Gender and Development Notes

GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT NOTES
Lesson 1 Understanding gender concepts
Orientation to the reading Understanding concepts related to gender
‘Gender” refers not to male and female, but to masculine and feminine - that is, to qualities or
characteristics that society attribute to each sex (trainers manual; gender and mainstreaming
(2000). People are born female or male, but learn to be women and men through socialization
in the society. In this case, the term ‘gender” refers to the roles, responsibilities, attributes,
and power relations that are socially constructed by and assigned to men and women of a
given society or community. These constructs vary greatly by culture, geographic region,
socioeconomic status, and context, and they change over time. Perceptions of gender are
deeply rooted, vary widely both within and between cultures, and change over time.
However, in all cultures, gender determines power and resources for females and males.
SEX versus GENDER
Sex is Biological characteristics which include genetics, anatomy and physiology that
universally define humans as female or male. It is important to note that these biological
characteristics are not mutually exclusive; however, there are individuals who possess both
male and female characteristics.
Sex is Universal in the sense that there are no variations from culture to culture or time to
time, whereas gender roles vary greatly in different societies. Besides, sex cannot be changed,
except with the medical treatment.
Example: Only women can give birth in all societies. In addition only women can breastfeed
universally. Gender is socially constructed set of roles and responsibilities associated with
being girl and boy or women and men, and in some cultures a third or other gender.
Gender is not born with. Gender is not natural but is learned.
Gender also depends on socio-economic factors, age, education, ethnicity and religion.
Although deeply rooted, gender roles can change over time, since social values and norms are
not static.
Example: In many cultures, men are expected to be providers for the family while women
are regarded as caregivers. This is a gender norm and can change depending on several
factors like education and time. Over time for instance, women have proven to be able to do
Lecture Notes: Joy Wanozga Chione

traditionally male jobs as well as men can do jobs traditionally considered to be for women.
A good example is where men and women can do housework; men and women can be
leaders and managers.
Reflection Point: At birth, the difference between babies is their sex either a boy or a girl;
while as they grow up society gives them different gender roles, attributes, opportunities,
privileges and rights that in the end create the social differences between men and women.
OTHER GENDER RELATED CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS
Gender equality: This is the state or condition that gives women and men equal enjoyment
of human rights, socially valued goods, opportunities and resources, allowing both sexes the
same opportunities and potential to contribute to, and benefit from all spheres of society
(economic, political, social, and cultural). Example: A family has limited funds, and both
daughter and son need new pair of shoes for the new school year, but only one can get new
shoes this year. If the family decides (and who in the family decides?) which child will get
the new shoes based on the child’s NEED, and not on the child’s sex, this is an example of
gender equality.
Gender equity: this is justice and fairness in the treatment of women and men in order to
eventually achieve gender equality, often requesting differential treatment of women and men
in order to compensate for the historical and social disadvantages that prevent women and
men from sharing a level playing field. Example: Provision of leadership training for women
or establishing quotas for women in decision making positions in order to achieve the state of
gender equality.
NOTE: Equity leads to equality. Equity means that there is a need to continue taking
differential actions to address historical inequality among men and women and achieve
gender equality.
Gender gap is the difference in any area between women and men in terms of their levels of
participation, access to resources, rights, power and influence, remuneration and benefits of
particular relevance related to women’s work is the “gender pay gap”, describing the
difference between the average earnings of men and women (ILO, 2007).
The Global Gender Gap Report 2014 benchmarks national gender gaps of 142 countries on
economic, political, education- and health-based criteria.

Disaggregated Data: Data broken down by sex, age or other variables to reflect the different
needs, priorities and interests of women and men, and their access to and control over
resources, services and activities.
Gender Blind: Ignoring or failing to address the gender dimension.
Gender Analysis: The study of differences in the conditions, needs, participation rates,
access to resources and development, control of assets, decision-making powers, etc. between
women and men in their assigned
gender roles.
Gender Awareness: The recognition of the fact that life experience, expectations, and needs
of women and men are different, that they often involve inequality and are subject to change.
Gender Balance: Having the same (or a sufficient) number of women and men at all levels
within the organization to ensure equal representation and participation in all areas of activity
and interest.
Gender Focal Point: A person within the organization (field or headquarters) who is
identified as being a reference point for issues concerning gender.
Gender Roles The sets of behavior, roles and responsibilities attributed to women and men
respectively by society that are reinforced at the various levels of the society through its
political and educational institutions and systems, employment patterns, norms and values,
and through the family.
Gender Mainstreaming: The systematic integration of the respective needs, interests and
priorities of men and women in the organization’s policies and activities. This rejects the idea
that gender is a separate issue and something to be tackled on as an afterthought.
Feminism: A collection of movements and ideologies that share a common goal: to define,
establish, and achieve equal political, economic, cultural, personal, and social rights for
women. There are several outdated and false stereotypes on feminism (e.g. feminism meant
wanting women to defeat or overtake men into submission).
Women’s rights: this refers to entitlements that women have on the basis that they are
human. Normatively based in several international human rights documents (e.g. The
Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW)).

Transgender: refers to those transgender people who live permanently in their preferred
gender, without necessarily needing to undergo any medical intervention/s.
Transsexual: refers to people who identifies entirely with the gender role opposite to the sex
assigned to at birth and seeks to live permanently in the preferred gender role. Transsexual
people might intend to undergo, are undergoing or have undergone gender reassignment
treatment (which may or may not involve hormone therapy or surgery).
NOTE: Gender equality and non-discrimination based on sex are fundamental human rights.
Lesson 2 Patterns of inequalities
Women are often underrepresented in formal decision-making structures, including

governments, community councils, and policy-making institutions. For example below is
table showing women representation in the parliament of Malawi.
Gender equality and women’s empowerment are both rights and necessary for achieving
comprehensive, unbiased and sustainable development. Women need to actively participate
in government and politics in order to maintain democracy. This can be done through
providing more opportunities for women in the political arena so that more women can be
involved in decision making especially on matters pertaining to gender parity. This helps in
the making of national policies that can help women to benefit a lot. These policy planners
can make sure that they address the needs of everyone and that both are reached directly, for
example, agriculture loans and distribution of agriculture land. This will help the entire
community to achieve some important Millennium Development Goals such as eradication of
extreme poverty and hunger, increasing of rural women’s agricultural production and
participation in the labour force that helps to reduce poverty and stimulates economic growth.
All this can be achieved only when the rights to equal participation on paper comes into life
as relevant policies.
2.Inequalities in economic participation and opportunities
In most countries, women and men are distributed differently across sectors. Women receive
lower wages for similar work, are more likely to be in low-paid jobs and unsecured work
(part-time, temporary, and home-based) and are likely to have less access to productive assets
such as education, skills, property and credit than men.

3 .Educational attainment
In most countries, women have lower literacy rate, lower levels of enrolment in primary,
secondary and tertiary education.
4.Sexual and domestic violence
More often women tend to be victims of a form of domestic violence by their intimate
partners. They also become victims of sexual exploitation through trafficking and sex trade.
In addition, they become an enemy army in wars and as a weapon of attempted ‘ethnic
cleansing’ etc.
5.Differences in legal status and entitlements
There are many instances in which equal rights to personal status, security, land, inheritance
and employment opportunities are denied to women by law or practice.
COMMUNITY
The word community comes from the Latin word, ‘communitas’ which means “common”, a
group of people sharing common living accommodation and goods. For the purposes of this
course, a community is a group of people living in the same area or having the same religion
or race. In most cases, communities are often family groups that form villages. Many of
these communities share a common language, which helps people to identify with their
community.
Different communities that we belong to
As a person, you may be coming from a village, town or city. Within each of these
communities you belong to a smaller community, the most obvious being the family. The
family is the most important unit in the community. The family is the foundation of the
community. The family is where you begin your education for instance, to speak, count,
walk, build and so on. You learn the values and acceptable behaviors and rules of the group.
You take on roles such as hunter, teacher, baby sitter, gardener, cook and other
responsibilities in that community. Through this you are being socialized into becoming a
worthwhile contributing community member.

There are many other communities, which we all belong to and each of these has different
requirements or roles and responsibilities for the members. Each group we belong to whether
it is a church group, a sporting group or a school is a community and has different ways of
socializing us to be useful members.
Importance of community
Living in the community is very important because of the following reasons:
1. Community brings in a sense of belonging
The sense of belonging is important in communities, and the nation as a whole. The feeling of
belonging to a community is reflected in a number of ways such as:
• knowing what we expect of others and what they expect of us
• knowing who our community leaders are and how we can have some say in choosing
them, and
• knowing how the community is organized so that we feel safe and secure at all times.
All of these help us to develop a feeling of belonging to our communities.
2. Communities give reasons to things that we should value
When you understand what communities are and what you value in a community, you can
work to maintain and strengthen important aspects of that community.
As you will see, development brings change and improves the lives of community members.
However, during any development, you must hold tight to what you value in our communities
and not let it be lost. The following points are some of the things one must do in appreciating
what one values in their communities.
• Respecting community leaders
• Resolving conflicts and solving disputes
• Having opportunities to practice religion and beliefs
• Having rights and responsibilities
• Maintaining traditional lifestyle
• Having opportunities for sport and recreation

• Making a living and meeting needs
• Improving living standards
• Accessing good health care and education
What is Community Development?
There are fundamental values and needs, which bind people together in a community. For
instance, a need for friendship, security, employment, spiritual and cultural values and needs.
These valued aspects of community are challenged by community development, which is a

process of change. How communities participate in and manage change is an important part
of community development. In this case, community development can be defined in different
ways but all the definitions have similar aspects like “a process of change for community’s
advancement, and participation of people in development projects.” Below are some of the
definitions of community development.
Community development is…change which improves the lives of community members,

disadvantages noone and is sustained and managed by the community.
Community development is…about people participating in their own development and

deciding their preferred future.
Community development is often about getting the patronage of a ‘big man’ to support his
people. Community development means…the community identifying a problem or need and
implementing change to solve the problem or meet the need.
Community development occurs best when… the people of the community are involved
throughout the development from deciding what they need and how they want to achieve it.
In development, things such as technical advances, economic benefits, improved education

and health and personal or group progress must be evident.
Characteristics of Community Development
• Community development which improves the lives of the community has many
characteristics which are universal. Some of these characteristics are:
• All people affected by change should be involved.
• Respect local knowledge and use local talent.

• Sustainability – people feel more attached to a project they have helped in. They will
therefore manage and maintain it better.
• Build local capacity for long-term community sustainability depends on developing

human and social abilities.
• Effective and transparent communication
GENDER AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
Gender and community development is a process towards a sustainable way of community

development which incorporates all the gender with equal participation and involvement. If
there is no equal say or participation of both male and female, it is not a sustainable
development.
WHY STUDY GENDER AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
Gender equality is an essential element of sustainable and inclusive development. Following

are some of the reasons why gender and community development is important:
1.Women are part of the solution
In areas where women are already playing a crucial role in developing sustainable
development solutions, their contributions are often not recognized. For example, according
to the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) women comprise around 43
per cent of the agricultural labour force in developing countries. The percentage is as high as,
or even higher than, 80 per cent in some countries in sub- Saharan Africa. This makes women
the principle agents of food security and household welfare in rural areas. Yet this highly
significant contribution is too often under estimated or invisible. Women and girls may be
vulnerable in many ways due to inequitable social and cultural factors, instead of regarding
them as rights holding citizens, recognized for the agency, skills and experience they can
contribute.
There is often a significant gender disparity in decision-making at all levels: from local
communities to international governance. For example, women make up just 23 per cent of
the world’s MPs. Not only does this gender imbalance result in unrepresentative policies, but
it denies women the right to participate and have a political voice.
2. Resource shortages are gendered.

The worsening shortage and lack of access to resources such as water, energy and food
sources, has a huge implications for gender equality. The rising threat of food insecurity, with
both the production and consumption of food being highly gendered, is a large part of this. In
many cases, women are increasingly carrying the burden of the additional work resulting
from a more unpredictable climate and worsening crop failures. Women’s lack of access to
resources, such as land and finance, make them more vulnerable to food shortages and to
fluctuations in prices. Evidence shows that women are forced to spend more time and energy
searching for affordable, nutritious food. Women may also be reducing their own food intake
to ensure their family members do not go hungry.
There are also clear gender dimensions of energy poverty, with the gendered division of
household tasks and reproductive activities meaning that women are often the primary users
of household energy like firewood and charcoal, which is becoming scarcer with time due to
increased deforestation in many countries.
In addition, water scarcity is another gendered issue; many poor women access water from
‘common property’ such as rivers, but the freedom to use these sources is being restricted as
water becomes scarce. Water has turned into a marketable commodity, with supply
increasingly being contracted out to private providers. As a result women may be forced to
walk longer distances for a supply that is free to access.
3.Climate change is hitting women and girls harder
The environment and climate are often most associated with sustainability. Women and men
do not experience the impacts of climate change and environmental degradation equally. For
example, economic constraints and cultural norms can restrict women’s access to paid
employment meaning that their livelihoods are particularly dependent on climate-sensitive
sectors, such as subsistence agriculture or water collection. In many ways climate change
acts as a magnifying glass, which exposes and risks exacerbating pre-existing gender
inequalities in women’s access to and control of resources and decisionmaking power,
making women in poverty, or other marginalized groups, more vulnerable to its effects and
preventing them from participating equally in its solutions.
4. It is not just about women
‘Gender’ has become a ‘catch all’ term in many contexts, used to describe a range of issues in
a political way. The term gender is in most cases understood as being only about women’s

needs, rather than about the unequal social relationships between women and men vested
with power. This results in less effective policies, institutions and processes and limits the
potential of these to contribute to social change.
Working for sustainability presents an opportunity to not only acknowledge global

inequalities and the unequal power relations between men and women but to challenge these
inequalities and, by doing so, contribute to social and gender transformation.
When we relate gender with community development, it is very important to change the
perspective of men towards women. Unless and until the perspective of the people does not
change towards women, they are somehow always to be dominated in the society. When we
talk about gender and community development, it is very important that there is gender
equity in the society.
During community development, gender balance is very important to keep in mind in order to
achieve sustainable development. Gender balance is the equal and active participation of
women and men in all areas of decision-making, and in access to and control over resources
and services. When this is met then gender and community development will bring a very
positive and sustainable development in society. In addition, gender mainstreaming is also
important in community development. Gender mainstreaming is a globally recognized
strategy for achieving gender equality. Gender mainstreaming is defined by the United
Nations as the process of assessing the implications for women and men of any planned
action in all areas and at all levels. That means making both the concerns and experiences of
women and men an integral dimension of all agriculture and rural development efforts.
GENDER IN RELATION TO HUMAN RIGHTS
Gender equality is at the very heart of human rights and United Nations values. A
fundamental principle of the United Nations Charter adopted by world leaders in 1945 is
“equal rights of men and women”, and protecting and promoting women’s human rights is
the responsibility of all states. All UN member states pledged to commit to advance gender
equality in their countries. However, even though this is the case, millions of women around
the world continue to experience discrimination at all levels.
Listed below are some of the ways through which women continue to face discrimination in
various sectors: • Laws and policies prohibit women from equal access to land, property, and
housing.

• Economic and social discrimination results in fewer and poorer life choices for
women, rendering them vulnerable to trafficking.
• Gender-based violence affects at least 30% of women globally.
• Women are denied their sexual and reproductive health rights.
• Women human rights defenders are ostracized by their communities and are seen as a
threat to religion, or culture.
• Women’s crucial role in peace and security is often overlooked even though there are
particular risks they face in conflict situations.
In addition to gender discrimination, some groups of women face compounded forms of

discrimination due to factors such as age, ethnicity, disability, or socio-economic status. In
order to effectively ensure women’s human rights, one requires a comprehensive
understanding of the social structures and power relations that frame them not only laws and
politics but also the economy, social dynamics, family and community life. Harmful gender
stereotypes must be removed so that women are no longer viewed in the light of what women
“should” do and are instead seen for who they are as unique individuals with their own needs
and desires.
NON-DISCRIMINATION AND EQUALITY BETWEEN WOMEN AND MEN
Non-discrimination and equality between women and men are central principles of human
rights law. Both the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the International
Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights prohibit discrimination on the basis of sex
and guarantee women and men equality in the enjoyment of their rights covered by the
covenants.
WOMEN’S RIGHTS ARE HUMAN RIGHTS
The definition of discrimination in the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of

Discrimination Against Women encompasses a variety of possible discriminatory actions
(any distinction, exclusion or restriction) having either the express purpose or the actual
effect of discriminating against women. Discrimination can occur through de jure or direct
discriminatory provisions, such as when a law or policy restricts, prefers or distinguishes
between certain groups. Achieving substantive equality requires taking both historical
inequalities and the present conditions of women in a certain context into account.

Substantive equality may consequently require positive action by the state to address the
specific disadvantages and needs of women. The Committee on the Elimination of
Discrimination against Women has explained that, to achieve actual equality, the underlying
causes of women’s inequality must be addressed because it is not enough to guarantee
identical treatment with men. In the Committee’s view, the convention requires that women
should be given an equal start. In addition, it says that states should create an enabling
environment for the empowerment of women in order to achieve equality of results also
referred to as equality of outcome.
Challenges to achieving gender equality in community development
Challenges to achieving gender equality in community development
Advances in law and policy are limited by a number of critical challenges that perpetuate
gaps in implementation, up scaling and accountability hence preventing effective
programmatic responses. Following are some of the challenges in achieving gender equality
in community development.
• Gender inequality
• Impunity
• Inadequate human, technical and financial investments
• Weak coordination and monitoring mechanisms
• Insufficient data and research
• Limited attention to neglected groups and issues
• Dearth of evaluations and evidence base to guide programs
• Limited scope and coverage of services and interventions
• Low demand for services by survivors
• Fragmentation of efforts to prevent and respond to violence

Gender inequality
There are historical and multiple forms of inequalities that persist between women and men
across all societies, which enable violence against women and girls to continue in both public
and private settings. These discrimination and barriers prevent women and girls from
exercising their rights, accessing services and other opportunities that greatly increase their
risks of experiencing violence. Socially accepted gender norms and values about what
constitute acceptable behavior and interpersonal relationships are instilled in boys and girls
from childhood. For example, in many societies girls are raised to be more submissive to
male authority, while boys are taught to be more controlling, dominant and aggressive. This
is reflecting the traditional gender roles of what is expected of them later in life in terms of
becoming a woman (wife and mother) and what it means to be a man (family provider and
protector).
The way men and women are socialized, the definitions and understandings of womanhood
and manhood establish their positions of relative power and control at home and in society.
These same norms of gender and power relations influence how violence against women and
girls should be viewed and tolerated in different contexts. These norms, gender biases and
discriminatory attitudes often permeate the various sectors within government, whose public
officials are likely to hold many of the same views as those in the society within which they
live. Addressing gender inequality is critical across sectors responsible for delivering justice,
social, health and security services to survivors and to those responsible for the education of
boys and girls.
One of the greatest challenges in ending violence against women and girls lies in unraveling
how harmful gender attitudes and roles that are deeply ingrained across the fabric of
societies, and fostering values of mutual respect and equality. Impunity
The lack of state accountability in comprehensively addressing violence against women and
girls is a significant obstacle to ending the problem of gender inequality in community
development. Generalized acceptance of violence against women, lack of political will,
inadequate legal protections and enforcement, insufficient resource allocation and poor
implementation of national commitments contribute to continued impunity. This is
particularly evident in countries and communities with weak justice systems and where
customary law practices are widely used. Informal justice mechanisms may contradict
international human rights standards. In such contexts, access to formal justice for women

and girls who survived violence may be hindered by obstacles such as gender bias and
discriminatory attitudes, social stigma and financial constraints.
According to (AusAID, 2008; UN General Assembly, 2006), ending impunity requires

commitment and adequate prosecution and punishment of perpetrators; equal protection for
women under the law and equal access to justice and the elimination of attitudes that foster,
justify or tolerate violence against women.
Inadequate human, technical and financial investments
Even though it is obvious that a number of countries have adopted laws and policies
pertaining to the promotion of gender equality the reality remains that these laws and policies
are rarely accompanied by adequate budget allocations, requisite institutional staffing,
infrastructural improvements and other support that may be needed at the national and sub-
national levels to implement them. There is also limited skills and knowledge on preventing
and responding to violence against women and girls, including in evidencebased
programming particularly in resource-scarce settings. This is evidenced in areas where high
staff turnover poses additional challenges in retaining a skilled and experienced cadre of
individuals.
As a solution to this challenge there is need to have long-term and sustained resource
investments for strengthening expertise and building ‘critical masses’ of expertise in key
areas and sectors. In addition, improvement to remove service delivery barriers is critical
across sectors in order for governments to deliver on their commitments to ending violence
against women and girls.
Weak coordination and monitoring mechanisms at the national level
Addressing violence against women and girls requires a multispectral approach, involving at
least, health, education, social, legal and security sectors, and strategically other key sectors
such as labour, migration and urban planning, among others. Unlike stand-alone sectors, there
is no specific government entity to take charge of coordination for ending violence against
women. In many cases, it is the Ministry of Gender Women’s Affairs or its equivalent, which
are often given the responsibility of promoting gender equality at national level. However,
this ministry in most cases is under-resourced and lack institutional and political influence
within government. In addition, other mechanisms and processes, such as SWAPs (Sector
Wide Approaches) and decentralization pose additional challenges to coordinating and

monitoring the implementation of policies and programs in sectors where addressing violence
against women is not a priority.
One of the solutions could be that formal channels of communication and information sharing
between and among government and non-governmental entities working on this issue is very
crucial for coordinated and effective responses.
Insufficient data and research
Even though research receives increased attention and investments, statistical data on the
scale, nature and consequences of violence against women and girls remain limited. Surveys
usually do not capture all forms of violence, nor reflect variations among different groups of
women within a given country or other disaggregated information that is useful for planning.
Population based surveys are the most reliable sources of data, but are costly to implement
and require technical expertise. Without regular implementation of such surveys, progress on
reducing the prevalence and incidence of violence cannot be monitored over time. In
addition, high impact advocacy messages that are not backed by hard data also hinder
ongoing efforts to ensure policy commitments and investments.
Limited attention to neglected groups and issues
Insufficient attention has been paid to certain forms of violence, to certain groups of women
or to particular contexts, and their costs and consequences. This is due in part to the absence
of data and analyses that can help develop understanding of how violence differs for different
parts of the population in different situations. These will vary by country and region, but
include:
• Femicide
• Violence against marginalized or excluded groups, such as indigenous women,

domestic workers, women in detention and migrant workers (UN General Assembly, 2006).
• Sexual violence and rape within marriage and as experienced by adolescent girls and
young women in all contexts.
• The intersections between violence against women and HIV and AIDS
• Violence and sexual harassment in public spaces such as public transport,

marketplaces, cities, schools, farm fields and other common localities.

• Political violence directed at women during elections, vying for public office or in
high-level decisionmaking positions.
• Violence in conflict, post-conflict and emergency settings.
• A primary prevention effort to stop violence before it occurs by working with

strategic groups such as men, adolescents or children who have witnessed abuse.
These issues and contexts are often missing, neglected or low profile in advocacy, policy and
programming. Consequently, identification and development of effective program strategies
and approaches has been hindered or slow.
Dearth of evaluations and evidence to guide programs
Related to the neglect and underfunding for many years in addressing violence against
women, the field is characterized by few evaluations and therefore by a dearth of knowledge
on proven approaches that can guide policies and programs. While a great deal of know how
has been accumulated, from evidencebased approach research, it is a challenge to identify
promising, good practices and effective strategies for prevention. This is evidenced by the
absence of a more robust body to evaluate the findings. In most cases, initiatives rarely
include adequate resources for conducting baseline assessments, or putting in place
appropriate monitoring and evaluation frameworks and activities. This makes it impossible to
determine the correlation between the program interventions and the changes observed.
In addition, in places where evaluations and assessments are conducted, they often vary
greatly in methodology, scale and scope. For instance, research may focus on only one sub
group of women or men, or in one location making it difficult to draw conclusions that are
transferrable for adaptation to other socially and regionally diverse settings. These factors
limit broader understanding of successful approaches and the actual impact of programs, and
prevent the identification of practices that could be up scaled or adapted for implementation
in different country contexts.
Limited scope and coverage of services and interventions
In most countries including Malawi, services for survivors of gender- based violence are very
limited in scope and reach. This is because of lack of priority and insufficient investments
made in addressing the problem. In cases where services do exist, they are often concentrated

in urban centers or larger cities. Such services are unlikely to be comprehensive, focus in one
or a few sectors and lack coordination if referral capacities are required.
In most cases, it is non-governmental and women’s organizations that provide services

pertaining to women welfare. These service providers lack resources and are only able to
reach out to a small number of the population. In addition, existing approaches may not reach
especially vulnerable and at risk groups such as adolescent girls, migrant, indigenous or other
groups of women in the population for which mainstream outreach efforts will be inadequate.
Also limited is the existence of effective primary prevention programs, resulting from
underinvestment in this area and the fact that most interventions have focused on supporting
survivors after abuse has already occurred.
Low demand for services by survivors
There are many reasons why women and girls may not seek services; some have their own
personal reasons. On the other hand, it may be because of system discrimination that they
face from the institutions and communities that surround them. Below are some of the factors
contributing to low demand for the services rendered to victims of abuse:
• Fear of stigma and judgment they may face from service providers, community
members, family members and friends;
• Negative attitudes and poor quality of care provided by service providers especially
those that are the first point of contact such as health care providers and the police.
•Limited and lack of knowledge of their legal rights, resources and services available to them
as victims, and existence of other recourse mechanisms;
• Inability to access services for lack of transportation, time or money;
• Restricted mobility;
• Restricted decision-making within the household;
• The fear of retribution by an abusive partner especially in cases where police capacity
is low and orders of protection are not closely monitored
• Financial dependence on the husband, partner or family together with non-existent

income opportunities or alternatives;

• Intimidation and hesitation to engage with a complex legal system and processes that
are not gendersensitive and may re-victimize them; and,
• The fear of losing custody of children
Fragmentation of efforts
Without a strong national multi sector plan, coordination of different bodies dealing with
women issues and formal mechanisms for collaboration and information sharing has resulted
in most interventions being planned and implemented in isolation from one another. As a
result, there are severe gaps in the overall approach to ending violence against women and
girls. Such gaps include incomplete and unevenly distributed services; ad-hoc prevention
efforts that are independent from response efforts; and law and policy that is disconnected
from the realities on the ground. Fragmented efforts at the local level mean survivors may not
have access to comprehensive services and may be required to travel long distances and to
multiple locations to receive them, requiring them to repeat their story time and again and
putting the burden of coordinating and tracking their medical, police and legal files on their
own shoulders. Fragmented efforts also mean that administrative data is not likely
systematized, affecting the ability to have accurate, consistent records that shed light on the
nature and scale of the problem; on which responses are working and which need reworking;
and makes it difficult to integrate findings into larger multi-stakeholder policy and
programming frameworks.
Patriarchy
It is obvious that women’s lack in political position and decision making positions stem from
patriarchy which can be defined as the social system of male domination over females, where
male domination is built into social political and economical institutions of society, Hughes
and Paxton (2014). Malawi is
a patriarchy society though some tribes follow matrilineal because in both systems are
characterised by male control of economic resources, male domination of political processes
and positions of authority, in matrilineal society an adult male is the head of the house.
According to Hughes and Paxton (2014), women inherent nature of capabilities and beliefs
regarding women proper place in society is one of reason why women have been excluded
from politics. Socially women are viewed naturally not to have the temperament or
capabilities necessary for political participation. This perspective therefore can be understood

that women’s biological differences with men extend across moral, intellectual and emotional
dimensions.
Glass ceiling is another word which was first used by Nora Frankiel to explain the subtle and
invisible obstacles women face when they attain a decision making position. For instance,
women who have been elected as members of parliament (MP) face challenges in which they
may be embedded in political institution where male behaviour is considered the norm. As
such, women may need to change and adapt and conform to those norms. As stated by Ipu
(2003) that in order for women to survive politically they may copy the men in their methods
and behaviour hence not representing women issues. This may lead to women failing to
deriver the needs of their constituencies hence may not be re-elected to parliament.
Another term that is being used is labyrinth, Schwanke (2013), indicating the complicated
challenges that women must navigate on their way to get to the senior position. These may
include stereotyping, prejudice, sexual harassment, tokenism and isolation.
Structural issues in society and corporate settings also contribute to women suffrage in
society. This is where societal issues are deeply rooted in the culture and public policy. The
contributing factors to this being limited career advancement, societal expectations of female
participation in politics and education, Schewanke (2013). Women are excluded from politics
and decision-making positions due to the beliefs regarding women proper place in the
society. For instance, the belief that women naturally do not have the temperament or
capabilities necessary for political participation. This perspective asserts that politics is
simply out of women’s proper place. It states that women’s proper place is in the home caring
for their children and making their husbands happy. Hughes and Paxton (2014) describe this
as the private domain in which a woman is expected to provide comfort, support and training
for the next generation.
On the same, prevailing values about gender roles limit the participation of women in
politics. This has also greater effects even after a woman has attained political power. This is
because even if women have attained a decision making position political and cultural norms
can limit their effectiveness when dealing with their male counterparts. For instance, most
forms of political participation like campaigning requires women to be away from their
homes, which according to society is her proper place. As such this brings fear in women to
pursue a political career which they must do at the expense of their families.

Women are also excluded in decision-making positions due to lack of human capital. Human
capital according to Canadian oxford dictionary (2013) refers to the skills, experiences and
knowledge ban an employee brings to a position. In this case for a woman to stand as an MP
she needs to have civic skills which Hudges and Paxton (2014) referred to as the
communication and organisational abilities that allow a citizen to use resources effectively
and may include the ability to speak in public, run a meeting, read a budget or navigate
through parliamentary procedure. This is a challenge to many women because their level of
education is low and this has given men more opportunities to hold decision-making
positions. Women’s lack of qualification is attributed to the society as it holds boys’
education as more important than that of a girl. Society believes that it is better to educate a
boy child because he shall be a bread winner where as a girl will marry and be under her
husband’s care.
The exclusion of women from the public life is also another factor contributing to women’s
exclusion from politics. If women are more involved in community development, they would
likely gain civic skills since participating in voluntary associations may foster their
networking and impart necessary skills for political success. Hudges and Paxton (2014) noted
that MPs are often drawn from careers that foster connections to the public and membership
or leadership in the community affairs.
On the same note, it can be simply said that education plays a greater role in women attaining
political office. For instance, in Malawi those contesting for the position of MP are required
to have the Malawi School Certificate of Education (MSCE). However due to the exclusion
of a girl child from education most women do not have this qualification hence lack basic
skills which may developed during the formative years at school. Basic education in this case,
is very important resource because it imparts knowledge that may be very important for
participation in the political space.
Corporate structure is another societal issue that affects women potential in a more direct
way.
These structures as noted by Schwanke are male dominated or old boys’ networks. In the
sense that networks in politics are homogenous and long standing, this makes it difficult for
women to break into as culturally women have been excluded from networking. On the same
women are also unable to commit extra time outside working hours for networking due to

their home commitments. Through this, women lack important resources like money. When it
comes to Malawian politics money matters because money shapes voter behaviour and
enables the aspiring women to travel easily during campaign periods. This is not an issue
with men due to the male dominated networks.
To concur with the above statement it is really hard for women even to get loans from banks
as they will require having collateral in a form of property. However in patriarchy societies
women do not own property. This even applies to matrilineal societies because the control of
resources is under an adult male. As such women do not have access to resources and cannot
even borrow money from banks as banks need collateral, however, this is not the case with
men as they own property. In this case, the political space for women is very hard as they
lack resources.
Lesson 6 Effects of community understanding on gender and community development
Effects of community understanding of gender on community development
Community understanding on gender has a great impact on community development. This is

evidenced in a number of ways as outlined below:
Access to Productive Resources
The participation and the empowerment of women remain conditional on their access to and
control of assets. The lack of access to productive resources has a significant impact on their
short-term economic well-being as well the long-term position of women in society in
general and households in particular. The ownership and control over assets correlate with

economic security and provide incentives to invest in increasing productivity through the use
of better inputs. It also lends an impetus to marginalized groups such as women and rural
poor people to take risks in order to achieve higher returns and engage in collective actions
through rural organizations, associations, saving groups, credit schemes, cooperatives, and
entrepreneurship to enhance economic returns. Rural women remain at a severe disadvantage
with respect to the ownership and control of assets.
This lack of ownership of economically valuable assets implies that women are unable to
access credit and other financial services, as they do not hold land titles. Land tenure laws
and social or cultural norms govern the access and control of assets. These norms and laws
are usually gendered in their application.
Lack of formal ownership of land leads women to take suboptimal decisions due to which
crop yields are cheaper to cultivate on the land. As such, this limits women participation in
business oriented rural organizations, like cooperatives and credit unions.
Women are often disadvantaged in both statutory and customary land tenure systems. They
have weak property and contractual rights to land, water, and other natural resources. Even
where legislation may be in place to strengthen women’s property rights, lack of legal
knowledge and weak implementation limits women’s ability to exercise their rights.
Deprivation of property rights represents an important barrier for women in most countries
in the world. Deprivation of women’s property rights limits women’s economic
empowerment through lack of land ownership, and that means women cannot manage a farm,
have an income and cannot receive services from various institutions such as banks. In
general, deprivation of right to property makes women more vulnerable to domestic violence
and violates many of their rights such as the right to life. The provision of and access to credit
is one of the most important and powerful tools for development.
Differences in power and resources between males and females
This mainly talks about the relationship that exists between males and females in terms of
power and resources. Hierarchical relations of power between women and men tend to
disadvantage women. These gender hierarchies are often accepted as ‘natural’ but are socially
determined relations, culturally biased, and are subject to change over time. They can be seen
in a range of gendered practices, such as the division of labour and resources, and gendered
ideologies, such as ideas of acceptable behavior for women and men. Analyses that focus on

gender relations differ in emphasis from those, which take ‘gender roles’ as a starting point.
They give more prominence to the connectedness of men’s and women’s lives, and to the
imbalances of power embedded in male-female relations. They also emphasize the interaction
of gender relations with other hierarchical social relations such as class, caste, ethnicity and
race. However, whether gender relations act to alleviate, or to exacerbate other social
inequalities, depends on the context. Gender relations constitute and are constituted by a
range of institutions, such as the family, legal systems or the market. They are a resource
drawn on daily basis to reinforce or redefine the rules, norms and practices that govern social
institutions. Since historically women have been excluded from many institutional spheres, or
their participation circumscribed, they often have less bargaining power to affect change that
institutions operate. So, for example, where they are perceived to transgress their accepted
roles, women can be physically or sexually abused by male partners with relative impunity.
In many cultures, beatings or rape in marriage are considered acceptable in the existing
legal framework. Even where, following lobbying of women’s groups, rape or violence
within marriage is outlawed, women may be reluctant to seek redress because the male
dominated judicial system is unsympathetic, or because they fear ostracism. Where women
retaliate, they are criminalized. However, change is possible, in a few recent cases, following
sustained campaigns; women have been acquitted of ‘crimes’ against violent partners and
new laws have been passed to respond to such circumstances.
In all this, it has to be noted that hierarchical gender relations constrain development efforts.
For example, rigidities in the gender division of labour limit the effective mobilization of
women’s labour to support production. In addition, poverty reduction efforts are hampered
where men use their authority to usurp control over resources targeted at women.
As a way out, development strategies need to be informed by an analysis of gender relations

and support women’s own attempts to change the rules and practices which reinforce these
gender hierarchies.
Women’s participation in health, education and work
The consideration by the Commission on the Status of Women of the theme of an enabling
environment for women’s participation in development takes into account three critical areas
in as far as creating an enabling environment for women is concerned. These include, inter
alia, the fields of education, health and work. These three areas are regarded as critical for
women’s effective participation in development. As noted in the Report on the World Social

Situation 2005, societies that do not provide educational opportunities for all, adequate health
care and decent employment are likely to fail in giving women equal participation in
development. Better educations, access to health services, and opportunities for work,
particularly outside the household, comprise a set of critical conditions for positive changes
in women’s involvement in development. Research has shown that a certain level of
education and health strengthens women’s human capital and is a prerequisite for women’s
participation in the formal or informal labour market. Evidence shows that the higher the
education, the more likely women are to have access to formal and higher-paying
employment, and thus the potential to make autonomous economic choices. However,
persistent gender stereotypes, which hinder women from fully utilizing their education and
training, need to be addressed. Conversely, work is an entry point for women’ access to other
services, such as health and further education and training. Education and health are also
fields of employment for women, mostly in the public sector. However, economic adjustment
policies, including fiscal austerity and the privatization of welfare services, have been
threatening opportunities for work in the public sector.
Lack of enabling environment for women participation in community development
The challenges of implementing the international commitments on gender equality and

empowerment of women in the Beijing Platform for Action, the Millennium Declaration and
the Outcome of the 2005 World Summit highlight the importance of ensuring an enabling
environment. An enabling environment is interpreted as a set of interrelated and
interdependent systemic conditions such as policies, laws, institutional mechanisms and
resources that facilitate the promotion of gender equality in the community or country. The
Beijing Platform for Action adopted by the Fourth World Conference on Women in 1995
proposed strategic objectives and specific actions in critical areas of concern to women,
which, taken together, would contribute to building an enabling environment for women’s
participation in community development. It also stated that it is essential to design,
implement and monitor effective, efficient and mutually reinforcing gender-sensitive policies,
programs and institutional mechanisms that will foster the empowerment and advancement of
women in the world.
Many countries in response to the ten year review survey and appraisal of the implementation
of the Beijing Platform for Action which was carried out by the Commission on the Status of

Women in 2005, governments reiterated their commitment to the involvement of women as
full and equal participants in all areas of development.
The broad understanding of women’s participation in development expressed in the

Beijing
Declaration and Platform for Action complements the concept of women’s participation in all
areas of public life also found in the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Discrimination against Women (CEDAW). The Committee for the Elimination of
Discrimination against Women repeatedly noted the importance of ensuring equal
opportunities for women’s participation. In its examination of States parties’ reports, the
Committee also noted that where there is full and equal participation of women in public life
and decision making, the implementation of their rights and compliance with the Convention
is improved. The Millennium Project Task Force on Education and Gender Equality
identified three critical dimensions of empowerment that can enhance participation of women
in development. These three critical dimensions include; capabilities, for example, in the
areas of education and health; access to opportunities and resources, for example, to
employment or land; and agency, for example, women’s ability to participate in
decisionmaking processes, such as in political institutions and policymaking.
An enabling environment would influence the capacity of women to be involved, participate

actively and benefit from development processes in a sustained and effective manner. It
would also contribute to the elimination of women’s discrimination and exclusion, increase
their access to decision-making, their control over resources such as land and economic
assets, and fully recognize their contributions as actors in the economy and other areas of
public life.
Key elements in creating an enabling environment for women’s participation
The Committee for the Elimination of Discrimination against Women has noted that a purely
formal legal or programmatic approach is not sufficient to achieve women’s de facto equality
with men. In addition, the Convention required that women should be given an equal start
and that they should be empowered by giving them an enabling environment to achieve
equality of results. In addition, the Committee noted that it is not enough to guarantee women
treatment that is identical to that of men. Rather, biological as well as socially and culturally
constructed differences between women and men need be put into account. This simply

means that under certain circumstances, non-identical treatment of women and men would be
required in order to address such differences.
Interventions to create an enabling environment may thus be required at many different

levels and involving many different actors in order for them to be successful. Actions to
create an enabling environment generally take place at the macro or meso levels through the
adoption of policies, legal and regulatory frameworks by governments and organizations in
the context of reform programs. New policies and codes of conduct are adopted at national
level, however, may not be immediately enforced and their results may not be directly felt at
the micro-level that is by individual women, households and communities in their day-to-day
activities.
The enabling environment for gender equality and women’s empowerment may also be
influenced by factors that are not easily controlled by individual governments, organizations
or communities. For example, the global political and policy environment, the availability of
international financing for development, and the development of new technologies. Some
global trends and measures also affect women at the micro-level. Globalization, including
trade liberalization for example, affects women’s migration and employment. Changes in aid
modalities and structural reforms, while aiming to create overall enabling environments for
development, may have limited or even adverse effects if they do not take into account
gender perspectives and the interests and needs of women.
Some researchers have highlighted the role of formal and informal institutions in hindering
the impact of policies and other actions on the lives of women, and the need to change social
institutions. These institutions might include, inter alia, public, private and civil society
organizations in key development sectors; the workplace; culture and religion; families and
households. For example, The Millennium Task Force on Child Health and Maternal Health
argued that service delivery systems such as health systems, comprise core social institutions
for women’s empowerment. However, prevailing cultural norms and societal attitudes and
resistance to change also need to be taken into consideration.
Lesson 7
Constraints to effective women’s and girl’s role in community development
Constraints to effective women’s and girl’s role in community development

Many constraints hinder the effective role of women in development. Among these obstacles,
the most and the often still unsolved problem is the traditional backward attitudes, beliefs,
and customs of the society towards women which are continued as a historical legacy across
the nations. These traditional backward attitudes towards women assuming that women are
weaker, second-class citizens, dependent, passive, and ignorant hinder and make the effective
role of women invisible and unrecognized. It also makes and force women to internalize and
accept their weakness for a long period and even remains unconfident. Even though,
governments try to change the attitudes of the society through different mechanisms it is not
eradicated and remains difficult.
In general, the following factors are considered to be common barriers and often make
the role of women unrecognized and insignificant.
Low-level educational background: According to women’s and child’s affairs office, the
majority of women and girls do not receive adequate education as men. From this, we can
conclude that women’s noneducational status hinder their expected role.
Lack of initial capital to start their own business: Despite, the high interest and motivation
of women to work, lack of initial capital to start up and to run the business hinder their
economic activity. Women are involved in various economic activities especially in the
marketing process and trading activities, but they lack business know how, that is how to run
business and cost-benefit analysis.
Lack of monitoring women’s cooperation activities: most governments try to coordinate

women to work in groups and to work in cooperation in order to solve their economic
problems. However, there is no supervision and follow-up about the day-to-day activities of
these women’s cooperation work. According to the respondents, women’s organized
activities are run in the town even without a better problem identification, problem-solving
and technical support rather various local government bodies and NGOs continue to assist
women’s only financially.
The dependency of the family on women’s: Culturally, in some families, some members
are dependent on the earning of women. In some cases, a husband remains dependent on his
wife’s income. Such dependency of family members on women makes their role invisible and
unrecognized. However, women continue to play their role in various economic activities.

Lack of interest to work in a group (cooperation): Women are fearful of cooperation and
they are not well aware of the benefits of working together. Working in cooperation
especially for women can make their role visible and it increases their confidence. Women’s
dependency on men’s income despite the existence of family dependency on women, in some
cases, there is also women’s dependency on men’s income. This is due to the influence
exerted by their husbands. If this is the case, women do not make decisions on their own in
their overall life. In this case, dependency of women can bring lack of decision-making
power and this makes the role of women unrecognized.
Furthermore, lack of confidence and inferiority complex hinder women full

participation in community development: In this case, this is the most and often-difficult
problem for the integration of women into economic development and other various political
offices. Women’s lack of confidence is mainly due to the culture of the society and their
inferiority assumption. In addition, it is assumed that women are not highly committed and
they lack the interest to take full responsibilities and accountabilities because they fear
challenges especially in office positions.
Despite the existence of the above-mentioned barriers, women continue to play their
role in development. Even though different problems hinder the participation of women,
their roles in various developments related activities are very significant for the development
of the community.
Gender policies and strategies to achieving Community development
Ways of ensuring meaningful participation of women in development work
In order to ensure equal and meaningful participation of women in development work, a

combination of empowering and capacity development measures must be put in place to
bring to fruition the development potential of women.

To achieve this, following systematic and consequential measures is crucial. Following are
some of the suggested ways that may help in bringing meaningful participation of women in
development activities.
1.Formulating country-specific initiatives that empower women, government and

development partners, including local non-governmental organizations, should prioritize
awareness-raising initiatives (national campaigns as well as initiatives tailored to address
specific regions) communicating the benefits of gender equality for both men and women.
2.Promoting women and girls’ education in the agricultural sector and community
development. Support initiatives that remove various barriers for girls to enter this type of
educational programs.
3.Formulating and implementing women-biased landholding and titling policies through

modification of the present land tenure system.
4.Creating a financial credit pool for women using the Community Development Funds of
local government councils.
5.Organizing women farmers into functional women cooperatives for easy access to loans,
information, farm inputs and markets
6.Supporting women community based organizations CBOs is essential for women

empowerment. Interventions for women’s economic empowerment, including to free up
women’s time by reducing women’s burden of childcare and other unpaid work for instance,
introduction of work-place childcare; time-saving technology; IT)
7.Increasing women’s access to finance such as credit information, women-friendly loans,

saving groups.
8.Developing women skills to run and launch businesses through training and accessible
consultation services
9.Spreading education among women and girls especially farmwomen requires urgent
attention. Location of specific and need-based training programs should be organized.
10.Providing extension services for women and girls linked with initiatives ensuring the
provision of production and marketing support, undertaking capacity building, providing
organizational and institutional support,

11.In order to increase women’s incentives to participate concerted efforts, the government
needs to ensure that women move into the production of higher value-market oriented
products rather than produce for subsistence.
12.Access to social infrastructure, especially kindergartens, should be improved in order to

ease the burden of women’s unpaid labor.
13.Developing women oriented Vocational Training programs.
14.Exploring and introducing women business opportunities in different value chains.
15.Introduction of labor saving technologies for women remains instrumental in freeing

their time to participate in income-generating activities and rural organizations.
16.Develop and employ women-friendly agriculture technologies so that they can involve
themselves in productive and commercially viable agricultural activities.
17.Appointing more women trainers or extension workers can give better result in
technology transfer by avoiding social hindrances. This would result in providing better
access to technology as well as render transfer of technology efforts more successfully.
18.Organizing women’s agriculture and technology clubs and implementing extension

through women CBOs. In addition, Resource Centers would improve women’s access to
information. The initiatives have to be informed by the subordinate and secondary role
women invariably envelop in the household and the communities. Only initiatives informed
by these constraints can generate suitable strategies for women’s and girl’s participation in
the community development process.
Lesson 9 Policy and strategy development Lesson objectives
By the end of the lesson, students must be able to:
1.Define the word ‘policy’.
2.State the importance of gender policy.
Policy and strategy development
Governments, NGOs and development partners should establish mechanisms to accelerate

women’s equal participation and equitable representation at all levels of the political process
and public life in the society. Deliberate mechanisms should be made to enable women to
articulate their concerns and needs and ensure their full and equal participation in decision

making processes in all spheres of life. Governments and civil society should take actions to
eliminate attitudes and practices that discriminate against, subordinate girls and women, and
reinforce gender inequality.
Governments should take measures to promote the fulfillment of girls’ and women’s
potential through education, skills development and the eradication of illiteracy for all girls
and women without discrimination of any kind, giving paramount importance to the
elimination of poverty and ill health.
Governments, in collaboration with civil society, should take the necessary measures to
ensure universal access, based on equality between women and men, to appropriate,
affordable and quality health care for women throughout their life cycle.
Governments should take every possible action to remove all gender gaps and inequalities
pertaining to women’s livelihoods and participation in the labour market through the creation
of employment with secure incomes in order to advance women’s empowerment and enhance
their reproductive health. Furthermore, legislation ensuring equal pay for equal work or for
work of equal value be instituted and enforced.
National machineries for the advancement of women have been established in many countries
to, inter alia, design, promote the implementation of, execute, monitor, evaluate, advocate
and mobilize support for policies that promote the advancement of women. However, these
national machineries are diverse in form and uneven in their effectiveness, and in some cases
have declined due to marginalization in national government structures, these mechanisms
are frequently hampered by unclear mandates, lack of adequate staff, training, data and
sufficient resources, and insufficient support from national political leadership. In addition,
capacity-building efforts should pay particular attention to the needs of women in order to
ensure that their skills and experience are fully used in decision-making at all levels.
Countries should act to empower women and should take steps to eliminate inequalities by:
(a) Establishing mechanisms for women’s equal participation and equitable

representation at all levels of the political process and public life in each community and
society and enabling women to articulate their concerns and needs.
(b) Promoting the fulfillment of women’s potential through education, skill development
and employment, giving paramount importance to the elimination of poverty, illiteracy and ill
health among women; (c) Eliminating all practices that discriminate against women; assisting

women to establish and realize their rights, including those that relate to reproductive and
sexual health;
(d) Adopting appropriate measures to improve women’s ability to earn income beyond
traditional occupations, achieve economic self-reliance, and ensure women’s equal access to
the labour market and social security systems;
(e) Eliminating violence against women;
(f) Eliminating discriminatory practices by employers against women, such as those

based on proof of contraceptive use or pregnancy status;
(g) Making it possible, through laws, regulations and other appropriate measures, for
women to combine the roles of childbearing, breast-feeding and child rearing with
participation in the workforce.
In all this, education is one of the most important means of empowering women with the
knowledge, skills and self-confidence necessary to participate fully in the development
process. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights asserted that “everyone has the right to
education”. In 1990, Governments meeting at the World Conference on Education for All in
Jomtien, Thailand, committed themselves to the goal of universal access to basic education.
Nevertheless, despite notable efforts by countries around the globe that have appreciably
expanded access to basic education, there are approximately 960 million illiterate adults in
the world, of whom two thirds are women. More than one third of the world’s adults, most of
them women, have no access to printed knowledge, to new skills or to technologies that
would improve the quality of their lives and help them shape and adapt to social and
economic change. There are 130 million children who are not enrolled in primary school and
70 per cent of them are girls.
Assessment of existing work on Community gender equality.
Orientation to the reading
It is important to identify the gaps on community development as it relates to gender issues.

Address gender issues in program design, implementation, and evaluation. The step-by-step
instructions in this module detail the USAID ASSIST Project’s improvement approach to
identify and respond to gender-related issues in services or programs in order to close gaps,

and improve outcomes. This includes explanations on how to achieve each action as well as
examples illustrating the types of actions that could be taken for a specific project.
Step 1: Conduct a gender analysis to inform program design and implementation
Gender analysis is a systematic way of identifying and describing the social, economic,
education, health, and political factors that affect the lives of women, men, girls, and boys,
and how these differences can lead to gender inequalities and affect development outcomes.
When doing a gender analysis, issues such as access to services, knowledge and beliefs,
power and decision-making practices, roles and participation, and legal rights and status in
the household and the community are examined. Power relations underline all of these issues.
Teams use existing gender analyses when available. If such analyses are not available, gender
specialists can mentor improvement teams to conduct their own gender analyses to
understand local issues. Ideally, a gender analysis will be conducted before a program begins
to better understand gender issues that may affect the program. However, it can also be
conducted anytime during implementation. In this case, Gender analysis involves:
• Reviewing existing gender analyses or assessment documents.
• Conducting a desk review of other literature and data if a gender analysis is not
available.
• Conducting interviews with local community members to better understand gender

issues affecting women, men, girls, and boys in specific communities.
Step 2: Collect and analyze sex disaggregated and gender-sensitive data
Sex-disaggregated data are data collected and presented separately for both males and
females, which allow teams to identify quantifiable differences by sex. For example, teams
could analyze the use of health services, nutrition status, education outcomes, or retention in
care for males and females separately. Without collecting and analyzing sex-disaggregated
data, it is impossible to identify gender-related gaps in factors such as access, care, treatment,
and outcomes. USAID mandates that all people level data be collected and disaggregated by
sex.
Age-disaggregated data can also be important, both among and between males and females.
It is ideal to begin collecting data sex-disaggregated at the beginning of the activity but is still
useful at any stage of a program; it is never too late to begin. Gender-sensitive indicators

measure changes in the status and role of men and women over time. Examples include
measures of male partner involvement in antenatal care and mothers-in-law educated on
maternal and child health issues. Since projects often collect data to measure many indicators,
ASSIST suggests the following:
• Identify 2-3 sex-disaggregated or gender sensitive indicators per technical area to

analyze at a time. Ideally, these indicators should be linked to outcomes. Data should be
analyzed over at least three data points (e.g., three months for data collected monthly).
• Analyze data to determine whether a gap in outcomes between females and males
exists in chosen indicators. If so, continue to Step 3. If not, return to Step 2 and select 2-3
different indicators to analyze. It is important to note that even if an improvement team does
not identify a genderrelated gap in its facility, such a gap could be found at a later point in
time or at a later time.
Step 3: Identify gender-related gaps and issues and develop changes to test
Teams need to consider the barriers and opportunities identified in the gender analysis and
think through the direct changes that might alleviate those barriers and leverage those
opportunities. It is always important to consider the local context and cultural norms when
identifying and addressing gender gaps. Just like in all improvement activities, ideas for
gender related changes can come from literature, normative documents such as guidelines or
standards, team problem solving, benchmarking, or knowledge management products or
tools. Not every change will lead to an improvement.
Step 4: Implement and monitor gender-related changes over time to determine whether
desired results are achieved
Improvement teams should monitor changes to overcome gender-related issues, analyzing

data weekly, monthly, or quarterly to determine whether the change has led to an
improvement in outcomes and closed the previously identified gap. Again, at this stage, it is
important to make sure that the changes tested do not create or increase risk for women, men,
girls, or boys. In other words, that they “do no harm.” If any unintended negative
consequences are identified, they must be addressed promptly.
Step 5: If effective, scale up to other facilities

When a tested change leads to an improvement, the next step is to spread the change to other
sites to scale up the effective gender-related activities. It is important to identify any new
gender-related issues or differences in the new community in which the scale up will occur.
However, gender issues might be different in different communities even in the same
country; if such differences exist, they must be taken into consideration so that the scale up is
not adversely affected.
Step 6: Document and share learning Improvement teams document and share gender-
related learning.
Whether or not a gender-related change is successful, the lessons learnt should be shared with
others since people learn from successes and failures. Documenting and sharing learning
enables teams to remember what changes were tested as well as how and why they did or did
not work. It can also help create institutional memory and allow others to learn from the work
and improve their own services. Examples of documenting and sharing gender-related
learning include keeping a journal of changes tested; creating videos; writing blogs, case
studies, and improvement stories; and discussing gender-related gaps and how to address
them in reports, conferences, and learning sessions. Discussing gender related gaps and how
to address them in learning sessions is an integral component of the improvement process. It
is helpful to develop learning questions and tools for tracking gender related learning to be
included as part of improvement activities.
Lesson 11 Gender and Health
The lives of vast numbers of people lie in the hands of health systems that are from the safe
delivery of a healthy baby to the care with dignity of the frail elderly. As such, health systems
have an important and continuing responsibility to people throughout their lifespan. Health
systems are crucial to the healthy development of individuals, families and societies
everywhere.
The Six Building Blocks of a Health System
1.Good Health Services, which deliver effective, safe, quality personal, and non-personal
health interventions to those that need them, when and where needed, with minimum waste of
resources.

2.A well-performing health workforce is one that works in ways that are responsive, fair and
efficient to achieve the best health outcomes possible, given available resources and
circumstances.
3.A well-functioning health system ensures equitable access to essential medical products,
vaccines and technologies of assured quality, safety, efficacy and cost-effectiveness and their
scientifically sound and cost-effective use.
4.A well-functioning health Information system is one that ensures the production, analysis,
dissemination and use of reliable and timely information on health determinants, health
system performance and health status.
5.A good health financing system raises adequate funds for health, in ways that ensure people
can use needed services.
6.Leadership and governance involves ensuring strategic policy frameworks existence

combined with effective oversight, coalition-building, regulation, attention to systemdesign
and accountability.
Health Financing Arrangement
Health systems have various ways of collecting revenue:
1.General taxation
2.Mandated social health insurance contributions (usually salary-related and almost never
risk-related)
3.Voluntary private health insurance contributions (usually risk-related)
4.Out-of-pocket payment and donations
Most high-income countries rely heavily on either general taxation or mandated social health
insurance contributions. Low-income countries depend far more on out-of-pocket financing,
for instance, 60% of countries at incomes below $1000 per capita; out-of-pocket spending is
40% or more of the total whereas only 30% of middle and high-income countries depend so
heavily on this kind of financing.
Health systems have undergone overlapping generations of reforms in the past 100 years.
• The first generation saw the founding of national health care systems and the
extension of social insurance systems mostly in the 1940s and 1950s.

• Among systems that were nominally universal in coverage, the better off still used
health services more heavily, and efforts to reach the poor were often incomplete.
• Too many people continued to depend on their own resources to pay for health, and
could often get only ineffective or poor quality care.
• A second generation of reforms saw the promotion of primary health care which
ensure a minimum level for all of health services and bring basic health care to people
everywhere.
• Funding was inadequate;
The training and equipment of the workers were in sufficient.
The workers had little time to spend on prevention and community outreach.
The third reform saw a gradual convergence towards the “new universalism” high quality
delivery of essential care, defined mostly by the criterion of cost-effectiveness for everyone.
Globally the leading causes of death and disability in girls under 10 years of age are
communicable diseases such as respiratory tract infections and diarrhea and neonatal
conditions like low birth weight, birth asphyxia and trauma which together account for over
60% of the total causes.
Most deaths in children under the age of 10 take place before they reach their fifth birthday.
Every year some 9 million children under five years, including 4.3 million girls, die from
conditions that are largely preventable and treatable.
Child Girl’s Health
Girls and women face particular health risks due to harmful practices such as female genital
mutilation (FGM).
Millions of girls and women are estimated to have undergone FGM. It is estimated that 92.5
million girls and women above the age of 10 years in Africa are living with the consequences
of FGM. A growing tendency for FGM to be carried out by health professionals, a decline in
the average age at which FGM is performed, and a marked increase in the proportion of girls
who undergo FGM before the age of five years. Abuse and maltreatment

Girls are far more likely than boys to suffer sexual abuse. In emergency and refugee settings,
girls may be at particular risk of sexual violence, exploitation and abuse by combatants,
security forces, members of their communities, aid workers and others.
Adolescent Girls’ Health
The highest rates of mortality and burden of disease in adolescent girls are found in Africa
and South-East Asia. Deaths from suicide and injuries associated with road traffic accidents
and burns figure prominently as causes of death around the world. Communicable diseases
including HIV/AIDS are important causes of death, especially in Africa. During adolescence,
mental health problems contribute significantly to morbidity and mortality and, if
unrecognized, may render adolescents vulnerable to poor psychological and social
functioning in the immediate and longer term.
Adolescent Pregnancy
Young adolescents face a higher risk of complications and death as a result of pregnancy than
other women. In developing countries, complications of pregnancy and childbirth are the
leading cause of death in young women aged between 15 and 19 years. About 15% of total
maternal deaths worldwide, and 26% in Africa, occur among adolescents.
The adverse health effects of adolescent childbearing are reflected in the poor health of their
infants: prenatal deaths are 50% higher among babies born to mothers under 20 years of age
than among those born to mothers aged 20–29 years. Babies of adolescent mothers are more
likely to have low birth weight, which is a risk factor for ill-health during infancy. Rates of
unsafe abortion among young women are high, especially in Africa where girls aged 15–19
years account for one in every four unsafe abortions.
HIV Prevalence among Adolescent Girls
Young women are particularly vulnerable to HIV infection, due to a combination of

biological factors, lack of access to information and services, and social norms and values
that undermine their ability to protect themselves.
Figure 3: HIV prevalence rate among adolescents aged 15-19 years by sex, selected countries
in sub Saharan Africa 2001-2007
Lesson 12 Reproductive health

Reproductive health addresses the reproductive processes, functions and system at all stages
of life. Reproductive health, therefore, implies that people are able to have a responsible,
satisfying and safe sex life and that they have the capability to reproduce and the freedom to
decide if, when and how often to do so (WHO).
Components of reproductive health
Family-planning counseling, information, education, communication and services; education

and services for prenatal care, safe delivery, and post-natal care, especially breast-feeding,
infant and women’s health care.
Prevention and appropriate treatment of infertility, abortion, sexually diseases, and

reproductive tract infections information, education and counseling, as appropriate, on human
sexuality, reproductive health and responsible parenthood.
Reproductive health tied to policy concerns about population growth as well as health.
International Conference on Population and Development in Cairo 1994 focused on
population while two previous international conferences emphasized on family planning. In
2000, the United Nation Millennium declaration was adopted as a commitment; however,
goal 5 is to improve maternal health by reducing maternal mortality three quarters.
Family planning
The rationale is to reduce unintended fertility because of its negative health and welfare
consequences and because it has been recognized as a human right. Over the last 50 years, the
dissemination of modern ideas about small families was adopted, in part, due to lack of
availability, accessibility, and effective contraceptive, the gap between observed and desired
fertility growth, in turn leading to an increase in unintended fertility. For example, according
to WHO, in 2005 out of 211 million pregnancies, 87 million women became pregnant
unintentionally.
Barriers to family planning
1.The economic cost of access to services, including transportation and supplies.
2.The social cost, including traditional constrains, and women movement.
3.Psychic cost of contraceptive use in a society that offers little support for small family.
4.The health cost of side effects, whether subjective or objective, from contraceptive use.

Organization of family planning program
Family planning program focuses on commitment to achieve program objectives and access
to adequate resources by placing family planning program under a national supervisory
council or by establishing
a separate ministry. In addition, collecting data on indicators such as contraceptive

prevalence, proportion of unwanted births, maternal morbidity and mortality, pregnancy
complications and their management, and actual fertility level.
Lesson 13 Women’s Health during the Reproductive
Patterns of mortality during the reproductive years differ greatly between low- and high-
income countries. For instance, in high-income countries the three leading causes of female
death in high-income countries are road traffic accidents, suicide and self-inflicted injuries,
and breast cancer. All these account for more than one in every four deaths. While in low-
income countries, the three leading causes of death are HIV/ AIDS, maternal conditions and
tuberculosis and these account for one in every two deaths.
Maternal Mortality
Maternal mortality, a key indicator of women’s health and status, refers to the death of a
woman during pregnancy, delivery or the postpartum period. Since 1990, the maternal
mortality ratio has declined by 45 per cent worldwide, and most of the reduction has occurred
since 2000. Every day, approximately 830 women die from preventable causes related to
pregnancy and childbirth. Global progress fell far short of the 75% reduction target set by
MDGs. The SDG target is a global ratio of less than 70 deaths per 100,000
necessary skills, equipment and medicines to prevent and manage complications. More than
71 per cent of births were assisted by skilled health personnel globally in 2014, an increase
from 59 per cent in 1990 in high-income countries, virtually all women have at least four
antenatal care visits, are attended by a skilled health worker during childbirth and receive
postpartum care. In 2015, only 40% of all pregnant women in low-income countries had the
recommended antenatal care visits WHO (2016).
Figure 4: showing Maternal Mortality Ratios in 1990, 2000 and 2013

In industrialized countries, there are on average nine maternal deaths per 100 000 live births.
This figure can be as high as 1000 or more per 100 000 live births in the most disadvantaged
countries. Almost all maternal deaths could be prevented if women are assisted at that time
by a health-care professional with the necessary skills, equipment and medicines to prevent
and manage complications. More than 71 per cent of births were assisted by skilled health
personnel globally in 2014, an increase from 59 per cent in 1990 in high-income countries,
virtually all women have at least four antenatal care visits, are attended by a skilled
Factors that prevent women from receiving or seeking care during pregnancy and
childbirth
• Poverty
• Distance
• Lack of information
• Inadequate services: family planning, maternity care and safe abortion care
• Cultural practices.
Women and HIV/AIDS
HIV is the leading cause of death and disease in women of reproductive age. Of the 30.8
million adults living with HIV in 2007, 15.5 million were women. In all regions, HIV
disproportionately affects female sex workers and injecting drug users, as well as the female
partners of infected males. Some cultures limit women’s knowledge about HIV and their
ability to negotiate safer sex. Stigma, violence by intimate partners, and sexual violence
further increase women’s vulnerability.
Caring for Older Women
Women represent a growing proportion of all older people.
Worldwide in 2007, 55% of adults aged 60 years and over were women, a proportion that
rises to 58% at age 70 and above.
In 2007, there were 270 million women aged 60 years and over living in low- and middle-
income countries, compared with 115 million in high-income countries. Chronic conditions

account for 45% of deaths in women over 60 years of age worldwide. A further 15% of
deaths are caused by cancers.
A major cause of disability in older women is vision loss:
Every year, more than 2.5 million older women go blind. Much of this burden of disability
could be avoided if these women had access to the necessary care, particularly surgery for
cataracts. Elder abuse which includes both harmful actions and lack of action is an important
public health and societal problem that manifests itself in both developing and developed
countries.
In developing countries:
The care of older people is often provided informally by family, and falls primarily on the
female family members. The provision of that care imposes significant economic, social and
health burdens on the caregivers.
In high-income countries
Care of the elderly may be covered by social insurance schemes but mounting costs mean
that family members often have to make substantial financial contributions to such care.
Health-care provision
In many countries, access to health care is dependent on social security and health insurance
systems, which in turn are linked to previous employment in the formal sector of the
economy. Because many older women in developing countries work all of their lives in the
informal sector or in unpaid activities, health care is inaccessible, unaffordable or both.
The health of women and girls with disabilities
Women and girls with disabilities face additional challenge when accessing health care:
• Physical obstacles to clinics
• The lack of appropriate services
• The lack of understanding and training on the part of health care professionals
• General vulnerability
• Stereotypes regarding women with disabilities

• Poverty and lack of education
High-income Countries versus Low-income Countries
High-income countries: death rates among children and younger women are very low and
most deaths occur after the age of 60 years. Low-income countries: death rates at young ages
are higher, with most deaths occurring among girls, adolescents and younger adult women.
High-income countries: non-communicable diseases, such as heart disease, stroke, dementias

and cancers, predominate in the 10 leading causes of death, accounting for more than four in
every 10 female deaths.
Low-income countries, maternal and prenatal conditions and communicable diseases (e.g.
lower respiratory infections, diarrhea diseases and HIV/AIDS) are prominent and account for
over 38% of total female deaths.
1.The relationship between gender and HIV
2.Mainstreaming gender equality and HIV/AIDS prevention
3.Gender mainstreaming in agriculture and education sectors
Gender mainstreaming
According to UNAIDS (2004), the process through which HIV prevention can be achieved is
known as mainstreaming. Mainstreaming means bringing women into the public sphere by
increasing their participation( Brenner, 2009).
Mainstreaming Gender equality and HIV prevention is the process that enables development
actors to address the causes and effects of gender inequality and HIV in an effective and
sustained manner, through their actors, usual works and within their work place (UNAIDS,
2004). Mainstreaming gender and HIV means that realizing the need for organizations to
work together to achieve gender equality and to provide care and support to people living
with, and affected by HIV.
The aim of mainstreaming is to reduce the negative effects of development work on HIV and
to ensure that most policies and activities at sectors and national development contribute to
gender justice and mitigating the impact of HIV. Research shows that there is a link between
gender inequality and vulnerability to HIV/ AIDS. Gender inequality and sexual domination

of men decreases the power of women to have control over their own bodies, and increases
women’s risk of violence.
Gender inequality is the primary impediment to HIV/AIDS prevention as such there is a need
to incorporate gender inequality issues in HIV/AIDS programs in a structured way.
According to Ankra (1997), gender inequality affects among other things, the possibilities of
prevention, access to appropriate materials, information and resources, the quality of care one
can receive and survival chances.
This is why although HIV/AIDS is a health issue; the epidemic is also a gender issue because
it affects women and girls who are socially, culturally, biologically and economically
vulnerable. So mainstreaming gender equality in HIV/AIDS prevention serves as the solution
to the problems that come with HIV/AIDS that can lead to integration for sustainable
development.
Relationship between gender inequality and HIV/AIDS
Gender inequality is evident at all stages of the prevention-care continuum of HIV. No one
can deny the fact that gender roles and unequal gender relations are fuelling the epidemic by
rendering both men and women vulnerable to HIV/AIDS. For women, Gender inequality is
perhaps the main problem area impeding HIV/ AIDS prevention. For men, it is the pressure
to perform sexually and with many partners that place them at risk of HIV infection that in
turn influences women who have little power and control in sexual interactions. Women’s
inequality heightens their vulnerability to HIV/AIDS. Women are poorer. Gender studies
have stressed that poverty is gendered, as women and men experience poverty in distinctive
ways. In this scenario, HIV, in turn, influences poverty by making women poorer than men.
Women have less access to health care than men do. Low priority is given to women’s health
needs. Women are given little formal and informal support in caring roles and are expected to
carry the increasing burden of care giving in the context of HIV/ AIDS (Brenner, 2009).
In addition, women have less control over sexual relationships and the sexual behavior of
their male partners. As of now, the only female controlled method for prevention of HIV
available is the female condom, which is not accessible to the majority of women. Since the
beginning of the epidemic, women are rendered invisible and in some instances suffer blame
and rejection.

Millions of men a year are sexually violent towards women and girls, sometimes in their own
family or household, worldwide. According to UNAIDS (2004) report, at least one woman in
three has been beaten, coerced into sex or otherwise abused in her lifetime. The rapid spread
of the HIV/AIDS epidemic has led to an infringement of human rights of men, women and
children affected by the disease. Women, particularly in low-income groups, bear a large part
of this diseases’ burden. The overall morbidity and mortality for women from sexually
transmitted diseases, excluding HIV/AIDS, is over 4.5 times than that of men (UNAIDS,
2004).
Mainstreaming gender equality and HIV prevention
Mainstreaming gender equality and HIV prevention means accepting the fact that gender and
HIV are closely interlined. Mainstreaming HIV and AIDS and gender equality rests on
analyzing the vulnerability of individual women, men, boys and girls to HIV and AIDS
(Onipede et al 2011). This entails that the success of mainstreaming gender equality and HIV
require organizations to work together to provide care and support to people living with and
affected by HIV/AIDS. Mainstreaming gender and HIV should rest on reducing unintentional
and negative effects of HIV/AIDS on development work and making sure that policies and
activities at sectors and national development contribute to gender justice and mitigating the
impact of HIV/AIDS.
In addition, mainstreaming gender equality and HIV/AIDS is an important approach for

expanding, up scaling and implementing multi sector responses to gender and HIV.
Mainstreaming can also help in addressing the gender inequalities as they have implications
on the developing economies. It is proved through research, that countries that do not address
gender inequality are losing the benefits of more than half of their workforce due to gender
inequality.
Levels of mainstreaming
Internal mainstreaming ensures gender equality policies and programs are put in place within
the organization.
Policy would cover the extent to which gender equity is enshrined in the principles,
philosophy and institutional arrangements of the organization. It tries to bring change in
organization to align all activities towards achieving a common goal that impact on gender
equality and prevention of HIV/ AIDS.

External mainstreaming focuses on the integration of gender into the core purpose of the
organization. This is through the identification of key issues that impact on gender and
HIV/AIDS. These issues are addressed through service delivery, including projects and
programs implemented by the organization.
It is important to engage with other external players and stakeholders to collaborate and
cooperate towards one common goal of achieving gender equality and HIV prevention to
achieve sustainable development.
Mainstreaming model, outlined by Rees (1999),
First step is visioning which refers to the organization redefining its focus to include gender
equality and HIV prevention. This does not mean the organization changes its core purpose
for example networking on HIV/AIDS or even advocacy, but agrees on the importance of
integrating gender equality and HIV prevention internally and or externally.
Second stage regards participation and democracy, which is an agreement to embark on a

process of integration from all role players as a key prerequisite for mainstreaming gender
equality and HIV/AIDS (Rees, 1999). This may include consultation with staff, board of
management and service users to ensure that all buy into the mainstreaming agenda. This
would involve the building of partnerships with other sectors concerned with gender
inequality and HIV/AIDS prevention.
The third stage involves an investment of resources, both human and monetary, in order to
equip staff and volunteers to implement the mainstreaming plan. This process involves the
identification of what to be done by different categories of staff and volunteers within the
organization and building the appropriate skills through training and support to enable them
to carry out their identified roles (Rees, 2009).
Finally, it is crucial that appropriate monitoring and evaluation approaches are put in place to
track success and highlight problems at all stages of the process. Problems can then be
addressed in the process or as soon as they arise. In addition to the mainstreaming process by
Rees, Macdonald, Sprenger and Dubel (1997) establish a scale to indentify the extent of
gender practice evident in organizational policy and practice. At level one gender equality
and HIV/AIDS is seen as a good idea’ and accepted in theory. At level two gender equality
and prevention of HIV/AIDS is taken on board as policy. At level three gender equality and

HIV prevention is fully integrated into structures and practice. Finally at level four, the
integration of gender into all policies, programs and actions must be evident.
Mainstreaming in the agriculture sector
Mainstreaming gender equality in agriculture will mean providing women with land
ownership rights as land is an important asset for poverty reduction especially in rural areas.
Morrison et al (2007), state that Field (2006) in Peru found that most women do not have
knowledge of agricultural technology and that the decision to adopt technology is made by
the household head which in most cases are men. Most women lack social networks and
social learning as they are mostly not part of the farmers clubs as such women lack
knowledge of agriculture and HIV information. In this case, mainstreaming gender equality
and HIV in agriculture will help women to obtain more in addition; mainstreaming gender
and HIV/AIDS into the agricultural sector will help farmers especially in rural areas to
understand food security and the impact of HIV/AIDS on farmers. Mainstreaming gender and
HIV in the agricultural sector may also help in the reduction of productivity of infected
farmers, denial of land rights of widows and women left behind by migrant men and increase
literacy and skills which women do not have access to information about agricultural
production and HIV/AIDS.
Mainstreaming in education sector
While in the education sector, mainstreaming gender equality and HIV prevention, ensures
that the two are addressed not as isolated activities but as integral parts of education. In this
case, mainstreaming gender and HIV in this sector should be integrated in curriculum
development, teacher training, human resource management, monitoring, and evaluation of
outcomes and impact (UNESCO, 2009). Mainstreaming HIV and AIDS helps to identify and
support key steps in dealing with other issues like gender inequality and how to help
vulnerable children affected and infected with HIV/AIDS in the education sector.
Mainstreaming is about making development and humanitarian organizations and their works
relevant to the changes brought about by gender inequality and HIV. According to Holden
(2004) and UNAIDS (2004), mainstreaming is not an academic exercise but one which
responds to the experiences of individuals, households and communities affected by the two
issues. Organizations, which are mainstreaming HIV and AIDS in their programs, must also
pay attention to issues related to gender. As stated already, gender and HIV are connected. As

such paying attention to gender issues is integral to both internal and external mainstreaming
of HIV/AIDS.
Organizations should understand that mainstreaming gender and HIV does not seek to replace
the existing policies of the organization but rather to align and complement the existing
policies through a standardized gender and HIV policy framework in line with the country’s
national development plan. It is also very important that organizations mainstreaming gender
equality and HIV prevention stick to best practices and actively monitor progress. Ongoing
monitoring of the application of policies and their effects provide opportunities to modify and
improve both policies and practices (UNAIDS 2004).

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GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT NOTES

Lesson 1 Understanding gender concepts

Orientation to the reading Understanding concepts related to gender

SEX versus GENDER

Gender is not born with. Gender is not natural but is learned.

Lecture Notes: Joy Wanozga Chione

OTHER GENDER RELATED CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS

Lecture Notes: Joy Wanozga Chione

Gender Blind: Ignoring or failing to address the gender dimension.

Lecture Notes: Joy Wanozga Chione

Lesson 2 Patterns of inequalities

Women are often underrepresented in formal decision-making structures, including

2.Inequalities in economic participation and opportunities

Lecture Notes: Joy Wanozga Chione

4.Sexual and domestic violence

5.Differences in legal status and entitlements

Different communities that we belong to

Lecture Notes: Joy Wanozga Chione

Living in the community is very important because of the following reasons:

1. Community brings in a sense of belonging

• knowing what we expect of others and what they expect of us

All of these help us to develop a feeling of belonging to our communities.

2. Communities give reasons to things that we should value

• Respecting community leaders

• Resolving conflicts and solving disputes

• Having opportunities to practice religion and beliefs

• Having rights and responsibilities

• Maintaining traditional lifestyle

• Having opportunities for sport and recreation

Lecture Notes: Joy Wanozga Chione

• Improving living standards

• Accessing good health care and education

What is Community Development?

These valued aspects of community are challenged by community development, which is a

Community development is…change which improves the lives of community members,

Community development is…about people participating in their own development and

In development, things such as technical advances, economic benefits, improved education

Characteristics of Community Development

• All people affected by change should be involved.

• Respect local knowledge and use local talent.

Lecture Notes: Joy Wanozga Chione

• Build local capacity for long-term community sustainability depends on developing

• Effective and transparent communication

GENDER AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

Gender and community development is a process towards a sustainable way of community

WHY STUDY GENDER AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

Gender equality is an essential element of sustainable and inclusive development. Following

1.Women are part of the solution

2. Resource shortages are gendered.

Lecture Notes: Joy Wanozga Chione

3.Climate change is hitting women and girls harder

4. It is not just about women

Lecture Notes: Joy Wanozga Chione

Working for sustainability presents an opportunity to not only acknowledge global

GENDER IN RELATION TO HUMAN RIGHTS

Lecture Notes: Joy Wanozga Chione

• Gender-based violence affects at least 30% of women globally.

• Women are denied their sexual and reproductive health rights.