Pharmacology 4th Edition Brenner Test Bank
Pharmacology 4th Edition Brenner Test Bank
Pharmacology 4th Edition Brenner Test Bank
Bank
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Pharmacology 4th Edition Brenner Test Bank
Test Bank
Multiple Choice
1. A patient with renal disease exhibits zero-order elimination of a drug she is taking.
Which description of the drug’s elimination half-life is correct?
A. 5 hours
B. 10 hours
C. 15 hours
D. 30 hours
E. 50 hours
ANS: C. 15 hours
4. A patient with peptic ulcer disease is found to require larger than usual doses of
omeprazole to cure her peptic ulcer. Which drug metabolism phenotype is most
likely present in this patient?
G E , C G
Giant’s
Kaaden.
Causeway.
Silica 41 56·4
Alumina 3 2·1
Ferrous oxide 23 5·1
Ferric oxide — 14·1
Lime 8 —
Magnesia 2 5·9
Potash 3 8·8
Carbon dioxide 19 —
Water — 6·8%
A G E (G O )
M G
M B (L )
P G
Carbon 42·69
Water (chemically combined) 3·96
Ash 53·35
B G
1 2
Carbon 61·01 69·04
Alumina 7·80 6·86
Silica 17·34 14·18
Magnesia 1·03 0·53
Lime 2·56 0·80
Ferric oxide 5·54 4·00
Potash 0·87 0·91
Water and volatiles 3·24 2·89
Sulphur 0·51 0·62
G U S
1 2 3
Carbon 85·00 87·16 82·21
Ash 14·89 12·66 17·92
4 5 6
Carbon 82·40 81·10 55·50
Silica 12·38 11·61 21·00
Alumina 3·90 5·60 14·56
Ferric oxide 0·53
Manganese protoperoxide 0·62 2·00 4·84
Lime 0·02 2·00 4·84
Alkalis Trace Trace 0·62
Sulphur — — 0·30
Loss on incineration — — 2·43
Of these Styrian specimens, Nos. 1–4 are crude kinds, of sp. gr.
2·1443; No. 5 was levigated in the laboratory, and No. 6 was levigated
from an inferior quality at the mine.
According to the character of the crystalline structure, the colour of
graphite varies, but is mostly deep black. Very pure specimens, such as
the beautiful graphite blocks (from the renowned Alibert graphite mines
in Siberia) which, as a rule, are only to be seen in exhibitions and
mineralogical collections, have the appearance of unpolished steel or
white pig iron (spiegeleisen). The most important property of native
graphite is its low hardness and cohesion, in consequence of which it
leaves a streak when drawn over the surface of paper.
Graphite seems to be of frequent occurrence all over the world,
though only few deposits are known which yield a product that is
suitable for all the purposes to which graphite is applied.
In European countries, Austria is particularly rich in graphite; and
very large deposits of this mineral are found in Bohemia. Considerable
deposits also occur in Bavaria, where they have long been worked.
English graphite is celebrated for its excellent quality. All these
European deposits, however, are surpassed, both in extent and in the
quality of their products, by those discovered in Siberia, the largest being
that producing the aforesaid Alibert graphite and situated, near the
Chinese frontier, in eastern Siberia. At one time, America imported all
her blacklead pencils from Europe, having, at that period, no known
graphite deposits furnishing a suitable product. At present, however,
deposits of this kind have been found in California, and there can be little
doubt but that many others of this valuable mineral remain to be
discovered in that enormous continent, the geological investigation of
which is still far from being complete.
The graphite of some deposits is so highly contaminated by
extraneous minerals that it cannot be utilised, since the cost of
purification would exceed the value of the product. On the other hand,
the purer kinds, when suitably refined, yield a graphite that is fully
adapted to all requirements.
The refining process may be either chemical or mechanical, the
choice of methods depending entirely on the character of the associated
minerals. If these mainly consist of coarse, stony fragments, preference
should be given to mechanical treatment; but if they are of such a
character that they cannot be eliminated in this way, chemical methods
must be employed. Sometimes the two systems are combined, by first
subjecting the graphite to a rough mechanical purification, and then
completing the operation with chemical reagents.
The mechanical treatment consists in first removing as many of the
impurities as possible by hand-picking, and grinding the remainder in
edge-runner mills, along with water. The turbid liquid, containing the
powdered graphite and extraneous minerals in suspension, is led through
long launders, the sides of which are notched at intervals to allow the
water to overflow into large pits. The graphite settling in the first of these
pits contains numerous particles of the heavy associated minerals; but
that remaining suspended in the water and carried on to the further pits
constitutes the bulk. The water is left to clarify completely in the pits,
and is then drawn off, the pasty residue being shaped into prisms, which
are compressed under heavy pressure, to increase their density, when
partially dry.
Although levigation will remove most of the accompanying
extraneous minerals, it cannot eliminate the ash constituents of the
graphite. Experiments made in this direction have demonstrated that the
ash content of the levigated graphite is exactly the same as that of the
crude material. Whilst these ash constituents do not affect the quality of
graphite for certain of its uses, they nevertheless impair its beautiful
black colour to a considerable degree. The chemical treatment necessary
to eliminate these constituents is attended with many difficulties, the
chief of which resides in the fact that the ferric oxide present is in a form
that is not readily accessible to the action of chemicals. For this reason,
attempts to purify graphite with crude hydrochloric acid are hardly likely
to prove successful, since both the ferric oxide and the accompanying
silicates obstinately resist the action of this acid.
In order to obtain graphite of a high state of purity, the attempt must
be made to bring this ferric oxide and the silicates into a soluble
condition. This can be accomplished in various ways, and the choice of
the method will depend on the purpose for which the graphite is
intended. For example, the operations may either be confined to
purification, or else include the attainment of a maximum condition of
subdivision. When foliaceous graphite has to be treated—and this kind
of graphite cannot, in its original condition, be used for making lead
pencils—it is preferable to employ a method which will produce both the
above results. The purification may consist in crushing the graphite to
powder, and fusing this with a mixture of sulphur and carbonate of soda,
whereby the silicates present are converted into soluble compounds, and
the ferric oxide into ferric sulphide. On extracting the melt with water, a
portion of the contained salts pass into solution and is carried off. The
residue is then treated with dilute hydrochloric acid, which dissolves out
the ferric sulphide, with liberation of sulphuretted hydrogen, and leaves
the graphite in a very pure condition after washing.
In order to render foliaceous graphite suitable for lead pencils, a
different method is pursued, but should only be employed in special
circumstances, on account of the expense entailed.
According to the process recommended by Brodie, the graphite,
ground to coarse powder, is mixed with about one-fourteenth of its own
weight of chlorate of potash, this mixture being heated, with two parts by
weight of sulphuric to each part of graphite, in a water bath so long as
fumes of hypochlorous acid continue to be disengaged. The heating must
be performed in stoneware or porcelain vessels, those made of any other
materials being strongly corroded by the chlorine compounds formed.
When the evolution of fumes ceases, the mass is allowed to cool,
and is carefully washed with a large volume of water, the residue being
then dried and heated to redness. During this calcination the graphite
undergoes a peculiar change, increasing considerably in bulk and
forming an exceedingly soft powder which, after another washing,
consists almost entirely of chemically pure carbon.
Graphite purified in this way can be used for any purpose for which
this material is employed, and may be made into the finest lead pencils.
However, as already mentioned, this process is usually too expensive for
general application.
The use of graphite for writing is more ancient than is usually
supposed, having been tentatively employed between 1540 and 1560. It
was during this period that the graphite mines in Cumberland were
discovered; and the extremely pure graphite found there soon began to
be used as a writing material.
Up to the close of the eighteenth century, lead pencils were made by
selecting pure lumps of graphite and sawing them into thin rods, which
were then encased in wooden sticks. Apart from their high price, these
pencils exhibited various defects, one of the chief being that a stick of
such pencil was seldom of uniform hardness throughout its length, most
of them being so soft in parts as to make a deep black, smeary mark,
whilst other parts would hardly give any mark at all.
The defects inherent in native graphite are completely removed by
the method now generally employed in making lead pencils; and on this
account the old process of sawing the lumps has been abandoned.
Graphite with a fine earthy texture alone is suitable for lead pencils,
scaly varieties being useless for this purpose, unless specially prepared,
since they will not give a solid black streak. By means of the Brodie
process, however, even the most highly crystalline kinds can be rendered
suitable for this purpose. Siberian graphite is distinguished by extremely
high covering power, and is specially preferred for the manufacture of
pencils. Excellent varieties for this purpose are also found in many parts
of Europe; and indeed, a large proportion of all the lead pencils used
throughout the world are made from Bohemian, Styrian and Bavarian
graphite.
At present, all pencils are made from ground graphite, the extremely
finely ground and levigated material being kneaded into a paste with
clay. This operation fulfils a twofold purpose, the plasticity of the clay
increasing the cohesion of the individual particles of graphite, whilst the
amount of clay used determines the hardness of the pencil.
The larger the proportion of clay, the harder the pencil when baked,
and therefore the paler the mark the pencil will make on paper. In the
pencil factories, the clay is incorporated in special machines; and the
operation requires extreme care, since only a perfectly uniform mixture
will give a composition of regular character in all cases.
The intimately mixed material is formed into thin rods, which are
dried and then baked, the heat driving out the water in the clay and
transforming it into a solid mass.
An addition to this main application of graphite, the mineral is also
used for making crucibles, chiefly for melting the noble metals.
Crucibles of this kind are largely manufactured near Passau, Bavaria, and
similar crucibles are made in England from Ceylon graphite.
Another important use for graphite is as a coating for iron articles to
protect them from rust. For this purpose, however, only the inferior kinds
are employed; and these can also be made up into excellent cements
capable, in particular, of offering considerable resistance to the action of
heat and chemicals.
To complete the tale of the applications of graphite, its employment
as a lubricating agent for machinery, especially for reducing friction in
machines made of wood, may be mentioned. Latterly also, the finest
levigated graphite has come into use, in admixture with solid fats or
mineral oils, for lubricating large engines, for which purpose it is
excellently adapted.
B C
Black chalk, slate black, Spanish chalk, crayon, etc., is not a chalk at
all, in the mineralogical sense, but consists of clay shale of varying
colour. Some kinds of this shale are pure black, almost velvet black, and
these are considered the best. Others have a more greyish or bluish tinge
and are of low value as pigments.
The purer the black, the finer the grain of the material, and therefore
the greater its value to the colour-maker. The variety obtained from
Spain is generally admitted to be the best, and for this reason the name of
Spanish chalk has been applied to all similar minerals.
In all cases the black colour of Spanish chalk is due to carbon; but
the particular modification of carbon present has not yet been accurately
identified. According to some, it is chiefly graphite, whereas others
ascribe the colour to amorphous carbon. Apparently, the material found
in different deposits contains either one or the other of these
modifications of carbon.
Deposits of black chalk are fairly plentiful, but in many of them the
material is so contaminated with extraneous minerals that a somewhat
troublesome method of preparation is needed to fit them for the purpose
of the draughtsman. With this object, the native product must be ground
extremely fine, and the powder levigated; and owing to the expense of
these processes, they are now seldom used, it being possible to obtain a
good black chalk far more cheaply than by levigating the natural
material.
This artificial black chalk is prepared by mixing ordinary white
chalk, or white clay, with a black colouring matter, shaping the mass into
prisms, and sawing these into suitable pieces when dry. The white
pigment may either be mixed with some very deep black substance, such
as lampblack, or stained with an organic dyestuff, which is, in reality, not
black, but either very dark blue or green.
The usual colouring matter used with white chalk is lampblack,
mixed to a uniform paste with thin glue, a suitable amount of clay or
chalk being incorporated with the mass. The production of a perfectly
homogeneous mixture entails subjecting the paste to a somewhat
protracted mechanical treatment. When the mass has become perfectly
uniform throughout, it is shaped into prisms, which are exposed to the air
to dry and are then cut up with a saw. Instead of prisms, the mass can be
shaped into thin sticks, which dry more quickly.
A very handsome black chalk can be made, with comparatively little
trouble, by treating chalk with a suitable quantity of logwood decoction
previously mixed with sufficient green vitriol solution to render the
liquid a deep black. This liquid is added to the dry chalk, intimately
mixed therewith, and the pasty mass shaped into sticks. The colouring
agent may be replaced by a solution of logwood extract blackened by the
addition of a small quantity of chromate of potash; or black dyestuffs
may be used.
CHAPTER XI
W E C
Carbonate of Lime:
Chalk; levigated chalk; Vienna white; Spanish white; marble white;
artists’ white; Bougival white; Champagne chalk; Paris chalk; Cologne
chalk; Mountain chalk; craie; blanc minéral; Blanc de Champagne;
Blanc de Meudon; Blanc de Bougival; Blanc de Troyes; Blanc
d’Orleans; Blanc de Rouen; Blanc de Briançon.
Basic Carbonate of Lime:
Vienna white; Vienna lime; pearl white; whiting; Blanc de chaux;
Blanc de Vienne.
Note.—The calcareous marls, consisting of carbonate of lime and
clay, are also frequently sold under the above names, the same being the
case with gypsum.
Silicate of Alumina:
White earth; pipeclay; Dutch white; Cologne earth; terre d’Argile;
Argile blanc; Terre blanche.
Silicate of Magnesia (mineralogically, talc and soapstone):
Talc; Venetian earth; French chalk; Venetian white; glossy white;
feather white; shale white; face-powder white; Blanc de Venise; Blanc
d’Espagne; Blanc de fard.
Note.—Fine grades of white lead are also sold as Venetian white,
Spanish white and shale white; but can easily be recognised by their
weight. The term “prepared” white, frequently applied to earth colours in
the trade, usually indicates that the material in question has been either
levigated, ground or burnt—in short, put through some kind of
preparatory treatment—and is therefore in frequent use for all the
colours.
Barium sulphate:
Heavy spar; barytes; heavy earth; mineral white.
Precipitated colours:
Permanent white; blanc fixe.
Y E C
R E C