Solution Manual for Abnormal Psychology Ninth

Edition by Ronald J. Comer

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Solution Manual for Abnormal Psychology Ninth Edition by Ronald J. Comer

7-1

CHAPTER :7
Depressive and Bipolar Disorders

CHAPTER SUMMARY
Most people’s moods come and go. Their feelings of elation or sadness are understandable reactions
to daily events and do not affect their lives greatly. However, the moods of people with mood
disorders tend to last a long time. Mood disturbances are at the center of two groups of disorders—
depressive disorders and bipolar disorders. These disorders, the focus of this chapter, have been
shared by millions of people. As you will learn, the human suffering that they cause is beyond
calculation.

TOPIC OVERVIEW
Unipolar Depression: The Depressive Disorders
How Common Is Unipolar Depression?
What Are the Symptoms of Depression?
Diagnosing Unipolar Depression

What Causes Unipolar Depression?

The Biological View
Psychological Views
Sociocultural Views

Bipolar Disorders
What Are the Symptoms of Mania?
Diagnosing Bipolar Disorders
What Causes Bipolar Disorders?

Putting It Together: Making Sense of All That Is Known

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 7-2

LECTURE OUTLINE
I. DEPRESSION AND MANIA ARE THE KEY EMOTIONS IN DISORDERS OF
MOOD
A. Depression—a low, sad state in which life seems dark and its challenges overwhelming
B. Mania—a state of breathless euphoria or frenzied energy
C. People with depressive disorder experience only depression
1. This pattern is called unipolar depression
2. There is no history of mania
3. Mood returns to normal when depression lifts
D. Others experience periods of mania that alternate with periods of depression
1. This pattern is called bipolar disorder
E. One might logically expect a third pattern—unipolar mania, in which people suffer
from mania only—but this pattern is uncommon
F. Mood problems have always captured people’s interest
G. Mood problems have been shared by millions, and today the economic costs amount to
more than $80 billion each year
1. The human suffering is beyond calculation

II. UNIPOLAR DEPRESSION

[Video: Antidepressants, Suicide, and the “Black Box” Decision; Depression; Postpartum
Depression; Postpartum Psychosis: The Case of Andrea Yates; Seasonal Affective
Disorder and Light Therapy]
A. The term depression is often used to describe general sadness or unhappiness
1. This loose use of the term confuses a normal mood swing with a clinical syndrome
2. Depressive disorders can bring severe and long-lasting psychological pain that may
intensify over time
B. How common is unipolar depression?
1. Around 8 percent of adults in the United States suffer from severe unipolar
depression in any given year
2. As many as 5 percent suffer mild forms
3. About 17 percent of all adults will experience unipolar depression in their lifetimes
4. The prevalence is similar in Canada, England, France, and many other countries
5. The rate of depression is higher among poor people than wealthier people
6. The risk of experiencing this problem has increased steadily since 1915
7. People of any age may suffer from unipolar depression
C. Women are at least twice as likely as men to experience episodes of severe unipolar
depression
1. As many as 26 percent of women (as opposed to 12 percent men) may have an
episode at some time in their lives
2. Among children, the prevalence is similar for boys and girls
D. Approximately 85 percent of those with unipolar depression will recover, some without
treatment
1. Around 40 percent will experience another episode later in their lives
E. What are the symptoms of depression?
1. Symptoms may vary from person to person
2. Five main areas of functioning may be affected:
a. Emotional symptoms—feeling “miserable,” “empty” experiencing little
pleasure
b. Motivational symptoms—lacking drive, initiative, spontaneity
(a) Between 6 and 15 percent of those with severe depression will die by
suicide
 7-3

c. Behavioral symptoms—less active or productive

d. Cognitive symptoms—hold a negative self-view; pessimistic
e. Physical symptoms—headache, dizziness, general pain
F. Diagnosing unipolar depression
1. A major depressive episode is a period of two or more weeks marked by five or
more symptoms of depression (See Table 7-2, text p. 220.)
a. In extreme cases, symptoms are psychotic, including:
(a) Hallucinations
(b) Delusions
2. DSM-5 lists several types of depressive disorders
a. Major depressive disorder
(a) People who experience a major depressive episode and have no history of
mania
b. Dysthymic disorder
(a) Individuals who experience a longer-lasting (at least two years) but less
disabling pattern of depression
(b) When dysthymic disorder leads to major depressive disorder, it is termed
double depression
c. Premenstrual dysphoric disorder
(a) A diagnosis given to women who repeatedly experience clinically
significant depressive symptoms during the week before menstruation
d. Disruptive mood regulation disorder
(a) Characterized by a combination of persistent depressive symptoms and
recurrent outbursts of severe temper

III. WHAT CAUSES UNIPOLAR DEPRESSION?

A. Stress may be a trigger for depression
1. People with depression experience a greater number of stressful life events during
the month just before the onset of their symptoms than do others
2. Some clinicians distinguish reactive (exogenous) depression from endogenous
depression, which seems to be a response to internal factors
3. Today’s clinicians usually concentrate on recognizing both the situational and
internal aspects of any given case
B. The current explanations of unipolar depression point to biological, psychological, and
sociocultural factors
1. The biological view—Genetic factors
a. Family pedigree, twin, adoption, and molecular biology gene studies suggest
that some people inherit a biological predisposition to unipolar depression
b. Researchers have found that as many as 20 percent of relatives of those with
depression are themselves depressed, compared with fewer than 10 percent of
the general population
c. Twin studies demonstrate a strong genetic component:
(a) Concordance rates for identical (MZ) twins are 46 percent
(b) Concordance rates for fraternal (DZ) twins are 20 percent
d. Adoption has implicated a genetic factor in cases of severe unipolar depression
e. Using techniques from the field of molecular biology, researchers have found
evidence that unipolar depression may be tied to specific genes
2. The biological view—Biochemical factors
a. Low activity of two neurotransmitters (NT)—norepinephrine and serotonin—
has been strongly linked to unipolar depression
(a) In the 1950s, medications for high blood pressure were found to cause
depression; some lowered serotonin, others lowered norepinephrine
 7-4

(b) The discovery of truly effective antidepressant medications, which

relieved depression by increasing either serotonin or norepinephrine,
confirmed the NT role.
(i) In terms of NTs, it is likely not one or the other but rather a complex
interaction is at work and other NTs may be involved
(c) Biological researchers have also learned that the endocrine system may
play a role
(i) People with depression have been found to have abnormal levels of
cortisol, which is released by the adrenal glands during times of
stress
(ii) People with depression have been found to have abnormal melatonin
secretion
(iii) Other researchers are investigating deficiencies of important
proteins within neurons as tied to depression
b. This model has produced much enthusiasm but has certain limitations
(a) Relies on analogue studies: depression-like symptoms created in lab
animals
(i) Do these symptoms correlate with human emotions?
(b) Measurement of brain activity has been difficult and indirect
(i) Current studies with modern technology are attempting to address this
issue
3. The biological view—Brain anatomy and brain circuits
a. Biological researchers have determined that emotional reactions of various
kinds are tied to brain circuits
(a) These are networks of brain structures that work together, triggering each
other into action and producing a particular kind of emotional reaction
(b) It appears that one circuit is tied to GAD, another to panic disorder, and
yet another to OCD
b. Although research is far from complete, a circuit responsible for unipolar
depression has begun to emerge
(a) Likely brain areas in the circuit include: prefrontal cortex, hippocampus,
amygdala, and Brodmann’s Area 25
4. The biological view—Immune system
a. This system is the body’s network of activities and cells that fight off bacteria
and other foreign invaders
b. When stressed, the immune system may become dysregulated, which some
believe may help produce depression
c. Support for this explanation is circumstantial but compelling
5. Psychological views
a. There are three main psychological models:
(a) Psychodynamic view—no strong research support
(i) Developed by Freud and his student Abraham, this model links
depression and grief
1. When a loved one dies, an unconscious process begins, and the
mourner regresses to the oral stage and experiences
introjection—a merging of his or her own identity with that of
the lost person
2. For most people, introjection is temporary
3. If grief is severe and long-lasting, depression results
(ii) At greater risk for developing depression are those with oral stage
issues—either unmet or excessively met needs
(iii) Some people experience “symbolic” (or imagined) loss
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(iv) Newer psychoanalysts (object relations theorists) propose that

depression results when people’s relationships leave them feeling
unsafe and insecure
(v) Strengths
1. Studies have offered general support for the psychodynamic idea
that depression may be triggered by a major loss (e.g., anaclitic
depression)
2. Research supports the theory that early losses set the stage for
later depression
3. Research also suggests that people whose childhood needs were
improperly met are more likely to become depressed after
experiencing a loss
(vi) Limitations
1. Early losses and inadequate parenting don’t inevitably lead to
depression and may not be typically responsible for
development of depression
2. Many research findings are inconsistent
3. Certain features of the model are nearly impossible to test
(b) Behavioral view—modest research support
(i) Behaviorists believe that unipolar depression results from significant
changes in rewards and punishments people receive
(ii) Lewinsohn suggests that the positive rewards in life dwindle for
some people, leading them to perform fewer and fewer constructive
behaviors, and they spiral toward depression
(iii) Research supports the relationship between the number of rewards
received and presence of depression
1. Social rewards are especially important
(iv) Strengths
1. Researchers have compiled significant data to support this theory
(v) Limitations
1. Research has relied heavily on the self-reports of depressed
subjects
2. Behavioral studies are largely correlational and do not establish
that decreases in rewards are the initial cause of depression
(c) Cognitive views (two main theories)—considerable research support
(i) Negative thinking
1. Beck theorizes that four interrelated cognitive components
combine to produce unipolar depression:
a. Maladaptive attitudes
i. Self-defeating attitudes are developed during childhood
ii. Beck suggests that upsetting situations later in life can
trigger an extended round of negative thinking
b. Negative thinking typically takes three forms called the cognitive triad:
i. Individuals repeatedly interpret their (1) experiences, (2)
themselves, and
(3) their futures in negative ways that lead them to feel
depressed
c. Depressed people also make errors in their thinking, including:
i. Arbitrary inferences
ii. Minimization of the positive; magnification of the
negative
d. Depressed people experience automatic thoughts, a steady train of unpleasant
thoughts suggesting inadequacy and hopelessness
1. Strengths
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a. Many studies have produced evidence in support of Beck’s

explanation:
i. There is a high correlation between the level of
depression and the number of maladaptive attitudes
held
ii. Both the cognitive triad and errors in logic are seen in
people with depression
iii. Automatic thinking has been linked to depression
2. Limitations
a. Research fails to show that such cognitive patterns are the
cause and core of unipolar depression
(ii) Learned helplessness
1. This theory asserts that people become depressed when they think
that:
a. They no longer have control over the reinforcements (rewards
and punishments) in their lives
b. They themselves are responsible for this helpless state
2. The theory is based on Seligman’s work with laboratory dogs
a. Dogs who were subjected to uncontrollable shock were later
placed in a shuttle box
b. Even when presented with an opportunity to escape, dogs
that had experienced uncontrollable shocks made no
attempt to do so
c. Seligman theorized that the dogs had “learned” to be
“helpless” to do anything to change negative situations and
drew parallels to human depression
3. There has been significant research support for the model:
a. Human subjects who undergo helplessness training score
higher on depression scales and demonstrate passivity in
laboratory trials
b. Animal subjects lose interest in sex and social activities—a
common symptom of human depression
c. In rats, uncontrollable negative events result in lower
serotonin and norepinephrine levels in the brain
4. Recent versions of the theory focus on attributions
a. Internal attributions that are global and stable lead to greater
feelings of helplessness and, possibly, depression; if they
make other kinds of attributions, this reaction is unlikely
i. Example: “It’s all my fault” [internal]; “I ruin everything
I touch” [global] “and I always will” [stable]
ii. Example: “She never did know what she wanted”
[external], but “The way I’ve behaved the past couple
of weeks blew this relationship” [specific]; “I don’t
know what got into me—I don’t usually act like that”
[unstable]
b. Some theorists have refined the helplessness model yet again
in recent years—they suggest that attributions are likely to
cause depression only when they further produce a sense of
hopelessness in an individual
5. Strengths
a. Hundreds of studies have supported the relationship among
styles of attribution, helplessness, and depression
6. Limitations
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a. Laboratory helplessness does not parallel depression in every

way
b. Much of the research relies on animal subjects
c. The attributional component of the theory raises particularly
difficult questions in terms of animal models of depression
6. Sociocultural views
a. Sociocultural theorists propose that unipolar depression is greatly influenced
by the social context that surrounds people
(a) This belief is supported by the finding that depression often is triggered
by outside stressors
(b) There are two kinds of sociocultural views
i. The family-social perspective
ii. The multicultural perspective
b. The family-social perspective
(a) The connection between declining social rewards and depression (as
discussed by the behaviorists) is a two-way street
(i) Depressed people often display social deficits that make other people
uncomfortable and may cause them to avoid the depressed
individuals
(ii) This leads to decreased social contact and a further deterioration of
social skills
(b) Consistent with these findings, depression has been tied repeatedly to the
unavailability of social support such as that found in a happy marriage
(i) People who are separated or divorced display three times the
depression rate of married or widowed persons and double the rate
of people who have never been married
(ii) There also is a high correlation between level of marital conflict and
degree of sadness that is particularly strong among those who are
clinically depressed
(c) Finally, it appears that people whose lives are isolated and without
intimacy are particularly likely to become depressed at times of stress
c. The multicultural perspective
(a) Two kinds of relationships have captured the interest of multicultural
theorists:
(b) Gender and depression
(i) A strong link exists between gender and depression
(ii) Women cross-culturally are twice as likely as men to receive a
diagnosis of unipolar depression
(iii) Women also appear to be younger, have more frequent and longer-
lasting bouts, and to respond less successfully to treatment
(iv) Various theories have been offered
1. The artifact theory holds that women and men are equally prone
to depression but that clinicians often fail to detect depression in
men
2. The hormone explanation holds that hormone changes trigger
depression in many women
3. The life stress theory suggests that women in our society
experience more stress than men
4. The body dissatisfaction theory states that females in Western
society are taught, almost from birth, to seek a low body weight
and slender body shape—goals that are unreasonable,
unhealthy, and often unattainable
 7-8

5. The lack-of-control theory picks up on the learned helplessness

research and argues that women may be more prone to
depression because they feel less control than men over their
lives
6. The rumination theory holds that people who ruminate when
sad—keep focusing on their feelings and repeatedly consider
the causes and consequences of their depression—are more
likely to become depressed and stay depressed longer
(v) Each explanation offers food for thought and has gathered just
enough supporting evidence to make it interesting (and just enough
contrary evidence to raise questions about its usefulness)
(c) Cultural background and depression
(i) Depression is a worldwide phenomenon, and certain symptoms seem
to be constant across all countries, including sadness, joylessness,
anxiety, tension, lack of energy, loss of interest, and thoughts of
suicide
(ii) Beyond such core symptoms, research suggests that the precise
picture of depression varies from country to country
1. Depressed people in non-Western countries are more likely to be
troubled by physical symptoms of depression than by cognitive
ones
2. As countries become more Westernized, depression seems to take
on the more cognitive character it has in the West
(iii) Within the United States, researchers have found few differences in
depression symptoms among members of different ethnic or racial
groups; however, sometimes striking differences exist between
racial/ethnic groups in the chronicity of depression
1. Hispanic Americans and African Americans are 50 percent more
likely than white Americans to have recurrent episodes of
depression—a finding possibly related to limited treatment
opportunities
2. In a study of one Native American village, lifetime risk was 37
percent among women, 19 percent among men, and 28 percent
overall
3. These findings are theorized to be the result of economic and
social pressures
(iv) In addition, although overall depression rates are similar, differences
exist in specific populations living under oppressive circumstances
(v) Finally, research has revealed that depression is distributed unevenly
within some minority groups
1. This is not totally surprising, given that each minority group itself
comprises persons of varied backgrounds and cultural values

IV. BIPOLAR DISORDERS

A. People with a bipolar disorder experience both the lows of depression and the highs of
mania
1. Many describe their lives as an emotional roller coaster
B. Unlike those experiencing depression, people in a state of mania typically experience
dramatic and inappropriate rises in mood
1. Five main areas of functioning may be affected
a. Emotional symptoms—Active, powerful emotions in search of outlet
b. Motivational symptoms—Need for constant excitement, involvement,
companionship
c. Behavioral symptoms—Very active; move quickly, talk loudly or rapidly
 7-9

(a) Flamboyance is not uncommon

d. Cognitive symptoms—Show poor judgment or planning
(a) May have trouble remaining coherent or in touch with reality
e. Physical symptoms—High energy level, often in the presence of little or no
rest
C. Diagnosing bipolar disorders (See Table 7-5, text p. 241.)
1. People are considered to be in a full manic episode when, for at least one week,
they display an abnormally high or irritable mood, increased activity or energy,
and at least three other symptoms of mania
a. In extreme cases, symptoms are psychotic
2. When symptoms are less severe, the person is said to be experiencing a hypomanic
episode
3. DSM-5 distinguishes between two kinds of bipolar disorder
a. Bipolar I disorder
(a) This disorder requires full manic and major depressive episodes
(b) Most sufferers experience an alteration of mood
(c) Some have mixed episodes
b. Bipolar II disorder
(a) Hypomanic episodes and major depressive episodes
4. Without treatment, the mood episodes tend to recur for people with either type of
bipolar disorder
a. If people experience four or more episodes within a one-year period, their
disorder is further classified as rapid cycling
b. If their episodes vary with the seasons, their disorder is further classified as
seasonal
5. Regardless of the particular pattern, individuals with bipolar disorder tend to
experience depression more than mania over the years
a. In most cases, depressive episodes occur three times as often as manic ones,
and last longer
6. Between 1 and 2.6 percent of all adults suffer from a bipolar disorder at any given
time, and as many as 4 percent over the course of their lives
a. The disorders are equally common in women and men and among all
socioeconomic classes and ethnic groups
b. Women may experience more depressive and fewer manic episodes than men
do, and rapid cycling is more common in women
7. Onset usually occurs between 15 and 44 years of age
a. In most cases, the manic and depressive episodes eventually subside, only to
recur at a later time
b. Generally, when episodes recur, the intervening periods of normality grow
shorter and shorter
8. A final diagnostic option
a. If a person experiences numerous episodes of hypomania and mild depressive
symptoms, a diagnosis of cyclothymic disorder is appropriate
(a) Mild symptoms for greater than two years, interrupted by periods of
normal mood
(b) Cyclothymia affects at least 0.4 percent of the population
(c) May eventually blossom into bipolar I or II
D. What causes bipolar disorders?
1. Throughout the first half of the twentieth century, the search for the cause of
bipolar disorders made little progress
2. More recently, biological research has produced some promising clues
3. These insights have come from research into NT activity, ion activity, brain
structure, and genetic factors
a. Neurotransmitters
 7-10

(a) After finding a relationship between low norepinephrine and unipolar

depression, early researchers expected to find a link between high
norepinephrine and mania
(b) This theory is supported by some research studies; bipolar disorders may
be related to overactivity of norepinephrine
(c) Because serotonin activity often parallels norepinephrine activity in
unipolar depression, theorists expected that mania also would be related
to high serotonin activity
(d) While no relationship with high serotonin has been found, bipolar
disorder may be linked to low serotonin activity, which seems
contradictory
(i) This apparent contradiction is addressed by the “permissive theory”
of mood disorders
(ii) It may be that low serotonin “opens the door” to a mood disorder and
permits norepinephrine activity to define the particular form the
disorder will take
1. Low serotonin + Low norepinephrine = Depression
2. Low serotonin + High norepinephrine = Mania
b. Ion activity
(a) Ions, necessary to send incoming messages to nerve endings, may be
improperly transported through the cells
(b) Some theorists believe that irregularities in the transport of these ions may
cause neurons to fire too easily (mania) or to stubbornly resist firing
(depression)
(c) There is some research support for this theory
c. Brain structure
(a) Brain imaging and postmortem studies have identified a number of
abnormal brain structures in people with bipolar disorder, in particular
the basal ganglia and cerebellum, among others
(b) It is not clear what role such structural abnormalities play
d. Genetic factors
(a) Many theorists believe that people inherit a biological predisposition to
develop bipolar disorders
(b) Findings from twin studies support this theory:
(i) The rate of bipolar disorder among identical (MZ) twins is 40 percent
(ii) The rate of bipolar disorder among fraternal (DZ) twins and siblings
is 5 to 10 percent
(iii) The rate of bipolar disorder among the general population is 1 to 2.6
percent
(c) Recently, genetic linkage studies have examined the possibility of
“faulty” genes
(d) Other researchers are using techniques from molecular biology to further
examine genetic patterns
(e) Such wide-ranging findings suggest that a number of genetic
abnormalities probably combine to help bring about bipolar disorders

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
7.1. Compare depression and mania while discussing the symptoms of each.
7.2. Contrast unipolar depression and bipolar disorder while discussing the symptoms of each.
 7-11

7.3. Describe the biological, psychological, and sociocultural perspectives of depression.

7.4. Describe the possible roles of neurotransmitters in unipolar depression.
7.5. Distinguish among the three diagnostic options for bipolar disorder.
7.6. Discuss the biological theory of bipolar disorder.

KEY TERMS
anaclitic depression
automatic thoughts
bipolar disorder
bipolar I disorder
bipolar II disorder
cognitive triad
cyclothymic disorder
delusion
depression
depressive disorders
learned helplessness
major depressive disorder
mania
norepinephrine
persistent depressive disorder
premenstrual dysphoric disorder
serotonin
symbolic loss
unipolar depression

MEDIA RESOURCES

Internet Sites
Please see Appendix A for full and comprehensive references. Sites relevant to Chapter 7 material
are:

http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications
This website, provided by the National Institute of Mental Health, supplies downloadable links to
PDF files and booklets on a variety of mental health topics.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mood_disorder
This Internet encyclopedia offers a definition for mood disorders and links to the major types of
disorders. In addition, there are links to other mood-related topics as well as to additional disorders
related to mood disorders.

http://bipolar.mentalhelp.net/
A site that includes the symptoms, treatments, and online support groups for bipolar disorder.
 7-12

http://www.adolescent-mood-disorders.com/
This site reviews the difficulties in recognizing depression and other mood disorders among
teenagers.

http://www.mdsg.org/
This is a comprehensive site of the mood disorder support group of New York City.

Mainstream Films
Films relevant to Chapter 7 material are listed and summarized below.
Key to Film Listings:
P = psychopathology focus
T = treatment focus
E = ethical issues raised
Please note that some of the films suggested may have graphic sexual or violent content due to the
nature of certain subject matters.

It’s a Wonderful Life

This film from 1946 stars Jimmy Stewart as George Bailey, a small-town man whose life seems so
desperate he contemplates suicide. P, commercial film

Leaving Las Vegas

This 1995 film stars Nicolas Cage as a Hollywood screenwriter who has become an alcoholic. After
being fired, he takes his severance pay to Las Vegas, where he plans to drink himself to death. P,
serious film

Mr. Jones
This 1993 Richard Gere film follows the relationship between a bipolar man, Mr. Jones, and the
female doctor who takes more than a professional interest in his treatment. P, T, E, commercial film

Ordinary People
This 1980 film examines the treatment of a teenager suffering from depression, anxiety, and
posttraumatic stress disorder in the aftermath of his brother’s death. P, T, serious film

Other Films:
About a Boy (2002), depression and suicide. P, commercial/serious film
About Schmidt (2002), depression. P, serious film
The Accidental Tourist (1988), depression. P, serious film
The Bell Jar (1979), anxiety and depression. P, T, serious film
Fear Strikes Out (1957), depression. P, T, serious film
Love Liza (2002), depression. P, serious/art film
Magnolia (1999), depression. P, serious film
Sophie’s Choice (1982), depression. P, serious film

Recommendations for Purchase or Rental

Films on Demand is a Web-based digital delivery service that has impressive psychology holdings.
Their catalog can be accessed at http://ffh.films.com/digitallanding.aspx. In addition, the following
videos and other media may be of particular interest and are available for purchase or rental and
appropriate for use in class or for assignment outside of class.

When the Brain Goes Wrong

Franklin Institute, Tulip Films
Fanlight Productions
 7-13

c/o Icarus Films

32 Court Street
Brooklyn, NY 11201
(800) 937-4113
Email: info@fanlight.com

CLASS DEMONSTRATIONS AND ACTIVITIES

Case Study
Present a case study to the class.

Panel Discussion
Have students volunteer (or assign them) to portray mental health “workers” of different theoretical
perspectives in a panel discussion. Each student should present the main explanation and treatment
for the mood disorders from his or her theoretical background. Students in the audience can ask
questions of the panelists. In addition, other students can role-play patients suffering from particular
mood disorders. (NOTE: A brief reminder about sensitivity and professionalism is worthwhile here.)
Have the panelists attempt to diagnose based on their orientation.

Depression Inventories
Bring in depression inventories. Discuss why these inventories are useful in both therapy and
research. Ask students to suggest changes or modifications that could improve these instruments.

“Pretend, for a moment, that you are a . . .”

Divide students into groups and assign each group a task similar to the following. Pretend they are
business owners who are interested in alleviating the negative (and costly) effects of depression on
workplace productivity. Ask them to come up with creative and practical solutions to identifying and
intervening with workers suffering from mood disorders. Similar roles are a high school principal, a
medical doctor, a fraternity or sorority president, a college instructor, and a baseball team manager.

The Anonymous Five-Minute Essay

It is useful to ask students to take five minutes to explain the biological model of depression.
Reviewing these answers can alert instructors to misconceptions and poor communication of
important ideas. This can be done for the cognitive, behavioral, and psychodynamic models as well.

SUGGESTED TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION

Women and Depression
Ask the class to brainstorm why the rates of depression, even cross-culturally, are twice as high for
women as for men. (See text pp. 237–238.)
 7-14

Open Discussion: Manic Episodes

Discuss the idea that manic episodes can be extraordinarily pleasant. Encourage students to imagine
aloud why such episodes might be enjoyable (more cheerful, more productive, more outgoing).

“Let’s Write a Self-Help Best-Seller”

Discuss the stigma associated with mood disorders. Many persons implicitly (and sometimes
explicitly) presume that mood disorders occur only in persons who are weak or who “enjoy being
sad.” Discuss the effect such attitudes might have on persons with mood disorders (reluctance to
admit they have a problem or to seek help). Ask for ideas about how to educate the public about
causes of these disorders, thus alleviating the stigma associated with them.

Open Discussion: Learned Helplessness

Martin Seligman and his colleagues suggested that depression is the result of learned helplessness.
They proposed that depression, like learned helplessness, is the result of inescapable trauma or
negative situations. The person learns that he or she has no control over these negative events and
stops trying to respond in an efficient, adaptive manner. The individual thus learns to be helpless.
Ask students for examples of how such a model of depression might apply.

Open Discussion: Beck’s Cognitive Theory

According to Aaron Beck and his colleagues, depression is caused by an individual’s tendency to
think or reason in a certain fashion. In particular, people become depressed because of their personal
schema about themselves, their world, and their future. Introduce the notion of perceptual sets and
bias, which influence the manner in which a person perceives things. Perceptual sets cause distortions
and selective attention that support the negative schema. An interesting exercise is to provide such a
set of assumptions (personal schema), and then present a series of experiences and ask students for
“congruent” (with the schema) interpretations of the event. For example, a woman may have a
schema of herself as a terrible person. Her daughter is caught smoking at school. Another example: A
young man believes that he is unlovable. His girlfriend breaks up with him. (These two people will
take one event and distort it, then ignore or minimize contrary evidence, such as the fact that the
daughter is a straight-A student or, in the case of the young man, that he acted in a way that
encouraged his girlfriend to break up with him.)

ASSIGNMENTS/EXTRA CREDIT SUGGESTIONS

Write a Pamphlet
With the use of a software program like Microsoft Publisher or simply paper and markers, students
can create a pamphlet on one or all of the disorders of mood. Students should be encouraged to be as
accurate and up-to-date as possible and to present all sides of the disorder (e.g., alternate treatment
approaches or theories).
Solution Manual for Abnormal Psychology Ninth Edition by Ronald J. Comer

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Keep a Journal
In addition to helping students synthesize material, this activity also is helpful in developing writing
skills. Have students keep a journal of their thoughts on course material throughout the semester.
This can be done in the first or last five minutes of class or as an out-of-class assignment. Have
students submit their journals for review on an ongoing basis as students can have the tendency to
delay writing until the end of the semester. Some suggestions for journal topics include: reactions to
the case examples; strengths and weaknesses of prevailing theoretical explanations; hypothetical
conversations with sufferers of specific disorders, and so on.

Essay Topics
For homework or extra credit, have students write an essay addressing one (or more) of the following
topics:
(1) Write an essay discussing the power and acceptability of male versus female tears (see
MediaSpeak, text p. 218).
(2) Discuss the decision to include Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder in the DSM-5 (see PsychWatch
on p. 238). Do you agree with its inclusion?
(3) Write an essay discussing postpartum depression (see PsychWatch, text p. 221). Address various
theories/factors, the “four Ds” of the experience, and the shame and stigma experienced by many
women.
(4) Discuss the relationship between abnormality and creativity (see PsychWatch, text p. 244).

Research Topics
For homework or extra credit, have students write a research report addressing one (or more) of the
following topics:
(1) Conduct a “Psych Info” search and write a brief report on Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder (see
text p. 238).
(2) Conduct a “Psych Info” search and write an annotated bibliography on the various theories
described on pp. 237–238 in the text to explain depression in women. Which of these models (if any)
does the research most strongly support? With which of these models do you most agree?
(3) Conduct a literature review on abnormality and creativity (as discussed in PsychWatch, text p.
244). Does research support the link between the two? Is this association simply anecdotal or have
controlled studies examined the association? What famous examples can you find?

Film Review
To earn extra credit, have students watch one (or more) of the mainstream films listed earlier in this
chapter and write a brief report (3 to 5 pages). Students should summarize the plot of the film in
sufficient detail to demonstrate familiarity, but they should focus their papers on the depiction of
psychological abnormality. What errors or liberties did the filmmaker take? What is the message
(implicit or explicit) concerning people with mental illness?

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