CHAPTER 1

INTELLECTUAL REVOLUTIONS THAT DEFINED SOCIETY

Introduction

The development of science and scientific ideas in the heart of the society shall be
discussed in this lesson. The target is to articulate ways by which society is transformed by
science and technology.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this chapter, you will be able to:

1. discuss how the ideas postulated by Copernicus, Darwin, and Freud contributed to
the spark of scientific revolution;
2. analyze how scientific revolution is done in various parts of the world like in Latin
America, East Asia, Middle East, and Africa.

Lesson 1 SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION

Science is as old as the world itself. There is no individual that can exactly identify when
and where science began. From the genesis of time, science has existed. It is always
interwoven with the society. So, how can science be defined?

1. Science as an idea. It includes ideas, theories, and all available systematic explanations
and observations about the natural and physical world.
2. Science as an intellectual activity. It encompasses a systematic and practical study of
the natural and physical world. This process of study involves systematic observation and
experimentation.
3. Science as a body of knowledge. It is a subject or a discipline, a field of study, or about
a body of knowledge that deals with the process of learning about the natural and
physical world. It is referred as the school of science.
4. Science as a personal and social activity. This explains that science is both knowledge
and activities done by human beings to develop better understanding of the world, a way
to improve and survive in life. It is interwoven with people’s lives.
 Human beings have embarked in scientific activities in order to know and understand
everything about them. They have persistently observed and studied the natural and
physical word in order to find meanings and seek answers to many questions. They have
developed noble ideas, later known as philosophy, to provide alternative or possible
explanations to certain phenomena. Humans also used religion to rationalize the origins of
life and all lifeless forms.
The idea of scientific revolution is claimed to have started in the early 16 th and 18th
century in Europe. Why in Europe? It was in Europe probably because of the invention of
printing machine, the blooming intellectual activities done in various places of learning, and
the growing number of scholars in various fields of human interests. All great civilizations of
the ancient world had their own sophisticated traditions and activities related to these
disciplines.
Scientific revolution was the period of enlightenment when the developments in the
fields of mathematics, physics, astronomy, biology, and chemistry transformed the views of
society about nature. It explained the emergence or birth of modern science which enabled
the people to reflect, rethink, and reexamine their beliefs and way of life.
Scientific revolution was the golden age for people committed to scholarly life in
science but it was also a deeply trying moment to some scientific individuals that led to their
painful death or condemnation from the religious institutions who tried to preserve their faith,
religion, and theological views. Some rulers and religious leaders did not accept many of the
early works of scientists. But these did not stop people especially scientists to satisfy their
curiosity of the natural and physical world.

Scientific revolution is very significant in the development of human beings,

transformation of the society, and in the formulation of scientific ideas. It significantly
improved the conduct of scientific investigations, experiments, and observations. The
scientific revolution also led to the creation of new research fields in science and prompted
the establishment of a strong foundation for modern science. In many ways, scientific
revolution transformed the natural world and the world of ideas.

Lesson 2 SOME INTELLECTUALS AND THEIR REVOLUTIONARY IDEAS

To further understand what exactly happened during the scientific

revolution, it is important to examine the different individuals whose ideas have
shaken and contested the dominant theories and ideas during this period – the
truths of their time. Scientists in all periods of time are driven by their curiosity,
critical thinking, and creativity to explore the physical and natural world. Their love
for science is driven by their deep passion to know and to discover.
The variables that influence the development of Science ideas, Science
Discovers and Technology:
1. Creativity
2. Curiosity
3. Critical Thinking

Scientists are not driven by clamor for honor and publicity. They are
ordinary people doing extraordinary people doing extraordinary things. Some
scientists were never appreciated during their times, some were sentenced to
death, while others were condemned by the Church during their time. In spite of all
the predicaments and challenges they experienced, they never stopped
experimenting, theorizing, and discovering new knowledge and ideas.
In this part of the lesson, three notable scientists are discussed. For sure,
there were many scientists who worked before and after these individuals.
However, it is important to note that these men, particularly through their ideas,
had shaken the world.

NICOLAUS COPERNICUS, a Polish astronomer is known as the father of

modern astronomy. He was born on February 19, 1473 in Torun, a city in north-
central Poland on the Vistula River.
In one important way, Copernicus resembled the Greek ancient
philosophers or thinkers – he did not do anything extensive such as observing
heavenly bodies or inviting people to test his ideas. His ideas were an example of
what is presently called as thought experiment. By the time he finished his
doctorate degree, Copernicus had been appointed as canon at Frombork
Cathedral in Poland. Despite his duty as a canon, he had plenty of time to sustain
his interest in Astronomy. Copernicus was strongly influenced by a book entitled
epitome published in 1496 by a German author, Johannes Mueller. This book
contains Mueller’s observations of the heavens and some commentary on earlier
works especially that of Ptolemy.
Copernicus’ idea and model of the universe was essentially complete in
1510. Not long after that, he circulated a summary of his ideas to his few close
friends in a manuscript called Commentariolus (Little Commentary). There was
no proof that Copernicus was concerned about the risk of persecution by the
Church if he published his ideas formally.
 Copernicus was a busy man, he wanted model pf the universe in which
everything moved around a single center at unvarying rates (Gribbin, 2003).
Copernicus placed the Sun to be the centerpiece of the universe. The earth and all
the planets are surrounding or orbiting the Sun each year. The Moon, however,
would still be seen orbiting the Earth. Copernicus’ model of the Earth orbiting
around the Sun automatically positioned the planets into a logical sequence. In his
model, Copernicus outlined two kinds of planetary motion:
1) the orbits of Venus and Mercury lay inside the orbit of the Earth, thus,
closer to the Sun
2) the orbits of Mars, Saturn and Jupiter lay outside the Earth’s orbit, thus,
farther from the Sun.

From this model, he would work on the length of time it will take for each
planet to orbit once around the Sun. The result would form a sequence form
Mercury, with a shortest year, through Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn
with the longest year. He placed the planets in order of increasing distance from
the Sun. One of the great problems in the Copernicus Model, however, was the
position of the starts. The stars cannot be placed in a fixed position like crystals in
a distance sphere.
Copernicus is also a courageous man. Although the Copernican model
makes sense now, during those times, it was judged to be heretic and therefore it
was unacceptable idea to be taught to Catholics. The Catholic Church banned the
Copernican model as was ignored by Rome for the rest of the 16 th century.

THINK ABOUT THESE QUESTIONS #1

1. What is the contribution of Copernicus in the philosophy of science?

2. Do you think thought experiment is still useful in science in the present time?
3. Do you think the Church should intervene in scientific activities?

CHARLES DARWIN

Charles Robert Darwin (born on February 12, 1809 in Shrewsbury, Shropshire,

England and died on April 19, 1882, Downe, Kent) is famous for his theory of evolution.
Johnson (2012) described Darwin as a genius who came from a line of intellectually gifted
and wealthy family. He developed his interest in natural history during his time as a student
at Shrewsbury School. He would also spend time taking long walks to observe his
surroundings while collecting specimens and he pored over books in his father’s library
(Gribbin, 2003). According to Johnson, Darwin went to the best schools but was observed to
be a mediocre student. He struggled in his study in medicine and ministry, which his father
imposed to him. Darwin’s life soon changed when one of his professors recommended him
to join a five-year voyage through the HMS Beagle on the Islands Galapagos.

Darwin published his book The Origin of Species in 1589. This book is considered to
be one of the most important works in scientific literature. Darwin collected many significant
materials in order to present his theory with overwhelming evidence. His book presented
evidence on how species evolved over time and presented traits and adaptation that
differentiate species. Like many other scholars, Darwin accumulated many pertinent
materials and data that he could ever possibly need to substantiate his theory.

Darwin’s observational skills as a scientist were extraordinary that moved beyond the
realms of plants and animals into the realms of humans. His book The Descent of Man was
so impressive yet very controversial. He introduced the idea of all organic life, including
human beings, under the realm of evolutionary thinking. This replaced the dominant views of
areligious or biblical design that places human beings in a privileged position of having been
created by God. Darwin’s theory of evolution scientifically questioned this view.

Darwin’s accomplishments were so divers that it is useful to distinguish two fields to

which he made major contributions: evolutionary biology and philosophy of science. More
than these works, what made Darwin truly remarkable was his courage to challenge religious
and unscientific ideas that are deemed to be prominent during those days. His unorthodox
way of pursuing science gave more value to evidence-based science. Darwin provided a
different framework for doing scientific activities. It is a science marked by observation and
experiment.

THINK ABOUT THESE QUESTIONS #2

1. What is Darwin’s contribution to modern science?

2. How can Darwin’s evolutionary theory influence the following fields in modern
times
* Economy
* Agriculture
* Political Science
* Religion

 Darwin, encouraged to tackle the larger questions of life through a study of

invertebrate zoology, made his own observations on the larval sea mat (Flustra) and
announced his findings at the student societies.
 Following are Darwin’s notable Works:

 “The Formation of Vegetable Mold, Through the Action of Worms”

 “The Variation of Animals and Plants Under Domestication”
 “The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals”
 “The Different Forms of Flowers on Plants of the Same Species”
 “Origin of Species”
 “The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex”
 “On the Various Contrivances by Which British and Foreign Orchids Are Fertilised by
Insects”
 “The Effects of Cross and Self Fertilization in the Vegetable Kingdom”

SIGMUND FREUD
Freud is a famous figure in the field of psychology. Rosenfels (1980) also described
him as a towering literary figure and a very talented communicator who did his share to raise
the consciousness of the civilized world in psychological matters.
However, apart from these, Freud also made a significant contribution in the scientific
world through the development of an important observational method to gather reliable data
to study human’s inner life. This method is popularly known as the method of
psychoanalysis. The scientific hypothesis he formulated formed the essential fundamental
version of this method. For Freud, this method of psychoanalysis is a scientific way to study
the human mid and neurotic illness. It is no doubt that amidst all questions on his works that
led to some sort of academic controversy, his method of psychoanalysis had great impact on
the scientific way of understanding human nature.
Freud is not a traditional thinker. According to Weiner (2016), his method of
psychoanalysis was proven to be effective in understanding some neurological conditions
that were not understood by medicine at that time. His method was unorthodox – focusing
on human sexuality and the evil nature of man. This posed immense challenges to scholars
and ordinary citizens of his time. To some, they found his ideas not easy especially in his
explanations of human sexuality.
Freud was born in a much later period from the scientific revolution but his
contribution to knowledge can be seen in many aspects of the human scene, including art,
literature, philosophy, politics, and psychotherapy. Whether he is more of a psychologist or a
scientist is for people to decide. The fact remains that Freudian ideas and theories are still
considered nowadays as a great inspiration to examine human mind and behavior in a more
scientifically accepted way.

THINK ABOUT THESE QUESTIONS #3

1. By looking for other sources and literatures, what are the controversies or
questions on Freud’s ideas?
2. How can you describe Freudian ideas as a scientist?
3. If Freud is still alive, what do you think are the major changes he would make to
his theory?

Lesson 3 DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE IN MESOAMERICA

Mesoamerica includes the entire area of Central America from Southern Mexico up
to the border of South America. There is no doubt that the Mesoamerican region is rich in
culture and knowledge prior to the arrival of its European colonizers.

The Maya civilization is one of the famous civilizations that lasted for approximately
2,000 years. These people are known for their works in astronomy. They incorporated their
advanced understanding of astronomy into their temples for astronomical observation. For
example, the pyramid at Chichen Itza in Mexico is situated at the location of the Sun during
the spring and fall equinoxes.

Mayan knowledge and understanding about celestial bodies was advanced by their
knowledge of predicting eclipse for their time, as evidenced by their knowledge of predicting
eclipse and using astrological cycles in planting and harvesting. The Mayans are also known
for measuring time using two complicated calendar systems. These calendars were very
useful for their life especially in planning their activities and in observing their religious rituals
and cultural celebrations.

The Mayans also developed the technology for growing different crops and building
elaborate cities using ordinary machineries and tools. They built hydraulics system with
sophisticated waterways to supply water to different communities.

Furthermore, they used various tools and adapt themselves to innovations especially
in the field of arts. The Mayans built looms for weaving cloth and devised a rainbow of
glittery paints made from a mineral called mica. They are also believed to be one of the first
people to produce rubber products 3,000 years before Goodyear received its patent in 1844.
 The Mayans are considered one of the most scientifically advanced societies in
Mesoamerica. They are also famous as one of the world’s first civilizations to use a writing
system known as the Mayan hieroglyphics. They were also skilled in mathematics and
created a number system based on the numeral 20. Moreover, they independently
developed the concept of zero and positional value, even before the Romans did.

The Inca civilization is also famous in Mesoamerica. The Incas made advanced
scientific ideas considering their limitations as an old civilization. The following were scientific
ideas and tools that they developed to help them in everyday life:

1. roads paved with stones;

2. stone buildings that surmounted earthquakes and other disasters;

3. irrigation system and technique for storing water for their crops to grow in all types
of land;

4. calendar with 12 months to mark their religious festivals and prepare them for
planting season;

5. the first suspension bridge;

6. quipu, a system knotted ropes to keep records that only experts can interpret; and

7. Inca textiles since cloth was one of the specially prized artistic achievements.

Following the Inca, the Aztec civilization has also made substantial contributions to
science and technology and to the society as a whole. Some of their contributions:

1. Mandatory education. The Aztec puts value on education; that is why their children are
mandated to get education regardless of their social class, gender, or age. It is an early
form of universal or inclusive education.

2. Chocolates. The Aztec in Mexico developed chocolate during their time. In the Mayan
culture, they used it as currency. The Aztec valued the cacao beans highly and made it as
part of their tribute to their gods.

3. Antispasmodic medication. They used a type of antispasmodic medication that could

prevent muscle spasms and relax muscles, which could help during surgery.

4. Chinampa. It is a form of Aztec technology for agricultural farming in which the land was
divided into rectangular areas and surrounded by canals.

5. Aztec calendar. This enabled them to plan their activities, rituals, and planting season.
6. Invention of the canoe. A light narrow boat used for traveling in water systems.

DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE IN ASIA

Here is a list of 16 contributions, made by ancient Indians to the world of science and
technology, that will make you feel proud to be an Indian.

1. The Idea of Zero

Little needs to be written about the mathematical digit ‘zero’, one of the most
important inventions of all time. Mathematician Aryabhata was the first person to create a
symbol for zero and it was through his efforts that mathematical operations like addition and
subtraction started using the digit, zero. The concept of zero and its integration into the
place-value system also enabled one to write numbers, no matter how large, by using only
ten symbols.

2. The Decimal System

India gave the ingenious method of expressing all numbers by means of ten symbols
– the decimal system. In this system, each symbol received a value of position as well as an
absolute value. 

3. Numeral Notations

Indians, as early as 500 BCE, had devised a system of different symbols for every
number from one to nine. This notation system was adopted by the Arabs who called it
the hind numerals. 

4. Fibbonacci Numbers

The Fibonacci numbers and their sequence first appear in Indian mathematics
as mātrāmeru, mentioned by Pingala in connection with the Sanskrit tradition of prosody.
Later on, the methods for the formation of these numbers were given by mathematicians

5. Binary Numbers

Binary numbers is the basic language in which computer programs are written.
Binary basically refers to a set of two numbers, 1 and 0, the combinations of which are called
bits and bytes.

6. Chakravala method of Algorithms

 The chakravala method is a cyclic algorithm to solve indeterminate quadratic
equations, including the Pell’s equation. This method for obtaining integer solutions was
developed by Brahmagupta, one of the well known mathematicians of the 7th century CE.

7. Ruler Measurements

Excavations at Harappans sites have yielded rulers or linear measures made from

ivory and shell. Marked out in minute subdivisions with amazing accuracy, the
calibrations correspond closely with the hasta increments of 1 3/8 inches, traditionally used
in the ancient architecture of South India

8. A Theory of Atom

One of the notable scientists of the ancient India was Kanad who is said to have
devised the atomic theory centuries before John Dalton was born. He speculated the
existence of anu or a small indestructible particles, much like an atom. He also stated
that anu can have two states — absolute rest and a state of motion. He further held that
atoms of same substance combined with each other in a specific and synchronized manner
to produce dvyanuka (diatomic molecules) and tryanuka (triatomic molecules).

9. The Heliocentric Theory

Mathematicians of ancient India often applied their mathematical knowledge to make

accurate astronomical predictions. The most significant among them was Aryabhatta whose
book, Aryabhatiya, represented the pinnacle of astronomical knowledge at the time.

10. Wootz Steel

A pioneering steel alloy matrix developed in India, Wootz steel is a crucible steel
characterized by a pattern of bands that was known in the ancient world by many different
names such as Ukku, Hindwani and Seric Iron.

11. Smelting of Zinc

India was the first to smelt zinc by the distillation process, an advanced technique
derived from a long experience of ancient alchemy. 

12. Seamless Metal Globe

Considered one of the most remarkable feats in metallurgy, the first seamless
celestial globe was made in Kashmir by Ali Kashmiri ibn Luqman in the reign of the Emperor
Akbar..

13. Plastic Surgery

 The Sushruta Samhita ’s most well-known contribution to plastic surgery is the
reconstruction of the nose, known also as rhinoplasty.

14. Cataract Surgery

The first cataract surgery is said to have been performed by the ancient Indian
physician Sushruta, way back in 6th century BCE. To remove the cataract from the eyes, he
used a curved needle, Jabamukhi Salaka, to loosen the lens and push the cataract out of
the field of vision. healed completely. Sushruta’s surgical works were later translated to
Arabic language and through the Arabs, his works were introduced to the West.

15. Ayurveda

Long before the birth of Hippocrates, Charaka authored a foundational

text, Charakasamhita, on the ancient science of Ayurveda

16. Iron-Cased Rockets

The first iron-cased rockets were developed in the 1780s by Tipu Sultan of Mysore
who successfully used these rockets against the larger forces of the British East India
Company during the Anglo-Mysore Wars.

History of Science and Technology in China

China is one of the ancient civilizations with substantial contributions in many areas
of life like medicine, astronomy, science, mathematics, arts, philosophy, and music, among
others. Chinese civilizations have greatly influenced many of its neighbor countries like
Korea, Japan, Philippines, Vietnam, Thailand, Cambodia, Myanmar, and other countries that
belong to the old Silk Road.

The Chinese are known for traditional medicines, a product of centuries of

experiences and discovery of the Chinese people. They discovered various medical
properties and uses of different plants and animals to cure human illness. An example is the
practice of acupuncture.

In terms of technology, the Chinese are known to develop many tools. Among the
famous discoveries and inventions of the Chinese civilizations were compass, papermaking,
gunpowder, and printing tools that became known in the West only by the end of the Middle
Ages. They also invented other tools like iron plough, wheelbarrow, and propeller, among
others. The developed a design of different models of bridges, invented the first
seismological detector, and developed a dry cock facility.
 In the field of astronomy, the Chinese also made significant records on supernovas,
lunar and solar eclipses, and comets, which were carefully recorded and preserved to
understand better the heavenly bodies and their effects to our world. They observed the
heavenly bodies to understand weather changes and seasons that may affect their daily
activities. They used lunar calendars, too. The Chinese are also known in seismology. This
made them more prepared in times of natural calamities.

China made substantial contributions in various fields. The list of their discoveries
and inventions is overwhelming. These contributions were made along with mathematics,
logic, philosophy, and medicine. However, cultural factors prevented these Chinese
achievements from developing into modern science. According to Needham (1986), it may
have been the religious an philosophical framework of Chinese intellectuals that made them
unable to accept the ideas of laws of nature.

History of Science and Technology in Middle East Countries

The Middle East countries are dominantly occupied by Muslims. With the spread of
Islam in the 17th centuries, a period of Muslim scholarship, or what is called the Golden Age
of Islam lasted until the 13th century. The common language of Arabic, access to Greek texts
from the Byzantine Empire, and their proximity to India were contributory to the
intellectualization of the Muslim and provided to India were contributory to the
intellectualization of the Muslims and provided their scholars knowledge to create
innovations and develop new ideas. But contrary to the Greeks, Muslim scientist placed
greater value on science experiments rather than plain-thought experiments. This led to the
development of the scientific method in the Muslim world, and made significant
improvements by using experiments to distinguish between competing scientific theories set
within a generally empirical orientation. A Muslim scientist named Ibnal-Haytham is also
regarded as the Father of Optics, especially for his empirical proof of the intromission theory
of light.

In mathematics, the mathematician Muhammad Ibn Musa al-Khwarismi gave his

name to the concept of the algorithm while the term algebra is derived from al-jabr, the
beginning of the title of one of his publications. What is now known as the Arabic Numerical
System originally came from India, but Muslim mathematicians did make several refinements
to the number system, such as the introduction of decimal point notation.
 The Book of Silk was the first definitive atlas of comets, written c. 400 B.C.E. It listed
29 comets (referred to as broom stars) that appeared over a period of about 300 years, with
renderings of comets describing an event its appearance corresponded to.[1]

The first bridge recorded in Chinese history is the boat bridge over the river Weishui
ordered by King Wen of the Zhou dynasty 3000 years ago. The first record of a stone bridge
goes back to the Han dynasty. Stone-arch bridges made their appearance around
250 B.C.E. Famous bridges are the admired Anji bridge built with one arch under the Sui
dynasty (581-618), the Lugou Marco Polo bridge built during the Kin dynasty (1038-1227),
the jewel belt bridge, with 53 spans, built a Suzhou during the Tang dynasty. “The beam
bridge has the longest history in bridge engineering whether in China or elsewhere.“ It can
be mentioned for example the Luoyang bridge built during the Northern Song dynasty (960-
1127) with a total length of 834 meter and a seven-meter-wide deck for traffic.[15]

The Eastern Han Dynasty scholar and astronomer Zhang Heng (78-139 C.E.)

invented the first water-powered rotating armillary sphere (the first armillary sphere however
was invented by the Greek Eratosthenes), and catalogued 2500 stars and over
100 constellations. In 132, he invented the first seismological detector, called the "Houfeng
Didong Yi" ("Instrument for inquiring into the wind and the shaking of the earth").
 According to the History of Later Han Dynasty (25-220 C.E.), this seismograph was an
[17]

urn-like instrument, which would drop one of eight balls to indicate when and in which
direction an earthquake had occurred. On June 13, 2005, Chinese seismologists announced
that they had created a replica of the instrument.

Sliding calipers were invented in China almost 2000 years ago. [18] The Chinese
civilization was the first civilization to succeed in exploring with aviation, with the kite and
Kongming lantern (proto Hot air balloon) being the first flying machines.

The Four Great Inventions of ancient China

The "Four Great Inventions of ancient China" (Traditional Chinese: 四 大 發 明 ; Simplified

Chinese: 四 大 发 明 ; pinyin: Sì dà fā míng) are the compass, gunpowder, papermaking,
and printing. Paper and printing were developed first. Printing was recorded in China in
the Tang Dynasty, although the earliest surviving examples of printed cloth patterns date to
before 220.[19] Pinpointing the development of the compass can be difficult: the magnetic
attraction of a needle is attested by the Louen-heng, composed between 20 and 100 C.E.,
 although the first undisputed magnetized needles in Chinese literature appear in 1086.[21]
[20]
Printing, gunpowder and the compass: These three have changed the whole face and state
of things throughout the world; the first in literature, the second in warfare, the third in
navigation; whence have followed innumerable changes, in so much that no empire, no sect,
no star seems to have exerted greater power and influence in human affairs than these
mechanical discoveries. [26]

For the eleventh century invention of ceramic movable type printing by Bi Sheng (990-1051),
it was enhanced by the wooden movable type of Wang Zhen in 1298 and the bronze metal
movable type of Hua Sui in 1490.

MIDDLE EAST COUNTRIES

In this lesson, you will learn about some of the history and more contemporary contributions
coming out of the Middle East or thanks to Middle Eastern inventors.

Middle East Early Contributions

The Middle East is an area of the world that includes many countries, such as Turkey, Israel,
Saudi Arabia, Iran, and Iraq. Throughout its history, these people have either invented or
contributed to the development of important technologies that have impacted the fields of
astronomy, medicine, and much more.

For example, one of the world's most famous polymaths, someone who was really great at
many different subject areas, was Taqi ad-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf ash-Shami al-Asadi.
He was born in Damascus, now located in Syria, in 1526. His knowledge and observations
contributed much to the field of astronomy, including how to find the coordinates of stars,
how steam can be used to rotate a rudimentary steam turbine, and important properties
related to vision, such as reflection and refraction.

Let's go over some other technological developments that arose in the Middle East or thanks
to people who were born there.

Gas Lasers and CSI

Ali Javan is an Iranian-born physicist who was the co-inventor of the gas laser. Here, an
electric current moves through a gas in order to produce a light. One such type of laser is
known as the carbon dioxide laser. This gas laser is used in everything from industrial
cutting and welding to laser surgery.

Iranian-born medical engineer Tofy Mussivand has invented a device that's able to extract
and analyze DNA from just a single skin cell. How could this be important? Well, for one, it
could greatly enhance a crime scene investigator's ability to identify a possible suspect in a
murder-case, where all they may have to go on is a single skin cell.

Endoscopy, Iron Dome, & ReWalk

In Israel, medical engineers developed capsule endoscopy, which is the visual examination

of the digestive tract via a pill-like device. This has given doctors and patients a much easier
way to detect problems or the causes of problems in the digestive tract, like pain in the
abdomen, bleeding from the abdominal tract, as well as tumors.

DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE IN AFRICA

Africa is blessed with natural and mineral resources. Science also emerged in this
part of the planet long before the Europeans colonized it. The history of science and
mathematics show that similar to other ancient civilizations, the early civilizations in Africa
are knowledge producers, too.

The ancient Egyptian civilization has contributed immensely and made significant
advances in the fields of astronomy, mathematics, and medicine. For example, the
development of geometry was a product of necessity to preserve the layout and ownership
of farmlands of the Egyptians living along the Nile River. The rules of geometry were
developed and used to build rectilinear structures, the post of lintel architecture of Egypt.
These early science activities in Egypt were developed to improve the quality of life of the
Egyptians especially in building their early homes and cities. The great structures of the
Egyptian pyramids and the early dams built to divert water from the Nile River are some of
their advanced civilization.

Egypt was known to be a center of alchemy, which is known as the medieval

forerunner of chemistry. They tried to study human anatomy and pharmacology, and applied
important components such as examination, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis for the
treatment of diseases. These components displayed strong parallels to the basic empirical
method of studying science.

ASSESSMENT FOR CHAPTER I

GENERAL DIRECTION:
Use a yellow paper to answer the following assessment items. Do not forget to write
your full name (Family, First and MI), Student Number, Course/Year/Section and the
Chapter Number. Do not use the back of your answer sheet.

I. MULTIPLE CHOICE. Choose the letter of the correct answer by writing only the letter on
your answer sheet.

1. Which of the following is NOT considered factor that influence development of Filipino
Scientists?
a) Family b) Genes c) Environment d) Interest

2. Which of the following is Copernicus’ contribution to philosophy of science?

a) model of the earth orbiting around the Sun
b) evidence on how species evolved over time
c) observational method to gather reliable data to study human’s inner life
d) research in the field of communications technology

3. Which of the following statements is NOT true?

a) Spaniards established schools for boys and girls and introduced the
concept of disciplines
b) Before the coming of colonizers, Filipinos use science to predict seasons
and climates.
c) The Americans have more influence in the development of science and
technology in the Philippines compared to the Spaniards.
d) Technologies in creating musical instruments were learned by Filipinos
from Americans

4. The following are the variables that influence the development of science ideas,
discoveries and technologies except
a) Curiosity b) Creativity c) Familiarity d) Critical Thinking

5. This notable scientist developed a method that is unorthodox – focusing on human

sexuality and the evil nature of man.
a) Copernicus b) Darwin c) Freud d) Einstein

II. IDENTIFICATION. Write on your answer sheet the name, idea or philosophy described in
the following sentences.

6. He is famous for his theory of evolution. His interest was on realms of plants and animals
into the realms of humans. (full name)

7. It is the development of an important observational method to gather reliable data to study

human’s inner life
8. He is a famous figure in the field of psychology. His theories are still considered nowadays
as a great inspiration to examine human mind and behavior. (full name)
9. His ideas were an example of what is presently called as a thought experiment. He was
appointed as canon at a Cathedra in Poland. (full name)
10. What group of colonizers established the public education system in the Philippines?

11. It led to the creation of new research fields in science and prompted the establishment of
a strong foundation for modern science.
12. He was a polish astronomer known as the father of modern astronomy.
13. He was an English naturalist whose theory of evolution by natural selection became the
foundation of modern evolutionary studies.
14. He was the founder of psychoanalysis.
15. It seeks gratification through sucking at the mother’s breast, an object for which other
surrogates can later be provided.
16. He developed the modern concept of zero that was well defined on 628AD.
17. It is a form of drink made from the smashed cocoa beans that was so prized that it was
often used as a form of currency
18. They were known south American Indians who ruled an empire that extended along the
pacific coast and Andean highlands.
19. They were known as violent people but greatly contributed and gave birth to mandatory
education, chocolates, antispasmodic medication, chinampa, invention of canoe, etc.
20. It refers to the ingenious method of expressing all numbers by means of ten symbols,
each symbol received a value of position as well as an absolute value, which originated
from India.

III. ESSAY. Answer the “Think about these Questions 1, 2, 3” found in a blue box in these
module.