION OF COUNTERFEIT COINS – Philippines.
the suspected counterfeit coin should be 2. Forging the signature of the President.
COINS – These are pieces of metal stamped by examined by: 3. Forging the stamp of the President.
government authority, for use as money or 1. a magnifying lens
collectively referring to metal currency. 2. comparing it with a known coin C. WHAT ARE THE CRIMES UNDER
COUNTERFEITING COINS? THEY ARE:
MAKING OF COINS: F. DEFECTS IN CAST COIN ARE USUALLY 1. Making and importing and uttering false coins
CASTING is the most common method of CAUSED BY: (Art. 163).
making gold coins. Plaster molds bearing an image 1. formation of air bubbles 2. Mutilation of coins – importation and utterance of
of gold coins are filled (within a low temperature) 2. removal of small parts of the sole along with the mutilated coins (Art. 164).
with alloy made with lead or tin. Some molds are coin 3. Selling of false or mutilated coin, without
used for high temperature metal such as copper or connivance (Art. 165).
silver alloy. The best place to examine a counterfeit coin
is on the edge since there are usually special milling D. WHEN IS COIN FALSE OR COUNTERFEITED?
STRIKING OR STAMPING – is the making of an marks or designs which are added to a genuine coin A coin is false or counterfeited, if it is forged
impression of a coin or metal blank by pressure. by machinery.A cast coin will have a faint joining or it is not authorized by the government as legal
mark caused by the parts of the molds. It will be tender, regardless of its intrinsic value.Counterfeiting
CHARACTERISTICS necessary for the counterfeiter to file the edge to means the imitation of a legal or genuine coin. It may
1. GENUINE – coins show an even flow of metallic destroy the rim. Evidence of this filing can be contain more silver than the ordinary coin. There is
grains. The details of the profile, the seal of the detected with magnification. counterfeiting when a spurious coin is made. There
Republic of the Philippines, letterings and numerals The counterfeiter will also try to remove must be an imitation of the peculiar design of a
are of high relief, so that it can be readily felt various defects and blemishes by hard works and this genuine coin (U.S. vs. Basco, 6 Phils. 110).
distinctly by running and the readings are deep and can usually be detected in the form of fine scratched
even. or tool mark.
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IMPORT – means to bring them into port. The questioned on paper is its age, whether the actual operate a paper mill and Samarkand soon became
importation is complete before entry at the Customs age of the paper corresponds with the alleged date of the papermaking center of the Arab world.
House. preparation of the questioned document. 4. Knowledge of papermaking traveled westward,
spreading throughout the Middle East, the Moorish
UTTER – means to pass counterfeited coins. It HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT invasion of Spain led to the invention (A.D. 1150) or
includes their delivery or the act of giving them The evolution of writing materials culminated erection of the first European paper mill, at JATIVA,
away. A counterfeited coin is uttered when it is paid, in the development of paper. The oldest written province of VALENCIA.
when the offender is caught counting the records still surviving are the Sumerian clay tablets 5. Knowledge of the technology spread quickly and
counterfeited coins preparatory to the act of dating back from the 4th millennium B.C. by 16th century, paper was manufactured throughout
delivering them, even though the utterer may not a. PAPYRUS – This came into use about 3,500 B.C. – most of Europe.
obtain the gain he intended. Hence, damage to people of Egypt. Palestine, Syria, and Southern 6. The first paper mill in England was established in
another is not necessary. Europe used the pith (soft tissue of the stem) of the 1495.
sedge (grass like herb) CYPERUS PAPYRUS to make a 7. The first such mill in America in 1690.
MUTILATION – means to take off part of the metal writing material known as PAPYRUS. 8. The first practical machine was made in 1798 by
either by filing it or substituting it for another metal of b. PARCHMENT – writing material made from skin the French inventor NICHOLAS LOUIS ROBERT.
interior quality. of animals primarily of sheep, calves or goats – was The machine reduced the cost of paper it supplants
probably developed in the Middle East more or less the hand-molding process in paper manufacture.
WRITING MATERIALS contemporaneously with papyrus. It came into wide 9. Robert’s machine was improved by the British
ANACHRONISM – It refers to something wrong in use only in the 2nd century B.C. in the city of stationers and brothers HENRY FOURDIER and
time and in place. This means that the forger has PERGAMUM in ANATOLIA. SEALY FOURDINIER, who in 1803 produced the first
trouble matching the paper, ink, or writing materials c. VELLUM – writing materials from fine skins from of the machines that bear their name.
to the exact date it was supposed to have been young calves or kids and the term (name) was often 10. The solution of the problem of making paper
written. used for all kind of parchment manuscripts, it from cheap raw material was achieved by the
became the most important writing material for introduction of the ground wood process of pulp
PAPER – These are sheets of interlaced fibers – bookmaking, while parchment continued for special making about 1840 and the first of the chemical pulp
usually cellulose fibers from plants, but sometimes manuscripts. processes approximately ten years later.
from cloth rags or other fibrous materials, that is Almost every portable surface that would 11. CHLORINE – This was introduced in the 19th
formed by pulping the fibers and causing to felt, or retain the marks of brush or pen was also used as a century for bleaching and colored linen could
mat, to form a solid surface. writing material during the early period. already be manufactured for paper.
12. ESPARTO – This is a grass grown in Libya, also in
WATERMARK – Certain papers are marked with a DEVELOPMENT OF PAPER MANUFACTURING Spain and North Africa was first introduced in
translucent design, a watermarks impressed in them 1. It is widely claimed that invention of paper is England in 1861.
during the course of their manufacture. generally attributed to a Chinese court official, CAI 13. STRAW – this was used to make paper in 1800.
LUN (TSAI LUN), in about A.D. 105. He is the first to 14. SUFPHITE – this is a paper from wood was not
WRITING MATERIALS – Any material used primarily succeed in making paper from vegetable fibers, tree attempted until 1869 and paper called SULPHITE
for writing or recording such as papers, cardboard, barks (mulberry tree), rags, old fish nettings. (modern type) was first used between 1880 and 1890.
board papers, Morocco paper, etc. 2. The art of paper making was kept secret for 500 15. OLDEST MANUSCRIPT – letters dated A.D. 874
years; the Japanese acquired it in the 7th century A.D. have been found in Egypt and the oldest manuscript
WRITING MATERIALS IN QUESTIONED 3. In A.D. 751, the Arab city of Samarkand was in England on cotton paper dated AD 1890.
DOCUMENTS attacked by marauding Chinese and some Chinese
One of the subject’s of inquiry in questioned taken as prisoners were skilled in papermaking and TRACING THE AGE OF PAPER (DOCUMENT)
documents is the writing material used. The common were forced by the city Governor to build and
86
 The age of the document may be estimated ✓ PEN – a tool for writing or drawing with a SEVILLE, and this tool was the principal writing
from paper. Four cases were reported by LUCAS colored fluid, such as ink; or a writing implement for nearly 1300 years.
where the age of the document was established from instrument used to apply inks to the paper is To make a quill pen, a wing feather is first
the compositor/ composition of the paper. In one of a pen. It came from the Latin word “PENNA”, hardened by heating or letting it dry out gradually.
these cases, a document dated 1213 A.H. (A.D. 1798) meaning feather. The hardened quill is then cut to a broad edge with a
was found to be written on paper composed entirely ✓ PEN NIBS – the tow divisions or points which special pen knife.
of chemically prepared wood cellulose. Considering from the writing portion of a pen are its nibs.
that this type of paper was not introduced not until ✓ QUILL PENS – It is a hollow, horny part of c. STEEL POINT PENS (BRAZEN PENS)
about 60 years later, the document is obviously a fake large feather usually from goose and was Also by the 18th century, paper had replaced
one. used for writing on parchment. Poland, vellum as the chief writing surface, and more writing
Germany, Russia, and the Netherlands were was being done for commerce than for church or
WATERMARKS the largest producers of quill. crown. During this period, attempts were made to
It is a term for a figure or design incorporated invent a lasting writing tool that did not require
into paper during its manufacture and appearing WRITING INSTRUMENTS (WRITING recutting. Horn, tortoise shell, and gemstones were
lighter than the rest of the sheet when viewed in IMPLEMENTS) – writing implements, manual tried, but steel was eventually used for permanent
transmitted light. The earliest way of identifying the devices used to make alphanumeric marks on or in a pen points. Although pens of bronze may have been
date of manufacture of the paper is by the surface. Peculiar to inscription is the removal of part known to Romans, the earliest mention of “Brazen
WATERMARK – a brand put on the paper by the of a surface to record such marks. The writing tool is Pens” was in 1465. The 16th century Spanish
manufacturers. usually controlled by movement of the fingers, hand, calligrapher JUAN DE YCIAR mentions brass pens for
wrist, and arm of the writer. very large writing in his 1548 writing manual, but the
HOW WATERMARK IS MADE? use of metal pens did not become widespread until
The watermark was made when the semi-fluid HISTORICAL BACKGROUND the early part of the 19th century. The first patented
paper pulp was being drained on a grid of laid and a. REED PENS/SWAMP REED steel pen point was made by the English Engineer
chain wires. Fine wires forming the desired design It came from especially selected water BRYAN DONKIN in 1803.
were tied on top of the grid and impressed into the grasses found in Egypt, America and along the
pulp. This impression made the paper thinner, and shores of the Persian Gulf, were prepared by leaving d. FOUNTAIN PENS
therefore, more transparent, where it appeared. them under dung heaps for several months. It was In 1884, LEWIS WATERMAN, a New York
first writing tool that had the writing end slightly insurance agent, patented the first practical fountain
WRITING INSTRUMENTS frayed like a brush. About 2,000 years B.C., this reed pen containing its own ink reservoir. Waterman
✓ FLEXIBILITY OF PEN POINT – one quality of pen was first used in Near East on papyrus and later invented a mechanism that fed ink to the pen point by
the nib pen is its pliability. This quality varies on parchment. capillary action, allowing ink to flow evenly while
which different pens and can be measured by writing. By the 1920’s, the fountain pen was the chief
the amount of pressure necessary to cause a b. QUILL PEN writing instrument in the west and remained so until
spreading of the nibs or a given degree of As the size of writing became smaller, both the introduction of the ball point pen after World War
shading. writing tools and surfaces changed. Vellum or II.
✓ FOUNTAIN PEN – A fountain pen is a modern parchment books replaced the papyrus roll, and the
nib which contains a reservoir of ink in a quill replaced the reed pen. Although quill pens can e. BALL POINT PEN
specially chamber. After complete filling the be made from the outer wing feathers of any bird, JOHN LOUD, in 1888, patented the first ball
pen is capable of writing a number of pages those of goose, swan, crow and turkey, were point writing tool. A ball point pen has in its point a
without refilling. preferred. The earliest reference to quill pens was small rotating metal ball that continually inks itself as
✓ INK – is a fluid or viscous marking material made by the Spanish Theologian ST. ISIDORE OF it turns. As early as the 19th century, attempts had
used for writing or printing. been made to manufacture a pen with a rotating tip,
87
but not until 1938 did Hungarian inventor brothers potassium chromate. These inks will be found only Sometimes the pigment suspension is combined with
LADISLAO AND GEORG BIRO invent a viscous, oil- on old. acid or basic dyestuff.
based ink that could be used with such a pen. Hence,
they are attributed for the invention of the first c. IRON GALLONATE INKS – This ink has been used h. ALKALINE WRITING INKS – These are quick
practical ball point pen. as writing for over a thousand years. Formerly it was drying inks which possess a phrase of from 9 to about
made of a fermented infusion of gall nuts to which 11. They penetrate quickly through the size of the
f. FIBER TIP PENS iron salts were added. The ink was composed of paper allowing the ink to penetrate quickly into the
In 1963, fiber tip markers were introduced suspension of the black, almost insoluble ferric paper.
into the U.S. market and have since challenged the tannate. The particles were kept in suspension by
ball point as the principal writing implement. The adding glue or gum Arabic. This manufacturing i. STAMP PAD INKS – They are made with the acid of
first practical fiber tip pen was invented by YUKIO method was not economical and so it had to be substance such as glycerol, glycol, acetin or benzyl
HORIE of Japan in 1962. It was ideally suited to the changed. alcohol and water. Airline dyes are added as
strokes of Japanese writing, which is traditionally coloring matter. For quick drying stamp pad inks,
done with a pointed ink brush. d. FOUNTAIN PEN INKS – These inks are regarded as more volatile organic solvents are used as acetone,
special fountain pen inks, and consisting of ordinary ethanol, etc.
g. FELT-TIP MARKERS iron gallotannate inks with a lower iron content in
Felt-tip markers are made of dense natural or most cases but with a higher dyestuff content than j. HECTOGRAPH INKS – These inks very much
artificial fibers impregnated with a dye. These normal inks. This type of ink is placed on the market resemble stamp pad inks and are exclusively made
markers can be cut to a variety of shapes and sizes, under the name of “blue-black permanent”. with basic dyes. To the dyestuff solution several
some up to an inch in width. A modification of the other substances are added such as glycerol, acetic
ball point pen using a liquid dye fed to a e. DYESTUFF INKS – These inks are composed of acid and acetone.
metal/plastic ball was introduced in the U. S. from aqueous solutions of synthetic dyestuff, to which a
Japan in 1973. preservative and a flux are added. The writing k. TYPEWRITER RIBBON INKS – These inks are
qualities of the ink are improved by addition of usually composed of a blend of aniline dyes, carbon
COMPOSITION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF substance such as glycerol, glucose or dextrin. The black and oil such as olein or castor oil.
INKS dark blue and black inks are often composed of four
or more dyes because no black dyestuff of sufficient TYPEWRITER AND TYPEWRITING
a. INDIAN INKS – The oldest form of Indian ink tinctorial capacity is known. IDENTIFICATION
consisted of a suspension of carbon black (soot or TYPEWRITER – A writing machine with a keyboard
lampblack) in water to which glue or a vegetable f. BALL POINT PEN INKS – The ballpoint pens did not for reproducing letters, figures, symbols and other
gum was added. Inks of these compositions are still appear on the European market before 1945. The resembling printed ones.
on the market mostly in the shape of sticks or cakes. development of the present pen was accomplished It is also defined as a machine that can
In modern carbon ink, the glue or gum is replaced by during World War II because the army and the air produce printed characters on papers or that can
a solution of shellac in borax or ammonia. These inks force needed a writing instrument which would not produce printed letters and figures on paper.
are not affected by oxidants. It is practically leak at high altitude and which supplied quick drying
impossible to remove the last traces of the carbon water resistant writing. SIGNIFICANT TERMS:
from the paper without causing damage to it. ALIGNMENT – Alignment defects include characters
g. WATER RESISTANT WRITING AND DRAWING which write improperly in the following respects: A
b. LOG WOOD INKS – These inks which were used INKS – These inks are special group of dyestuff inks. twisted letter, horizontal mal-alignment, vertical mal-
extensively about a century ago, have now because They consist of pigment paste and a solution of alignment and a character off its feet. These defects
obsolete and are no longer manufactured. They were shellac made soluble in water by means of borax, can be corrected by special adjustments to the type
made from an aqueous extract of logwood chips and liquid ammonia or ammonium bicarbonate. bar and type black.
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CARBON IMPRESSION – any typewriting which is TYPES OF TYPEWRITERS: responses to it. The essential element in a typical
placed on the paper by the action of the type faces a.CONVENTIONAL TYPEWRITERS USING TYPE word associations test is that one word or idea is
striking thought carbon paper is classed as a carbon BARS reminiscent of another, and the expression of their
impression. Generally, carbon impressions are 1. Pica type – 10 letter/inch association forms a meaningful picture.
carbon copies, but sometime original typewriting is 2. Elite type – 12 letters/ inch ✓ FRANCIS GALTON – who started in 1879 the
made directly through a carbon ribbon. 3. 6 letters / inch use of word association in detecting
CHARACTER – in connection with typewriting 4. Teletype machine deception.
identification, the term character is used to include 5. 14-16 letter/inch – special typewriters ✓ WHILHELM WUNDT – who modified
letters, symbols, numerals, or points of punctuation. b.TYPEWRITER USING SINGLE ELEMENT OR Galton’s association method to an almost
NATURAL VARIATIONS – These are normal or usual BALL – a typewriter machine, capable of typing 10 or standardized form, a process that took
deviations found between repeated specimens of any 12 characters per inch. Change of horizontal spacing several years. He also founded the first
individuals handwriting or in the product of any is done easily by the flip of a switch. psychological laboratory in Leipzig,
typewriters. c. TYPEWRITER USING A PRINT WHEEL Germany.
OFF ITS FEET – the condition of a type face printing This is a typewriter equipped with a disc type ✓ HUGO MUNSTERBERG – was responsible in
heavier on one side or corner than over the device called a print wheel. The printwheel contains introducing the forensic application of WAT
remainder of its outline. all of characters represented on the typewriter in detecting deception in United States.
PERMANENT DEFECT – any identifying keyboard. This machine has the capability of typing ✓ ALEXANDRIA LURIA – discovered that
characteristics of a type writer which cannot be 10, 12, and 15 letters per inch. strong emotions prevent a subject form
corrected by simply cleaning the type face or forming steady or smooth automatic motor
replacing the ribbon is classified as a permanent and speech responses.
defect. POLYGRAPHY ✓
PLATEN – the cylinder which serve as the backing of B. PSYCHOLOGICAL STRESS EVALUATION
the paper and which absorbs the blow on the type SCIENTIFIC METHOD OF DETECTING ✓ PSYCHOLOGICAL STRESS EVALUATOR is
face is known as a platen. DECEPTION a device that detects emotional stress in a
REBOUND – a defect in which a character prints a There are various methods of detecting lies person’s voice.
double impression with the lighter one slightly offset and deceits. Lie detection methods available today ✓ MICROTREMORS refers to the low
to the right or left. may be grouped in four ways: amplitude oscillation of the reflex mechanism
RIBBON IMPRESSIONS – typewriting which is that controls the length and tension of a
made directly through a cloth ribbon is called ribbon 1.Cross-checking information with testimonies, with stretched muscle.
impression. physical evidence, or with other existing information. TREMOR is believed to be a function of the
TWISTED LETTER – each letter and character is 2.Psychological method – evaluation of the emotional, signals to and from motor neurons.
designed to print a certain fixed angle to the base behavioral and cognitive reactions of a person.
line, due to wear, and damage to the type bars and 3.Interrogation and testing the credibility of a RECORDING OF THE PSYCHO-PHYSIOLOGICAL
the type block, some letters become twisted so that suspect’s statements. RESPONSE
they lean to the right or left of their correct slant. 4. Using lie detector machines. The nervous control of the human body
TYPE FACE – the printing surface of the type block includes the central nervous system (the brain and
is known as the type face, with most modern 1. Methods involving the use of scientific devices the spinal cord) and the autonomic or regulating
typewriter this block is attached at the end of a that record psycho-physiological response: nervous system (sympathetic and parasympathetic).
movable arm or type bar which propels the type face A. WORD ASSOCIATION The central nervous system primarily controls the
against the ribbon and paper to make the typewriter The basic practice is to present orally or motor and sensory functions that occur at or above
impression. visually, a group of words, each word sufficiently the threshold. It may be voluntary. The autonomic
separated in time from the others so that the subject
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nervous system acts as a self-regulating autonomic components to a graphical representation of symptoms is not conclusive or a reliable proof of guilt
response of the body. experienced by the subject. of the subject, their presence infers further
The autonomic nervous system is composed investigation to ascertain the truth of the impression.
of two complimentary branches: the sympathetic and E. BRAIN WAVE FINGERPRINTING
the parasympathetic nervous system, acting opposite Neuroscientist Lawrence Farwell who is SCIENTIFIC OBSERVATION OF LYING PERSON
each other. The fibers of both enervate all organs managing a Brain Wave Institute, Iowa, patented this a. sweating
where self-regulation is essential. technique in 1985. Dr. Farwell’s research, however, b. color change of face
When a person is under the influence of looks at a specific type of electrical brain wave, c. dryness of mouth
physical (exertion) or emotional (anger, excitement, called P300, which activates when a person sees a d. excess activity of the adam’s apple
fear, lie detection, etc.) stimuli, the sympathetic will familiar object. e. fidgeting
dominate and over-ride the parasympathetic, thus, f. peculiar feeling
there will be changes in the heart rate, pulse rate, 2. Methods involving the use of substances that g.swearing to the truthfulness of assertion
blood pressure, respiratory tracing, psychogalvanic inhibit the inhibitor: h.religious man and/or spotless past record
reflexes, time of response to question, voice tracing, a. ADMINISTRATION OF TRUTH SERUM i. inability to look at the investigator straight in the
etc. The parasympathetic nervous system works to TRUTH SERUM acts as depressant on the eye
restore things to normal when the conditions of stress nervous system. In this method, common drugs used j. not that i remember expression
have been removed. It is the dominant branch when are hygiene hydro bromide and scopolamine. Truth
the condition is normal and the subject is calm, serum is use in locating the suspects and stolen 5. SCIENTIFIC INTERROGATION
contented and relaxed. items. Interrogation is the questioning of a person
C. POLYGRAPHY b. NARCOANALYSIS suspected of having committed an offense or of
A modern scientific examination technique in This method is similar to the preceding persons who are reluctant to make a full disclosure of
detecting deception whether the subject is telling the technique. However, the drugs used in information in his possession which is pertinent to the
truth or not with the use of polygraph machine. Narcoanalysis are sodium amytal and sodium investigation. It may be done on a suspect or a
pentothal to sedate the subject. witness.
USE OF LIE DETECTOR OR POLYGRAPH c. INTOXICATION WITH ALCOHOL 6. CONFESSION
It is not appropriate to call a lie detector or a Alcohol can reveal the real character behind Confession is an expressed
polygraph. A lie detector records physiological the façade of a person. This theory can be traced in acknowledgement by the accused in a criminal case
changes that occur in association with lying in a an old Latin maxim “In Vino Veritas”. of the truth of his guilt as to the crime charged, or of
polygraph. It is the fear of detection of the subject some essentials thereof.
which allows the determination. The fear of the 3. HYPNOSIS Confession is different from admission,
subject when not telling the truth activates the It is the technique of inducing a person into a although admission includes, as one of its species,
sympathetic nervous system to a series of automatic state of consciousness whereby he can respond to confession. Confession is a statement of guilt while
and involuntary physiological changes which are questions and is very susceptible to question. admission is usually a statement of fact by the
recorded by the instrument. HYPNOTISM is an act of inducing hypnosis to dazzle accused which does not directly involve an
D. COMPUTERIZED VOICE STRESS ANALYSIS or overcome by suggestion. acknowledgement of guilt of the accused.
✓ COMPUTERIZED VOICE STRESS 4. OBSERVATION William J. Yankee of the Department of
ANALYZER is manufactured by the National A good criminal investigator must be a keen Defense Polygraph Institute, polygraph examination
Institute of Truth Verification is the latest in a observer and a good psychologist. A subject under is one of the most complex psychophysiological
series of instruments known to detect stress on account of the stimulation of the sympathetic examinations ever developed.
deception in voice responses. Voice stress nervous system may exhibit changes which may be In advance countries, the following are
analyzer purportedly detect physiological used as a potential clue of deception. And since just preferred descriptions of lie detection through
micro tremor in speech and convert those one or a combination of the following signs and polygraph examination.
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1. Psychophysiological veracity examination (PVE) deception utilizing the changes of systolic recorded respiratory curves of the pneumograph. He
2. Psychophysiological detection of deception (PDD) deception.He developed his method of reading detected deception with the use of Pneumograph
3. Psychophysiological credibility assessment (PCA) systolic blood pressure.He was the first inventor of lie that measure Inhalation and Exhalation
detector in the year 1907, he used a combination of (Respiration Male 10-23/min; Female 11-25/min)
DEVELOPMENT OF CARDIOSPHYGMOGRAPH two scientific device, sphygmomanometer and 2. HAROLD BURTT (1918)
COMPONENT galvanometer in detecting deception. He determined that respiratory were indications of
1. CESARE LOMBROSO (1895, Italian Scientist) 4. JOHN A. LARSON (1921) deception and he found out that changes in systolic
a. He was accorded the distinction of being the first He developed an instrument that continually blood pressure were valuable in determining
person who utilized an instrument for the purpose of and simultaneously measures blood pressure, pulse deception. He found out that Changes in Systolic
detecting a lie. rate and respiration. He developed the breadboard Pressure is of greater value than Changes in
b. He published an account of his works with the lie detector which is now a polygraph apparatus into Respiration. (Pulse 60-120 beat/min).
police to identify the criminal suspects through a portable form.
measurement of blood pressure and pulse rate. 5. LEONARDE KEELER (1949) THE MODERN POLYGRAPH COMPONENT
He invented the KEELER POLYGRAPH, which 1. LEONARDE KEELER (1926)
In detecting deception with the use of is an improvement of Larson’s apparatus. He devised a metal recording bellows, rolled
HYDROSPHYGMOGRAPH procedures: chart paper, incorporated galvanograph with
1.Subject hands are placed in the water filled tank DEVELOPMENT OF GALVANOGRAPH measurement of blood pressure and respiration,
sealed with membrane of rubber. COMPONENT method of questioning, and kymograph.In 1949, the
2.Subject was shown pictures related to the crime or 1. STICKER (1897) KEELER POLYGRAPH added a galvanometer for
mentioned was made to relevant facts. He theorized that existing mental influences recording a pshychogalvanic skin reflex or
3.Possession of blood insist or recorded in smoke GSR impression and that will have no effects upon electrodermal response.
drum. it.He suggested the use of the first galvanograph for Leonarde Keeler
2. ANGELO MOSSO (1895) detecting deception based from the works of several 1. Inventor of Keeler Polygraph, which was an
He developed the sphygmomanometer and predecessors. He introduced the method of detecting improved version of Larson’s apparatus.
scientific cradle, which was designed to measure the deception from the galvanic impression on the chart 2. Credited with introducing the “Card Test”
flow of blood while a person lay on his back in a tracing. 3. Specialized in “Peak of Tension Test”.
prone position.He studied fear as an influence on the 2. VERAGUTH (1907)
heart and his observation subsequently from the He first use the term PSYCHOGALVANIC
basis for detection technique.He developed a type of SKIN REFLEX and believed that the electrical Keeler Polygraph records:
sphygmomanometer and scientific radio for study of phenomenon is due to the activity of sweat glands. a. Blood pressure
fear. 3. LUIGI BURTT (1918) b. Pulse rate
1. a rack was mounted a full room He is an Italian physiologist who recorded the c. Respiration changes
2. subject is placed in a balance rack distinction for developing the GALVANIC SKIN
a. fear produce through interrogation changes in REFLEX (GSR) or the galvanometer. DEVELOPMENT OF EARLY QUESTIONING
blood clot which change balance of rack. TECHNIQUE
b. blood movement when recorded in small drum. DEVELOPMENT OF THE PNEUMOGRAPH 1. LEONARDE KEELER (1942)
COMPONENT He developed the “RELEVANT-IRRELEVANT”
3. DR. WILLIAM MOULTON MARSTON (1915) 1. VITTORIO BENUSSI (1914) test and the EPQ known as the personally
FATHER OF MODERN POLYGRAPHY, 1. He detected deception with a pneumograph, an embarrassing question.
experimented with galvanometer to record skin instrument that graphically measures the inhalation 2. JOHN E. REID (1950)-He developed the reviewed
resistance changes and a gripping device to record and exhalation. He noted changes in inspiration and control question consisting of a lie incorporated into
tension.He conducted numerous test for detecting expiration changes were indications of deception. He relevant-irrelevant test. developed the Reviewed
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Control Question consisting of known lie the Journal Polygraph Science, the oldest of the 9. MAX WERTHEIMER (1904)
incorporated to the relevant-irrelevant test. He also polygraph publications. First to record chest and A German scientist at the physiological
discovered the “Guilt-Complex test” administered abdominal breathing. First to record two PSR. institute of the University of Prague, published a
to the overly responsive subjects. 4. RICHARD L. GOLDEN (1969)-Presented a paper paper together with Julius Klein entitled
3. CLEVE BACKSTER (1960) during the Annual Seminar of American Polygraph “Psychologische Tatbestandsdiagnostik” with
He developed the Backster zone comparison Association in Houston, Texas,USA. subtitle “Ideas about experimental methods for the
technique which was a standard technique purpose of revealing the involvement of a person in a
incorporating relevant-irrelevant questions. He also OTHER PIONEERS IN THE FIELD OF criminal act.”
developed and introduced the following: DECEPTION These physiological recording devices include the
1. Sacrifice relevant question 1.FRANCIS GALTON (1879)-He developed the following:
2. Two earlier in life control questions, also called much acclaimed psychological test known as the 1.Plethysmograph which was known through the
exclusive earlier in life control questions, which Word Association Test. writings of Muller and Mosso
excluded the time period in which the crime/incident 2.DR. CARL GUSTAN JUNG =He improved or 2. Pneumograph
occurred with the use of time bars. developed the work of Galton. 3. Hydrosphygmograph known through the works of
3. Symtomatic question first introduced to identify 3. ALLEN BELL (1972)-He is an American inventor Lombroso
any outside issue factor that might interfere with the who developed a device called PSYCHOLOGICAL 4. Psychograph which was a device that recorded
test. STRESS EVALUATOR (PSE). involuntary trembling of the finger used by
4. Anticlimax dampening concept which form the 4. ANTON MESMER-In 1778, he was the first one Alexandria R. Luria
basis of his Zone Comparison Test. who introduced hypnotism as a method of detecting 10. ARTHUR MACDONALD=He appeared before a
5. Quantification system of chart analysis which deception. congressional hearing proposing the creation of a
permits the examiner to score numerically each 5. CHARLES E. CADY (19TH CENTURY)-A military federal laboratory to study criminals and suggested
relevant and neighboring control question tracing surgeon who recommended the use of chloroform to the use of an apparatus containing all of the elements
according to standard rules and penalties for rule solve Lincoln’s assassination including the of a modern polygraph.
violations. identification of its plotters. 11. CHRISTIAN RUCKMICK (1936)
6. Uniform chart marking which was published in a 4- 6. JAMES MACKENZIE (1892)-An English clinician He repudiated the term psychogalvanic
page article by the CH stoelting co. in 1960. These and cardiologist who described the clinical reflex because such reaction is not a reflex.
standard chart markings to be made by forensic polygraph that he had been using as an ink According to him, the psychological nature of the
psycho physiologist conducting a PVE, enable the polygraph with accurate clockwork that drives paper psychogalvanic reflex is not completely understood,
reconstruction of the test conditions for subsequent ribbon with time makers at one-fifth of a second. In thus he proposed the term electrodermal response.
independent review analysis. 1908 he authored an article describing his ink 12. OTTO LOWENSTEIN (1920)
polygraph published in the British Medical Journal. Ap psychiatrist in Bonn, Germany who
EARLY PUBLICATIONS OF POLYGRAPH 7. KROHNE AND SESEMAN-They manufactured the introduced an apparatus that could record
1. SIR JAMES MACKENZIE (1906) first clinical polygraph for Mackenzie at Cambridge simultaneously the movement of each foot, each
He is a famous heart specialist and wrote the Scientific Instrument Company. hand, and the head in all three dimensions.
INK POLYGRAPH which appeared in the British 8. VERDIN OF PARIS-Before the end of 19th
Medical Journal in 1908. century, Verdin of Paris (a manufacturer of Development of Cardio Sphygmograph
2. VITTORIO BENUSSI (1913)-the Italian society for physiological apparatus) was producing ink- 1. Angelo Mosso(1895) – studied fear and influence
psychology in Rome recording polygraphs with pneumatic tambours. to the heart. He developed the
3. RICHARD O. ARCHER (1953) However, despite the availability of ink-recording sphymomanometer and scientific cradle, used
He was the first polygraphist to record kymographs, smoked drum apparatus still remained in measuring the flow of blood while person is in
simultaneously on regular basis the chest and popular because of the reuse of the paper, and the prone position.
abdominal breathing patterns. In 1966, he founded lack of problems with ink feed in the pens.
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2. Cesare Lombroso (1836-1909) – invented hydro- 4.STIMULUS – A force or motion reaching the 16.REQUESTING PARTY – the person or persons
sphymograph (Lombroso’s Glove) that organism and excise the deceptions. In short, it is a who ask for the services of the examiner to help
measures changes in pulse and BP. He was the force that arouses the organism or any part to verify the truthfulness of a subject’s statement or
first person to employ scientific instrument for lie activity. testimony; usually the investigator of a criminal case
detection. 5.REACTION - It is an action in mental attitude under investigation.
3. William Moulton Marston (1915) - Studied evoke by external influence. 17.POLYGRAPH TEST – the specific part of the
Sphygmomanometer and became the father of 6. DECEPTION – An act of deceiving or misleading examination that
modern polygraphy. usually transpires from the moment the chart drive is turned
He dealt with the following: accompanied by lying.. on until it is turned off.
• Studied and researched on 7.DETECTION – An act of discovery existence, 18.POLYGRAPH CHART – the paper where the
Sphygmomanometer pressure or fact of something detected physiological
• Experimented on galvanometer and hidden or obscure. responses of the subject are recorded.
sphygmomanometer 8.LYING - It is the uttering or conveying falsehood 19.POLYGRAPH PURSUIT – a well designed room
• Studied Respiration or creating a false or or set of rooms, neither an office nor a laboratory,
4. Dr. John Augustus Larson (1921) misleading impression with the intention of affecting where a polygraph examination takes place.
o he was one among those who wrongfully, the acts through the opinion or affection 20.POST TEST QUESTIONING – the questioning
developed sphygmomanometer of another. It will be accomplished by verbal first that concludes the PVE either in the form of post test
(known by press in America as will use communicating by projection into marks and interview or post test interrogation.
sphyggy). symbols described in papers or by acts, or other 21.INSTRUMENTATION – the part of poly
o He developed the work of Marston means by which man may be able to get the desire examination whereby polygraph
(blood pressure), he added pulse, or result. instrument is actually used while asking questions to
respiration and skin conductivity. 9.RESPONSE - Is any activity or in division of the the subject it covers chart collection and chart
o Margaret Taylor (wife of Larson). previous activity of an organism or as effectors analysis.
She was a victim of College Hall organ, or part of the organism resulting from
Case and was the first person to be stimulation. TYPES OF LIAR
interrogated with the use of 10.SPECIFIC RESPONSE – Is any deviation from the 1. PANIC LIAR – a person who lies in order to avoid
polygraph. normal tracing of the subject. the consequences of confession.
11.NORMAL RESPONSE – A tracing on the chart 2. OCCUPATIONAL LIAR – is someone who has
DEFINITION OF TERMS: wherein the subject answered in lied for years.
1.POLYGRAPH – It is an instrument used for the irrelevant question. 3. TOURNAMENT LIAR – a person who loves to lie
recording the changes in blood pressure, pulse rate, 12. POLYGRAPH EXAMINER – One who conduct or and is excited by the challenge of not being
respiration, and skin resistance as indications of administer test. detected.
emotional disturbance especially of lying when 13.CHART OR POLYGRAMS – Refers to the 4. ETHNOLOGICAL LIAR – a person who was
questioned. composite records of the trained not to be a squeater.
2. POLYGRAPHY – Derived from the two Greek pneumograh, galvanograph, and 5. PSYCHOPATHIC – this type of liar has no
words POLY which means “many” and cardiosphygmograph tracings recorded from series conscience.
GRAPH which means “writing chart”. It is the of questions. 6. PATHOLOGICAL LIAR – a person who cannot
scientific method of detecting deception with the aid 14.SUBJECT - Refers to a person being examined. distinguish what is right from wrong. These are those
or use of polygraph. 15.LIE DETECTOR – this is the popular but persons who are mentally sick.
3. FEAR – It is an emotional response to specific misleading name of the 7. BLACK LIAR – a person who always pretends and
danger that appears beyond a person’s defensive polygraph machine. a hypocrite.
power.
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TYPES OF LIES PSYCHOLOGY – means the study of human 5. voice
1. DIRECT DENIAL – this is direct denial of the act behavior. 6. other physiological reactions
in question that creates an emotional sense of HEREDITY – is the transmission of physical and
disturbances. mental traits from parents to offspring. FORENSIC PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGY AND
2. LIE OF OMISSION – this is the type of lie that ENVIRONMENT – is the sum total of dissimulation POLYGRAPHY
people usually used because it is simple to tell. that a person acquired from the time he was Forensic psychophysiology deals with the
3. LIE OF FABRICATION – this is the most difficult conceived. relationship and application of psychophysiological
type of lie that the subject could used in an interview. detection of deception to legal matters. The use of
4. LIE OF MINIMIZATION – the type of lie in STRESS – is described as physiological response of a the modifier forensic defines the scope of
individual will accept that something has occurred body to any demand to place upon it. psychophysiology while being applied to the legal
but downplays the implication. systems. Thus, forensic psychophysiology does not
5. LIE OF EXAGGERATION – a lie often used to EMOTION – is an acute disturbance of the individual include all those systems, processes and applications
exaggerate things for the hope of obtaining some as a whole, psychological in origin involving that are integral and functional part of the
advantage. behavior, conscious, experience, and visceral psychophysiological detection of deception.
6. BENIGN OR WHITE LIE – used to maintain functioning.
harmony of friendship, harmony of the home or It was the US Department of Defense
office. The PNS has two sub-divisions: Polygraph Institute who replaced the term polygraph
7. RED LIE – this lie is common to communist 1.Somatic nervous system – controls voluntary examiner and polygraphist with the new term
countries. This is used to destroy other ideologies by motor commands, such as moving muscles to walk or FORENSIC PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGIST. It further
means of propaganda. talk. replaced the term polygraph examination or test
8. MALICIOUS LIE – a chronic lie purely used to 2.Autonomic nervous system – controls involuntary with the new term PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL
mislead justice, a pure dishonesty to destroy justice. motor commands, such as digestion and heartbeat. DETECTION OF DECEPTION EXAMINATION or
The autonomic nervous system, which acts TEST. Since the FP’s objective is to seek the truth by
SIGNS OF LYING as a self-regulating response of the body, is further verifying the truth as well as detecting deception, the
1. VERBAL CLUES divided into two branches: term veracity is a more positive and appropriate term
a. Method of responding to the question 1. Sympathetic nervous system, also called the fight than detection of deception or lie detection.
b. Length of time before giving or flight mechanism, increases alertness, stimulates
c. Repetition of question tissue, and prepares the body for quick responses to TYPES OF RESPONSE
d.Fragmented or incomplete sentences unusual situations. 1. INTERNAL RESPONSE
e. Being overly polite 2. Parasympathetic nervous system, also called the 2. EXTERNAL RESPONSE
f. Oaths rest and response system, conserves energy and
g. Use of words controls sedentary activities, such as digestion. KINDS OF INTERNAL RESPONSE
h. Assertiveness The sympathetic and parasympathetic 1. palpitation of heart may be rapid or slow
i. Inconsistencies nervous systems act opposite from each other. When 2. dryness of the mouth
j. Slip of the tongue a person is under the influence of physical stimulus or 3. lump in the throat
k.Tirades emotional provocation the sympathetic branch 4. sinking feeling in the fit of stomach
l. Pauses dominates and over-rides the parasympathetic
m. Speed of speech component. In effect, there will be changes in the: KINDS OF EXTERNAL RESPONSE
2. NON-VERBAL CLUES 1. pulse 1. facial expression:
2. blood pressure a. paling, blushing, profuse sweating on the forehead
PSYCHOLOGICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL 3. breathing eyebrows or chin
ASPECTS 4. response time b. twitching at the corner of the lips
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c. excessive winking, movement of vein at the vent, limiting screw, pen cradle and pen centering pressure changes and passed into the recording unit.
temple control. Volume changes in the chest caused by The sphygmomanometer indicates the air pressure
d. dilation of the eyes, protrusion of the eyeball, breathing transmitted by the chest assemble to the present in the system in millimeters of mercury. The
and elevation of the upper eyelid recording unit. These activate the bellows which vent provides the means by which air in the system
move forward and backward pushing the crankshaft. can be released. The resonance control provided the
2. Postural reaction: The crankshafts apply a torque to the center shaft means for reducing or increasing the amount of air
a. inability of the subject to look straight upon which the pen cradle is attached. The forward pressure to reach the tambour unit and thus reduce
b. excessive activity of the Adam’s apple and backward right movement is recorded on the or increase the amplitude of pen excursions. A
c. dryness of the mouth chart paper. centering control is provided for adjusting the
d. fidgeting with the fingers tapping or Pneumograph component records changes of tracing so that the blood pressure pattern would be
drumming on the chair or table breathing of the subject consists of transducers and on the guideline. The recording unit records the
e. peculiar monotone of the voice pneumograph tubes which are fastened around the pulse rate and blood pressure changes on the chart
f. exhibiting a state of uneasiness subject’s abdominal and thoracic part of the body. paper through a 5 inch recording pen.
1. Pneumograph BLOOD PRESSURE – refers to the pressure
PARTS AND FUNCTIONS OF POLYGRAPH - Records breathing changes of subject. of circulating blood against the walls of the arteries, it
MACHINE AND ITS ATTACHMENT - Is composed of: is an important diagnosis index, especially of
✓ LIE DETECTOR – is an instrument that Pneumo 1 (thoracic part) – chest assembly circulating function.
monitors a person’s physiological reactions. Pneumo 2 (abdomen) – abdominal assembly
✓ POLYGRAPH RECORD – changes in blood - Tracings are located at 1st and 2nd lines of tracings. TWO POINTS OF BLOOD PRESSURE
pressure, pulse rate, pulse strength, galvanic - Note: inhalation ad expiration is one respiratory a. HIGH POINT – called “systole” at which the heart
skin reflex, and upper and lower breathing cycle. contracts to empty its blood into the circulation.
patterns. b. LOW POINT – called “diastole” at which the
✓ SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM (SNS) – NATURE OF PNEUMOGRAPH PATTERN heart relaxes to FN with blood returned by the
or “self-defense”, a mechanism when the The respiratory pattern on the chart is the circulation.
questions ask on the test. pneumograph tracing which composed of expiration BLOOD PRESSURE OF A NORMAL PERSON
and inspiration stroke with the usual amplitude of ½ 80/45 – infant
Kinds of Polygraph to ¾ inch. It is a combination of the expiration and 120/80 – at the age 30
1. Analog inspiration strokes that comprises one complete 140/85 – at the age 40
2. Computerized respiratory cycle. The pneumograph tracing is
classified as either normal or abnormal. NATURE OF CARDIOSPHYGMOGRAPH
MAJOR PARTS OF POLYGRAPH MACHINE The sensitivity of the heart during questioning
1. PNEUMOGRAPH COMPONENT 2. CARDIOSPHYGMOGRAPH COMPONENT is recorded as shown in cardio-tracing. Cardio pen is
The pneumograph component is used to The cardiosphygmograph component is used recorded the systolic stroke, diastolic stroke. It has
record the changes in breathing of the subject. It is to record changes of blood pressure and pulse rate of 72-80 beats per minute. Pneumograph section is the
made up of two units: (1) the pneumograph chest the subject. It is composed of the blood pressure cuff most sensitive of all the three sections of the
assembly which is composed of the rubber assembly, pump bulb assembly, instrument.
convoluted tube and beaded chain tubing. The sphygmomanometer vent, resonance control, and the a. Records heart beats, Blood Pressure and Pulse
pneumograph tube considerably expands and recording unit. The blood pressure cuff assembly Rate.
contracts as the subject’s breathe. (2) The when attached to the right arm of a subject transmit b.Cuff is used attached around the subject’s arm and
pneumograph recording unit consists of a frame impulse from the brachial artery. The pump bulb must be centered on the Brachial Artery about 1
brass bellows, crankshaft, center shaft, adjustable assembly inflates the system and a hose connects the inch above the elbow.
fulcrum, bearing with adjusting screw pen travel, blood pressure cuff through which the blood
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c. If my BP is 120/90, my 120 is the systolic and 90 is 4. KYMOGRAPH COMPONENT 9. Paper storage compartment – holds the spare
the diastolic. The kymograph component is sometimes rolls of chart paper.
d.Tracing on chart paper is located at bottom part. referred as a CHART DRIVE MODULE, time at the rate 10. Galvanic skin response module – recording
e.Pen is 5 inhes long. of six (6) inches per minute. A chart roll is about 100 part of GSR channel.
feet long, 6 inches with ½ inch margin apart. 11. Multi-function module – selectable recording
3. GALVANOGRAPH COMPONENT Kymograph component is a motor that pulls can be used as:
The galvanograph component is used to or drives the chart paper under the recording pen a. electronic pneumo-channel
record the skin resistance of the subject to a very simultaneously at the rate of 6 to 12 inches per b. electronic cardio channel
small amount of electricity. It is composed of the minute. It is also a chart or paper feed mechanism. c. cardio activity monitor
finger or palm electrode assembly, amplier unit, and The chart must travel at a uniform speed to facilitate d. cardio or tech or other accessories
the galvano-meter recorded unit. The finger valid interpretations. The parts composed of the 12. Mechanical cardio channel – recording part of
electrode connects the subject to the instrument in paper well writing table, paper guide rails, paper mechanical cardio module.
such a manner that his skin resistance is a circuit roller assembly with sprockets, chart feed switch, AC 13. AC power receptacle – power cords connects
element of the polygraph. It consists of finger power input connector, and all 5 volt GC cycle here, international standard.
electrode plate with retainer bonds and connecting synchronous motor. 14. Power switch and circuit breaker – applies
plug. The amplifier unit working on the “Wheatstone Chart paper is driven fast the recording power to instrument.
bridge” principle detects any changes in the skin penshaft at uniform speed of 6 inches per minute. 15. Chart drive roller lever – lifts chart drive roller
resistance of the subject, amplifier it furnish current Chart rolls is about 100 feet holes spaced ¼ inch for paper changes.
to operate the galvanometer. The recording unit of interval and vertical line at 1/10 inch intervals with 16. Power analyzer – automatically indicates
the galvanometer converts the electrical energy to heavy line at ½ inch interval. Each ½ inch division whether wall outlets is properly wired.
the mechanical energy. Electric current flowing across the paper represents 5 seconds of time. Pulse 17. Stimulus marker – marks significant events on
through the galvanometer causes the mechanical rate per minute may then be computed by the chart.
movement of a 7 inch recording pen. The overall multiplying of the beats counted is one division by 12 18. Sphygmomanometer dial – read operating
function of the galvanograph is to detect changes in pressure of cardio channels.
the skin resistance of the subject, amplify this OTHER PARTS OF POLYGRAPH MACHINE 19. Pneumo 1 – pneumatic connection for upper
changes, and record it on the chart. 1. Pen lifter – raises or lowers pens to 3 positions. (thoracic)
Galvanograph 2. Program pacer – programmable cueing device 20. Pneumo 2 – pneumatic connection for lower
a. Records the skin resistance of subject in small for question and answering spacing. (abdominal)
amount of electricity. 3. Paper tear bar – provides cutting edge for 21. Cuff – pneumatic connection for cardio channel
b.Finger electrodes are attached with the index and convenient removal of charts. subject cufftubing
ring finger (opposite hand where the BP Cuff is 4. Foam pen hold down – keeps pen in place when 22. Pump – pneumatic connection for hand pump
attached) instrument is being transferred. used to inflate subject cuff.
c.Tracing is located 3rdfrom top on the Chart. 5. Attached compartment – storage for all forms 23. Mechanical cardio switch – disengages
d.Has the longest pen of 4-7 inches. and supplies. mechanical cardio module from pneumatic system for
6. Accessory storage and optional calibration low pressure electronic cardio operation.
NATURE OF GALVANOGRAPH checking fixture slightly smaller in executive ultra
Galvo pen is much longer than pneumo or scribe. FOUR PHASES IN CONDUCTING POLYGRAPH
cardio pens, it runs about four (4) to seven (7) 7. Subject connections – stylish grouping provides EXAMINATION
seconds. It is either manual or self centering. Eighty neat,professional appearance. 1. Initial interview with the investigator handling
percent effective than the manual or normal setting, 8. Mechanical pneumo module – recording part of the case. These includes:
30 percent of accurate chart interpretation is lost. mechanical pneumo channel. a. obtaining and evaluating facts

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b. determining the areas of the subject need to be 3.The conduct of instrumental test with the 1. The room is spacious for two persons.
asked subject 2. It must be well ventilated.
c. the investigator must furnish the examiner of the After the pre-test interview the examiner 3. It must be well lighted.
following documents: should proceed to place the attachment of polygraph 4. It must not be decorated.
1. sworn statement of suspect/s, witnesses and components to the subject such as the pneumograph, 5. It must be 90 percent sound proof.
victims cardiosphygmograph, and galvanograph
2. incident or spot report components. Review all the questions being CONDITIONS OF THE SUBJECT TO BE
3.background investigation of suspects, witnesses prepared with the subject and determine his answer CONSIDERED FIT DURING THE TEST:
and victims for every question asked. Although questions the 1. The subject must have a good night sleep prior to
4.rough sketch or pictures of the crime scene and subject as briefly as possible, the examiner should the test.
other facts such as: discourage any lengthy comments or statements by 2. The subject must refrain from smoking for at least
a. specific articles and exact amount of money stolen the subject respecting the matter or incident under 2 hours prior to the test.
b.peculiar aspect of the offense or any strange out investigation or his disclaimer of responsibility for it. 3. The subject must not be interrogated for a prolong
c. the exact time, date, and place of the offense was Test instruction must be given to the subject. Any period prior to the test.
committed movement of the body of the subject during the test 4. The subject must not drink any liquor a night
d. known facts about the suspect’s movement will affect the tracing results on the chart paper. The before the test.
e. the facts indicates any connection between the answer of the subject of all questions is limited to yes 5. The subject must not use prohibited drugs prior to
suspects, victims, and witnesses or no, in order to avoid distortion tracing on the the test.
f. exact type of weapons, tools or firearms used chart.
g. results of other laboratory test CONDITIONS THAT INVALIDATE THE
h. unpublished facts of the offense known only by the 4. Post test interview or interrogation POLYGRAPH EXAMINATION
victim, suspects, and the investigator on case This phase includes all consideration that 1. Extreme nervousness or emotional tension.
bear on the examination just after the instrument is 2. Phyiological abnormalities like excessive high or
2. The conduct of Pre-test Interview turn off. If the polygraph test indicates deception the low blood pressure, heart diseases, respiratory
The examiner interview the subject prior to examiner will then proceed to conduct short disorder or any painful ailment.
the test is considerable importance both for the interrogation. The purpose of which is to obtain 3. Mental abnormalities.
purpose of conditioning the subject for examination confession. However, if the polygraph indicated the 4. Unresponsiveness due to lack of emotional
and also to provoke and observe indications of guilt subject is innocent, the examiner must release him response, extreme fatigue or mental exhaustion, or
or innocence which are often forthcoming. The time cordially and thank for his cooperation. If the subject effects of alcohol or drugs.
interval for the pretest interview will usually range is cooperative, just to say thank you for your
from 20 to 30 minutes. cooperation. TEST QUESTIONS
The phraseology of the test question is an
PREPARATION OF THE SUBJECT FOR THE TEST PURPOSES: extremely important aspect of the examination. The
1. The appraisal of the subject’s constitutional rights. a. To clarify the findings. questions, and every word used in the questions,
2. Obtain subject’s consent to undergo polygraph b. To learn if there are any other reasons for the must be unambiguous, unequivocal, and thoroughly
test. subject’s responding to a relevant question, other understandable by the subject.
3. The taking of the personal data of the subject. than the knowledge of the crime.
4. Determine his or her suitability as a subject. c. To obtain additional information and an admission TYPES OF TESTS:
5. Evaluating the psychological preparations. for law enforcement purposes, if the results suggest 1. GENERAL QUESTION TEST
6. Informing the subject of his involvement with the deception. General question test is a question consists of
case. a series of relevant and irrelevant questions ask in a
IDEAL POLYGRAPH EXAMINATION ROOM
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plan order. In general, questions are so arrange as to GENERAL TYPES OF QUESTIONS FOR 3. CONTROL QUESTIONS
make answer by yes or no. POLYGRAPH EXAMINATION These are questions unrelated to the matter
2. PEAK OF TENSION TEST 1. RELEVANT QUESTIONS under investigation but are of similar nature although
The subject may be given this test if he is not These are questions pertaining to the issue less serious as compared to those relevant questions
yet informed of the details of the offense for which he under investigation. They must be unambiguous, under investigation. If someone is being investigated
is being interrogated by the investigator, or by other unequivocal and understandable to the subject. They for murder by shooting, the control questions may be
persons or from other sources like print media. must all be related to one issue or one criminal act. It “Have you ever killed someone with a gun?”, etc.
3. GUILT COMPLEX TEST is equally important to limit the number of relevant D. INSIDE ISSUE CONTROL QUESTION
This test is applied when the response to questions to avoid discomfort to the subject. This type of question designed to elicit a response
relevant and control questions are similar in degree Relevant questions must be very specific to obtain an from the innocent or truthful subject who is fearful
and consistency and in a way that the examiner accurate result. that an error will be made on his test.
cannot determine whether the subject is telling the
truth or not. TYPES OF RELEVANT QUESTIONS
4. SILENT ANSWER TEST A. WEAK RELEVANT QUESTIONS-It is a question 4. SYMPTOMATIC QUESTION
This test is conducted in the same manner as concerning some secondary element of the crime or It is designed to determine whether the
when relevant, irrelevant, and control questions are problem being considered. It is the type of question subject is truly convinced that the FP will not ask an
asked, but the subject is instructed to answer the that elicits response from a subject with guilty un reviewed question during the PV test. It is also
questions silently, to himself, without making any knowledge or partial involvement in the crime under designed to determine whether there is something
verbal response. This test is effective when the investigation. else, the subject is afraid the FP will ask him even if
subject’s verbal response causes distortion in the Example: Do you know who took the 50,000 the FP promised not to ask question about outside
tracing such as sniff or clearing of the throat. It is a pesos from Ben’ Drawer? issues. It is used to detect and evaluate the presence
confirmatory test. It contains the same questions from B. STRONG RELEVANT QUESTIONS of outside issues that may suppress to relevant
GQT, CNT, SRT and MQT. The subject is instructed to It is defined as verbal stimulus of primary questions. This is also known as outside issue
think of his/her answer without saying it, process is important projected in the form of a question question. It was Cleve Backster who developed this
called “Sub Vocalization” which overcome a psychological excitement level type of polygraphic question.This are asked to
5. NUMBER TEST OR CARD TEST (Psychological and causes pneumograph, cardiosphygmograph, and determine OUTSIDE FACTORS which is not under
Test) galvanograph tracings changes from the subject’s investigation.
To check the possible deliberate distortion physiological norms.It is a direct question having an 5. EVIDENCE CONNECTING QUESTION
when the chosen number is ask. To obtain a chart intense and specific relationship to the crime or It is designed to stimulate the guilty subject
wherein the subject is not under stress. problem being considered. It is designed or and focus his attention on the probability of
6.SPOT RESPONDER OR ZONE COMPARISON constructed to test for direct involvement only. incriminating proof that would tend to establish his
TEST Example: Did you steal the missing 50,000 guilt. intended to arouse the subject in incriminating
This is a test wherein the subject’s blood pesos? proof that would tend to establish his guilt. Ex: Was
pressure tracing on his first and third test will contain 2. IRRELEVANT QUESTIONS the Cal .46 found at the crime scene yours?
a response to the same relevant question, but only to It is also called as neutral or normal question. 6. KNOWLEDGE QUESTION
that one question on each test. To determine the These are questions which have no bearing to the This question is designed or begun to prove
responsiveness of the subject to crucial question on case under investigation. The question may refer to whether the subject possess information regarding
spot responses. the subject’s age, educational attainment, marital the identity of the offender, the location of evidences
7. MIX QUESTION status, citizenship, occupation, etc. The examiner or items of secondary element of the case. used to
To compare the degree of reaction between asks these types of questions to ascertain the know whether the subject has knowledge on info
control and relevant question. subject’s normal pattern of response by eliminating related to the crime. Ex: Do you know the name of
the feeling of apprehension. the suspect?
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8. CONTROL OR COMPARISON QUESTIONS – 2Q – Sacrifice Relevant - Regarding that stolen 5. It is an accurate as the examiner is competent.
are NOT RELATED to the crime under investigation watch and gold coin collection do you intend to 6. The test will not be given until enough facts of the
BUT SIMILAR in nature to the crime under answer truthfully each questions about that? case have been established to permit an examination
investigation. 3Q – Symptomatic - Are you completely convinced to prepare a complete sets of suitable question.
• Primary Control Questions – must be based that I will not ask you question on this test that has 7. A test will not be given without the voluntary
on experience of the subject within 3-5 years already between reviewed? consent of the subject.
and must be based on known lie. 4Q – Probable Lie (Control) - Can you remember 8. No indication will be given to any person or place
Ex: Before attaining the age18, have you stealing anything at all before you were 18 years old? in any report that a person will be considered guilty
physically hurt someone? 5Q – Strong Relevant - Did you steal the bracelet? because he refuse to take the test.
• Secondary Control Questions – the same 6Q – Probable Lie (Control) - Other than what you 9. A test will not be given until the accusation have
with primary CQ, must NOT be related to the told me about, have you ever stolen other things? been explained to the subject.
crime under investigation, that covers the 7Q – Strong Relevant - Did you steal the watch of 10. No attempt to use polygraph for mental or
CURRENT situation. Mary? physical evaluation of any person.
Ex: Have you ever physically assaulted someone 8Q – Symptomatic - Is there something else you are 11. No examination can be conducted to an unfit
in your life? afraid that I will ask you a question about; even subject.
9. SKY QUESTIONS – used to verify the previous though I told you I would not?
chart and detects indirect participation of subject. 9Q – Guilt Complex - Did you steal the computer? THE EXAMINER, INVESTIGATOR & SUBJECT
S – Suspect 10Q – Weak Relevant - Do you known the name Polygraph Examiner is also called
K – Knowledge brand of that stolen computer? ➢ Polygraphist
Y – You 11Q – S (Suspect) - Do you SUSPECT anyone in ➢ Forensic Psychophysiologist
Supplementary Tests particular of having stolen the watch of Mary? ➢ Lie detector specialist
1.Yes Test (YT) - is administered when there was a 12Q – K (Know) - Do you KNOW for sure who stole ➢ Lie Detector (misnomer but is being accepted
distortion on the General Question Test (GQT). In this the watch of Mary? internationally)
test the subject is instructed to answer YES to all 13Q – Y (You) - Do YOU steal the watch of Mary?
questions. Axciton International Academy (AIA)
2. Guilt Complex Test (GCT) - consists of Color Zones Identifying BZCT Type of Questions The school for Polygraphists founded by Capt.
questions concerning fabricated crimes BUT one a. RED zone- Strong Relevant Question Clarence D. Lee.
question is a REAL QUESTION that is all about the b. GREEN zone - Probable Lie (Control) Question The school is accredited by the American
crime committed by the subject. c. BLACK zone - Symptomatic (Outside issues) Polygraphists Association (APA)
3. Peak of Tension Test (PTT) - is a set of questions Question Certified by the American Association of Police
in which ONE of the questions is related to the crime d. YELLOW zone- Irrelevant and Sacrifice Relevant Polygraphists (AAPP).
committed. The question selected (ONE ) should not e. ORANGE zone - Weak Relevant Question
have been reviewed by the subject. Reasons why polygraph exam result is not
3. Backster Zone Comparison Test (BZCT) - It is LIMITATIONS OF POLYGRAPH accepted as evidence by most countries:
based on the principles of psychological set. Also 1. It is an invaluable investigative aid but never a ➢ Qualifications of the polygraph examiners are
provides constant monitoring of subjects reactivity. substitute for an investigation. not standardized
Designed to disclose outside issues. 2. It is not a lie detector, it is scientific diagnostic ➢ No standard instrumentation.Not 100%
instrument. accurate
Sample Questions of Backster Zone Comparison 3. It does not determine facts; it records responses to ➢ Not scientific
Test (BZCT) that which the subject knows to be true.
1Q – Irrelevant - Is your first name Jonathan? 4. It record responses which the subject knows to be The “Subject” of Polygraph Test
truth. The subject
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 ➢ Must NOT smoke 2 HOURS prior to the test. IS THE RESULT OF POLYGRAPH EXAMINATION Outside noise ......................... OSN
➢ Must have a good sleep of at least 5 HRS ADMISSIBLE IN COURT? Sigh .................................. S
before the test. In most cases, polygraph evidence is used Sniff ................................. SN
➢ If pregnant, the examiner shall decide during pre-trial investigation and preparations rather Sneeze ................................ SZ
whether to continue the examination or not. than during the actual trial. Burp .................................. B
➢ If Under Medication, the examiner will list the In the O.J. Simpson, civil trial, the results of a Yawn .................................. Y
medicines and illness, to be consulted with polygraph were admitted into evidence. This Deep breathing ........................ DB
Physicians to determine possible effects to established a precedent across United States Subject laugh ......................... L
physiological responses of the subject. allowing polygraph examinations in civil trials such Breathing Instruction ................. Bi
➢ Must be free from Alcoholic influence. as divorce cases. Repeat the question ................... R
➢ Conditions of the subject In the Philippine setting, polygraph Paper jump ............................ PJ
➢ Must have a good sleep prior to test. examination using the polygraph is not fully Ending ................................ XX
➢ Must NOT be interrogated for prolonged developed. The following are the reasons why at this
period of time prior to the test. stage, results of polygraph examination are not Legal Aspects of Polygraphy
➢ Must NOT be physically and mentally admissible as evidences in the Philippine trial courts. Admissibility of Result in Other Countries
tortured prior to the test. 1. Qualifications of the polygraph examiners are not ✓ Most states of US do not allow the
➢ Must NOT be suffering from any temporary standardized. admissibility of Polygraph Result in Court.
illness prior to the test. 2. Polygraph examination using the polygraph is not ✓ In England, the admissibility of polygraph
➢ Must NOT be hungy standardized. result lies on the trial judge.
3. No standard instrumentation. ✓ In the Philippines, polygraph result can be
OBJECTIVES OF POLYGRAPH EXAMINATION: admissible if BOTH parties and Trial Judge
1. Ascertain if the subject telling the truth. CHART MARKING allows it.
2. Obtain leads to the facts of the offense, the location Through the proper use of test graph marking Generally – most countries’ courts do not allow
of stolen goods and whereabouts of wanted person. will be able to evaluate the result of polygraph chart admissibility of polygraph result.
3. Compare conflicting statement. and without marking it is impossible to evaluate the Frye v. US
4. Verify statements. chart or to arrive at any conclusion. The tracing have ➢ The court ruled in this case that polygraph
5.Obtain the facts after the test indicates that a person no meaning unless you know what occurred at its result is inadmissible since it is not 100%
lied or tried to cover what he knew. point throughout the chart. Standardize chart even reliable and scientific.
6.Recover valuable information from reluctant do were not present when the chart ran could still COUNTRIES THAT ALLOW POLYGRAPH TEST AS
witnesses. evaluated by examiner. PART OF INVESTIGATION
7. Eliminate innocent suspects. CHART MARKING SYMBOLS AND SIGNS (Prof. Ray Bull, from insidetime issue Sept 2007)
Beginning ............................. X 1. Belgium
PRINCIPAL USES OF POLYGRAPH Stimulus .............................. // 2. Canada
1. It is an aid to the investigator. Yes ................................... + 3. Israel
2. It speeds the process investigation. No .................................... – 4. Japan
3. It eliminates innocent subjects. Subject fail to answer ................ no sign 5. Turkey
4. The investigator could concentrate to one subject Subject talk .......................... T 6. Singapore
to determine the truth of deception. Talking instruction ................... Ti 7. South Korea
5. Pre-employment screening. Coughing .............................. C 8. Mexico
6. Personnel test for honesty. Movement .............................. M 9. Pakistan
Mechanical Adjustment ................. Arrow 10. Philippines
Clearing of throat .................... CT 11. Taiwan
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12. Thailand =Ordinary Witness- to testify on matters on his own – Blood-refrigeration, sealed bottle
13. USA perception. Hearsay evidence is not admissible in container, addition of chemical
Polygraph Test Accuracy court except Dying Declaration preservative
➢ 98% accurate because it depends on different =The declaration of a dying person , made under the – Stains (blood or semen) –drying ,
factors. consciousness of an impending death, maybe placing in a sealed container
received in a criminal case wherein his death is the – Poison-sealed container
subject of inquiry as evidence of the cause and
surrounding circumstances of such death. Deception Detection
c.Expert witness – Devices which record the psycho-
=Sec 42, Rule 130, Rules of Court-Opinion Rule- physiological response
FORENSIC MEDICINE General Rule- The opinion of a witness is not – Use of a Polygraph or lie detector
admissible, except as indicated in the following machine
INTRODUCTION section. – Use of the Word Association test
This hand out is intended to familiarize the =Sec 43, Rule 130, Rules of Court- Expert Evidence- – Use of Physiologic stress evaluator
participants with the principles of medicine as The opinion of a witness regarding a question of
applied to law, and to correlate the same to other science, art or trade, when he is skilled therein, Use of Drugs that try to inhibit the inhibitor
scientific investigation procedures loading to the maybe received in evidence – Administration of truth serum- uses
solution of crimes. • Experimental Evidence Hyoscine Hydrobromide
=A medical witness maybe allowed by the court to – Narcosynthesis/ Narcoanalyis
Legal Medicine-branch of medicine which deals confirm his allegations or as a corroborative proof to – Sodium Pentothal or Sodium
with the application of medical knowledge to the an opinion he previously stated. Amytal
purposes of law and in the administration of justice • Physical Evidence – Intoxication with Alcohol
Criminalistics- is the application of sciences such as =Corpus delicti evidence- objects or substances Word Association Test
physics, chemistry, medicine and other biological which may be part of the body of the crime – List of stimulus or non-stimulus words are
sciences in crime detection and investigation • Associative evidence- links the suspect to read to the subject who is instructed to
Law-rule of conduct, just, obligatory, laid by the the crime answer as quickly as possible. The answers to
legitimate power for the common observance and • Tracing evidence- assists the investigator in questions maybe yes or no
benefit locating the suspect – Questions with reference to his/her name,
Forensic-denotes anything belonging to the court or civil status, nationality---- answers quickly
legal proceedings, or something fitted for legal or Methods of Preserving Evidence – Questions with relation to the crime-----
public argumentations – Photography, audio,videotape, xerox delays answers
Legal-that which pertains to law – Sketching Psychological Stress Evaluator
Medicine-science and art dealing with prevention, – Description – When a person speaks, there are audible
cure and alleviation of disease. – Skin lesion-kind, measurement voices frequencies and superimposed on
Jurisprudence- practical science which investigates – Penetrating wound-kind, shape, these are inaudible frequency modulations
the nature, origin, development and functions of law location, direction which are products of minute oscillations of
– Hymenal laceration- location, degree the muscles of voice mechanism
Types of Medical Evidence – The PSE detects, measures and graphically
a.Autoptic or real evidence Special methods displays the voice modulations that we cannot
=An evidence made known or addressed to the – Whole body –Embalming hear. When a person is lying this frequencies
senses of the court. – Soft tissues (skin, muscles, visceral tend to disappear
b.Testimonial Evidence organs)-10% formalin solution Administration of the truth serum
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 • Serum is a misnomer 150-300 mg%-----------Lose of muscular coordination, - Icard`s test
• Hyoscine hydrobromide is used to depress inability to walk properly and coordinate other - Opening of small artery
the immune system body movement, disorientation - Diaphanous test
• Administered by a qualified physician 300 mg%-------------------Stuporous, in coordination, - Application of heat
• Not admissible in court lose of sphincter control - Palpation of pulse
Intoxicating with Alcohol 400 mg%--------------------Anesthetic level Cessation in Respiration
• In vino veritas-In wine there is truth Diagnostic points for Drunkeness - No person can hold breath for a period not
• The person whose statement is to be taken is • Alcoholic smell of the breath or in the vomitus longer than 3 ½ minutes
allowed to take alcoholic beverages to almost • Dry furred tongue or excessive salivation - Winslow Test
intoxication. Then the investigator starts • Irregular behavior
questioning. • Congestion of the conjunctivae Cooling of the Body/Algor Mortis
Absorption and Distribution of Alcohol • Hesistancy or thickness of speech with • Fall of temperature of 15-20 degrees
• Concentration and total quantity of alcohol impaired articulation Fahrenheit(-5 to -6 degrees celcius)---------
taken • Tremor or error of coordination or orientation certain sign of death
• The nature of the food in the stomach and • Presence of alcohol in the urine or blood • Post mortem Caloricity-rise in the
intestines. Fatty foods makes absorption • History of alcohol intake temperature of the body after death due to
slower as compared with sugar and other • Romberg`s test- let the subject stand straight rapid and early putrefactive changes or some
carbohydrates and proteins. with heels together and with eyes close dor at internal changes
• Volume of gastric content- the presence of least 1 minute – Occurs first 2 hours after death
sufficient amount of food and water in the • If not drunk will not sway to the front
stomach may delay the rate of absorption or back Factors delaying Cooling
• Diseased condition of the stomach and • If drunk- unstable, swaying • Acute pyrexial diseases
intestine AMA and NSC of US recommends the ff: • Sudden death in good health
• Gastritis causes slower absorption 0.05%----------un influenzed • Obesity
• Optimum concentration in beverages 0.05-0.10%-------Under the influence • Death from Asphyxia
between 10-20% is rapidly absorbed. 0.10-0.15%-------Drunk and unfit to drive • Death of middle age
• thick clothing
Clinical Signs and Symptoms in Relation to blood Kinds of Death • Small room
alcohol level 1. Somatic or Clinical death- complete persistent • Warm surroundings
10 mg%---------------Pleasant Clearing of the head cessation of vital function
20 mg%---------------Physical feeling of well-being heart, lungs, brain Factors Accelerating Cooling
50 mg%---------------Individual feels on top of the 2. Molecular/Cellular Death- life in individual cells • Diseases that are not related to fever
world and has the wisdom of Solomon and ,3-6 hours after Somatic death • Long standing disease
the talkativeness of Senator Claghorn 3. Apparent death/ State of Suspended Animation- • Leanness
100mg%---------------“Under the influence”,mental Transient loss of consciousness • Extremes of ages
confusion. drowsiness, emotional instability, Temporary cessation of vital functions • Thin clothing/naked
decreased inhibitions • Large room
150 mg%-----------------All individuals are Signs of Death • Cool surroundings
INTOXICATED. Deterioration in performance and Cessation of Heart Action and Circulation
skills - Certain if there is no heart action for 5 Cooling of the body
minutes Chemical method (Schourup`s formula)
- Magnus test
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 • CSF examined for concentration of lactic acid • Starts at the muscles of the neck and the still inside the blood vessels and is still in the
and amino acid lower jaw a to the chest, arms and lower fluid form, change of position leads to
limbs formation of the lividity in another place
How long a person has been dead from the • Whole body stiffens at 12 hours after death • Diffusion lividity- blood has coagulated inside
Cooling of the body? 3. Stage of Secondary Flaccidity the blood vessels or has diffused into the
• When the body temp is normal at the time =Flaccid, alkaline, no longer capable of responding tissues of the body; any change in the
of death, the average rate of fall of the to mechanical stimuli position will not change lividity
temperature during the first 2 hours is ½ =Does not respond to mechanical or electrical • Importance of Cadaveric Lividity
the diff of the body temp and the air. stimulus • One of the signs of death
During the next 2 hours, ½ the previous Dissolution of muscle proteins • Determines if the position of the body
rate and ½ the previous rate in the has been changed
succeeding 2 hours Rigor Mortis • It determines how long the person
• 3-6 hours after death has been dead
Changes in the Muscle • All the muscles of the body • Color of the lividity may indicate the
1. Stage of Primary Flaccidity (post-mortem • Natural phenomenon cause of death
muscular irritability) • Approximate time of death • Asphyxia- lividity is dark
a.Muscles are relaxed and capable of contracting Cadaveric Spasm • CO poisoning- bright pink
• Immediately after Death • Hydrocyanic acid-bright red
ANTE-MORTEM CLOT POST-MORTEM CLOT • Group of muscles, asymmetrical • Hemorrhage, anemia-less
• May or may not appear marked
Firm in consistency Soft in consistency
• Useful in the determination of the nature of • Phosphorus- dark brown
Surface of the blood Surface of the blood vessel the crime • Potassium chlorate, Potassium
vessel raw after the clot is is smooth and healthy after Changes in the Blood bichromate-chocolate or
removed the clots are removed a. Coagulation of the blood coffee brown
Clot homogenous in Clots are stripped off in Cessation--- clotting Autolytic Changes after death
construction, it cannot be layers – Clotting is accelerated by infectious • Autolysis- enzymes breaks down tissues
stripped into layers fever and delayed by asphyxia, • e.g dead fetus after sometime-maceration
poisoning by opium, hydrocyanic • Putrefaction- breaking down of the complex
Clot with uniform color Clot with distinct layer acid or CO poisoning proteins into simpler components associated
– Blood remain fluid after death for 6-8 with foul smelling gasses and accompanied
hours by change in the color of the body
when stimulated
b.Pupils are dilated, sphincters are relaxed
Special Modification of Putrefaction
c.Extremities flexed, lower jaw falls, eyeball looses
Post mortem Lividity/ Cadaveric Lividity or Livor • Mummification
its tension
Mortis – Dehydration of the body which results
d.Electrical stimuli-irritability
• Starts 3-6 hours after death in shivering and preservation of the
e.Lasts 3-6 hours
• Blood begins to accumulate on the dependent body
portions • Saponification
*Amount of muscle proteins same as in living
• Dull or purplish in color – Condition wherein the fatty tissues of
2.Stage of Post-mortem Rigidity /Rigor Mortis
Types of Lividity the body are transformed to soft,
• 3-6 hours after death up to 24-36 hours
• Hypostatic lividity- blood merely gravitates brownish white substance known as
into the dependent portions of the body but is adipocere
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 Adipocere formation – Factors Immediate (Primary) Cause of death- cases when
• This little baby died and was buried a few – Size of last meal trauma or disease kill quickly that there is no
years prior to this exhumation. Almost all • Light meal-1 1/2-2 hours opportunity for sequelae to develop
flesh has been converted to adipocere. The • Medium sized meal-3-4 hours
infant's tiny coffin is in the background. In the • Heavy meal 4-6 hours Proximate (Secondary) Cause of Death-The injury
lower right corner a few ribs are seen, – Kind of meal- liquid are more rapidly was survived for a sufficient period which permitted
extracted from the tiny corpse. On the table, moved than semi-solid and the latter the development of a sequelae
an arm (or two). Under the proper conditions, than solid food Mechanism of death- physiologic derangement or
infants' small, chubby bodies will nearly – Personal variation biological disturbance incompatible with life which is
completely turn into adipocere as they initiated by the cause of death
possess little muscle and few putrefying The head of the meal ordinarily reaches the distal Ex. hemorrhagic shock, Respiratory depression
bacteria. Very sad, poignant, and ghastly. ileum and cecum between 6-8 hours. Manner of death-explanation on how the cause of
• MARBOLIZATION-prominence of death came into being
superficial veins with reddish discoloration • Presence of live fleas in the clothings in
during the process of decomposition, drowning cases Pathological Classification of the Causes of Death
“marbled” appearance on the abdomen, root – A flea can only survive for • Death from Syncope-sudden cessation of the
of the neck and the shoulders. approximately 24 hours submerged action of the heart and circulation ex.
in water Coronary Disease
Duration of Death • Post mortem clotting and decoagulation of • Death from Asphyxia-condition in which the
• Presence of Rigor Mortis blood supply of Oxygen to the blood has been
– Sets in 2-3 hours – Blood clots within the blood vessels 6- reduced below working levels ex. hanging
– Fully developed at 12 hours 8 hours after death • Death from Coma-state of unconsciousness
– Lasts for 18-36 hours then disappears – Decoagulation of blood occurs at the with insensibility of the pupils and inability to
• Livor mortis early stage of decomposition swallow resulting from the arrest of the
– Develops 3-6 hours after death • Chemical changes in the Cerebrospinal functions of the brain ex. Brain lesions
– Small petechiae red spots that fluid 15 hours following death Medico-legal Classification of the Causes of
coalesce and forms bigger areas – Lactic acid increases from 15mg- Death
• Onset of decomposition 200mg Natural death- without outside force
– 24-48 hours after death – Non protein nitrogen increases from Violent death- with outside FORCE
– Watery, foul smelling froth coming 15-40mg Accidental death
out of the nostrils and mouth, softness – Amino acid rises from 1-12% Negligent death
of the body and presence of • Presence or absence of soft tissues in Parricidal death
crepitation when pressure is applied skeletal remains Infanticidal death
on the skin – Normally, soft tissues of the body Murder
• Entomology of the Cadaver disappears 1-2 years after burial Homicidal Death
– Flies undergo larval, pupal and adult
stages Medico-legal Classification of the Cause of Death DECOMPOSITION
– Eggs hatch in 24 hours Cause of death- the injury, disease or the ◼ Autolysis: - aseptic breakdown
– Maggots are seen 48 hours combination of both injury and disease responsible - pancreas
• Stage of Digestion of food in the stomach for initiating the trend or physiological disturbance, ◼ Putrefaction: breakdown due to bacteria
– It takes 3-4 hours to evacuate the brief or prolonged which produced death. - 1st sign is greenish color of LQ abdomen
contents after a meal - greenish-black color of face/neck
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 - swelling – Death by hanging
- protruded eyes and tongue – Death by musketry Death by Starvation or Inanition
- purge fluid – Death by gas chamber Deprival of a regular and constant supply of food and
◼ Gas formation- slippage of skin with blister • Carbon monoxide water which is necessary to normal health of a person
and marbling ( rxn of hgb and hydrogen • Euthanasia/Mercy killing
sulfide). Skin from green to black. Causes
◼ Hair will slip from the scalp Types of Euthanasia Suicidal ex. Hunger strike
◼ brain: liquefied Active Euthanasia-intentional or deliberate Homicidal
◼ Decomposition: after 24hrs in hot weather application of the means to shorten the life of a Accidental-due to scarcity
◼ Skeletonization: a week to years person
◼ Adipocere: fats will undergo fatty acid Passive Euthanasia-absence of application of the Length of survival:
transformation means to accelerate death but the natural course of Without food loses 1/24th of its weight daily
the disease is allowed to have its way to extinguish Loss of 40% of weight results to death
Asphyxia the life of the person Without food or water person cannot survive more
Post-mortem findings than 10 days
a.External appearance Suicide/ Self Destruction With water, without food can survive for 50-60 days
b.Neck is elongated and stretched with the head Evidence that Will Infer Death is Suicidal
inclined opposite the knot or noose • History of depression, unresolved problem or Death by Asphyxia
c.Pallor of the face and purple colored nails mental disease Types of Asphyxia
d.Lips livid or blue • Previous attempt of self destruction 1. Anoxic Death
e.Saliva dribbled from the mouth with froth • If committed by infliction of physical injuries, 2. Anemic Anoxic death
f.Hands are clenched firmly and purple colored the wounds are located in areas accessible to 3. Stagnant Anoxic Death
fingernails the hand, vital parts of the body and usually
g.State of erection or semi-erection of the penis with solitary Asphyxia by Breathing Irrespirable Gases
seminal fluid in the urethral meatus • The effects of the act of self-destruction Carbon Monoxide (CO/ Silent Killer/ Carbonic oxide
maybe found in the body of the victim gas)main action is Oxygen deprivation burning of
Internal Findings • Hand may be blood-stained if suicide wood, oil, coal, kerosene or gasoline engines in car
a.Engorgement of the lungs was done by inflicting wound
b.Venous system contains dark-colored fluid blood • Wounding hand may be positive to Qualitative test for CO in the blood
c.Right side of the heart and the big blood vessels paraffin test in gunshot. The wound of Kunkel`s test
connected with it are distended with blood entrance may show manifestations of Potassium ferricyanide
d.Blood vessels of the brain is generally congested a contact or near shot Gas Chromatogaphy
e.Kidney is congested • Empty bottle or container of poison
f.Sub-pleural, sub-pericardial, punctiform maybe present at the suicide scene Carbon dioxide (CO2/ Carbonic Acid Gas)
hemorrhages (Tardieu`s spots) • Absence of signs of struggle or Colorless, heavy gas found in drainage pipes, deep
g.Death from coma Cadaveric spasm present in the wells and sewage tanks
The state of unconsciousness with insensibility of the wounding hand holding the weapon
pupils and the conjunctiva and inability to swallow, • Presence of a suicide note Hydrogen Sulfide
resulting from the arrest of the function of the brain • Suicide scene not susceptible to public view; Colorless, transparent gas, sweetish taste, rotten egg
Special Deaths and odor
• Judicial • Evidences that will rule out homicide,
– Death by electrocution murder, parricide Asphyxia by Breathing Irrespirable Gases
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Sulfur Dioxide Hippocratic facies- nose pinched, the temples • Importance
Colorless gas, pungent odor hollow, eyes sunken, ears cold, lips relaxed and skin • Help in the identification-name, language
Produces irritation of the respiratory passage, thus livid spoken, date of birth
causing sneezing, coughing, spasm of the glottis and Mongolian facies- Almond eyes, pale complexion, • Memorable events in life
suffocation prominent cheek bones • Indicates the social stratum
Facies Leonine- a peculiar, deep furrowed, lion-like • Commitment in prison or membership in a
Hydrogen Cyanide=found in leaves of cherry laurel, appearance of the face gang
bitter almond, bamboo shoots life span is 2-10 mins Myxedemic facies- Pale face, edematous swelling,
rarely until an hour. does not pit on pressure, dullness of intellect, slow Methods of Removing Tattoos
monotonous speech, muscular weakness and tremor • Surgical Excision
MEDICO-LEGAL ASPECTS OF IDENTIFICATION ⚫ Left or Right handedness • electrolysis- 5-8 milliamperes
ORDINARY MEANS OF IDENTIFICATION ⚫ Degree of nutrition • application of caustic substance
⚫ Growth of hair, beard or mustache • Weight
⚫ Clothing Points of identification applicable to both living and • Deformities
⚫ Frequent place of visit the Dead before onset of decomposition • Birth Marks
⚫ Grade of profession ⚫ Occupational marks • Injuries
⚫ Body ornamentation ⚫ Race • Scar
⚫ Mental memory-recollection of events ⚫ Feature of the face
⚫ Speech ⚫ Shape of the skull Age of Scar
⚫ Gait-characteristic manner of walking ⚫ Wearing apparel Recently-slightly elevated, reddish or bluish in color,
⚫ Ataxic-a gait in which the foot is raised high, tender to touch
thrown forward and brought down suddenly Methods of Approximating the height of a person 2 weeks to 2 months- inflammatory redness, soft and
⚫ Cow` s gait-swaying movement due to knock • Measure the distance between the tips of the sensitive
knee middle fingers of both hands with the arms 2- 6 months-brownish red in color, soft
⚫ Festinating gait-Involuntary movement of extended laterally and it will be More than 6 months-white, contracted and tough
short accelerating steps approximately equal to the height
⚫ Cerebellar gait-associated with staggering • Two times the length of the vertex of the skull Anthropometry (Bertillon)
movement to the pubic symphysis is the height Information included in the System
• The distance between the suprasternal notch Descriptive Data-color of the hair, eyes, complexion,
Mannerism- Stereotype movements or habit and the pubic symphysis is one- third the shape of the nose,
peculiar to an individual height Body marks-scars, tattoos
1.Way of sitting Anthropometrical measurements
2.Movement of the hand Methods of Approxiamting the height of a person Body measurements
3.Movement of the body • The distance from the base of the skull to the Measurement of the head
4.Movement of the facial muscles coccyx is 44% of the height Measurement of the limbs
5.Expression of the mouth while articulating • The length of the forearm measured from the
Manner of leaning tip of the olecranon process to the tip of the Portrait Parle
Complexion middle finger is 5/19 of the height ⚫ A verbal accurate picturesque description of
Changes in the Eyes • 8 times the length of the head is equal to the the person identified
height of a person ⚫ Skilled investigative illustrator uses Rougues
Facies- Facial expression brought about by disease galary or photographic files
or racial influence Tattoo Marks
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Scientific methods of Identification 13 years--28 permanent teeth and no deciduous teeth =For fetus less than 25 cm long-get the square root of
Fingerprinting 8-10 yrs---Calcification begin at the 3rd molars the length in cm and the result is the age of the fetus
Dental Identification 25 years---root ends of the 3rd molars are completely in months
Handwriting calcified =For fetus 25 centimeters or more- divide the length
Identification of Skeleton of the fetus by 5, and the result is the age in months
Determination of Sex Sex- examination for the presence of Barr bodies
Determination of Age from palatal scrapping Age determination during Infancy
Identification of Blood and Blood stains Age based on height or weight
Identification of Hair and hair fibers Identification of the Skeleton Height
Determine whether remains are human or not Newborn 50 cm
Dental Identification - Complete lay-out of whole bones After 6 months 60 cm
Importance - Shape of the skull, lower jaw After 1 year 68 cm
• The possibility of 2 persons to have the same - the oval round shape of the skull and the less After 4 years double the birth height
dentition is quite remote prominent lower jaw and the nasal bone are
• The enamel of the teeth is the hardest suggestive of human remains Weight
substance of the body. It may outlast all other Determine whether remains come from a single Newborn 2.5-3 kgs
tissues during putrefaction individual or not Child grows 0.5 kg/month
• After death the greater the degree of tissue - Complete lay-out At the end 6 months doubles the birth weight
destruction, the greater the importance of Height At the end of 1 year 3times the birth weight
dental characteristics as a means of Actual measurement- to the actual height add 1-11/2
identification inch for the soft tissues Other points
• The more recent the ante-mortem records of 1. Growth of pubic hair, beard and mustache
the person to be identified, the more reliable Determination of the sex of the skeleton - 13 years in female, 14 in male
the comparative mode of identification can be a.Pelvis 2. Changes in the breast--13-14 years old
done b.Jaw 3. Development of voice--16-18 in males
• Dental features for Identification c.Femur 4. Changes in the color of hair, wrinkles
• Oral pathology at 40 years
• Malposition Determination of Age 5. Menstruation at 12 years old
• Bone pattern Importance
• Missing • As an aid in identification Identification of Blood and Blood Stains
• Personal, occupational and cultural traits • Determination of Criminal liability Importance
• Smokers have smoke marks • Determination of the right to suffrage • Disputed parentage
• Windpipe musicians have altered position of • Determination whether a person can exercise • Determination of the cause of death
their teeth civil rights • Determination of the approximate time the
• Poor oral hygiene may indicate low • Determination of the capacity to contract crime was committed
economic class marriage • Determination of diseases
• As a requisite to certain crimes
Age Gunshot wounds
9 yrs------12 permanent teeth (8 incisors and 4 Determination of the Age of the fetus Medico-legal aspects of GSW
molars) =Application of Haase`s rule. ▪ Firearm- an instrument used for the
11 yrs-----20 permanent teeth (8 incisors, 8 premolar propulsion of a projectile by the expansive
and 4 Molars)
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 force of the gases coming from the gun ▪ Unburned, partially burned and burning ▪ Singeing of hair, blackening of the wound,
powder propellant grains abrading and embedding tattooing
in skin ▪ Pinkish color due to Carbon monoxide
Destructive Mechanisms of GSW Singeing
1. Laceration and crushing ▪ Burning Hot gases from muzzle at close Loose Contact or Near Fire
2. Cavity range. ▪ Entrance wound maybe large, circular or oval
3. Shock wave depending upon the approach
4. Hydrostatic force Muzzle impression /Muzzle contusion ▪ Abrasion collar or ring is distinct
5. Fragmentation and disintegration of the bullet Muzzle imprint ▪ Smudging, burning, tattooing are prominent
6. Muzzle blast in contact fire ▪ Skin impact against muzzle produced by with singeing of hair
discharge gases or temporary cavity ▪ Muzzle imprint maybe seen
Odd and Even rule in GSW formation in contact and near contact fire ▪ Carboxyhemoglobin is present in the wound
If the number of GSW of entrance and exit found in and surrounding areas
the body of the victim is even, the presumption is that Pseudo-tattooing
no bullet is lodged in the body ▪ powder tattooing Skin marks mimicking Short Range (1-15 cm distance)
If the number of the GSW of the entrance and exit in tattooing produced by projectile fragments, ▪ Edges of the wound is inverted
the body of the victim is odd, the presumption is 1 or intermediate target fragments, shotshell, ▪ If within flame reach (6 inches in rifle and
more bullet might have been lodge in the body packing, petechiae, suture marks etc high powered guns and less than 3 inches
from an ordinary hand gun) there is an area
Entrance GSW Gunshot Wounds based on distance of burning
• Appears to be smaller than the missile Pressed and Firm Contact Fire ▪ Smudging is present due to smoke
• Edges are inverted On parts of the body where bone is superficial ▪ Powder tattooing is present (Dense and
• Ussually oval or round depending on the ▪ Wound of entrance is large, star shaped limited in dimension)
angle of approach ▪ Edges is everted due to creeping of gases Abrasion ring or collar is present
• Contusion collar is present ▪ Areas in the entrance is blackened by burns
tattooing or smudging Intermediate Range (more than 15 cm but less
Exit GSW ▪ Singeing of hair is confined to the site of than 60 cm)
• Always bigger than the missile wound entrance ▪ Inverted edges and abrasion collar is present
• Edges are everted ▪ Muzzle imprint-causes an iron like-effect ▪ Burning effects is absent
• Does not manifest any definite shape ▪ Blood and tissue becomes pink due to carbon ▪ Smudging maybe present if less than 30 cm
• Contussion collar is absent monoxide ▪ Tatooing is present but of less density
▪ Fragments of lead and bullet jacket maybe ▪ Contact ring present
a)Abraded margin/ Abrasion collar/ Marginal found.
Abrasion/Contusion ring/Abrasion ring Distant Fire (more than 60 cm)
 Forward motion of bullet indenting ▪ Circular or oval depending on the angle of
the skin and abrading the margin of approach
entry wound. Parts of the body where the bone is deeply located ▪ No signs of burning
Smudging / Fouling ▪ Wound of entrance is usually large, circular Contact ring is present
▪ Blackening Deposition of soot from partially and without radiating laceration
burnt gases ▪ Edges are everted due to outward slapping of Determination of the Presence of Gun powder
Tattooing / Stippling/ Peppering the skin ▪ Gross Examination-using a hand lens
▪ Microscopic
108
Chemical Tests ▪ another method that is used by some police Sperm Cells
▪ Tests for Presence of Powder residues agencies to determine if gunshot residue is ◼ Sperm cell = spermatozoan
▪ On the skin on the hand of the suspect. This method ◼ Head contains DNA
Dermal Nitrate test/Paraffin/Diphenylamine/Lung` s requires the police to spray a reagent on the ◼ Tail (flagella) for movement
test. hand which changes colors based on its ◼ Acrosome – structure at front of head
Dermal Nitrate Test reaction with the different metals on the hand. ◼ Contains enzymes to penetrate egg
• Requires the application of hot paraffin to the ▪ There are many problems with this
suspect’s hand. technique, however, including the fact that Time Since Intercourse
• After drying into a solid crust, the paraffin is results are affected by how long the weapon ◼ Literature reveals remarkable variation in
tested with the chemical diphenylamine. was held and whether the defendant was quoted maximum survival time of sperm
On Clothing sweating. The test is also not specific, and the outside body orifices
Walker`s test (C acid test, H Acid Test) metal that is traced could have come from ◼ Generally accepted maximum survival times
▪ Test for the presence of Primer Components many other sources over the last 48 hours. of sperm heads:
Harrison and Gilroy test  7 days in vaginal cavity
Neutron Activation Analysis (NAA) Contact gunshot wound  2-3 days in anus or rectum
Flameless Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (FAAS) The surface of the skull demonstrates the heavy soot  24 hours in the mouth
Scanning Electron Microscope in this contact range entrance wound, as well as
radiating fracture lines. Searching for Semen Stains
Flame atomic absorption spectrometry ◼ May be on clothing, skin, bedding, etc.
▪ detects lead, antimony and barium. Identification of Biological Fluids and Stains ◼ Visual inspection; yellowish-white
▪ The scientist uses cotton swabs dipped into Identification of Semen ◼ Alternative light source: look for fluorescence
nitric or hydrochloric acid to wipe the palms ◼ Evidence in sexual assault cases
and backs of hands. ◼ Can help prove a crime was committed Presumptive Tests
◼ Can identify the perpetrator ◼ Test for seminal acid phosphatase (SAP)
Scanning electron microscopy Seminal Acid Phosphatase
▪ Scanning electron microscopic-energy Identification of Semen ◼ Acid phosphatases are a class of enzymes
dispersive x-ray spectrometry (SEM-EDX) What is semen? found in various living tissues
uses computer controlled analysis to test ◼ Semifluid mixture of:  Mammalian liver to cauliflower stem
residue. SEM-EDX is far more reliable than  Cells juice
FAAS in revealing positive results.  Enzymes ◼ Semen contains very high levels of seminal
▪ the analysis has been positive up to 12 hours  Other organic and inorganic acid phosphatase
after the firing of the weapon. materials  Levels high until 40; gradual
▪ The only weakness of SEM is that scientists ◼ Sperm cells are most important component as decrease
cannot differentiate between those these are specific to semen.  Levels not relation to sperm count
individuals that fired a gun, handled a gun, or ◼ Ejaculate volume = 2 – 6 mL Method (Brentamine Fast Blue Test):
made a defensive gesture while being shot or ◼ 100 – 150 million sperm cells per mL  Substrate
shot at. To distinguish such individuals, a ◼ Sperm count may be much lower  Chromogen(color changing reagent)
more thorough examination would have to be ◼ Disease  Seminal acid phosphatase (in semen)
undertaken to determine how the residue was ◼ Genetics  SAP reacts with substrate.
distributed. ◼ Drugs/Alcohol  Product of this reaction reacts with the
◼ Vasectomy chromogen (causes color change)
Trace Metal Detection Technique (TMDT) Brentamine Fast Blue Test
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  is the test for SAP ◼ Prostate-Specific Antigen (PSA) ◼ Two tests:
 Will react with semen diluted 500x  Starch-iodine test
Method for Stain (Brentamine Fast Blue Test): Christmas Tree Stain  Phadebas Reagent
 Moist swab or filter paper is rubbed ◼ Microscopic examination for sperm cells ◼ Starch-Iodine Test
over stain ◼ Staining helps distinguish sperm cells from ◼ Iodine and starch turn blue
 Reagent containing substrate and epithelial cells ◼ As amylase breaks down starch, color
chromogen is dropped on ◼ Two Dyes used: subsides
swab/paper ◼ Green – Stains tails Procedure:
Method for Swab (Brentamine Fast Blue Test): ◼ Red – Stains heads • Gel containing starch is stained blue with
 Moist filter paper is rubbed over Christmas Tree Stain (Procedure) iodine
swab ◼ Collect portion of stain on moist swab or take • Sample is added to well in gel. If amylase
 Reagent containing substrate and cutting of stain. (saliva) is present, the blue color begins to
chromogen is dropped on filter paper ◼ Agitate swab/cutting in small tube with water. vanish
 Positive reaction is a purple color ◼ Smear water on slide. • Since amylase is present in other body fluids,
 Swabs of orifices and skin are often collected ◼ Stain with red and green dyes. these tests do not confirm saliva.
in sexual assault cases. • The tests are not very sensitive.(low levels of
Fresh stains will produce a strong color change Prostate-Specific Antigen (PSA or p30) saliva may not be detected)
reaction. ◼ PSA is a protein produced by the prostate
 Old stains may produce a weak reaction gland. DNA in Saliva
 Other materials (urine, vaginal secretions, ◼ Can confirm semen in SAP+ samples that do ◼ With some biological stains, DNA testing is
perspiration) may produce weak reactions not contain sperm cells. more important than identifying the stain.
 Experience of analyst will determine how to ◼ Test relies on antigen (PSA) and antibody ◼ If a test destroys cells, it may not be done
proceed. interaction before DNA testing
◼ Swab or cutting agitated in water ◼ Example: stamps, envelope, bite marks;
Florence Test ◼ Drop of this solution added to test well saliva is inferred
-test is produce by the action of iodine on choline a ◼ Liquid moves through result well
natural base found in many cells ◼ Antibody is already bound to membrane Searching for Urine
- not specific for spermatic fluid ◼ Visible test line (T) means PSA is present ◼ Cases of harassment, mischief, sexual assault,
◼ Other lines are controls (show test was done etc.
Berberio`s test properly) ◼ Stains identified through visual examination
- detects the presence of spermatic fluid (alternate light may help)
-a saturated solution of picric acid is added and What is saliva? ◼ Rarely used; difficult to identify as urine and
needle shaped crystals are produced and seen under ◼ Water, mucus, enzymes, other stuff difficult to get DNA profile
the microscope ◼ Humans produce 1 – 1.5 L of saliva a day ◼ Look for urea or creatinine
◼ Aids in digestion by lubricating food and ◼ These are in other body fluids in
Puramen Reaction begins breakdown of starches lower concentrations
= based on the presence of spermine in the prostatic ◼ Difficult to detect; Liquid nature of
fluid How is saliva detected? urine allows chemicals to spread out
=more reliable means for seminal fluid ◼ Look for the presence of Amylase and become diluted over a large area
 Enzyme that breaks down starch
Confirmatory Tests  Found in many body fluids; very high
◼ Christmas Tree Stain (of sperm cells) in saliva Identifying DNA in Urine
110
 ◼ Some epithelial cells (from urinary tract chemical aspect of criminal investigation but also the METHODS OF ANALYSIS USED IN FORENSIC
lining) and other cells physical aspect of any material the quality of which CHEMISTRY
◼ In stains, cells are spread out; typing difficult may give rise to legal proceedings. It has invaded 1. Wet Method – this makes use of reagents but this
◼ Bacteria also makes typing difficult. other branches of forensic science especially requires much time and effort
◼ Cells may be concentrated from liquid ballistics, questioned documents, dactyloscopy, and 2. High Precision Instruments – modern techniques
samples; DNA typing possible. photography. give very accurate results.

Identifying Feces Practice of Forensic Chemistry is in different CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TOOLS AND
◼ Feces – end product after digestion stages: TECHNIQUES
◼ Undigested food, mucosal cells, bacteria 1. Sensitivity
◼ Identified by greenish brown color, odor, ❖ COLLECTION OR RECEPTION OF THE 2. Specificity
undigested food SPECIMEN. The chemist should personally 3. Rapidity
◼ Can test for urobilinogen, but stain must be… collect all the specimens necessary for the Tools and techniques must be sensitive because the
apparent. examination amounts of the materials to be defected are
❖ THE ACTUAL EXAMINATION OF THE extremely small, often in micro or semi-micro
DNA testing of Feces SPECIMEN. Scrutinize, write in the quantities. Paints, soils, dust, inks, and body fluids
◼ Low cell count and high bacteria content laboratory notebook complete description of are often in micro quantities.
make testing difficult, but not impossible its external appearance including the manner
Identification of Vomitus in which it is collected or secured. Take MEASUREMENTS USED IN THE EXAMINATION
◼ No known test photograph if possible. Weigh, measure, OF MATERIALS
◼ Possibly look at low pH, or undigested food. record, divide into small portions, one to be 1. Dimensions – these include length, breadth, depth,
kept in the original condition, next comes the height, curvature, and diameter
chemical/microscopical/physical testing, 2. Angles
FORENSIC CHEMISTRY AND TOXICOLOGY whichever is appropriate. Apparatus to be 3. Melting point – these include mixed melting points
used should be clean, reagents must be pure 4. Boiling point – these include boiling point curves
FORENSIC CHEMISTRY – deals with the and that all precautions against possibility of and ranges
application of chemical principles in the examination contamination are taken. Blank and control 5. Density
of physical evidences. It plays an important role in experiments should be made whenever 6. Refractive index
the speedy investigation and solution of crimes. The possible. 7. Birefringence
value of the findings of the chemists in convicting the ❖ THE COMMUNICATION OF THE RESULTS OF 8. Polarization
guilty and in clearing the innocent suspect are widely THE EXAMINATION. A written report is 9. Fluorescence
recognized laboratory experts are often called upon made by the chemist.
to render testimony in courts. ❖ COURT APPEARANCE. Oral evidence is TECHNIQUES USED IN FORENSIC CHEMISTRY
done if the case is brought to court. 1. Microscopy
FORENSIC CHEMISTRY – has a task to examine the 2. Photography
chemical nature and composition of various TYPES OF EXAMINATION USED IN FORENSIC 3. Invisible rays
specimens such as blood and other body fluids, CHEMISTRY 4. Chromatography
gunpowder, explosives, poisons, dangerous drugs, 1. Qualitative examination – this determines the 5. Electrophoresis
urine, and other physical evidences. elements present in the sample 6. Spectrography
2. Quantitative examination – this determines the 7. Laser technique
FORENSIC CHEMISTRY – has encroached into a amount of the elements present in the sample. 8. Mass Spectrometry
large and diversified field. It includes not only the 9. Spectrophotometry
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10. Neutron Activation Analysis 2. iris diaphragm
11. X-ray diffraction Analysis 3. abbe condenser D. CHROMATOGRAPHY
12. Differential Thermal Analysis 4. magnifying parts There are different types of chromatography:
13. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance 1. column chromatography
14. Polarography B. PHOTOGRAPHY 2. paper chromatography
15. Scanning Electron Microscopy PHOTOGRAPHY is usually used to preserve 3. thin layer chromatography
the evidence. In Forensic chemistry, it is used 4. gas chromatography
A. NATURE OF THE MICROSCOPE however to demonstrate invisible traces,
1.The microscope is an instrument that uses a lens or unrecognizable clues, stains and other materials. COLUMN CHROMATOGRAPHY – is mainly used to
a combination of lenses to magnify and resolve the Photography with UV raus, IR rays, X-rays and isolate and purify a substance. The material is
fine details of an object. colored filters, macrophotography, dissolved in a suitable solvent and passed through a
2.It studies the structure and the composition of photomicrography, microphotography, cine suitable stationary phase, packed in a column. The
matter. photography, and photogrammetry have substance is then diluted with one or more solvents.
3. A magnifying glass makes things appear larger magnanimous importance in criminal investigation. The required material, due to difference in
than they are because of the way light rays are adsorption power, is eluted out of the column in a
refracted or bent in passing from the air into the glass C. INVISIBLE RAYS pure form before or after the impurities depending
and back into the air. The use of UV rays, IR rays and X-rays is upon their nature.
4.Virtual image is a magnified as observed by ubiquitous in criminal investigation. UV rays are
looking through a lens. absorbed by some substances. In the process, some PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY – is similar in
5. Real image is an image that is seen directly. of the energy are consumed. Rays of lower energy principle and action. Cellulose fibre and water
content are emitted. Since these rays have greater absorbed by the paper constitute the stationary
MICROSCOPES USED IN FORENSIC SCIENCE wavelength, they are in the visible range. Thus, phase. This type is used for identification in addition
1. Compound microscope objects that are irradiated in the dark start giving to isolation and purification of clue materials. For this
2. Comparison microscope light. This phenomenon is called fluorescence. purpose, the rate of flow or the ratio of the distance
3. Stereoscopic microscope Materials vary in their absorption power. Differences travelled by the spot and the distance travelled by
4. Polarizing microscope in fluorescence can be detected. the solvent is found.
5. Microspectrophotometer
6. Scanning electron microscope or SEM Stains, sealing wax, papers, inks, dyes, paints, and THIN LAYER CHROMATOGRAPHY (TLC) – is a
varnishes can be differentiated and even small variation of paper chromatography. A thin layer of a
The most commonly used microscope is the differences in the surface structure can be solid stationary phase like silica or alumina is
monocular compound microscope. It is composed of detected.IR rays have greater wavelengths than the deposited on the glass plate. The substance to be
the mechanical system and the optical system. The visible light. They also have penetration power, and identified is processed as in paper chromatography.
former contains the different parts: therefore, pass through some materials. Documents, Results are rapid and specific. The stationary phase
1. base clothes, stains and other materials are examined with and the solvent can be varied.
2. arm IR rays because of this.
3. stage X-rays have the shortest wavelength of the GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY – is very important in
4. body tube three rays mentioned here. They have the greatest Forensic Chemistry. The technique is sensitive,
5. coarse adjustment penetration power and give fluorescence under specific, and rapid. This technique is applied in the
6. fine adjustment suitable conditions. They are useful in the study of analysis of gases, liquids, volatile materials and for
paintings, documents, firearms. They are also used substances which pyrolyze to give identifiable
The latter contains the illumination parts: to locate metallic objects in sealed containers and in volatile products. Gasoline, kerosene, liquor,
1. the mirror the body. perfume, paints, varnishes, barbiturates, soaps, and
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insecticides are analyzed by this technique. In spark where it is vaporized. The light emitted passes J. NEUTRON ACTIVATION ANALYSIS
general, a liquid or a stationary phase supported on through a diffraction grating or a prism. This will split This technique use of a nuclear reactor. The
small brick chips or other similar material contained the light into several wavelengths. A photograph of principle involved is bombardment of the sample
in a column is maintained at a convenient split-up light is taken and studied. The position and with neutrons. Since most of the elements can be
temperature. The product to be analyzed is passed number of lines depend upon the nature of the made radioactivity, which is characteristic of the
through the column with the help of a carrier gas like substance giving the light. The spectrogram is now element is studied by spectrometry. The technique is
nitrogen, helium, argon or hydrogen. The sample is compared to a standard spectrogram. The the most sensitive and specific in the examination of
fractionated as it passes through the column. quantitative estimates are made by studying the hair, plant materials, plants, soil, dust, and other clue
Different constituents come out of the column at intensities of the various lines. This is useful in the materials but it is the most expensive way of analysis.
different intervals and pass through the detector. study of metallic poisons, paints, glass, soil, dust and
They are detected by the changes in the current of other materials. K. X-RAY DIFFRACTION ANALYSIS
the circuit fitted therein. A recorder records these This technique is sensitive and specific and
changes in a graphing paper. Comparison of the G. LASER TECHNIQUE the materials are not destroyed in the process. The
graph with similar graphs of known products permits This is an innovation of spectrography, instead of a technique starts when a beam of X-rays is passed
identification and estimation of the constituents. It the high voltage arc, a small narrow, beam of intense through the material. The x-rays get diffracted
products are collected in fractions at intervals light is used to vaporize the material. The depending upon the arrangement of the various
indicated by the peaks and troughs of the graph, the wavelengths of the light produced are studied in the particles in the crystals. The diffraction patterns are
separation of constituents is obtained. usual manner. The advantage of this technique is that photographed and compared with standard patterns
there is no noticeable damage to the object as a small whereby the identity of the substance is established.
E. ELECTROPHORESIS spot in the object is vaporized. This is useful in the detection of barbiturates, glass,
This technique is useful for colloidal or other minerals, inorganic substances, paints, pigments,
materials like inks, paints, and pigments having H. MASS SPECTROMETRY corrosion, dust, and other solid material.
residual charge on the molecules. This is used in the This technique permits identification of all substances
study of blood and other materials that are protein in which can be vaporized into charged particles. The PRINCIPLES USED IN FORENSIC CHEMISTRY
nature. samples required for the analysis are virtually in the 1. Law of Individuality – This law states that “Every
The material is taken in a strip of paper or gel MW or AMU range. object, natural or man-made, has an individuality
and an appropriate electrical field is applied to the which is not duplicated in any other object.
two sides of the strip. The charged molecules will I. SPECTROPHOTOMETRY 2. Principle of Exchange – Contact exchanges
migrate in either direction depending on their being This technique is sensitive, specific, and rapid. The traces is the gist of this principle
negative or positive. The speed of the molecules technique starts when the beam of electromagnetic 3. Law of Progressive Change – Everything
vary with the charge and the mass of the molecules rays of selected wavelength is passed through the changes with the passage of time
and their adsorption power in the medium. Thus material. Some of the energy of these rays are 4. Principle of Comparison – Only the likes can be
different molecules get separated into bands. The absorbed by the material. The residual rays fall upon compared
position of a band on the strips identifies the a photoelectric cell and changes in the current are 5. Principle of Analysis – The analysis can be no
molecule. produced. Changes are recorded in a graphing better than the sample analyzed
paper. Comparison of the graph with standard 6. Law of Probability – All identifications, definite
F. SPECTROGRAPHY graphs permits identification of the sample being or indefinite are made consciously or unconsciously
This is the oldest modern technique in the analyzed. Quantitative estimation is possible from on the basis of probability
analysis of clue materials. However, it is limited to the peak areas. This technique is extensively used in
elemental analysis of some substances and their the identification of drugs, poisons, and intoxicants. BLOOD AND BLOOD STAINS
compounds. The technique starts when the sample Liquids and gases can also be identified. The study of blood is significant in criminology
passes through a high voltage arc or a flame or a because this evidence is in connection with violent
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crimes such as murder, rape, robbery, assault and d. the rate of destruction is about 10 billion LIMITATIONS:
battery, burglary, and hit and run. The results of cells/hour in a normal healthy adult It should be emphasized that while a negative
laboratory analyses will enable the investigators to 2. WBC or Leucocytes – scavenger or soldier of the test requires no further
prove or disprove the alibis of the suspects. A body which eat the garbage of the body virus or examination positive result needs confirmation
suspect in a murder case may allege that the bacteria before a stain may be identified as blood. False
bloodstains found in his clothing came from an animal a. the number: 5,000 WBC/mm3 of blood positive reactions may occur due to such materials as
he butchered. Analysis will establish not only b. they resist the attack of disease apples, potatoes,
whether the stain is blood or not but also if it is of 3. Platelets or discs – Thrombocytes bone marrow, brain tissue, spinal fluid, saliva, mucus,
human origin or not. The blood group may also be a. the number: 5 X no. of WBC and pus.
known. b. they facilitate blood clotting

NATURE OF BLOOD Factors Affecting the Amount of Blood 2. Precipitin Test

1. A red fluid in the body 1. the weight of individual This is a test for proteins contained in human blood.
2. Main function: to transport oxygen, nutrients, and 2. in the same individual in different periods of his Certain substances called antibodies or precipitin
wastes throughout the body life depending on his react with human blood forming a precipitate.
3. Amount; 8% of the body weight a. age
4. Constituents b. diet PREPARATION OF PRECIPITIN
a. liquid part – plasma (55% of TV) c. function to which the body is placed When human blood serum is injected intravenously
b. formed elements into a suitable animal like a
1. RBC Other Functions of Blood rabbit, the blood serum of the animal, obtained later
2. WBC 1. Blood regulates body temperature by bleeding, will have developed the antibodies
3. discs – platelets 2. Blood regulates pH of the body’s fluids specific for human blood. Antibodies specific for
5. Color is due to hemoglobin which is responsible 3.Blood carries injected and otherwise given blood of animals may be prepared in a similar
for transporting oxygen to tissues and carbon dioxide medicines to the affected parts of the body. manner and can be used to determine the animal
to the lungs from which a suspected blood stain originated. The
6. A clear liquid (serum) separates when blood clots DIFFERENT EXAMINATIONS OF BLOOD test may be performed in capillary tubes or in a gel.
7. Clotting is a defense mechanism to prevent blood A. Preliminary or Screening Test
loss 1. Benzidine Test FACTORS AFFECTING THE PRECIPITIN
Preparation for Reagent:0.25 benzidine is dissolved REACTION
CHEMISTRY OF BLOOD CLOTTING in 175ml ethanol. 5-10 drops of glacial acetic acid are a. Age of stain and putrefaction
The reaction mechanism of blood clotting is as added and the mixture is kept in a dropper bottle for b. Exposure to air, sunlight, and humidity
follows: use. c. High temperature (causes extended precipitation)
1. Platelets + Plasma factors Thromboplastin PROCEDURE: d. Contamination of chemicals (soap or detergent)
2. Thromboplastin + Prothrombin Thrombin - Rub cotton or filter paper moistened with distilled
3. Thrombin + Fibrinogen Fibrin (clot) water over a suspected blood stain. 3. Grouping Test
- Small fragments of the suspected stain on a solid The table below shows the nature of blood and its
INDIVIDUAL COMPONENTS OF BLOOD object may also be scraped off onto a filter paper and reaction with anti A serum and
1. RBC or Erythrocytes moistened anti B serum respectively.
a. the number: 5,000,000 RBC/mm3 blood - A drop or two of the benzidine solution and then a Table 1. Nature of Blood and its Reaction with
b. the diameter: 10 microns similar amount of hydrogen peroxide are applied Anti A and Anti B
c. they are continuously being produced and - If blood is present, a blue color develops rapidly Antigen* Anti-body Reaction Reaction Blood
destroyed in the body Present /Agglutinin with anti with anti Group
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 **Present A B All these blood groups are important in Table 2. Possible Children of Two Parents with
A Anti B + - A criminal investigation especially in disputed Specific Blood Groups and the impossible
B Anti A - + B paternity. Children
A, B None + + AB In addition to the above antigens and Parents Possible Impossible
None Anti A, Anti - - O antibodies, the blood contains a lot of other antigen Children Children
B and antibody population. At present human blood OXO O A, B, AB
*agglutinogen can be divided into over a thousand groups. OXA O, A B, AB
**antibody OXB O, B A, AB
TECHNIQUES IN BLOOD ANALYSIS O X AB A, B O, AB
1. Physical AXA A, O B, AB
(+) means agglutination or clumping and (-) 2. Chemical BXB B, O A, AB
means no clumping. The principle involved in 3. Biological AXB A, B, AB, O NOT REPRESENTED
clumping is the presence of antigens or agglutinogens A X AB A, B, AB O
in the RBC and antibodies or agglutinins in the serum. Note that all these are not required in all cases.
AB X AB A, B, AB O
Antigens are nitrogenous neutral B X AB A, B, AB O
heteropolysaccharides containing amino acids as FACTORS AFFECTING THE CHOICE OF THE
NOTE:
well as carbohydrates. Antibodies have a sort of a TECHNIQUE
Some individuals are called secretors. Only
negative relation with the antigens. 1. Nature of the evidence (condition and size of
about 80% of the human population secrete in their
Other than the ABO groups, further studies blood stain)
fluids, such as semen, saliva, urine, and vaginal fluid,
revealed that antigens exists as A1 and A2. Further 2. Nature of the surface on which blood is found
substances corresponding to their blood groups.
studies revealed the presence of M antigens and N 3. The expert who may have a liking for certain
Therefore, it is possible to determine the ABO
antigens. There are no antibodies for N, antibody M techniques.
blood groups of suspected stains of body fluids from
is rare. Further studies reveal P factor. Note that the secretors.
antibody relating to antigen P is sometimes found in B. Confirmatory Tests
normal human sera. Antigen P offers P+ and P- 1. Hemin Test (Teichmann test)
TECHNIQUES IN LOCATING, COLLECTING,
groups. 2. Hemochromogen Test (Takayama test)
AND ANALYSIS OF BLOOD:
Rhesus groups were discovered when Both tests show the presence of hemoglobin
Location: The area, articles, and clothing
immune sera obtained from rabbits after injecting in a suspected blood by the appearance of specific
suspected to bear blood stains are examined by
RBC from Rhesus monkey agglutinated about 85% of crystals observed under a microscope.
strong oblique light. UV, colored and IR are also
blood corpuscles of the white population irrespective used. Most of the stains become visible. IR locates
of the fact whether or not they contain A, B, AB, O or C. Human Origin
blood stains in colored objects. Photographs with IR
M, N, or MN as P antigens. This is determined by the Precipitin Test
rays reveal blood spots. A chemical, luminal, is used.
The antigen responsible for this reaction was Luminol reacts with blood to give fluorescence
designated as Rh. Natural antibody to antigen Rh was SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY OF BLOOD:
making blood stains visible. Even decomposed
not discovered in human blood. But antibodies were Blood is significant in controversies on
blood reacts with the reagent.
developed by Rh- persons who were given Rh+ parentage. When the paternity is questioned, the
Luminol is prepared by using the following
blood transfusions. table shows the possible children of two parents with
compounds:
The antibodies thus produced in human specific blood groups and impossible children can
- 0.7 g of sodium perborate
beings were of different kinds and permitted also be determined.
- 100 ml of water
classification of blood into eight different Rh types - 0.1 g of 3 – aminophthalhydrazide
instead of 2. - 5.0 g of sodium carbonate

115
 The prepared solution is sprayed upon the 2. In one, add sodium fluoride, oxalate, or citrate in a. Collect the articles whenever possible.
article with glass sprayers in a dark room. Blood the other, add no preservative. b. Moisten a clean piece of cloth or filter paper with
gives strong luminescence. 3. Seal saline solution and press it against the stain.
4. Tubes are cooled in crushed ice in a thermal box c. Moisten a piece of cloth with inert gum and stick it
BLOOD AIDS IN RECONSTRUCTING THE CRIME 5. Collect a third sample in a piece of clean rag to the surface. Peel off the
SCENE (about 3cm2). Stain is dried and packed in a clean piece when dry. The stain is transferred to the piece.
The position, size, and pattern of the stain are envelope or bottle. Material must be uncontaminated. Dry it and pack it as usual.
noted down or sketched or photographed. The d.If there is no alternative procedure possible,
direction, the number of stains, the conditions of B. Wet Stains scrape off as much blood-stain as possible with a
stains whether these are dry, wet, sticky, cracking, 1.A clean piece of rag or filter paper is taken and clean razor blade on a paper and pack it in a clean
puckering, contracting, and brittleness are noted. pressed against the stain. envelope or vial. Ordinarily, scraping of blood stain
The contamination and their exposure to natural 2.If the stain is partially dry, the piece is moistened is not recommended as the same is likely to result in
elements like heat and rain are facts worth with saline solution. This is pressed against the stain. the loss of blood.
mentioning in the forwarding letter to the expert. 3.A piece of cloth is preferably used than a filter e.The residual stain is collected as in the procedure
paper. If the stain is on a non-absorbent surface, it is above.
allowed to dry and the article is collected. 4. On Grass
4.If the stain contains sufficient liquid blood, it is a. Tie the grass with a thread
COLLECTION: collected in the same way as liquid blood. b. Cut the tuft. Dry it and pack in an envelope or
❖ The method of collection should be indicated. 5.If the stain is on an absorbent surface and has glass jar.
Was the stain scraped, cut, lifted, dislodged, penetrated the surface, it is allowed to dry and the c. Take care that the blood does not get dislodged in
or collected in the form in which it is being article is collected. the process.
sent- should also be written in the report. 6.If it is not possible to collect the article in the case 5. On body
❖ Packing should be done in suitable bottles or of stains on soils or unpaved floor, the stain cone of a. If found in the hair collect by combing the hair.
cellophane envelopes of appropriate the material is collected in a glass jar. Cut and Collect the hair if possible.
sizes.The purity of the stains should be 7. A control form the place near the stained area is b. If blood is found in the fingernails, it is scraped out
preserved. This is not achieved if the stains also collected. with a clean toothpick. Control from unstained fingers
mix with one another or by rubbing the stains also are collected. Cutting of nails is not
with the container or with other parts of the C. Dry Stains recommended.
article. 1. On Clothes c. If blood is found in other parts of the body, a wet
❖ The continuity of the chain of possession and a.Take the piece of clothing and record properly the piece of clean rag or filter paper is pressed against
distinct identity of the evidence can be number, position, and size the stain.
preserved through proper packing, labeling, of the stains. d. If the stain is adhering strongly, the piece of blood
sealing, and observing other legal b. Stains on different parts of the piece of clothing are may be moistened with inert gum solution.
formalities. The possession of the evidence not allowed to D. Washed Blood. This is still possible to be
should be accounted for from the time of contaminate one another through cracking or getting analyzed by the laboratory staff.
recovery to the time of the production in the dislodged during packing transit. E. Collected Blood Samples by Medical Officer.
court. 2. On Absorbent Surfaces The victim and the suspect are sources of blood
a. Absorbent surfaces absorb the serum. samples.
TECHNIQUES IN COLLECTING: b.For correct sampling stained and unstained
A. Liquid Blood (Blood Pools) materials are separately collected as described in the BASES OF THE ANALYSIS ARE:
1. Collect two samples (5cm3 each) in clean test tubes preceding notes. 1. composition of blood
or vials. 3. On non-absorbent surfaces 2. behavior under various conditions
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 4. Cyanhaemochromogen LOCATION AND COLLECTION:
EVALUATION OF THE CELL STRUCTURE 1. Location of seminal stain is a difficult task because
1. human blood cells have characteristics non- NOTE: stains are almost colorless and are easily destroyed
nucleated discs with a diameter of Some of these products give characteristics by washing.
about 0.08mm crystal structure under certain conditions. They also 2. Stains may be found in the person of the victim,
2. camel family’s blood has oval blood cells give characteristics spectra. The absorption the culprit, their garments, at the scene of the
3. birds, fish, reptiles have oval, nucleated discs and characteristics of these compounds are utilized in the occurrence, in the vehicle if the vehicle is used in the
large corpuscles in their blood identification of blood by paper chromatography. commission of the crime.
3. In the victim, stains can be located in the affected
EVALUATION OF ENZYMES: SEMEN parts, the skin and the hair close to the affected parts,
Peroxidase is the enzyme in blood. This Semen provides an important clue in the undergarments, clothes. All her clothes used during
catalyzes the liberation of O2 from oxygen rich investigation related to sex offenses like indecency, the crime are collected.
compounds like hydrogen peroxide or sodium rape, sodomy, and bestiality. 4. A doctor gets swabs from the affected part, the
perborate. The oxygen is used to carry out certain skin near the affected part and the hair suspected to
color reactions. Nature of Semen: carry semen stains.
1. Gel-like (colloidal fluid) 5. In the culprit, stains can be located from the flies,
Reagents used in the Evaluation of Enzymes: 2. Liquefies on exposure the front part of his trousers, undergarments, front
Benzidine or phenolphthalein or 3. Normal ejaculation averages 3.5 ml containing 3.0 and back flap of the shirt of the culprit, handkerchief
ieucomalachite green or luminal. X 107 spermatozoa in his pocket, pockets, sexual organs and skin close
4. Dry weight is 7% of the liquid weight to it and his pubic hair.
Electrophoresis: 5.Spermatozoa has a definite morphological structure 6. In cases of bestiality, vaginal and rectal swabs are
1. When the blood containing enzymes is subjected 6. Nucleus contains genes taken. Animal secretions or feces on the garments
to an electric field, particles having residual charge 7.Mitochondria helps supply the flagellum with and body parts of the suspect are also valuable clues.
move towards opposite polarity. energy for movement 7. Semen can also be determined to be present in the
2. The rate of movement varies with their structure 8. Spermatozoa are carried by the transportation fluid scene of the occurrence and from the vehicle used if
and electrical charge. – the semen there is any.
3.The pattern of separation is a characteristic of 9. Fructose is the energy source for the spermatozoa 8.Seminal stains occurring in rape or about sex
specific blood samples. 10. A single drop of semen may contain 5X10 6 sperm offenses, are often found on clothing, blankets, or
4.Some blood groups base upon electrophoresis 11. A spermic semen is semen with only a few sperm other textile material. On white cloth, they may
have already been developed appear as slightly yellowish stained areas. On
Chemical Constituents: colored cloth, they may almost be invisible.
HEMOGLOBIN 1. Organic Compounds 9. Fresh moist stains on cloth may be collected by the
Blood on treatment with acids, alkalis, a. blood group factors (found in the body fluids of following technique:
reducing agents, and oxidizing agents give a variety secretors) a.With clean scissors or other instrument, cut out a
of products which have a characteristics absorption b. choline small area of the stain.
spectra. The absorption bands are seen in or around c. fructose b. Place this in a clean test tube or small bottle.
the Fraunhofer’s lines and are characteristic of blood. d. citric acid c. Add just enough distilled water to cover the cloth.
e. uric acid Do not use excessive amounts.
Variations of Hemoglobin 2. Inorganic constituent of significance in forensic d.Seal the specimen in the container with a tight
1. Oxyhemoglobin chemistry fitting cork or rubber stopper. Seal
2. Acid and alkali haematins a. Zn ions with paraffin if necessary to prevent leakage.
3. Methemoglobin
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e.Label the specimen completely and pack it in a 3. Acid Phosphatase (AP) test e. In dry and cool climate, dead spermatozoa may be
more substantial container. identified even after a few
f. Transmit it to the laboratory immediately. MORPHOLOGY OF SPERMATOZOA months.
g.Permit the remainder of the stain to dry on the cloth 1. A spermatozoa is unicellular with an oval head. f. In vaginal swabs, spermatozoa may be detected
at room temperature. Do not apply heat or expose to 2. Attached to the head is a comparatively long tail. about 5-10 days though the number goes on
direct sunlight. 3. The total length of the sperm is 0.05 mm. decreasing with the passage of time.
h. If stain is apparent, take care not to fold the cloth in 4.This is easy to stain if the head and the tail are g.In dead persons, detection of spermatozoa
the region of the stain. intact. depends upon the condition under which the dead
i.Fold the garment interlaying the fold with clean 5.The head and the tail are not available in dried body remained.
white paper. stains.
j.Place in a paper lined cardboard carbon, and send 6.Double staining with haematoxyline and eosin is OTHER BODY FLUIDS OF INTEREST IN
it to the laboratory. usually done. CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION:
7. The head is colored purple and the nose is pink. 1. Saliva
TECHNIQUES OF EXAMINATION 8.Epithelial cells and leucocytes may mask the 2. Urine
a. VISUAL EXAMINATION spermatozoa. 3. Feces
1. If fresh, semen is white to colorless to pale yellow. 9.However, this difficulty is removed by staining with 4. Sweat
2.Freshly dried stains on waiting gives a malachite green and eosin wherein interference is 5. Nasal secretions
characteristics smell. considerably reduced. 6. Tears
3.Stains become stiff and rough to one’s feel on 7. Human milk
drying. The stains do not wear off unless these are BIOLOGICAL TEST: Pharmacology. This is the science of drugs.
rubbed. 1.Precipitin Reaction is used to determine if the This embraces information about the sources,
4. Fresh stains have a characteristics smell. semen belongs to humans. physiochemical properties, biological effects,
2.Anti-human seera is added to the suspected semen. and therapeutic uses of drugs.
b. ULTRAVIOLET RAYS A reaction indicates human semen. Various Forms of Drugs
1.UV rays applied on suspected stains give a bluish 1. Tablets
fluorescence. PROBLEMS REGARDING SEMEN: 2. Capsules
2.The glow depends upon the quantity and the 1. Individualization 3. Powder
freshness of the stains. This can be determined by using DNA typing. 4. Bricks of morphine
2. Age 5. Crushed dried leaves
c. STEREOMICROSCOPY a. After 2-3 weeks, the color of the stain changes to 6. Cigarettes
1. Characteristics contours and layer-like formations pale yellow and then to brown. 7. Plants uprooted
are detected in a thick crust of a stain of semen. b. Fresh semen has spermatozoa with head and tail. 8. Pots and improvised seed beds
With the passage of time, these parts disintegrate.
d. PHOSPHATASE METHOD 3. Survival Paraphernalia’s that are also examined are the
EVALUATION OF SEMEN a. Sperm cells survive for a few hours under normal following.
a. Smell conditions. Life seldom continues after twenty-four 1. smoking pipes
b. Feel (semen when dry is like a dried starch. It has hours. 2. hypodermic syringes and needles
uneven surface and the contours are different.) b. Frozen semen may remain alive for long periods. 3. ashtrays
c. Fluorescence (makes use of UV light) c. Sperm cells show motility when the sample is 4. aluminum foil
d. Chemical Tests brought to normal temperature. 5. delivery rube
1.Barberio’s Test ( makes use of saturated picric acid) d. In humid and warm climate, sperm cells get 6. straw
2. Florence’s test (makes use of choline iodide) destroyed in a short while.
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Alcohols Dillie – 2.Hair are in the shape of fine rods.
Barbiturates Violet
Ethanol (C2H3OH) and methanol (CH2OH) are the Koppanyi/scott 3.They may or may not have fine tips.
main alcohol for the study of depressants. Ethanol Red orange to 4.Some hair which have fine tips to start with, acquire
occurs in wines, beers, fortified wines and Scott Marquis Dark brown almost uniform diameter later on, others do not.
spirits.Ethanol is a CNS depressant. It appears to be a Amphetamine Mandelin Green to 5.Hair grows to certain length and then they fall off if
stimulant for some individuals when taken in small Reddish brown they are not cut – few hairs may come up in their
doses. Its first effects are upon the highest centers in LSD PABA/van urk Purple place.
the brain; normal social restraints and the capacity Duquenois- Violet
for self-criticism begin to disappear.As a result, most Van urk Chemical Properties
Levine Red bottom
individuals feel a sense of happy stimulation. Marijuana 1.Hair is made of proteins, mostly keratins, keratins
KN layer
The true depressant qualities become evident when Shabu Symone Purple have varied structure and molecules weight.
larger quantities are ingested: 2.Hair pigments usually consist of melanin proteins, a
✓ The speech become thick. HAIR AND FIBERS dark brown pigment, and phaeomelanin, a red
✓ The gait unsteady Real hair is the appendage of the skin which brown or yellow brown pigment chemically similar to
✓ The vision blurred occurs everywhere on the human body except on the melanin.The color of hair depends on the amounts
✓ And the capacity to think becomes impaired. palms of the hands and the soles of the feet.Transfer and physical conditions of these pigments within the
✓ Sleep may follow of hair, due to contact, is a classical example of the strand.
✓ Coma and death will follow after ingestion of Principle of Mutual Exchange of Trace. Hair is an 3.Uric acid
very large quantities of ethanol, and it can evidence that does not lie, it is one of the classical 4.Cholesterol
produce a fatal depression of vital centers in evidences which is considered, collected and 5.Vitamins
the medulla. evaluated.The evidence establishes the possible 6. Other proteins
✓ presence of a culprit at the crime scene. It indicates 7.Metallic elements: As, Pb, Fe, Si
The State of Marijuana and its Potency the contact if transfer has taken place. It indicates the
(THC Content) route of the perpetrator, helps identify the weapon of
State Amount of THC offence, and the vehicle used in the commission of Morphological Constituents of Hair
Loose vegetation 1.5% the crime. It may also establish the ownership of the 1. Root
Sinsemilla 3.5-4.0% articles left at the crime scene.Hair examples are 2. Shaft
Hashish 3.5% available in murders, assaults, road accidents, rapes, 3. Tip
Hashish Oil or Liquid A drop can make a abortions, house breaking, maiming and other
Hashish “high” crimes.Identification of hair is not an easy task. It Morphological Structure of Hair
requires extensive experience in the filed, because 1.Medulla – this is the central canal of the hair which
Drug Tests there are variations in the hair of the same person at may be empty or may contain various sorts of
Color the same time and at different times. Further, there cells.This is more or less pigmented which begins
Drug Test more or less near the root. In hair that are full-grown
Reactions/s are similarities in the hair of different persons. NAA,
Opium and its Purple or DNA typing and blood typing of hair hold promise for and nearly falling out, medulla begins high up, its
Marquis acceptable identifications. length varying to a high degree.In some animals, it
derivatives Violet
Yellow to Types of Mammalian Hair: starts with a row of cells which continue to the whole
Heroin HNO3 Long, and stiff hair. length of the hair to the tip or the medulla makes one
Green
Fine, fuzzy hair or woody hair or more bifurcations and continues in several rows of
Red orange to
Morphine HNO3 cells which are adjacent to each other.This can be
Yellow
Physical Properties continuous or interrupted. Continuous in a large
Cobalt
Cocaine Blue ppt 1.Hair grows from hair centers called hair follicles number of animals, it is interrupted in humans,
thiocynate
119
monkeys and horses.The diameter of the medulla can Collection of Hair Samples Note: This may give an idea whether the hair has been
be absolutely constant but may also be alternately 1.Incriminating Hair- By using tweezers and placed dyed or not. The presence or absence of roots is also
broader or narrow. in clean cellophane envelopes. Hair from different indicated.Visual examination is supplemented by a
1.Cortex – this is surrounding the medulla. Being the places are put in different envelopes. Cellophane hand lens and a steromicroscope. The examination
thickest layer of the shaft, it is composed of envelopes are enclosed in paper envelopes. The use gives better appreciation of the color and contaminants
elongated, spindle-shaped fibrils which cohere.This of adhesive tape to lift hair from suspected articles is of the hair.
contains pigment granules in varying proportions often convenient. Furniture, beds, and clothes can be 1.Microscopic by Using the Technique of Microscopy
depending on the type of hair. checked. A convenient length of tape is unfolded and Preliminary microscopic examination is carried
2.Cuticle – The outermost layer of the hair. This pressed against the suspected surface. The tape without cleaning or mounting the hair. This reveals
looks like shingles in a roof when magnified. picks up loose fibers, hair, and dust. color, contamination and character, whether wavy
Stereomicroscopic examination of the tape indicates soft or brittle, whether the ends are shredded or have
Physical Properties of Hair the location of the hair samples. tips or whether roots are present or not. Pulled out
1. Refractive index hair have “live bulbs” fallen hair have “shrunken
2. Birefringence Sample Hair roots”.
3. Density Sample hair are collected from both the victim and Detailed microscopic examination of hair is
Factors Affecting Changes in the Hair in the Same the accused in the following ways: done after cleaning them in alcohol ether mixture or
Individual. 1.Combing or Brushing acetone and mounting them in Canada balsam on a
1. His food Parts of the body where representative samples are microscopic slide under the magnification of about
2. Habits taken from are: crown, temple, neck, eyebrows, 400x/
3. Climatic conditions eyelashes, moustaches, beard, sexual organs and Actual examination reveals:
4. Age other parts. a.Actual color of the hair
5. External treatment 2.Pulling Out b.Whether the hair has been dyed or bleached
6. Bleaching Pulled out hair are the best sample hair. Samples c.The part of the body where the hair originated
7. Cutting from living and dead persons should invariably be (head hair or like rods, eyebrows, and eyelashes
8. Combing pulled out. Some living persons may not allow pulling have pointed tips)
out of the hair. d.The morphology of the hair, it indicates the
Location of Hair Samples Pulled out hair samples are necessary where the presence or absence and nature of the medulla; and
This is a difficult task because of their incriminating hair have been allegedly pulled out. extend and nature of cortex and cuticle.
dimensions, quantity and color. The search is tedious 3.Clipping
and consuming. It is facilitated with a strong light and Collection of hair samples by clipping is the least Medullary Index
a magnifying class. satisfactory method and should be adopted only This is the ratio of the diameter of the medulla to the
when other methods cannot be applied. The hair diameter of the hair measured at the thickest
The following places should be checked for hair should be clipped as close to the skin as possible. point.This establishes the species of origin. Human
evidence: hair has a medullary index which is commonly less
1. Scene of occurrence Evaluation of Hair than 0.3. Animal hair has a medullary index generally
2. Victim 1.Visual by visual examination greater than 0.5.Medullary index varies somewhat in
3. Culprit Color male and female hair and in hair from parts of the
4. Weapon of offence Length body. Ordinarily the medullary index is greater in
5. Vehicle Character women when hair from the corresponding parts of
6. Routes Contamination of the hair the body are compared. The male beard hair have
7. Miscellaneous articles greater medullary index than the hair from other
parts.
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 of the hair also indicates any deformity or special Hair is greater in adult life. Hair of men is thicker,
Types of Medulla Based on the Medullary Index disease in the hair. more wiry, and darker than that of women’s which is
1. Narrow medulla – less than 0.5 (humans, and Vacuoles -These gives characteristics formations in downy.
certain monkeys) certain species which are useful in their
2. Medium medulla – 0.5 (cows, horses, and identifications. Parts of the body where they originate.
others) The white race have hirsute growth on the face; the
3. Thick medulla – greater than 0.5 (almost all Factors Affecting Variations in the Structure of rest of the body may be profuse or scant. For
animals that are smaller than the above- Human Hair American Indians, Chinese and Asians, there is scant
mentioned examples. 1. Race growth of hair in the face. For the Negro race, growth
The table shows the variations in the different of hair is sometimes scant and sometimes
Comparison of Medullary Index races. profuse.Hair in the eyelids, nose, ears are about as
The table below shows the difference Race Pigment Cortex Shaft
Cross- Medull thick as the scamp hair at the root but are shorter and
between the MI of men and women. section a they taper to a point. A medullary cavity is
White Light to Loaded Either, Ovoid Central
Origin Man Woman dark with straight, shape of in apparent.Hair in the axilla and the pubic regions are
Neck 0.115 0.163 dark wavy or egg straight, fairly long and uneven. Hair in the trunk and in the
Forehead 0.132 0.148 brown curly deviate extremities vary in thickness.Using the cross-section
s from head hair has rounded shaft for straight hair and ova
Eyebrows 0.236 0.233 the
Eyelashes 0.095 0.146 center for curly while the beard is triangular with concave
Beard 0.260 in curly sides. Torso has oval or kidney-shaped.
Genitals 0.153 0.144 Americ Moderat Deeply Ditto Cylindri Ditto
an e black pigment cal or Differences between Human Hair and Animal Hair
Armpits/Axilla 0.102 0.179 Indian ed triangula
r
The table below shows the differences in the
Character of the Medulla: Chines Ditto Ditto Ditto Ditto Ditto morphological structure of hair in humans and in
1. May be continuous e animals.
Asians Ditto Ditto Ditto Ditto Ditto Morphological Human Hair Animal Hair
2. May be fragmentary Negro Dark Kinky Ditto Ovoid Deviate Structure
3. May be absent pigment black and s from Medulla Air network in fine Air network in the
4. May be masked by the hair pigment ed narrow the grains; cells are form of large or
5. May be made visible by bleaching the hair. center invisible without small sacks; cells
Fil-Am Variatio Variatio Variatio Variation Variatio treatment with easily visible,
Hybrid ns ns ns s ns water, medullary medullary index
Pigment of the Hair:-This is helpful in the study of Albino Lack Lack index <0.3; fuzz >0.5 fuzz with
species of origin and in the identification of hair of an pigment pigment without medullar medulla.
individual. It is often an important characteristics and on hair on their Cortex Looks like a thick Looks like a fairly
and skin skin muff; pigment in think hollow
permits elimination of certain suspected sources of the form of very cylinder; pigment
hair. fine granules in the form of
Roots and Ends-These reveal whether the hair have 2.Age irregular grains
been pulled out or not. Whether they have been cut. Infant hair is called lanugo. These are fine; they do larger than
If so, when they were lash cut. When tips are freshly not posses medulla; almost colorless. At puberty, human’s
medullary cavity are apparent.While hair is Cuticle Thin scales’ not Thick scales,
cut, they have sharp cut ends. The tips gradually protruding; protruding not
become round with the passage of time. Blunt translucent almost transparent. covering 1 another covering one
weapons cause frayed and irregular ends. Sharpe- 3.Sex to about 4/5 another to the
same degree as
edged instruments cause sharp edges. Examination humans.

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 Threads resembling bamboo, cross lines frequently intersect
FIBERS Piece of cloth appearing like the letter x.
The mutual transfer frequently takes place in Article of clothing ❖ Cultivated silk
many crimes. These, therefore, link the criminal with Piece of rope, string or cord Smooth, cylindrical, lustrous threads, usually single
the crime.Fibers are more valuable than hair because Wool, hair, fur or fur hair but often double, the twin filaments held together by
of the large available variety of fibers. an envelope of gum, more or less transparent,
Evaluation without definite structure.
Classification of Fibers: A. Preliminary Examination ❖ Wild Silk
A. Natural Fibers 1. Twist of the thread, string, rope or cord Similar to cultivated silk but broader and less regular
1. Animal Fibers 2. Number of ply in outline, marked by very fine longitudinal striations
Wool, alpaca, cashmere, mohair, camel’s 3. Number of thread in the string with infrequent diagonal cross-markings.
hair, animals fur, natural silk. 4. Number of fibers in each thread
2. Plant fibers 5. Defects in the thread or weave pattern ❖ Artificial Silk
Cotton, flax, hemp, jule, coir 6. Thread count of cloth, both in the weft and the Cylindrical, lustrous, appearing like a glass rod,
3. Mineral Fibers warp. microchemical reactions, dissolved rapidly by half
Asbestos, glass, metal foils and threads 7. If the recovered torn piece of cloth originally saturated chronic acid, not colored by Millon’s
formed part of the standard provided. reagent as in the case of true silk.
B. Modified Fibers ❖ Wool
1. Rayon - modified cellulose, viscose, acetate, B. Microscopic Examination Easily distinguished by presence of flattened,
cuprammonium Structure of the fiber overlapping epidermal scales not found on silk or
2. Casein – from casein protein by extrusion of Nature of the fiber any of the vegetable fibers, many celled, cylindrical,
an alkaline solution of the protein into an acid Diameter of the fiber shaft composed of three layers, central core of
solution, then precipitated and hardened. Presence or absence of contamination medulla is seldom seen, cortex and scally cuticle.
3. Paper yarn; from wood pulp through craft Color of the fiber
process, sometimes strengthened with Physical Properties
vegetable or metal fibers. ❖ Cotton: density
Unicellular filament, flat, ribbon-like, twisted spirally refractive index
C. Synthetic Fibers to right or left on its axis; central canal or lumen birefringence
Most of the fibers have been built from broad, uniform in diameter, cell wall thick, covered tensile strength
organic compounds, Due to polymerization, variety by a thin, structureless, waxy cuticle, fiber tapes
of fibers in the market is tremendous. gradually to a blunt or rounded point at one end. Note: Microtomy reveals structural features
1. Terylene, terrene, Dacron ❖ Mercerized cotton which are otherwise difficult to comprehend.
2. Nylon Straight, cylindrical, with occasional twists, unevenly
3. Acrylics lustrous, smooth except for occasional transverse Chemical Tests:
D. Inorganic Fibers folds or wrinkles. Cuticle mostly lacking, lumen Fibers are frequently dyed. The comparison
1. Glass irregular in width. of the color is valuable to establish the identity or
2. Refractory ❖ Linen non-identity of the evidence. The dye is compared
Multicellular filament, straight and cylindrical, not by:
Evidentiary Materials twisted and flattened, tapering to a sharp point, cell 1. a comparison microscope
Fibers encountered in criminal investigation wall thick, lumen appearing as a narrow dark line in 2. paper chromatography
may be: the center of the fiber, filament marked by transverse 3. instrumental techniques: gas
Individual fiber strands lines at intervals causing the fiber to appear jointed, chromatography, DTA
122
 4. UV rays 2. Wool and silk burn very slowly and emit 4. S-containing fibers may be tested with the
an odor like that of burning feathers lead acetate paper which turns black in
Burning test 3. Fibers of plant origin burn rapidly with the presence of hydrogen sulfide
1. Pull out a single fiber and apply a flame to little accompanying odor 5. Red and blue litmus papers may also be
the end, noting the manner in which it used to determine the acidity of the fumes
burns and the odor of the fumes from the burning fiber

Cordage and cordage fibers Fibers are combed out and straightened by ❖ Rope. A cordage with a diameter greater
❖ These are involved in homicide or suicide machine than ½ inch
❖ These are usually made of cotton, flax, hemp, These are drawn into parallel position
jute, coir Then, these are twisted together to form a Classification according to size and stiffness
❖ Coir comes from cocus nucifera- coconut yarn (cellular composition)
❖ Hemp from cannabis sativa o Soft fibers. cotton (seed hair), flax, hemp, jute
❖ Sisal comes from agave rigida Definition of Terms (cellulose from the barks of dicots)
❖ Manila hemp from musa textiles ❖ String or yarns. This consist of a single yarn o Hard fibers. Manila hemp, sisal, coir, New
❖ Sunn hemp from crotalaria juncea or 2, 3, or more yarns twisted together Zealand hemp (sclerenchyma elements closely
❖ New Zealand hemp from chromium tenax ❖ Rope. 3 or more strands are twisted together; bound together in bundles. Sisal, coir, and NZ
a strand consisting of 2 or more twisted yarns hemp are leaves of monocots which are found
Manufacture of these fibers ❖ Thick string. A cord with vascular tissues)
❖ Rope. 3 or more cords twisted together
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o Thread. 3 or more yarns tightly twisted, singed, Analysis of Glass ✓ When a force pushes on one side of a pane of
polished; generally smooth condition for use in glass, the elasticity of glass permits it to bend
sewing. Physical Properties in the direction of the forced applied.
o Thread. Also means threads per inch in a cloth Comparison of this type will require piercing ✓ Once the elastic limit is exceeded, the glass
together irregular edges of broken glass as begins to crack.
Chemical Tests matching all irregularities and situations on the ✓ Radial cracks are first commencing on the
broken surfaces. side of the glass opposite to the destructive
Glass and Fractures ✓ Flotation force.
Solid particles will float, sink, or remain ✓ Concentric cracks occur afterwards, starting
▪ This unit in significant in the examination of suspended in a liquid depending on the density on the same side as the force.
fractures and shards. relative to the liquid medium. The Density
▪ Glass is a hard noncrystalline material that is Gradient Tube Method is used. Derivations from the study of fractures:
usually clear and transparent. ✓ Immersion Method POINT OF IMPACT
▪ The glassy state or vitreous state is one in Glass particles are immersed in a liquid medium The front of the glass can be determined due to
which the atoms of the substance are whose refractive index is varied until it is equal to the accumulation of dust and dirt on the glass.
arranged at random rather than in a regular that of the glass particles. DIRECTION OF IMPACT
pattern. ✓ Beckeline Method (Refractive Index Test) A bullet will make a clear cut hole in the side of
▪ It may also be defined as an inorganic, hard The minimum contrast between the glass and the the entrance rather than on the exit side. If a shot is
substance usually transparent or translucent liquid medium, this is a bright halo that is fired perpendicularly it will give a crater of uniform
which form fluid condition at a high observed near the border of the particle that is flakings.
temperature has passed to a solid condition immersed in a liquid of a different refractive
with sufficient rapidity to prevent the index. This halo disappears when the medium CAUSE OF FRACTURE
formation of crystals. and the fragment have similar refractive indices. Fracture due to heat does not exhibit a definite
▪ glass is a supercooled liquid ✓ Hot Stage Microscope pattern of radial and concentric fractures but are
The glass is immersed in a high boiling liquid, characteristically wavy. They show very little stress
▪ Composition of Glass usually Si oil, and is heated at the rate of 0.2o C/ lines whereas fractures due to mechanical means
1. Silica sand or SiO2 min until the match point is reached. show a different pattern of radial and concentric
2. Soda and Sodium Carbonate (Na2O fractures.
and Na2CO2) Two Kinds of Glass Fractures
3. Limestone (CaCO3) ✓ Radial Fractures – crack from first DETERMINATION OF THE FIRST SHOT FROM A
These are primary fractures that SERIES OF SHOTS
The table shows some colors and the elements resemble the spokes of a wheel radiating The radial fracture of the first bullet hole will end stop
present in glass outward from the point of impact. the radial fractures of the succeeding bullet holes.
✓ Concentric Fractures – side Special Glassware’s
Color Element/s These are secondary fractures having 1. Pyrex glassware – aluminum oxid Alo2
green Cr, Fe the appearance of circles around the point 2. Safety glassware – plastic between two glass
blue Cu, Co of impact connecting one radiating crack to plates/ shards are not sharp
red Cu, Se the other, thus forming triangular pieces of 3. Mirrors
purple Mn glass. a. plain mirrors
brown Fe, S b. one-way mirror
ruby Colloidal gold The Breaking of Glass 4. Photochromic glasses – collodial silver
yellow U, Ce

124
Petrography as Applied to Crime Detection ▪ Metamorphic rocks are those that . melting point is about 1600oC
Petrography is a branch of geology which deals with developed and changed from sedimentary
the systematic classification and identification of and igneous rocks through heat and Calcite
rock-forming minerals and soils.Minerals are pressure. . CaCO3
materials found in the earth’s crust. Example is coat that has changed to . hardness is 3
anthracite. . specific gravity is 2.72
12 Most Abundant Elements in the Earth’s ▪ Soil, in crime detection, is considered as . hexagonal crystals
Crust matter in the wrong place. . colorless to white to amber or to any color
▪ Soil is taken for granted by investigations.
Elements Percentage ▪ However, soil will give n important clue in Dolomite
oxygen Ox 49.5 crime detection. . CaCO3, MgCO3
silicon Si 25.7 . hardness is between 3.5 - 4.0
aluminum Al 7.5 ➢ Constituents of Soil . specific gravity is 2.85
iron Fe 4.7 *Primary minerals-undecomposed fragments of . hexagonal crystals
calcium Cg 3.4 rocks igneous, sedimentary, metamorphic rocks . frequently as a massive gray or white rock, finely to
sodium Na 2.6 minerals that could be found: quartz, silica, calcite, coarsely granular, resembling limestone
potassium 2.4 dolomite, mica, feldspar, hornblende, or pyroxene
magnesium 1.9 other constituents of primary minerals: gysum, talc, Mica
kaolinite, limonite, serpentine, magnetine . any of large group of aluminum – silicate materials
hydrogen 0.9
. easily splits into very thin flexible sheets
Titanium 0.6
Characteristics of Common Primary Materials . muscovite – KAI2 (AlSi3O10) (OH)2
chlorine 0.2
❖ Quartz . Phologopite – KMg3 (AlSi3O10) (OH)2
phosphorous 0.1
 present in the three main types of rocks . Paragonite – NaAl2 (AlSi3O10) (OH)2
 common vein-forming mineral . Lepidolite – Kli2 (Si4O10) (OH)2
▪ The upper 10 miles of the crust is about 95%  12% of the earth’s crust
igneous (solidification of molten mineral  formula is SiO2 Feldspar
mixtures granite and basalt), 4% shale, 0.75%  specific gravity is 2.65 . chief constituents are plutonic igneous rocks
sandstone, and 0.25% limestone.  has a hardness of 7’the only mineral that . Silicates of Al, K, Na, Ca, and rarely Ba
▪ Igneous rocks are of the following: scratches glass
❖ Spinel type – Mg, Fe, Cr oxides  transparent, translucent, opaque, or maybe Pyroxene
❖ Olivines – Mg and Fe silicates colorless glassy or waxy luster, some . K, Al, SiO3 2, Fe, Na, Mg
❖ Feldspars – Ca, Na, and Al silicates varieties are dull . Hardness is a physical property of mineral rocks
▪ These were originally magma or molten Silica . To measure hardness, a scale uses 1 to 10
material. That comes from inside the earth. . formula is SiO2. . The scale is called Mohs Scale of Hardness
▪ Sedimentary rocks are the products of the
. common compound in nature . Mohs scale has the following minerals
action of water, wind, sulfurous acid, and .colorless, tasteless and physiologically inert corresponding to a number, wherein the number
other agents. These tended to collect in although prolonged breaking of silica dust leads to indicates its hardness
rivers, lakes, and oceans. Seepage of water silicosis. . The first one is soft, followed by a hard mineral, then
tended to cement the particles. Shale, . insoluble in water, most acids, and alkalis, but it a harder and so on and so forth, the hardest being is
sandstone, and limestone comprised 5% of reacts with HF and slowly with heated H5PO4 diamond.
the Earth’s crust. Examples are . crystals are hard and transparent and have a 1. Talc
dolomite, siltstone, and sandstone. specific gravity of about 2.6 2. Gypsium
125
 3. Calcite • Metallurgy is a branch of metallurgy that ❖ Radiograph, sometimes, reveals the number.
4. Flourite involves the microstructures of metals and ❖ Or the metal is placed in a magnetic field and
5. Apatite alloys. iron filings in a liquid base are spread over the
6. Orthoclase • Alloys are combination of metals. surface. The digits and letters are formed by
7. Quartz • A metallographic microscope can determine the arrangement of the iron particles.
8. Topaz structures of different metals. ❖ Electrolytic dissolution or deposition has also
9. Corundum been utilized to find the number.
10. Diamond Metallurgy as applied to crime detection is ❖ If the number is engraved, it may not be
involved in: possible to restore it especially if the engraving
Actually, diamond is 40 x harder 1. robbery has been down with an electric engraver.
than corundum, but there are no other 2. hit-and-run ❖ Chisel and hammer engraving may compress
minerals that can go between corundum and 3. restoration of serial numbers the metal somewhat and permit restoration.
diamond. 4. counterfeit coins ❖ Enlarged photographs of the engraved marks
• Clay 5. road accidents after polishing, cleaning and removing paint
This is a mixture of decomposing 6. theft and dirt may reveal the original number is
minerals. An example of this is hydrated some cases.
aluminum silicate, a decomposing feldspar. The focus of this unit is Macroetching or
The color of clay depends on the cations that restoration of serial number. Moulage
are present. • If a motor vehicle or other article is stolen, the Moulage is a cast is Plaster of Paris or other
• Organic Constituents thief tries to change the original serial number similar materials, of an object or of its impressed
Organic matter in the soil comes from on the engine and the chassis by filing, outlines on a surface.
dead plants, decomposing bodies, manure hammering or chiseling. Reproducing representation of objects is of
and other plants left alone on the soil • He changes the original digits and design. great value in scientific, criminal investigation.
• He also changes the registration number on the Photography preserves the evidence. However, in
Classification of Dust plate. many cases photography is not enough since it only
1. Dust deposited from the air • Sometimes, instead of using a fresh registration presents a two-dimensional representation. It usually
2. road and footpath dust number plate., the fictitious number is painted fails when spatial relations are needed in establishing
3. Industrial dust over the previous numbers after covering the proofs of the crime. Photography representation may
4. Occupational dust first with a thick coal of paint. not be viable in cases involving tool marks,
1. Analysis of Dust • The change in numbers is deciphered through footprints, tooth impressions, and keys.
1. Density Gradient Tube Method restoration.
2. UV light Casting methods can create a mold which can
• The covered number is found by removing the
3. Treatment with 0.1M HCI serve as faithful representation of objects that may be
paint.
4. Treatment with C2H5OH found in the crimes scene.
In general, any materials from a plastic state,
Macroetching is done by doing the following:
Metallurgy As Applied to Crime Detection (moldable state) or liquid state to solid condition is
• The surface is cleaned with an emery paper,
• Metallurgy is the art and science of extracting capable to create a mold.
polished, stenciled, etching fluids are applied,
metals from their ores.
and stenciled again.
• Ores are minerals that can be used as a sources Criteria for Casting Materials:
• The result can be determined because of the
for the commercial production of materials.
difference in reaction rate at the punched
• Must be fluid
surface and the rest of the surface that makes
• Must harden rapidly
the original number visible.
126
• Must no be deformable • Id does not give good result in deep scrapes • Pharmacology is the study of the response
• Must be tough and indentations. of living organisms or drugs.
• Must be easy to apply 4. Latex and Plastic Solutions • What is POISON? Too much sugar may give
• Must have no tendency to adhere to the • Latex is rubber juice and is useful to collect tool a child stomach ache. Too much salt may
materials. marks. act as an emetic. Overdose of iron
• Should have a fine composition • It is a good materials for scrape marks but it is supplement causes deleterious effects
• Should not injure the impression not so good for indentations especially deep amount to toxic materials on human health.
• Should be obtainable ones, as, due to stretching, the dimensions of • A poison is a substance which on being
• Must be cheap. the lifted marks change. absorbed into the body injures health or
• The materials is poured over the bearing destroys life. Any substance can act as a
Casting Materials marks. poison when taken in excess. Sugar, salt,
1. Plasticine • It then-allowed to dry about six hours. and vitamins may act as poisons.
• Plasticine is available in most of the places and • Then thin film or sheet is peeled off. • Legally, poisoning is established if it is
the casts are easy to make. • Plastic solutions are equally useful to lift the proven that a substance (poison, stupefying
• They do not pick details and are easily marks and are processed in a similar way. or intoxicating agent or a prohibited drug
deformed. 5. Wood’s Metal or as unwholesome drug) was administered
• They are prepared only when they are not • This is an alloy which melts at low temperature. with the intention to cause hurt or knowing
required for permanent record or when the • It is used for indentations with appreciable that a substance was likely to cause hurt.
area bearing the marks is small. depth on metal surfaces.
• A lump of plasticine is taken and pressed in • The alloy is melted and poured into the mark. Investigation of poisoning cases is a difficult task.
between two wet glass plates to give it • Is solidifies on cooling and picks the details • The amount of poison required to kill a
smooth surfaces. The slightly moistened from the mark victim is extremely small in some cases.
smooth areas is pressed against the mark. 6. Plaster of Baris • This if further complicated by the variety of
The moistened plasticine does not stick to • The materials is useful when the dimensions of poisons emerging during these times.
the surface and picks up the details. the tool marks are important. • Some drugs close to an another in terms of
2. Dental Mass • The materials is not so good to pick up the fine action are chemically and physiologically
• Dental mass is available with dental surgeon or details. the same. Identification requires the most
a chemist selling dental materials and record • The highest quality of Plaster of Paris (pop) advanced analytical technique.
the marks permanently. should be used. • The body, in which the poisons are found, is
• The materials is kneaded under the water and made of complex mixture of organic and
when it is soft uniform in texture, it is pressed Forensic Toxicology inorganic compounds that interface in the
between two glass plates to give smooth Poisons are frequently involved in homicidal, isolation, detection and estimation of the
surfaces. accidental or suicidal deaths. These poisons are used poisons.
• The materials, while still warm, is pressed to destroy plants and animals. The detection of • A toxicologist finds it difficult to isolate the
against the tools marks and left at the site for poisons and their identification is an important aspect poison in pure form. If ever it is done, it is
some time. of forensic toxicology. comparatively easier to identify and
• It picks up the marks and then becomes hard. • Toxicology is a branch pharmacology that estimate the quantity.
3. Adhesive Tape deals with the effects of posions, their ❖ How is poison administered?
• Adhesive tape used to lift fingerprints can be identification of detection, and the 1. Food (most frequent method)
used to lift shallow tools marks. development and used of antidotes. 2. Cigarettes
3. Substitute for medicines
4. Injections
127
 5. Introduction through vagina (cases on Certain recluses take as regularly. They remain The evidentiary clues collected from the
abortion) unaffected by the usually fatal doses of as. scene are varied in nature.
6. Introduction through the anus and the skin • Dosage 1. Vomitus
(irritant poisons) The smaller the dose, less troublesome is the 2. Purge material
action. 3. Urine or fecal stains
Action of poison according the site of destruction: • Nature of the Poisons. 4. Clothes, bed sheets and bed covers
• Local. “Local” poisons destroy parts of the • Nature of the individual 5. Medicines the victim or his family may have
body with which they come in contact. • Method of Administration been using.
Examples of local poisons: strong acids Poisons that are directly injected into the blood 6. All containers of medicine.
and alkalis like concentrated sulfuric acid stream have immediate effect. 7. Remains of food or drink which the victim
sodium hydroxide respectively. Poisons added to food may be eliminated might have taken or discarded, including
Local poison may be corrosives and through vomit and purges. Those intialed with sugar, salt, spices, flour, baking powder and
irritants. air or singly may get absorbed in the blood cooking recipes.
• Remote. “Remote” poisons affect the victim stream and affect the victim almost 8. Containers of food and drink if they are
when these enter their bloodstream. immediately. empty bottles and tin cans which may have
Examples of remote poisons are • Health of the individual been lying at the spot or in the garbage.
alcohol, opium and opiates. • Age of the individual 9. Cooking utensils
Note: Some poisons have both local and • Individual Allergy of the Individual 10. Solids and liquids contained in traps of sinks.
remote action. Remote poisons are sometimes • State of the Poisons: Gas, Liquid, Solid.
called “systemic” poisons. If solid, if is fine, coerces or emulsified. Autopsy Materials
❖ Action of Poison according to the The Following materials are a “must”
• Empty Stomach.
times it takes effect: 1. Vomitus and purges
• Idiosyncracy
• Immediate – Immediate poisons are 2. Blood (about 500 ml)
Some stomachs are more easily upset by an
sometimes termed acute poisons 3. Urine (total amount recovered)
unusual article. They may eliminate the poisons
• Cumulative – Cumulative poisons are 4. Stomach contents (whole)
through vomiting and purging.
sometimes called chronic poisons. 5. Intestines
6. Liver (Whole)
Types of Poison
Note: If the persons survives, it is because the 7. Kidneys
1. Organic
poison is eliminated through body excretions. 8. Spleen
Synthetic drugs, alcohol, petroleum products,
Some poisons get accumulated in the body and insecticides, chloro-compounds, aromatic
when a certain level is reached, the persons dies. The Following Materials are Helpful:
and organo-P-compounds
This called “Lethal Dose” or LD50 1. Brain (whole)
2. Inoganic
2. Lung (one)
Metals, metalloids, non-metals, salts, acids,
❖ Factors that affect the action of poisons 3. Heart (Heart)
bases: As, SB, Pb salts, cyanides, fluorides,
• Habit of the individual 4. Muscles (500g)
CO, H2S, Cl2, Br2, I2.
Addicts of liquor, cannabis, opium are 5. Bone (500 g)
3. Biological
unaffected by the normal fatal doses of the 6. Hair and Nails (10 g)
All poisonous plants and their parts (leaves,
materials. bark, seeds, fruit, stems and roots) and
Snake charmers who get snake bites regularly. Note:
extracts from these plants. Opium,
They get almost complete immunity from snake • Helpful for gaseous and volatile poison
strychnine, cocaine, atropine.
bite poisoning.
Collection
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 • For acute poisoning cases and where the body 3. One of the parts is weighed and acidified. It is related materials. Biological methods are used to
is extremely putrefied muscles are resistant to steam-distilled. test and identify the active ingredient of the
putrefaction and are not easily decomposed. 4. The residue is made alkaline and again poison. These could be leaves, or roots or barks
steam-distilled. of trees that are poisonous.
For non-fatal poisoning cases, the following are Note: Steps 3 and 4 are necessary for volatile poisons,
helpful: gases, alcohols, phenois, phosphorous, organic liquid, Identification Techniques
1. Purges and vomitus if any and solvents (basic, acidic, neutral) to be distilled over. After isolation, the poison can be identified by the
2. Saliva and other excretion stains 5. The individual volatile poisons are tested in following:
3. Urine (whole) the distillates. 1. Color Reaction
4. Stomach washing 6. The non-volatile organic compounds are then Some reactions are very sensitive and therefore
5. Blood (50mL, preferably more) extracted. A weighed portion of the materials they can detect a class of poisons in minute
is acidified. It is saturated with (NH4)2SO4 and quantities. These reaction are not specific for an
Note: filtered. The filtrate is extracted with CHCI. individual poison.
1. Blood, urine and stomach contents (subject to The extracts contain acidic and neutral 2. Melting Points (m.p.)
putrefaction) should be placed in refrigerator organic compounds. The suspected poison is mixed with an authentic
as soon as possible and dispatched at the 7. The acidic aqueous layer left after the sample and if the m.p. is not depressed the
earliest. The container should be kept cooled extraction is made alkaline and again identify of the suspected materials is established.
in crushed ice while in transit. extracted with CHCI3 or ether. The solvent The difficulty here lies in the fact that the pure
2. Preservatives should not be added. extracts basic organic compounds. sample is difficult to procure.
3. The material should not spill over or get 3. Boiling Point (m.p.)
contaminated due to breakage, seepage or Note: Steps 6 and 7 extract all organic compounds. The liquid poisons are determined by their b.p.’s.
through dirty containers. The quantity extracted depends upon their Some heavy oils and high b.p. liquids are
relatives solubilities in the two media and also upon distilled under reduced pressure. Comparison
❖ Symptoms of Poisoning the thoroughness of the extraction technique. with standard boiling points of liquid indicate the
1. Vomiting (due to As, acids, alkalis, excess (NH4)2SO4 is added for deproteinization and identify.
liquor and certain metallic salts) the precipitation of fats. Na2SO4 may also be used. 4. Crystal Structure
2. Diarrhea (agents causing vomiting) Most of the substance and their derivatives have
3. Cramps (caused by metallic poisons like As, B. Isolation of Metallic Poisons definite crystal structures. The substance of their
Sb, and Pb) 1. Wet Proces derivatives are crystallized. Then, the crystal
4. Delirium (caused by dhatura, cannabis, This makes use of HCI and KCIO3 or HNO3 structure are studied.
alcohol, atropine, hyoscine, and LSD. and H2SO4 mixtures in order to destroy the 5. Microscopy
5. Convulsions (caused by strychnine, nicotine, organic matter. And excess of the oxidizing Vegetable materials such as leaves and bark are
and cyanides) agent is used to ensure complete oxidation. identified through microscopy only. Some
6. Paralysis (snake venom, aconite, and As) After this, only cations and anions are left. organic substance are likewise identified like the
7. Coma (caused barbiturates, opium, and its 2. Dry Process former.
products, CO, chloroform, and excess of This is used only when the metallic poison is
liquors) non-volatile. The materials is incinerated and General Test for Metals
the ash is tested for different metals. 1. Reinsch Test
❖ Isolation 2. Spectography
A. From the Viscera and other Body Parts. C. Isolation of Plant Materials 3. Dithizone Test
1. The materials is hashed into a slurry This is a difficult task. This is done by the 4. Mayer’s Test
2. The same is divided into 3-6 equal parts. microscopic study of the stomach content and 5. Wagner’s Test
129
 6. Phophoacid Test graph. The trace thus obtained is characteristic of the Detection: Reinsch Test, Marsh Test. Gutreit Test.
compound like the fingerprints of a man. Bettendorf Reaction, Spectrographic analysis are
Modern Techniques 3. X-ray diffraction sued for quantitative estimation lodometric litration
High precision instruments are used in detecting This uses X-rays to diffract through the molecules useful after the wet destruction of biological
poisons. and crystals. The diffraction pattern depends materials.
These are dependable and the degree or purify upon the disposition of the various groups and Toxicology Materials: vomitus, purges, blood urine,
required for their identify is very high. radicals in the molecules. The pattern is stomach and its content, intestines, liver, kidney,
These are sensitive, specific and require only photographed and compared with known spleen, hair, nails, skin, burnt bones and ash (in case
micro quantities. diffraction patterns to establish the identity. of cremation).
They are costly and 4. Neutron Activation Analysis (NAA)
Advanced training in the handling of the The principle behind this technique is the fact 2. Cyanides (CN)
equipment and sufficient experience in the that when various elements are bombarded with One of the deadliest poisons, they combine with
work to interpret the results correctly are neutrons, they become radioactive. The activity blood and prevent supply of O2 to the tissues.
necessary. nature of radioactivity depends upon the elements Nature: HCK, KCN, NaCH, Hg(CN)2, AgCN, contain
and its quantity. The activity I measured by CN in significant quantities practically non-toxic
The following technique are used: spectrometers. The measurement give both provided HCN is not liberated from them.
1. Chromatography qualitative and quantitative analysis. Uses: In metallurgy of Ag and Au, in hardening of
Paper, TLC, and gas chromatography NAA can detect and estimate quantities of steel, in photography, and in electroplating,
In gas chromatography, a measured amount of elements as small as 10 12g. NAA is used notably in sometimes used as an insecticide and in some
the substance to be tested is injected into a heated the detection of As and Pb in body tissues like hair pharmaceutical preparations.
chamber where it vaporizes of pyrolyres. The and nails. Administration: As Cn or food additives; quick and
product is carried over a carrier gas through Hair sample of Napoleon Bonaparte (1.72 mg) painless death encourage their use, being mistaken
separating columns. The constituents of the substance was irradiated by thermal neutrons for one day are as a medicine inhalation of CN gas, excessive use of
get separated and pass through a detector. The 1012n/cm/sec in a nuclear reactor at the Atomic oil of bitter almonds as flavoring agent.
detector is connected to a read-out. The Energy. Research Establishment. Hanwell. Symptoms: The effect appears within a few second
chromatogram, thus obtained, to compared with Thereafter, the sample was returned and the and the victim dies within a few minutes; bitter
chromatograms of standard compounds and is extracted. As with added As carrier was tested by burning taste, smell of bitter almonds, salivation,
identified. Quantitative estimation is made from the modified gutzeit technique. The activity of the hair giddiness, numbness, convuisions, paralysis.
peak area, automatically given by an integrator. sample was compared with that from the standard As Port-mortem Findings: Skin becomes red or violet
This technique is used for gaseous, liquids, and sample and the As content of the hair was calculated. in color; hands and jaws are clenched; froth appears
volatile poisons. Those poisons which pyrolyze to The value found for the sample of hair was in the mouth; pupils are dilated, smell of bitter
identifiable products like barbiturates have also been 10.38ppm. This is high by comparison wait the almonds; If KOH is added to the KCN, inflammation
identified and estimated by this technique. normal mean As content of about 0.8 ppm. and ulceration of the mouth, food tract and stomach.
2. Spectrophotpmetry Unfortunately, it was not possible to make any Detection:
UV and IR spectrophotometric techniques are replication as no further hair samples were available. - Characteristics odor of bitter almonds
used to detect, identify and estimate some poisons. Individual Poisons - Prussian blue test
The sample to be identified is mixed in a suitable A. INORGANIC POISONS - Sulfo-cyanide test
substance (solid or liquid) and a beam of IR or UV 1. Arsenic (As) Estimation:
rays is passed through the sample. The energy One of the oldest poisons know to man, it has Titration of the aqueous CN with AgNO, solution in
consumed depends upon the molecular structure of been used throughout the ages to poisons man and the presence of dilute NaOH. End point is noted with
the compound. The sbsorption is recorded on a animals. acetone solution of rhodamine which gives a color

130
change from yellow to pink. 1 ml of n/200 AgNo, = Toxicological Materials: Vomitus, stomach washings, d. Spirits: whiskey; brandy, run, gin, these 40-60%
0.266 mg, HCN = 0.652 mg KCN = 0.4915 mg NaCn. stomach contents, intestines, liver, kidneys. alcohol.
Toxicological Materials: Vomitus, purges, blood,
viscera, intestines, brain, liver. B. ORGANIC POISONS: Properties: in pure state, C2H5OH is a colorless,
3. Copper Sulfate (CuSO4 anhydrous) • Alcohol transparent liquid; b.p. is 48 4oC; miscible with water
A white powder it crystallizes with water to give blue • Barbiturates in all proportions; has a pleasant odor and a burning
crystals (Blue vitriol) • Organo-phosphorous compounds taste; causes irritation when it comes it contact with
Uses: In industry, medicine, disinfectant skin or body tissues.
Administration: accidental poisoning through mouth 1. Alcohol Absorption: When taken, it immediately start getting
either in pure form or mixed with food; through One of the oldest intoxicant know to man, absorbed in the body through stomach membranes
vagina, rectum, and through injection. continuous efforts have been done to control its or small intestines; about 20% is absorbed almost
Symptoms: Metallic taste, burning sensation in the consumption because of its devastating effects on immediately while the rest is absorbed in about 1/2 hr
stomach, salivation, thirst, nausea, vomiting, human life. Cases of assault are due to the influence – 2 hrs; tolerance, food, concentration are the factors
diarrhea, convulsions, paralysis, coma death. of alcohol. Victims of assaults are also under the which affect absorption, on absorption it enters the
Post-mortem Findings: Greenish froth, mucus influence of alcohol. Alcohol has adversely blood stream and is distributed uniformly in all the
membrane of alimentary canal are inflamed and influenced the rate of road accident. body fluids; it is not absorbed by bones, hair, nails,
ulcerated. Cu may be found deposited inside. The active ingredient of liquor is ethanol of and fat of the body; the equilibrium is reached in
Isolation: By incineration in an electric at 500oC; by C2H5OH. Excess dose of C2H5OH is fatal. about 1/2 hr – 2 hrs depending upon the factors, if
wet oxidation with H2SO4 and HNO. Nature: C2H5OH is obtained by fermentation of drinking is continued equilibrium is not reached;
Detection: Precipitation with H2S in acid medium sugars, molasses, grains, fruit juices and starches. alcohol concentration during the drinking period will
K4Ke(CN)6 gives chocolate brown precipitate with The final fermented mass contains about 10% alcohol. be higher in arteries than in veins, blood, urine,
CuSO4 deposits Cu on an Fe nail; spectrograph gives This is purified by distillation. Common alcoholic breath, saliva, perspiration, spinal cord fluid, and
a characteristic spectrogram. drinks are: brain fluid are fluids for testing purpose.
a. Beer: Beer ale and stout 2-6% alcohol content; Elimination: Immediately after absorption, the
Estimation: Spectrographically, colorimetrically- obtained from barley; not distilled. system starts elimination of the alcohol; most of it
sodium diethyldithiocarbamate forms a complex with b. Wines: Champagne, hock, burgundy, claret; 10% (90%) is metabolized by the kidneys; the rest is
CuSO4 which is soluble in C5H11OH; A photoelectric alcohol; not distilled. eliminated by the lungs, sweat pores, and through
colorimeter estimates its amount; iodometric titration. c. Fortified Wines: Port sherry; 10-20% alcohol; urine the rate of elimination varies with different
fermented wines are fortified by the addition of individuals; about.
alcohol. About ml of absolute alcohol/hr is the commonly acce

Table 2:BAC in Male Subjects of Different Body Note: The grid above shows the effect of weight and the this means ¼ of a bottle of whiskey or about 7 bottles of
Weights Drinks in one hour drink per hour on the BAC. They axis on the extreme beer onward for adults.
left shows the weight of an individual in pounds. The x
1 2 3 4 5 axis on the topmost row presents the number of drinks Other Factors which determine the effects of
100 0.04 0.09 0.15 0.2 0.25 in one hour. alcohol: % of alcohol in the drink and the times taken
120 0.03 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.21 for talking a given quantity of alcohol.
140 0.02 0.06 0.1 0.14 0.18 • Reprinted from Human Pharmacology
160 0.02 0.05 0.09 0.12 0.15 Molecular of Clinical by Lemuel B. Wingrad Jr. Alcoholic Allergy: Drinks madden the drinker making
180 0.02 0.05 0.08 0.1 0.13 them behave like maniacs under the influence of liquor.
Blood Alcohol Concentration Percentage. Fatal Dose: 200-500 ml of absolute alcohol for adults;
50 ml onward for children under the age of 12 years;
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Abnormal Tolerance: Tolerance varies from one
individual to another; in rare cases, the drinks do not Medical Examination of Intoxication
affect the person at all peculiar body tissues or sheer • Smell of Breath
will power may be the reason for the abnormal • State of clothing
tolerance. • General demeanor
Normal Uses: Solvent, fuel in industry and in • Speech
pharmaceutical preparations. • Clean and dry tongue
Evidence of Intoxication: Blood, urine, saliva, breath. • Slurred speech
• Dilated pupils
Evaluation of Evidences: • Staggering gait
• Alcoholic Content: specific gravity, refractive index • Short memory
• Total Solids: S1-S2 • Breathing with hisccups
• 0.00386 • Tremors in hands, arms, feet, legs.
• Acidity: CH3COOH
• Sugars: Benedict’s Test Physical Tests:
• Ash • Walk in a zig-zag path
• Pick up small items
Miscellaneous Items: • Perform simple mental calculations
• Essential oils, • Write quickly.
• CH3OH
• C3H2OH Alcoholic Analysis:
• Glycerol • Chemical Analysis:
• Furfural Cavett’s Method
• Sulfate Gas Chromatography
• Sulfite • Biological Analysis: ADH method
• Pb.
• As Breath Analyzers:
Note: These are analyzed through spectrography. • Drunkometer
• Alcometer
Identification of C2H5OH • Intoximeter
• Lodoform Test • Alcotest
• Esterfication
• Boiling Point
• Specific Gravity
• Refractive Index
• Gas Chromatography

Symptoms: mental confusion, muscular a. Million’s Test gives white precipitate with
weakness, coma (last for days), death barbiturates
Administration: oral, IV Post-mortem findings: no characteristic findings b. Fusion with NaOH pellet gives out NH3
Detection: c. Melting Points
132
 d. Paper and TLC give characteristic Rf b. Nitro group in insecticides is reduced to nausea, vomiting, drowsiness, contraction of pupils
e. Gas chromatography gives characteristic amino group which after diazotization and and unconsciousness, death.
traces of pyrolyzed products. coupling with beta-naphihol gives intense Post-mortem findings: characteristic smell of
f. Dillie-koppanyi Test gives violet-blue colored dyes. opium (not present in the body if it has putrefied),
color with barbiturates c. TLC on silica get using rhodamine B spray signs of asphyxia (froth in the mouth and nostrils),
Estimation: followed by exposive to Br2 vapor gives found in the stomach.
a. Semiquantitation by comparing the area of purple spots against white background. Rf Isolation: Minced tissues are treated with 5%
the developed spot on paper or TLC with the values are characteristic for each individual CH2COOH: (NH4)2SO4 is added for
spot area of known amount of the barbiturate. organo-P-compounds. deproteinization, materials is heated in a boiling
b. Titration of the alcohol solution of barbiturate d. UV spectrophometry water bath for about 6 hours the filtrate is
with AgNO3 solution. extracted with organic solvents in alkaline
End point is observed by the appearance of slight Toxicology Materials: vomitus, urine, blood, medium.
yellow turbidity. stomach contents, liver. Detection:
a. Huseman Test
2. Organo-Phosphorous Compounds C. Biological Poisons b. Oliver’s Test
Nature: Source plants c. Meconic Acid Test
• Powerful insecticides. 1. Opium (Papever somniferum Linn) d. Porphyroxin Test
• Deadly poisons e. Marquis Test
• Examples: Folidot (parathion): Tic 20 Nature: f. Merck’s Test
(Sumethion; diazinone). • Dried juice of unripe poppy heads: g. Paper and TLC
Malathion, Meta Systox, Roger (Dimethoate), • When fresh and moist, it is plastic but Estimation: Purified extracted residue is
Demecran (Phosphamidon). Fenitrothion on complete drying, it becomes hard dissolved in neutral C3H5OH. A known volume of
Fensulphothion, Thiodemetion, Delfdiptere, and brittle. 0.02 N H2SO4 is titrated with 0.02 N NaOH Methyl
Baytese. • Dark brown in color. red is the indicator. Each mL 0.02 N H2SO4 = 57.0
• They are complex organic radicals. • A complex mixture of alkalolds. mg opium (c).
• The most important being morphine. Toxicology Materials: Vomitus, blood, urine,
Use: agriculture, horticulture, kill bugs, flies, and • Its derivatives are heroin, codeine, stomach contents, intestines, liver, kidney, brain.
other pests. narcotine, papaverine, and thebaine:
Administration: as food, accidental, injection. a habit-forming drug, produces high 2. Other Miscellaneous Plants:
Symptoms: Headache, giddiness, nausea, psychological and physical • Oleander (leaves)
salivation, vomiting, diarrhea, mental confusion, dependences. • Azalea (all parts)
delirium, paralysis, coma, death. • Codeine is used in cough syrup, • Poinsettia (leaves, flowers)
Post-mortem findings: no characteristic findings. heroine is preferred by addicts. • Dieffenbachia (all parts)
Isolation: The organo-P-compounds are steam • Iris
volatile. The tissues and other biological Use: opium and opiates are medicines, pain • Wisteria
materials are acidified with H3PO4 and steam- killer, sedatives, narcotics. • English yew
distilled. The distillate extracted with C6H14 which Administration: oral, IV smoking, through • Lily of the Valley
on evaporation gives residue that contains the wounds, rectum, vagina; in excessive dosage, it is • Jerusalem cherry
organo-P-compound. a poison. • Caladium
Detection and estimation: Symptoms: Effects depend the quantity taken, • English ivy
a. Insecticides with para-nitrophenyl group health and habit of the individual and mode of • Hydrangea
gives yellow color on healing with alkali. administration in the initial stages, headache,
133
 • Bleeding Heart Administration: diluted methanol is sold by cannabidiol acid may be present; fatal poisoning
• Autumn crocus clandestine vendors as alcoholic beverages. is rate but symptoms of chronic poisoning are
• Holly Symptoms: Dizziness, head ache, vertigo, sufficiently serious, the patient lives in a state of
• Jimsonweed nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, blurred stupor, suffers from melancholia, and
• Amaryllis vision, partial or complete blindness, breathing hallucinates.
• Rhododendron difficulty, delirium. Convulsions, coma 5. Carbon Monoxied (CO)
respiratory failure. Nature: Highly poisonous gas; poisoning
Source: Animals Post-mortem Findings: Mucus membrane of generally occurs when the person sleeps in
• Flies, stomach is inflamed; lungs are swollen; lungs and closed cars while the engine is switched on the
• Snakes brain are congested. gas is absorbed in blood through the lungs and
Isolation: By steam distillation of the acidified form carboxyhemoglobin, and thus the oxygen-
• Insects may be poisonous
minced tissues and other biological materials. carrying capacity of the blood is reduced which
Present in the distillate with methanol and water. results in death.
Snake venom: Clear transparent liquid, toxic even in
6. Cyanogenatic Glycoside
the dry state, contain a number of poisonous
Detection: Nature: Certain oil seeds such as lin seed, leaves
compounds, dangerous when injected in the blood
1. Chromatropic Acid Test of cherry laurel, kernels of common cherry,
stream comparatively harmless when taken orally.
2. Schiff’s Test plum, peach, apples, and other millets contain a
Administration:
Estimation: poisonous substance known as cyanogenatic
Accidental poisoning comes from snake bits that are
1. Colorimetry glycosides; in the presence of water and a natural
frequent in warm and moist climate.
2. Spectrophotometry enzyme called emulsion, these cyanogenatic
Symptoms: Burning pain swelling and inflammation
3. Gas Chromatography glycosides are readily hydrolyzed and free HCN-
at the site of bite nausea and vomiting; paralysis bite
Toxicology Materials: Blood, urine, vomitus, ad deadly poison-which can be tested by Cu-
from a krait may cause severe pain in the abdomen.
stomach, contents, tissues. benzidine or guiacum r picric acid paper test.
Post-mortem Findings: Bite marks on the body of
2. Abrus precatorius 7. Ergot
the deceased, hemolytic purple blood.
Nature: Red seeds with black spot at one end; Nature:
Detection: Snake venom is tested by injecting the
sometimes white seeds abound; active A parasitic fungus, attacking the grains of certain
extract in frogs with and without anti-venom serum.
ingredients is abrin; the seeds are pulverized and plants such as rye, oats, wheat and barley during
The frog without anti-serum should die and the other
are pricked into the skin, inflammation, and wet seasons; used in some medicinal
should survive.
necrosis surround the site of the prick; death preparations; its action on the uterus is effective,
Estimation: Fatal dose of the extract for a frog is
within one to five days; symptoms are very much thus used as an abortifacient, reckless use in the
determined. The total quantity then calculated from
like those of snake poisoning. hands of “quack doctors” results in death.
the fatal dose.
3. Aconite (Aconitum chasmanthum) 8. Kuchila (Strychnos nux vomica)
Autopsy Materials: Skin around the bite, blood
Nature: Largely used in medicine, roots and all its Nature: seeds are very poisonous; grey-colored
kidneys.
parts are poisonous; the active ingredient is flat circular discs slightly concave on one side
aconitine; when applied to the tongue, tingling having shining surface with short silky hair;
D. Miscellaneous Poisons
sensation and numbness will last for several contain two main alkaloids strychnine and
1. Methanol
hours at the site – a characteristic and brucine.
Nature: colorless liquid: b.p. 64.7oC, miscible in
confirmatory physiological test to the poison. 9. Lead Salts
water and alcohol in all proportions.
4. Cannabis sativa Linn. Nature: Pb(NO3)2, PbCrO4, (CH3COO)2Pb and
Uses: solvent; manufacture of dyes and varnishes;
Nature: Odor of hashish is characteristic and is other lead salts are poisonous lead poisoning
preparation of denatured alcohol; highly
prominent when the substance is burned active know as plumbism occurs among people working
poisonous (6 ml)
ingredient is THC is tetrahydrocannabinol, in industries and factories dealing with lead and
134
 its salts due to inhalation of lead dust and fumes. 13. Nicotine pain from mouth to stomach, intense thirst and
Tin cans get contaminated with Pb; gunshot Nature: difficulty in swallowing; lips and mouth are
wounds and inquires which are imbedded with Present in cigars, cigarettes, tobacco, smoked of corroded but in case of HNO3 the skin becomes
lead particles also produce poisonous symptoms chewed either alone or with lime and betel nut; yellow; death may occur due to shock within a
after a week or even after a few years; red lead- an alkaloid where only three to four drops of the few hours; poisoning by internal administration of
used as an abortifacient by “quack doctors” is pure poisons taken internally may be fatal; acids is not common but cases of acid throwing
poisonous. tobacco leaves contain from 0.6 to 6% of nicotine, which produce severe burns and even death due
10. Mercury Salts tobacco smoking for a long period may suffer to shock are common.
Nature: Metallic mercury undergoes some from chronic poisoning. 18. Zinc Phosphide
chemical reactions in the body that may change 14. Oxallic Acid Nature: A fine black powder commonly used as
the structures of the molecules in the cell; Hg Nature: Colorless, crystalline substance which rat poisons; symptoms are frequent vomiting and
vapors are poisonous; Hg(NO3)2,HgSO4, HgCI2, resembles sugar in appearance; soluble in water purging followed by unconsciousness; being a
(corrosive sublimate) are highly poisonous; and alcohol; a corrosive poison, the symptoms fine powder it adhered to the crypts and cavities
symptoms of poisoning appear within half and begin immediately which are sour taste, thirst, of the stomach and is not completely eliminated
hour; chocking sensation in the throat, hoarse burning, pain in the mouth, throat, and stomach, through vomiting; death may ensue from the
voice, difficulty in breathing and burning feelings of numbness of the limbs, hurried liberation phosphine PH3 from the adhered
sensation in the abdomen; death takes place respiration, coma, death. materials
within a few hours of ingestion of the poisons. 15. Quinine
11. Mushroom Nature: An anti-material drug; accidental ❖ Antidotes are used in case of poisoning.
Nature: A sort of fungus having a hollow stalk with poisoning occurs due to its overdoses; the Antidotes are substance that counteract the
a bulb at the base and an umbrella-like top; some medicinal quinine also produces poisoning due effect of poisons.
varieties are poisonous due to idiosyncrasy, to idiosyncrasy; also used as an abortifacient by ❖ General antidotes: activated charcoal and
some people may suffer from toxic symptoms by “quack doctors” sodium sulfate.
eating even edible mushrooms. 16. Sodium Nitrite ❖ Antidotes are also called antagonists
12. Mechanical Poisons Nature: White; crystalline substance; readily ❖ There are specific antidotes for specific
Nature: Diamond, diamond powder, powdered soluble in water; largely used in dyeing industry; poisons.
glass, needles, animal hair, vegetable hair are main symptoms are giddiness, head ache, ❖ Antidotes act to neutralize the poison often in
called MECHANICAL IRRITANTS and vomiting, purging, weakness, hurried breathing, conjunction with an emetic or a stomach
MECHANICAL poisons, when swallowed these unconsciousness, followed by death. wash.
cause irritation of the stomach and bowels due to 17. Mineral Acids ❖ Antidotes are often poisonous them selves
their sharp edges and points; sometimes rupture Nature: H2SO4 and HNO3 are corrosive acids; and are therefore, potentially dangerous.
the intestines and cause death. these destroy tissues; causes intense burning
Some Antidotes or Antagonists in Cases of Poisoning:

Chemical Aspects of Documents Examination • The art of forgery is not difficult. • He keeps up with the latest advance and used
• Documents have assumed an increasingly • On the other hand, detection of forgery ins them to perfect his art.
important rote to man. comparatively far more difficult. • Consequently, the detection of falsification of
• A personal letter, receipt, a cheque, or an other • Scientific detection of forgery is possible in a documents is difficult and slow.
affecting the lives of many individuals. fairly large number of cases.
• Falsification of documents has been one of the • A false documents is the creation of an educated
crimes committed by man. person.
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❖ A documents is a material having a symbol or 1. Carbon Ink • Color is due to the salt added that, on dyeing
writing or it which conveys some meaning to a • Oldest Ink and standing, turns to black.
person or persons. • Also named Chinese Ink •
With Cr +++ , Salt, ink turns deepest black.
❖ It may be a stone, a wall, a skin, a place of cloth, a • Indian Ink 4. Nigrosine Ink
parchment, or a paper. • Derived from soot Aniline and other dyes
2. Gallotannic Ink 5. Ballpoint Pen Ink
Preliminary Examination of the Document Most frequently used for making entries in record Dyes and vehicle (carbitol or glycol or oleic acid)
1. Scrutiny: books and for business purpose.
✓ UV light An Arabic invention Physical Examination:
✓ Transmitted light. A concoction of Fe lons and nut gall extracts 1. Photography
✓ Stereoscope A solution, not just a suspension of coloring 2. Reflected Light
✓ Color comparison microscope matter in a liquid medium. 3. Transmitted Light
✓ Photography Because of the foregoing. It can penetrate into the 4. Stereoscope
2. Physical Tests Causing No Perceptible interstices of the paper, thereby inscribing 5.
Change: the writing in the body of the paper and not Approximate Age of Documents
✓ Measurement of the length. merely on the surface thus making its 1. Age of ink Determination
✓ Width removal more difficult to accomplish. a. Color Reaction
✓ Thickness Rxn that takes place when FeSO4 and infusion of b. Color Comparison
✓ Weight per unit area nut galls is the formation of a thick black ppt. c. Solubility
✓ Color, The ppt is a mixture of tannic acid and Fe. d. Migration
✓ Microscopy When the ppt reacts wait HCI/ H2HO4. a colorless e. Photography
3. Physical Test Causing Perceptible Change: solution appears but on oxidation with air, -
✓ Bursting test (pop test) this will form back the black color. 2. Age of Paper
✓ Folding endurance Factors affecting the oxidation of the ink: amount a. Light (opacity)
✓ Accelerated ageing test of air, moisture, heat, light, nature of sizing b. Accelerated Ageing Test
4. Chemical Tests agent, degree of acidity of the paper. c. Watermarks
✓ Determining the Sizing Agent Test of age of ink: GI + OA = blue: recent d. Typewriting
✓ Presence of loading material = violet: lest recent
✓ Fiber composition = black: least recent Illegible Writing
✓ Tests for paraffin, mineral coating, color of 1. Erasure: mechanical and chemical
the paper 3. Logwood Ink • Can be deciphered with UV, visual
✓ Acidity (if sufficient specimens are available) • A concoction of K 2CrO7 and logwood dye inspection, photography, chemical
5. Absorption Test • Runge, the person give the credit for this analysis ( ammonium sulfide, starch
6. Watermark concoction, mixed this in the year 1847. iodide paper, pH paper.
7. Miscellaneous Test • 1857, logwood extract, alum, CuSO4 2. Obliterated Writing
a. Stub • 1859, alum and logwood 3. Invisible Writing
b. Glue 4. Indented Writing
• 1875, logwood and CuSO4
c. Edge 5. Carbon Paper Writing
• 1882, logwood and potassium dichromate.
d. Indentations 6. Contact Writing
HCI was added to prevent ppitoon; phenol
was added as a preservative 7. Charred documents
Analysis of Ink
• Logwood contains haematoxylin and
Types of Ink Miscellaneous Problems:
haematin
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 1. Ink from the same bottle ➢ Iodine Fuming develops fingerprints on most
2. Sequence of stroke of the surface but the process is more tedious, • Note: This method is used in determining
3. Crossing in the folds troublesome and in the some cases less fingerprints in letters.
4. Lead pencil writing satisfactory.
5. Documents mounted on another paper ➢ It is used only where powder methods are not ❖ Fingerprints from Dead Bodies:
6. Printed documents. successful for prints on paper, starched 1. if death occurred, just a short time before,
clothes, raw mood, and leather. get the fingerprint in the usual manner:
They are: ➢ There is no chemical reaction between the 2. If undergoing pulrefication, the skin is
1. Black powder point materials and the iodine. removed, cleaned thoroughly, and
2. Gray powder ➢ Its gets absorbed on the outline of ridge disinfected with formalin, and the skin is
3. Flourescent (antharacene) powder preferentiality due to the presence of fats to placed in the digits of the operator and
✓ The first is used for all light-colored surfaces. give brownish tinge. the fingerprint is taken.
✓ The second is used against dark background ➢ As it is volatile at ordinary temperature. It 3. If pulrefication is advanced, the
and gets evaporated in due course, leaving the fingerprint are removed, boiled in water,
✓ The last one for multi-colored surfaces.de surface in the original condition. coated with BaSO4 PbCO3 and Bi(OH)CO3
✓ Fingerprints developed by anthracene are ➢ The surface can subsequently be treated with and radiographed.
photographed with ultraviolet rays. powders or chemicals for development 4. if the body is in rigor mortis, massage the
✓ The prints developed with some powders ➢ This advantage makes iodine fuming an ideal fingers and get the fingerprints. If not
need reversals, that is the prints are tool to locate the latent prints. effective, the tendons are cut and the
prepared for their transparencies. ➢ The techniques requires a fuming tube filled fingerprint are taken.
✓ Metallic powders (al, Cu, Au, Sb, and with iodine and calcium chloride separated 5. If the skin is wrinkled or collapsed, inject
universal powder are also used in special and held in position with glass wool. with water or glycerinne to get the
situations. ➢ Simple blowing through the tube evaporated normal shape.
iodine which gets deposited on the surface
exposed to the fumes.
❖ Characteristics of the Powder: ➢ Fuming is also carried out by heating 1 in a
1. Amorphous dish kept in a fuming cupboard of fuming
2. Dry chamber.
3. Uniform consistency ➢ I fuming locates sometimes even old latent
4. Stable prints.
5. Chemically non-reactive
6. Somewhat sticky ❖ Chemical Methods
The perspiration materials, NaCI* fats + proteins,
Note: Preparation of one’s powders is not deposited in the surface by the fingers are
recommended. utilized to develop the latent prints by chemical
methods.
Powdering is done with a camel hair brush. 1. NaCI + AgNO3 ---------> NaNo3 + AgCI
Alomizers and automatic fingerprint powder spray 2AgCI ----------------- 2Ag + C12
are likely to replace camel hair brush. 2. amino acid = ninhydrin ---------------
purple
❖ Iodine Fuming 3. fats + osmium tetroxide -------------- black
(OS)
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