Preface

Once, I decided to join the M.A. program to achieve one of my

childhood dreams, but the task was absolutely difficult. To be away of
your academic study for about twenty years is a frustrating matter. Many
reasons made the task nearly impossible. First, our academic career
during our pre-graduating study was inconvenient due to the political and
the economic circumstances that impose a cruel neglecting of scientific
knowledge since our main and logical concern was how to survive!
Second, the general affairs of the country were absolutely frustrating that
made even the teachers suffer a lot. Third, to be in a complete absence of
observing the academic progress in linguistics for about twenty years is a
logical reason to fail in any exam.
Actually, I found myself an absolute illiterate in linguistics and its
different domains. As a result, to pass the competitive exam for joining
the master program was a Don Quixote-like attempt. Yet, according to
the advices of many friends, I worked hard, then I managed to pass.
This booklet attempts to present the main fundamentals of the academic
linguistic career in the pre-graduating years of the college. The benefits of
this booklet extend beyond merely the competitive exam, but it benefits
even teachers in schools who left their colleges and they found
themselves forget what they academically learnt. Students of colleges
may find a lot of ready linguistic knowledge in this booklet.
I do not claim that I present my own views or my own words in
linguistic definitions and explanations, but I pay an effort to investigate
and collect proper knowledge that I actually needed for preparing myself
for the competitive exam of the master program. The books and
references that are depended on are:
1. Aitchison, J. (1999). Linguistics .Jungle Publications ,U.K .
2. Betti, M.J. and Al-Jubouri, C.F. (2014). Approaches and Methods of
Teaching English as a Foreign Language. Baghdad: Nippur Publishing.
3. Crystal, D. (2008). A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics .
Blackwell, Oxford .
i
4. Eckersley, C.A. and Eckersley, J.M. (1960) A Comprehensive English
Grammar for Foreign Students . Longman, London .
5. Lyons, J. (1981). Language and Linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
6. Quirk, R.S. , Greenbaum, S. ,Leech,G. and Svartvik, J. (1985) A
Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. Longman, London.
7. Roach, P. (2009). English Phonetics and Phonology. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
8. Sampson, G. (1980). Schools of Linguistics. London: Hutchinson.
9. Stageberg,N.C. (1981). An Introduction English Grammar. Holt,
Rinehart and Winston, Inc , USA.
10. Trask, R.L. (2007). Language and Linguistics : The Key Concepts.
Routledge, USA.
11. Yule, G. (1996). The study of Language. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.

The booklet presents its content by questions and answers to be more

favourite and more acceptable. It is divided into ten sections which
represent the different levels of language as well as some domains of
linguistics. The sections are: linguistics, phonology, morphology, syntax,
semantics, pragmatics, discourse analysis, sociolinguistics,
psycholinguistics, and methods of teaching and testing. A final appendix
presents how to construct a thesis which is very important for any
scientific study.

If there is a word of thanks must be said, it must be said for the duties of
the authors of the above mentioned references.

ii
 Contents
Title P.
1. Linguistics 1
2. Phonology 22
3. Morphology 50
4. Syntax 65
5. Semantics 85
6. Pragmatics 88
7. Discourse Analysis 90
8. Sociolinguistics 93
9. Psycholinguistics 97
10. Methods of Teaching and Testing 100
Appendix: How to construct a Thesis 106
References 109

iii
List of Figures

N. Title P.
1 Parts of the Tongue 27
2 The articulators 27
3 Primary Cardinal Vowels 28
4 English Short Vowels 28
5 English Long Vowels 29
6 The Larynx 30
7 Constituents of Clause 66

List of Tables

N. Title P.
1 Chart of English Consonant Phonemes 23
2 Weak Forms 49
3 Inflectional Affixes 53
4 Noun Paradigms 60
5 Pronoun Paradigms 60
6 Verb Paradigms 61
7 Comparable Paradigms 61

iv
Section 1: Linguistics
1- What is linguistics ?
- It is the scientific study of language .

2- What is the purpose of linguistics ?

- The main purpose of the study of Linguistics in an academic
environment is the advancement of knowledge. However, because of the
centrality of language in human interaction and behavior, the knowledge
gained through the study of linguistics has many practical consequences
and uses .

3- What are the main branches of linguistics ?

1) Phonetics:
It is the study of the physical properties of speech sound production and
perception, and delves into their acoustic and articulatory properties . It
relates to language in general .

2) Phonology:
It is the study of the sound system of a particular language .

3) Morphology:
It is the study of morphemes, or the internal structures of words .

4) Syntax:
It is the study of how words combine to form grammatical phrases and
sentences.

5) Semantics:
It is the study of the meaning of words .

6) Pragmatics:
It is the study of how utterances are used in communicative acts.

7) Discourse analysis:
It is the analysis of language use in texts (spoken, written, or signed )
1
4- What are the main realizations of linguistics ?
1) Stylistics:
It is the study of linguistic factors (rhetoric, diction, stress) that place a
discourse in context .

2) Semiotics:
It is the study of signs and sign processes (semiosis), indication,
designation, likeness, analogy, metaphor, symbolism, signification, and
communication . Semiotics is usually divided into three branches, which
include: semantics which is relation between signs and meaning, syntax
which is relations among signs in formal structures and pragmatics which
is relation between signs and the effects they have on the people who use
them.

3) Historical Linguistics :
Also termed diachronic linguistics, is the scientific study of language
change over time .

4) General Linguistics :
It is the study of the phenomena, historical changes, and functions of
language without restriction to a particular language or to a particular
aspect (as phonetics, grammar, stylistics) of language .

5) Structural Linguistics :
It is an approach to linguistics originating from the work of Swiss linguist
Ferdinand de Saussure . It a study of language based on the theory that
language is a structured system of formal units such as sentences and
syntax.

6) Theoretical Linguistics :
It is the branch of linguistics that inquiries into the nature of language or
languages without regard for practical applications .

8) Cognitive Linguistics :
It is an interdisciplinary branch of linguistics, combining knowledge and
research from both psychology and linguistics.
2
9) Functional Linguistics :
It focused on deriving grammatical syntactical and textual structures from
the ways in which language is used .

10) Anthropological Linguistics :

It is the subfield of linguistics and anthropology, which deals with the
place of language in its wider social and cultural context, and its role in
making and maintaining cultural practices and societal structures .

11) Sociolinguistics :
It is the descriptive study of the effect of any and all aspects of society,
including cultural norms, expectations, and context, on the way language
is used, and society's effect on language .

12) Psycholinguistics :
Or ( psychology of language ) It is the study of the interrelation between
linguistic factors and psychological aspects.

13) Echolinguistics :
It takes into account not only the social context in which language is
embedded, but also the ecological context of the living systems and
physical environment that life depends on.

14) Neurolinguistics :
It is the study of the neural mechanisms in the human brain that control
the comprehension, production, and acquisition of language.

15) Forensic Linguistics :

It is the application of linguistic knowledge, methods and insights to the
forensic context of law, language, crime investigation, trial, and judicial
procedure.
16) Computational Linguistics :
It is an interdisciplinary field concerned with the statistical or rule-based
modeling of natural language from a computational perspective, as well
as the study of appropriate computational approaches to linguistic
questions.
3
5- What is a language ?
A language is a system of communication which consists of a set of
sounds and written symbols which are used by the people of a particular
country or region for talking or writing.

6- What are morphophonology ?

It is the branch of linguistics that studies the interaction between
morphological and phonological or phonetic processes.

7- What is the difference between Macro linguistics and Micro

linguistics?
Linguistics can be categorized into micro-linguistics and macro-
linguistics. Micro-linguistics is an in-depth view of language and its
structure. Micro-linguistics does not focus on how a language affects
society but centers on its structure by analyzing elements such as
phonetics, syntax, and morphology.

8- What are the branches of Macro linguistics and Micro linguistics ?

Micro Linguistics : Phonetics , Phonology , Morphology , Syntax ,
Semantics , Pragmatics .
Macro linguistics : Psycholinguistics , Sociolinguistics , Neurolinguistics
, Discourse Analysis , Computational Linguistics , Applied Linguistics.

9- What is Meta linguistics ?

Metalinguistics is the branch of linguistics that studies language and its
relationship to other cultural behaviors .

10- What are the most important unique properties ( characteristics) of

human language ?
Human language is : arbitrary, productive, creative, systematic, vocalic,
social, non-instinctive and conventional.
Unique Properties of A Language
These features are uniquely a part of human language.

4
A. Displacement
Talking about things that happened in the past, happens now or will
happen in the future. There is no displacement in animal communication.
Exception: Bee communication has displacement in an extremely limited
form. A bee can show the others the source of the food.

B. Arbitrariness
The word and object are not related to each other. e.g. dog and cat.
No arbitrary examples: Onomatopoeic sounds e.g. cuckoo, crash, squelch
or whirr. Majority of animal signals have a clear connection with the
conveyed message. Animal communication is non-arbitrary.

C. Productivity ( Creativity / open-endedness )

Language users create new words as they need them. It is an aspect of
language which is linked to the fact that the potential number of
utterances in any human language is infinite. Animal have fixed
reference. Each signal refers to something, but these signals cannot be
manipulated.

D. Cultural Transmission
Language passes from one generation to another. In animals there is an
instinctively produce process but human infants growing up in isolation
produce no instinctive language. Cultural transmission is only crucial in
the human acquisition process.

E. Discreteness
Individual sounds can change the meaning. e.g. pack – back , bin – pin.
This property is called discreteness.

F. Duality
To use some sounds in different places. e.g. cat – act . Sounds are the
same but the meanings are different. There is no duality in animal
communication.

G. Vocal- auditory channel: Producing sounds by the vocal organs and

perceiving them by ears.
5
H. Reciprocity: Any speaker / reader can also be a listener / receiver.

I. Specialization: Language is used linguistically.

J. Non-directionality: Unseen but heard messages can be picked up by

anyone.

K. Rapid fade: Linguistic signals are produced and disappeared quickly.

11- What is the difference between diachronic and synchronic studies ?

Diachronic linguistics is the same thing as historical linguistics.
Diachronic linguistics is the study of the changes in language over time.
Synchronic linguistics is the study of the linguistic elements and usage of
a language at a particular moment .

12- What is the difference between Psycholinguistics and Psychology of

language ?
Psycholinguistics is the study of the interrelation between linguistic
factors and psychological aspects . Psychology of language is different
from other disciplines in the way it approaches language .

13- What is not linguistics ?

According to Crystal ( 1985 ) Linguistics is not to be identified with four
main fields : philology ( the study of the history of language ) ,
polyglottism ( the learning of many languages , literary criticism and the
traditional study of grammar .

14- What are the traditional approaches to language ? What is not

scientific ?
Linguistics cannot be identified with the following traditional approaches
to language which are described as unscientific studies of language :
a) Speech versus writing :
In traditional approaches , rules of spoken language are similar to rules of
written language , but the fact is that they are really different .

6
b) The influence of language :
In traditional approaches , English is described in terms of another
language as Latin , but the fact is that no language is described in terms of
another .
c) Logic and language :
In traditional approaches , there were Latin and logic to be norms of
evaluating English grammar and such fact is not realistic in modern
approaches .
d) Complexity of language :
In traditional approaches , Latin is considered as the most complex
language , but in modern approaches , there is no most complex language.
Languages are systems of systems and they are qualified to their users .
e) Aesthetics and language :
In traditional approaches , language is more beautiful than other one , but
the fact that is no language is so and no sound system is better than others
.
f) History and language :
In traditional approaches , words are said to be meaningful or
meaningless only according to its old use , but in modern approaches
words are investigated according to their recent use .
g) The best authors :
In traditional approaches , the language of great authors such as
Shakespeare is considered as a standard of grammarians and makers of
dictionaries , but such matter is very restricted .
h) Impression :
In traditional approaches , there is a dependency on the impressionistic
usage of certain writers and grammarians to be norms of a good language
, but the fact that such impressions are individual and they may not cover
the reality of the whole language .

15- What is Chomsky's language acquisition theory?

First proposed by Noam Chomsky in the 1960s, the LAD concept is an
instinctive mental capacity which enables an infant to acquire and
produce language. It is a component of the nativist theory of language.
This theory asserts that humans are born with the instinct or "innate
facility" for acquiring language .
7
16- What is Transformational-generative grammar ?
Transformational-generative grammar is adopted by Chomsky . It is a
broad theory used to model a native speaker's linguistic capabilities .
Chomsky developed transformational grammar in the mid-1950s.
Chomsky's theory posits that language consists of both deep structures
and surface structures: Outward-facing surface structures relate phonetic
rules into sound, while inward-facing deep structures relate words and
conceptual meaning.

17- Compare the linguistic views of Chomsky and De Saussure ?

De Saussure's understanding of langue emphasizes its predominant social
aspect, while Chomsky's Competence is based on psychology and
presumes individual differences between human beings. ... The similarity
is that both linguists regard language as a system and ignore the
individual speech acts .

18- What are competence and performance ?

Chomsky separates competence and performance; he describes
'competence' as an idealized capacity that is located as a psychological or
mental property or function and 'performance' as the production of actual
utterances .

19- What are langue and parole ?

The distinction between the French words, langue (language or tongue)
and parole ( speech ) enters the vocabulary of theoretical linguistics with
Ferdinand de Saussure’s Course in General Linguistics, which was
published posthumously in 1915 after La langue denotes the abstract
systematic principles of a language, without which no meaningful
utterance (parole) would be possible.

20. What are the main schools of Linguistics ?

1) Functionalism
The theories of functionalism focus on phonological, semantic, syntactic,
as well as the pragmatic functions of language. Functionalism emphasizes
the importance of social context, usage, and the communicative function
of the grammar, phonology, orthography, and more, of a language .
8
2) Structuralism
Based on the work of Ferdinand de Saussure of Switzerland,
structuralism is an approach to linguistics that focuses on the idea that
languages are fixed systems made up of many different units that connect
with each other.

3) Generativism
The work of Noam Chomsky became the basis for the generativism
approach to linguistics. It suggests that language is made up of certain
rules that apply to all humans and all languages. This led to the theory of
“universal grammar”, that all humans are capable of learning grammar.

4) Cognitivism
Cognitivism says that language emerges from human cognitive processes.
It challenges “universal grammar” by suggesting that grammar is not
something that all humans can inherently understand, but rather it is
learned by using language .

5) Prague School
Its proponents developed methods of structuralist literary analysis and a
theory of the standard language and of language cultivation . It has had a
significant continuing influence on linguistics and semiotics . It dealt with
the analysis of distinctive features .

21. What are the main contributions of Jacobson in linguistics ?

Jacobson is a member of Prague school . He adopts a functional linguistic
model of interpersonal communication outlined in 1960 by Jakobson.
Drawing on work by Bühler dating from the 1930s, he proposed a model
of verbal communication which moved beyond basic transmission
models, highlighting the importance of the codes and social contexts
involved .
22. What are the six functions of language by Roman Jacobson ?
Jacobson's model of the functions of language distinguishes six elements,
or factors of communication, that are necessary for communication to
occur: (1) context, (2) addresser (sender), (3) addressee (receiver), (4)
contact, (5) common code and (6) message.
9
 23. What is language according to Halliday ?
Halliday describes language as a semiotic system, "not in the sense of a
system of signs, but a systemic resource for meaning". For Halliday,
language is a "meaning potential"; by extension, he defines linguistics as
the study of "how people exchange meanings by 'languaging'"

24. Why do we study Linguistics ?

Linguistics offers students the opportunity to approach human language
as an object of scientific investigation. It is concerned with the nature of
language and communication. It deals both with the study of particular
languages, and the search for general properties common to all languages
or large groups of languages. It includes the following subareas:
phonetics (the study of the production, acoustics and hearing of speech
sounds)
phonology (the patterning of sounds)
morphology (the structure of words)
syntax (the structure of sentences)
semantics (meaning)
pragmatics (language in context)
It also includes explorations into the nature of language variation (i. e.,
dialects), language change over time, how language is processed and
stored in the brain, and how it is acquired by young children.

25.Give a brief account of language change ?

Language isn’t fixed . It is always changing. The English language has
changed dramatically over the last millennium.
There are many different ways that this evolution happens. Here are some
of the primary ways:
1. Trade and migration .
2. Technology and new inventions .
3. Old words acquiring new meanings .
There are two major causes of change :
1. Tendencies in language caused by social factors .
2. Tendencies that aim to restore broken patterns of language .

10
26. Language universals focus upon the concept that all natural languages
have both consonants and vowels .

27. What is Semiotics ?

Semiotics is the study of sign process, which is any form of activity,
conduct, or any process that involves signs, including the production of
meaning. A sign is anything that communicates a meaning, that is not the
sign itself, to the interpreter of the sign.
28. How does the Neo-Traditional Grammar differs from Traditional
Grammar ?
The Neo-Traditional Grammar followed the traditional concepts , but
came up with new methods of collecting data . It refuted the traditional
view of Latin universal rules , yet it have the same concept . It began to
base its rules on data gathered from native speakers .

29.What is T.G.G. ?
Transformational grammar, also called Transformational-generative
Grammar, a system of language analysis that recognizes the relationship
among the various elements of a sentence and among the possible
sentences of a language and uses processes or rules (some of which are
called transformations) to express these relationships.

30. Compare deep structure and surface structure ?

Noam Chomsky's 1965 book Aspects of the Theory of Syntax developed
the idea that each sentence in a language has two levels of representation:
a deep structure and a surface structure. The deep structure represents the
core semantic relations of a sentence and is mapped onto the surface
structure, which follows the phonological form of the sentence very
closely, via transformations.

31. What is Case Grammar ?

Case grammar is a system of linguistic analysis, focusing on the link
between the valence, or number of subjects, objects, etc., of a verb and
the grammatical context it requires. The system was created by the
American linguist Charles J. Fillmore in the context of Transformational
11
 Grammar (1968). This theory analyzes the surface syntactic structure of
sentences by studying the combination of deep cases (i.e. semantic roles)
Agent, Object, Benefactor, Location or Instrument—which are required
by a specific verb.

32. Skinner wrote a book which is one of the basic books in

behaviourism. What is the title of the book?
Behaviour of Organisms.

33. What is a corpus?

Corpus is a collection of linguistics data, either written texts or a
transcription of recorded speech, which can be used as a starting point of
linguistic description or as a means of verifying hypotheses about a
language.

34. What is Corpus linguistics?

Corpus linguistics is the study of language as expressed in corpora
(samples) of "real world" text. Corpus linguistics proposes that reliable
language analysis is more feasible with corpora collected in the field in its
natural context ("realia"), and with minimal experimental-interference

35. What is overextension?

Overextension is a term used in acquisition studies to refer to one type of
relationship between adult and child meaning, as expressed in lexical
items. For example: when dog is used for other animals apart from dogs.

36. Discuss communicative competence?

Communicative competence is a term in linguistics which refers to a
language user's grammatical knowledge
of syntax, morphology, phonology and the like, as well as social
knowledge about how and when to use utterances appropriately. The term
was coined by Dell Hymes in 1966, reacting against the perceived
inadequacy of Noam Chomsky's (1965) distinction between linguistic
competence and performance.
12
There is a clear difference between linguistic competence and
communicative competence. Linguistic competence is the measure of
how much someone understands the use and speak of a certain language
or languages while communicative competence is the ability of someone
to relay the message using a language is a clear manner
Communication competence is important because it is needed to
understand communication ethics, to develop cultural awareness, to use
computer-mediated communication, and to think critically. Competence
involves knowledge, motivation, and skills.

37. Compare translation and interpretation?

Translation is the communication of meaning from one language (the
source) to another language (the target). Translation refers to written
information, whereas interpretation refers to spoken information.
Translation has been used by humans for centuries, beginning after the
appearance of written literature. Interpretation is an action of explaining
the meaning of something; the way something is explained or understood.

38. Define telegraphic speech.

It is a style of speech production in which. function words and
inflectional endings tend to be omitted. It is more commonly encountered
in relation to the sentence structures found in young children`s speech (
me kick ball) and the reduced range of grammatical expression typical of
one form of a phasia.

39. Psychologists find out about the human mind works by ………. .
conscious and unconscious cognitive processes.

40. Show the difference between first language acquisition and foreign
language learning?
The acquiring process of the first language is very rapid while the
learning process of the second language can vary from language to
language and from person to person, but can never be as rapid as the first
language acquisition.

13
The first language is ‘acquired’ and the second language is ‘learned’. The
difference between these two words describes the qualities of the two
languages. ‘Acquire’ means “to come into possession or ownership of”
which indicates that the first language is like a dynamic and abstract
property which comes into possession of a person. On the other hand,
‘learn’ means “to gain knowledge or skill by study, instruction, or
experience” which indicates that there is nothing passive in second
language learning.

41. What is the difference between traditional grammar and structural

grammar?
According to Traditional grammar, a sentence is a group of words that
express a complete idea. Traditional Grammar often analyses it from
meaning, from meaning to form; from the viewpoint of language
teaching, Traditional grammar doesn’t give a systematic description of
linguistic phenomenon. It often gives description at surface level and
often analyzes a sentence in isolation not at a discourse.
Structural grammar deals with the structure of the sentence and not
necessarily with the words that are going to be used.

42. Discuss stylistics.

Stylistics is a branch of applied linguistics concerned with the study of
style in texts, especially, but not exclusively, in literary works. Also
called literary linguistics, stylistics focuses on the figures, tropes, and
other rhetorical devices used to provide variety and a distinctness to
someone's writing. It is linguistic analysis plus literary criticism.
According to Katie Wales in "A Dictionary of Stylistics," the goal
of"most stylistics is not simply to describe the formal features of texts for
their own sake, but in order to show their functional significance for the
interpretation of the text; or in order to relate literary effects to linguistic
'causes' where these are felt to be relevant."

43. What are the bases of the linguistic and psychological aspects of
Chomsky`s theory?
Chomsky based his theory on the idea that all languages contain similar
14
 structures and rules (a universal grammar), and the fact that children
everywhere acquire language the same way, and without much effort,
seems to indicate that we're born wired with the basics already present in
our brains.

The linguistic aspect of Chomsky`s theory is called the linguistic

nativism. According to linguistic nativism, human infants have access to
some specifically linguistic information that is not learned from linguistic
experience. Chomsky’s nativism suggests that language is an innate
faculty, that is, humans are born with a set of rules about language. The
set of language learning tools, provided at birth, is referred to by
Chomsky as the Language Acquisition Device (LAD).

The psychological aspect of Chomsky`s theory is that he posited that

humans possess a special, innate ability for language and that complex
syntactic features, such as recursion, are "hard-wired" in the brain.
According to Chomsky, children acquiring a language have a vast search
space to explore among all possible human grammars, yet at the time
there was no evidence that children received sufficient input to learn all
the rules of their language.

44. The kind of grammar that was elaborated by Chomsky in ( 1957-

1965) was:
a. Generative grammar.
b. Transformational-generative grammar.
c. Slot-filling grammar.

45. S.P. Corder considers the applied linguist as a :

a. producer of linguistic theories.
b. teacher of linguistic theories.
c. consumer of linguistic theories.

46. What are the main concerns of applied linguistics?

Applied linguistics generally incorporates or includes several identifiable
subfields: for example, corpus linguistics, forensic linguistics, language
15
 testing, language policy and planning, lexicography, second language
acquisition, second language writing, and translation and interpretation.

47. Explain some aspects of Fillmore's case grammar .

1. According to Fillmore, each verb selects a certain number of deep
cases which form its case frame. Thus, a case frame describes important
aspects of semantic valency of verbs, adjectives and nouns. Case frames
are subject to certain constraints, such as that a deep case can occur only
once per sentence. Some of the cases are obligatory and others are
optional. Obligatory cases may not be deleted, at the risk of producing
ungrammatical sentences. For example, Mary gave the apples is
ungrammatical in this sense.
2. A fundamental hypothesis of case grammar is that grammatical
functions, such as subject or object, are determined by the deep, semantic
valence of the verb, which finds its syntactic correlate in such
grammatical categories as Subject and Object, and in grammatical cases
such as Nominative and Accusative. Fillmore (1968) puts forwards the
following hierarchy for a universal subject selection rule:
Agent < Instrumental < Objective

48. In order for linguists to deeply study languages, they break

"language" into three smaller and more manageable areas which are :
a) phonology. grammar and lexis
b) phonology. semantics and phonetics
c) phonology. pragmatics and semiotics

49. What are the functions of language according to Halliday?

For Halliday, children are motivated to develop language because it
serves certain purposes or functions for them. The first four functions
help the child to satisfy physical, emotional and social needs. Halliday
calls them instrumental, regulatory, interactional, and personal functions.

16
50. What is systemic functional grammar?
Halliday developed the grammatical descriptions of systemic functional
grammar. Halliday described language as a semiotic system, "not in the
sense of a system of signs, but a systemic resource for meaning". For
Halliday, language was a "meaning potential"; by extension, he defined
linguistics as the study of "how people exchange meanings by
'languaging'". Halliday's model conceives grammar explicitly as how
meanings are coded into wordings, in both spoken and written modes in
all varieties and registers of a language. Three strands of grammar operate
simultaneously. They concern: (i) the interpersonal exchange between
speaker and listener, and writer and reader; (ii) representation of our outer
and inner worlds; and (iii) the wording of these meanings in cohesive
spoken and written texts, from within the clause up to whole texts.

51. The Immediate Constituent (IC) analysis is an analytical technique

(for any language) developed by:
a) structuralists
b) transformationalists
c) traditionalists

52. The first linguist who described language as having two sciences:
diachronic and synchronic, was……………. .
a) De Saussure
b) G. Leech
c) R Jacobson

53. In translation, the term that refers to an absolute symmetrical

relationship between words of the SI and the T S
a) Competence
b) Relevance
c) Equivalence

17
54. A script is a …………… schema.
a. formal
b. dynamic
c. linguistic

55. The main functions of language are …….… , …..…… and ……..
Generally, there are five main functions of language, which are
informational function, aesthetic function, expressive, phatic, and
directive functions.

56. Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is divided into……… which means

………… and ……………. Which means ……….. .

linguistic determinism, which means that language entirely determines

the range of cognitive processes and linguistic influence which means
that language provides constraints in some areas of cognition, but that it
is by no means determinative.

57. Discuss Sapir-Whorf`s hypothesis of linguistic relativity?

It`s principle claims that the structure of a language affects its speakers'
world view or cognition, and thus people's perceptions are relative to
their spoken language. The principle is often defined in one of two
versions:
The strong version says that language determines thought and that
linguistic categories limit and determine cognitive categories. The weak
version says that linguistic categories and usage only influence thought
and decisions.

58. Competence performance dichotomy means a distinction

between…………. and ……….
capacity and production.

18
59. Give a brief account to show the development in language study in
the world.
1. Traditional Grammar:
Traditional Grammar includes: The Greeks` grammatical views, the
Romans` grammatical views, the Renaissance and Vernacular English
grammar. Traditional is the study of the structure and formation of words
and sentences, usually without much reference to sound and meaning.

2. Structural Grammar:
Structural Grammar is a grammar intended to explain the working of
language in terms of the functions of its components and their
relationships to each other without reference to meaning. It describes
how sounds , word forms and word positions affect meaning . It concerns
itself with two meanings in each sentence , the lexical meaning and the
structural meaning. It includes:
i. The Missionaries tried to develop a phonetic system in order to record it
and the language of people whom attached with.

ii. De Saussure is the founder of structural linguistics who witnessed the

rapid rise of descriptive linguistics as opposed to historical linguistics.

iii. The Neo-Traditional Grammar followed the traditional concepts , but

came up with new methods of collecting data . It began to base its rules
on data gathered from native speakers .

iv. Bloomfield presented a detailed outline of the principles of structural

language analysis. He stressed the importance of using empirical data.

v. Prague School proponents developed methods of structuralist literary

analysis and a theory of the standard language and of language
cultivation. It has had a significant continuing influence on linguistics and
semiotics . It dealt with the analysis of distinctive features .

19
vi. The Copenhagen school stated that formal properties of a system
should be kept apart from its substance. It presented a formal linguistic
fundament, which was later known as glossematics (the double duality of
the linguistic sign).

vii. The Firthian School Firth developed a particular view of linguistics

which is , the idea of polysystematism, an approach to linguistic analysis
based on the view that language patterns cannot be accounted for in terms
of a single system of analytic principles and categories, but that different
systems may need to be set up at different places within a given level of
description.

3. Transformational-generative grammar:
Transformational-generative grammar is adopted by Chomsky . It is a
broad theory used to model a native speaker's linguistic capabilities .
Chomsky's theory posits that language consists of both deep structures
and surface structures: Outward-facing surface structures relate phonetic
rules into sound, while inward-facing deep structures relate words and
conceptual meaning.

4. The Post " Aspect " Theories:

They are several theories to grammatical analysis which developed as a
reaction of Chomsky`s proposals, such as:

i. Case Grammar which focused on the link between the valence, or

number of subjects, objects, etc., of a verb and the grammatical context it
requires.

ii. Relational Grammar is a syntactic theory which argues that primitive

grammatical relations provide the ideal means to state syntactic rules in
universal terms.

iii. X-bar theory is a theory of syntactic category formation. It embodies

two independent claims: one, that phrases may contain intermediate
20
constituents projected from a head X; and two, that this system of
projected constituency may be common to more than one category (e.g.,
N, V, A, P, etc.).

iv. Montague Grammar is based on formal logic, especially higher-order

predicate logic and lambda calculus, and makes use of the notions of
intensional logic, via Kripke models.

v. Generalized Phrase Structure Grammar It is a type of constraint-based

phrase structure grammar. It is based around defining certain syntactic
processes as ungrammatical for a given language and assuming
everything not thus dismissed is grammatical within that language.

vi. Functional Discourse Grammar stated that the top-level unit of

analysis is the discourse move, not the sentence or the clause. This is a
principle that sets functional discourse grammar apart from many other
linguistic theories, including its predecessor functional grammar.

vii. Realistic Grammar is based on statistical natural language processing

uses statistical methods, especially to resolve difficulties that arise
because longer sentences are highly ambiguous when processed with
realistic grammars, yielding thousands or millions of possible analyses. It
involved the use of corpora.

60. What are the major functions of language?

There are two major functions of language:
1. Interactional Function :
It is related with how human use language to interact with each other
socially or emotionally, how they express their feelings or their ideas.
2. Transactional Function :
It is related with how human use their linguistic abilities to transfer
knowledge from one generation to the next.

21
Section 2: Phonology
61. What is Phonetics ?
It is the study of human speech as a physical phenomenon .

62. What are the types of Phonetics ?

There are three types : Articulatory , acoustic and perception .

63. What is articulatory phonetics ?

It is the study of how speech sounds are produced by human vocal
apparatus .

64. What is perceptual phonetics ?

It is the study of the physical properties of speech, and aims to analyze
sound wave signals that occur within speech through varying frequencies,
amplitudes and durations .

65. What is acoustic phonetics ?

It is the study the process by which the sounds of language are heard,
interpreted and understood.

66. What are the different cases of air stream mechanism ?

There three cases of air stream mechanism :
1) Pulmonic sounds : Air flow is directed outwards towards the oral
cavity and pressure built by compression of lungs .
2) Glottic is divided into :„
Glottic egressive sounds : Air flow is directed outwards towards the oral
cavity and pressure built by pushing up closed glottis .
Glottic Ingressive Sounds : Air flow is directed inwards from the oral
cavity and pressure reduced by pulling down closed glottis .
3) Velaric Sounds : Air flow is directed inwards from the oral cavity and
pressure reduced by forming velaricand alveolar closure and pulling
down tongue clicks .

22
67. What are consonants ?
Consonant are letters of the alphabet that represent basic speech sounds
produced by obstructing the breath in the vocal tract . English sound
system has 24 consonants : 15 consonants are voiced and 9 consonants
are voiceless .

68. How is English consonant described ?

There are three main description of English Consonants : place of
articulation , manner of articulation and voicing.

69. We must keep the following chart to describe any English consonant
or to give an example , but , we must know the voiced and the voiceless
consonants :
Voiced Consonants are :
/b/, /d/, /g/, /v/, /z/, /ð/, /ʒ/, /dʒ/, /w/, /n/, /m/, /r/, /j/, /ŋ/, /l/
Voiceless Consonants are :
/p/, /t/, /k/ , /f/ ,/s/ , /θ/ , /ʃ/ , /ʈʃ/ , /h/
Bilabial Labio- Inter- Alveolar Alveo- Velar Glottal
dental dental palatal
Stops p b t d k g
Fricatives f v Ɵ ð s z ʃ ʒ h
Affricates ʧ ʤ
Nasals m n η
Lateral l
Glides r j w
Table 1: Chart of English Consonant Phonemes.

Ex: Describe /b/.

/b/ is bilabial stop voiced consonant.

70. Compare voiced and voiceless consonants .

Voiced consonants are articulated with a vibration in the vocal cords and
with less puffs of air while voiceless consonants are produced without
such vibration and with clear puffs of air .

23
71. What is the difference between phone , phoneme and allophone ?
Phone is the smallest unit of human sound which is recognizable but not
classified. The delimiters used are square brackets: [ ]. Examples: [p], [i:],
[t] all three of which are found in peat.
Phoneme is the smallest unit of language which distinguishes meaning.
The brackets used are slashes: / /. Examples from English are: /k/, /u:/, /l/,
as seen in the word cool /ku:l/.
Allophone refers to the realisation of a phoneme. The phoneme is a unit in
the sound system of a language. This means that it is an abstract unit. For
instance, one can talk about ‘/l/ in English’ without referring to either of
the two forms [l], [1 ] which it can take (the bracketing used for
allophones is similar to that for phones: [ ], square brackets).

72. What are the different types of places of articulation ?

- labial : produced at the lips. /p/, /b/and /m/.
- labio-dental: produced between the lower lip and the upper teeth. /f/ and
/v/
- dental :produced just behind the upper teeth. /θ/ and /ð/
- alveolar: produced at the tip of the tongue touches the alveolar ridge. /t,
d, s, z, n, l/
- palatal: produced at the tongue close to the hard palate. /ʃ/ , /ʈʃ/ , /ʒ/,
/dʒ/, and /j/.
- velar: the tongue is in contract with the lower side of the soft palate. /k/
and /g/.
- glottal: produced when the vocal folds are kept apart. /h/.

73. What are the different types of manners of articulation ?

- Plosives (stops) : produced with complete blocking of the airstream . /p,
t, k; b, d, g; ?/
- Nasal : produced with air passes through the nasal cavity. / m,n /
- Fricatives: produced by causing a constriction, but not a closure,
anywhere above and including the glottis. /v/, /z/, /ð/, /ʒ/, /f/ ,/s/ , /θ/ , /ʃ/ ,
and /h/
- Affricates: produced by a sequence of stop and fricative. /dg/ and /ʈʃ/.

24
- Approximants (glides): These are sounds which occupy an intermediary
position between vowels and all other consonants. /w/, /r/ and /j/.
- Lateral: produced by a complete closure along the center of the tongue
and air escapes through the sides. /l/.

74. Discuss approximants consonants.

Approximants are /w,j,r,l / . They are called approximants because there
is no real contact of any part of the tongue against the hard palate. / w/
and / j/ are called glides . /r/ is called central and /l/ is called lateral .
Lateral approximants are made by touching the tongue to the alveolar
ridge while allowing the air to pass along one or both sides.
Central approximants are made by raising the sides of the tongue so that
the air flows along the center of the tongue
Glides (semivowels) are made by raising the tongue toward the hard
palate, close to where the vowel in eat is made.

75. Why are /w/ and /j/ are called semivowels ( glides) ?
Phonetically , they are articulated differently from vowels as their
articulation involves approximant rising of the tongue towards the hard
palate. Phonologically , their distribution is far similar to vowels
especially in medial and final positions.

76. What are vocal cords ?

Vocal folds (popularly called the vocal cords) are more like thick elastic
bands located at the larynx. There are four states of the vocal cords:
1) wide apart for voiceless consonants.
2) Narrow glottis for voiceless glottal fricatives.
3) Vibration for voiced consonants.
4) Tightly close for glottal plosives.

77. What are minimal pairs ?

Minimal pairs are sets of words which are differentiated only by the
sounds in a single slot. This principle applies to all languages as each
language avail of the contrasts which can be constructed using the
distinctive sounds of that language. Pairs like rail /reil/ vs. sail /seil/.

25
78. What are obstruents ?
Obstruents are a cover term for stops, fricatives and affricates together.

79. What are sonorants ?

Sonorants are a cover term which embraces liquids – /l, r/ – and nasals –
/m, n, n/.

80. What are liquids ?

liquids are a cover term for l and r sounds.

81. What is the main difference between phonemic transcription and

phonetics transcription?
Transcription is one of the traditional exercises in pronunciation teaching
by phonetic methods. There are two types of transcription: phonemic
(represented by the use of / /) and phonetic ( represented by the use of [ ]
). Phonetic transcription ( narrow type ) contains more of information
about the exact quality of the sounds than phonemic transcription ( wide
type ).

82. What are the articulators ?

There are seven main articulators that are used in speech:
1. The pharynx:
It is a tube which begins just above the larynx. It is about 7 cm in woman
and about 8 cm in men, and at its top end it is divided into two, one part
being the back of the oral cavity and the other being the beginning of the
way through the nasal cavity.
2. The soft palate or velum:
It is seen in the diagram in a position that allows air to pass through the
nose and through the mouth.
3. The hard palate:
It is often called the “roof of the mouth". You can feel its smooth curved
surface with your tongue.
4. The alveolar ridge:
It is between the top front teeth and the hard palate.

26
5. The tongue
It is a very important articulator and it can be moved into many different
places and different shapes. It is usual to divide the tongue into different
parts, though there are no clear dividing lines within its structure.

Figure 1. Parts of the tongue.

6. The teeth (upper and lower):

They are at the front of the mouth, immediately behind the lips.
7. The lips:
They are important in speech. They can be pressed together (when we
produce the sounds p, b), brought into contact with the teeth (as in f, v),
or rounded to produce the lip-shape for vowels like u:. Sounds in which
the lips are in contact with each other are called bilabial, while those with
lip-to-teeth contact are called labiodental.

Figure 2. The Articulators

83. What is the main difference between the articulation of vowels and
consonants in English?
Consonants are usually produced with some obstruction to the flow of air
while vowels are articulated with no such obstruction when passing from
the larynx to the lips. But, this distinction is still problematic.
27
84. How are Vowels described ?
Vowels are described according to four ways:
1. The position of the tongue ( the distance between the upper surface of
the tongue and the palate ): close, close-mid, open-mid and open.
2. The part of the tongue: front, central and back.
3. The shape of the lips: rounded, spread and neutral.
4. Length: pure ( long and short), diphthong and triphthong.

85. What are the cardinal vowels ?

They are a standard reference system recommended by the International
Phonetic Association. This system is used to describe and classify vowels
in general.

Figure 3. Primary Cardinal Vowels

86. What are English short vowels ?

They are seven short vowels : / ɪ , e , ᴂ , ʌ , ɒ , ʊ , ǝ /. Each vowel is
described in relation to the cardinal vowels, For example:
/ ɪ / is close, central and short with slightly spread lips.

Figure 4. English Short Vowels

87. What is Schwa ?
It is a mid and central short vowel which is very familiar in English. It is
heard in the first syllable of words such as ( about ). Is is associated with
weak syllables. It is not articulated with much energy.
28
88. What are English long vowels ?
They are five short vowels : / i: , ɜ: , ɑ: , ͻ: , u: /. Each vowel is described
in relation to the cardinal vowels, For example:
/ i: / is close, front and long with slightly spread lips.

Figure 5. English Long Vowels

89. What are diphthongs?

Diphthongs consist of a movement or glide from one vowel to another.
They are eight:
1. / ɪǝ / : fierce ,beard
2. / eǝ / aired , cairn
3. / ʊǝ / tour , lure
4. / eɪ / face , made
5. /aɪ / fine , time
6. / ͻɪ / coin , voice
7. / ǝʊ / home , most
8. / aʊ / loud , house

90. What is a triphthong ?

A triphthong is a glide from one vowel to another and then to schwa, all
produced rapidly and without interruption. There are five English
triphthongs:
1. / eɪǝ / player
2. /aɪǝ / fire
3. / ͻɪǝ / royal
4. / ǝʊǝ / slower
5. / aʊǝ / hour

29
90. What is the larynx ?
The larynx is in the neck; it has several parts. Its main structure is made
of cartilage, a material that is similar to bone but less hard. The larynx's
structure is made of two large cartilages. These are hollow and are
attached to the top of the trachea. The front of the larynx comes to a point
and you can feel this point at the front of your commonly called the
Adam's Apple. Inside the "box” made by these two cartilages are the
vocal folds. At the front the vocal folds are joined together and fixed to
the inside of the thyroid cartilage. At the back they are small cartilages
called the arytenoid cartilages so that if the arytenoid cartilages move, the
vocal folds move too. The arytenoid cartilages are attached to the top of
the cricoid cartilage, but they can move so as to move the vocal folds
apart.

Figure 6. the L
91. What are the four phases of the production of plosives?
1. The closing phase is when the articulator or articulators move to form
the stricture for the plosive.
2. The compression phase is when the compressed air is stopped from
escaping.
3. The release phase is when the articulators used to form the stricture are
moved so as to allow air to escape.
4. The post-release phase is what happens immediately after the release
phase.

92. What is aspiration?

The release of p, t, k is followed by audible plosion. There is then, in the
post-release phase, a period during which air escapes through the vocal
30
folds, making a sound like h. This is called aspiration.

93. What is the difference between fortis and lenis?

Fortis and lenis, also called tense and lax, refer to consonants pronounced
with greater and lesser energy. English has fortis consonants, such as the
p in pat, with a corresponding lenis consonant, such as the b in bat. Fortis
and lenis were coined for languages where the contrast between sounds
such as p and b does not involve voicing.

94. What is the difference between phonetics and phonology?

Phonetics deals with the production of speech sounds by humans, often
without prior knowledge of the language being spoken. Phonology is
about patterns of sounds, especially different patterns of sounds
in different languages, or within each language, different patterns of
sounds in different positions in words etc.

95. What are the branches of phonology?

1. Segmental phonology :
It analyses speech into discrete segments, such as phonemes.
2. Supra- segmental phonology :
It analyses those features which extend over more than one segment such
as intonation and stress.

96. What is the aim of phonology?

The aim of phonology is to discover the principles that govern the way
sounds are organized in languages and to explain the variations that
occur. We begin by analyzing an individual language to determine which
sound units are used and which patterns they form--the language's sound
system.

97. What are syllables?

Syllables are usually described as consisting of a centre which has little or
no obstruction to airflow and which sounds comparatively loud before
31
and after this centre.

98. What are the different types of English syllables?

1. A minimum syllable: is a single vowel in isolation( v ). ( are / ɑ: / ).
2. An onset syllable: has one or more consonants preceding the centre of
the syllable (cv).
( bar / bɑ: / )
3. A coda syllable: may have no onset, but it has a coda. (vc). ( ease / i:z/)
4. Both onset and coda syllable. (cvc). ( ran / rᴂn / )

99. What is a zero onset?

It is a syllable begins with a vowel . ( ease / i:z / )

100. What is a zero coda?

It is a syllable ends with a vowel . ( lee / li: / )

101. What is phonotactics?

It is the study of possible phoneme combinations of a language.

102. What is a consonant cluster?

When we have two or more consonants together we call them a consonant
cluster. For example : sway / sweɪ /.

103. Syllabication in English is rule-governed. Discuss.

Firstly, English syllable is usually consist of a central vowel. The centre
may be ( or may be not) preceded or followed by a consonant ( or
consonants).
Secondly, any consonant precedes a central vowel is called initial. English
initial consonants are of three possibilities:
1. Only one initial consonant which is called onset. Fee / fi: /.
2. Initial two- consonant clusters are of two sorts:
a) s + / t , w , m /. Sting / stɪƞ / , sway / sweɪ / and smoke / smǝʊk /.
/ s / is called pre-initial and / t , w , m / are called initial.
b) / p , t , k , b , d , g , f , Ɵ , s , ʃ , h , v , m , n , l / + / l , r , w , j /. The
first consonant is called initial and the second is called post-initial. For
example: play / pleɪ /.
32
3. Initial three-consonant clusters must consist:
s ( pre-initial) + / p , t , k / ( initial) + / l , r , w , j / ( post-initial) .
For example: spray / spreɪ /.
Thirdly, any consonant follows a central vowel is called final. English
final consonants are of four possibilities:
1. Only one final consonant which is called coda. eel / e:l /. / h , w , j /
don`t occur finally.
2. Final two-consonant clusters are of two sorts:
a) / m , n , ƞ , l , s/ ( pre-final ) + all consonants ( final) except / / h , w , j/.
For example, bank / bᴂnk /.
b) All consonants ( final ) + / s , z , t , d , Ɵ / ( post-final). For example,
bets / bets/.
3. Final three-consonant clusters are of two types:
a) pre-final + final + post-final. For example, banks / bᴂnks /.
b) final + post-final + post-final. For example, fifths / fɪfƟs /.
4. Final four-consonant clusters are of two sorts:
a) Pre- final + final + post-final (1) + post-final (2). For example, twelfths
/ twelfƟs /.
b) Final + post-final (1) + post-final (2) + post-final (3) . For example,
texts / teksts /.

104. Exemplify a maximum syllable and a minimum syllable.

A maximum syllable is ( students / stju:dnts / )
A minimum syllable is ( I / aɪ / )

105. What is rhyme in phonology?

The rhyme in phonology means the vowel and the coda. It is divided into
the peak ( which is normally the vowel) and the coda ( optional ).

106. What is maximal onsets principle?

It states that where two syllables are to be divided, any consonants
between them should be attached to the right-hand syllable as far as
possible within the restrictions governing syllables onsets and codas. For
example, morning / mͻ: nɪƞ /.

33
107. What is ambisyllabic?
It is a consonant stands between vowels and it is difficult to assign it to
one syllable or the other, as in better / betǝ /.

108. What is a syllabic consonant?

It is a consonant which resembles a syllable without any central vowel. It
is a weak syllable. It is indicated by a small vertical mark. Syllabic
consonants are:
1. / l / preceded by alveolar. ( bottle / bɒtl / ).
2. / n / preceded by alveolar plosives and fricatives. ( eaten / i:tn / )
3. / m , ƞ / in case of assimilation in some words.
( happen / hᴂpm / , broken key / brǝʊkƞ ki:/ ).
4. / r / in rhotic accents. ( particular / prtɪkjǝlr / ).

109. What is the difference between stressed and unstressed syllables?

Stressed syllables are more energetic than unstressed syllables and such
matter is associated with the speaker and the receiver. In the production
of stressed syllables, the speaker makes more energy. In perception
stressed syllables, the receiver receives stressed syllables with more
prominence than unstressed syllables.

110. What are the factors that make stressed syllables more prominent
than unstressed syllables?
There are four factors:
1. Loudness: most people feel stressed syllables are louder than
unstressed syllables.
2. Length: longer syllables are felt to be more stressed than shorter
syllables.
3. Pitch: high-pitched syllables are more stressed than low-pitches
syllables.
4. Quality: a stressed syllable has a vowel which is different in quality
from the neighbouring vowels.

111. What are the different levels of stress?

There are three types of stress:
34
1. Unstressed syllables which are produced with an absence of
prominence.
2. Primary stress is stronger than the neighbouring stressed syllable. It is
usually represented in transcription with a high mark
3. Secondary stress is weaker than the neighbouring stressed syllable. It is
usually represented in transcription with a low mark.

112. What information must be observed in order to decide stress

placement?
There are four information:
1. The morphological structure of the word: simple, complex or
compound.
2. The grammatical category of the word: noun, verb, adjective, adverb or
particle)
3. The number of syllables in the word.
4. The phonological structures of the syllables.

113. Where to put the stress in two-syllable words?

1. In simple two-syllable words, either the first or the second is stressed.
2. In verbs ,adjectives and adverbs, the second syllable is usually stressed,
as in ( enter / entǝ / ). But if the second is weak, so the first is stressed, as
in ( open / ǝʊpǝn / ).
3. In nouns, the first syllable is usually stressed, as in ( desert / dezǝt / ),
but if it is a weak syllable , so the second is stresse.
4. If the final syllable contains / ǝʊ / , so it is unstressed. ( follow/fɒlǝʊ /).

114. Where to put the stress in three-syllable words?

1. In simple three-syllable words, the first is stressed.
(entertain/entǝteɪn/).
2. If the last syllable is weak, the stress is placed on the preceding syllable
if it is strong.
( encounter / ɪƞkǝʊntǝ / ).
3. If both the second and the third are weak, the stress is placed on the
first.
( monitor / mɒnɪtǝ / ).
35
4. In nouns, stress is placed on the first syllable unless it is weak,
(quantity / kwɒntǝtɪ / ). But, if the first is weak, the stress falls on the
second, ( disaster / dɪzɑ:stǝ / ).
5. Adjectives seem to need the same rules on nouns. ( opportune /
ɒpǝtju:n / ).

115. Where to put the primary stress in word-class pairs?

Word-class pairs are pairs of words with the same spelling, but with
different grammatical category and stress placement.
1. If the word is a noun or an adjective the primary stress falls on the first
syllable unless it is a weak form. If it is a verb, the primary stress falls on
the second syllable unless it is weak. For example:
deserst / de zǝt / (n) : desert / dɪ zɜ:t / (v)
abstract / ᴂb strᴂkt / (Adj) : abstract / ᴂb strᴂkt / (v)

116. What does distinctive feature analysis state ?

It states that phonemes should be regarded not as independent and
indivisible units, but instead as combinations of different features. For
example, the phoneme / d / is:
+ plosive
+alveolar
+lenis
- fricative
- nasal
-voiceless

117. What does the notion of rhythm involve in connected speech?

In connected speech, the notion of rhythm involves some noticeable event
happening at regular intervals of time. It is detectable in the regular
occurrence of stressed syllables.

118. What does the theory of stress-timed rhythm imply ?

It implies that stressed syllables will tend to occur at relatively regular
intervals whether they are separated by unstressed syllables or not. For
example:

36
Walk down the path to the end of the ca nal
1 2 3 4 5

119. What does syllabic-timed rhythm imply?

It implies that all syllables, whether stressed or unstressed, tend to occur
at regular time intervals and time between stressed syllables will be
shorter or longer in proportion to the number of unstressed syllables. For
example:
Walk down the path to the end of the ca nal
1 2 3 4 5

120. What is foot in phonology?

The foot is a unit of rhythm. It has been used for a long time in the study
of verse metre, where lines may be divided into sections based on
patterns on strong syllables.

121. What is generative phonology?

Morris Halle and Noam Chomsky showed that there were many sound
processes, which they are observable in phonology, are actually regulated
by grammar and morphology. For example, the following pairs of English
diphthongs and vowels had previously been regarded as unrelated: / aɪ /
and / ɪ / ; / i: / and / e /.

122. What is assimilation?

Assimilation is an aspect of rapid and casual speech. It is the different
realization of a phoneme in a particular word as a result of being near
some other phonemes belonging to a neighbouring word. For example, (
that man / ðᴂp mᴂn / ).

123. What are the different types of assimilation?

According to the direction of effect, there are two main types of
assimilation:
1. Regressive assimilation : If the phoneme that comes first is affected by
the one that comes after. For example, ( that person / ðᴂp pɜ:sn / ).
2. Progressive assimilation ( coalescene / coalescent ): If the phoneme
37
that comes first affects the one that comes after. For example, not yet /
nɒt ʃet / ).

124. What is elision?

Some sounds appear not to be pronounced when the words are produced
in a rapid, colloquial style or when the words occur in a different context.
1. Elision in vowels:
- When a short unstressed vowel occurs between voiceless consonants. (
perhaps )
- When a vowel occurs between an obstruent consonant and a sonorant
consonant. ( sudden).
2. Elision in consonants:
- When a person simplifies a complex consonant cluster. ( acts / ᴂks / ).

125. Exemplify zero realization?

In elision of consonants, / t / is elided, so it has zero realization, as in
(acts / ᴂks / ).

126. What is linking ( liaison )?

It is the way in which the end of one word is joined on to the beginning of
the following word. For example, a final / r / in BBC pronunciation is
omitted when followed by a pause or a consonant, but it is pronounced (
linking / r / ) when followed by a vowel.
The car is / ðǝ kɑ:r ɪz /.

127. What is the difference between linking / r / and intrusive / r / ?

In BBC accent, / r / is pronounced only when followed by a vowel, such
as in:
( four eggs) / fͻ:r egz /, so this / r / is called linking / r /.
But, in BBC accent, / r / is sometimes pronounced at the end of words
which ends with a vowel and followed by a word begins with a vowel ,
actually there is no / r / and it is called intrusive, such as in : Formula A /
fͻ:mjǝlǝr eɪ /.

38
128. What is juncture?
Junctures is the stop of speaking. It is a pause or slightly delay in a
continuous flow of speech. There are many kinds of juncture:
1. Plus juncture ( open juncture ), this is subdivided into internal open
juncture and external open juncture. It is the juncture that occurs at word
boundaries. In phonetic transcription open juncture is transcribed /+/,
hence the name plus juncture.]
2. Close juncture ( normal transition ), this is a transition between
segments (sounds) within a word.
3. Terminal juncture ( falling / clause terminal / terminal contour ), this is
the juncture at the end of a clause or utterance with falling pitch before a
silence

129. What is sandhi?

It is the process whereby phonological units receive different realizations
because of the context in which they occur.

130. What is coarticulation?

It is the overlap of the articulatory movements for different sounds,
causing modifications to these sounds. Assimilation is a type of
coarticulation.

131. What is Suprasegmenta phonology ( prosodic phonology / prosody)?

Suprasegmental, also called prosodic feature, in phonetics, a speech
feature such as stress, tone, or word juncture that accompanies or is added
over consonants and vowels; these features are not limited to single
sounds but often extend over syllables, words, or phrases.

132. What is pitch?

It is the sensation which corresponds to the fundamental frequency of a
periodic sound, varying between high and low.

39
133. What is intonation?
It is the use of pitch variation to convey meaning. It is normally
distinguished from tone. By the fact that tone is usually a property of
individual words, while intonation patterns are more frequently properties
of longer stretches of speech.

134. What is tone?

Tone is a distinctive pitch level or pitch movement found on syllables
particularly in tone languages. A one-syllable word can be said with
either a level tone or a moving tone.

135. What is tone language?

It is a language in which some or all of the syllables carry tones which
distinguish meanings.

136. What are the possibilities ( forms ) for the intonation used in
pronouncing the one-word utterances?
There are five possibilities ( form ):
1. Level tone. ( - )
2. Rising tone. ( / )
3. Falling tone. ( \ )
4. Fall-rise tone. ( ˅ )
5. Rise-fall tone. ( ˄ )

137. What are the functions of English tones?

1. Fall tone is used to give an impression of finality.
2. Rise tone is used to convey an impression that something more is to
follow and questioning..
3. Fall-rise tone is used to express limited agreement or response with
reservations and calling someone`s name.
4. Rise-fall tone is used to convey strong feeling of approval, disapproval
or surprise.
5. Level tone is used to convey a feeling of saying something routine,
uninteresting or boring.

40
138. What is the tone-unit ?
For the purposes of analysing intonation, a unit generally greater in size
than the syllable is needed, and this unit is called the tone unit; in its
smallest form the tone-unit may consist of only one syllable, so it would
in fact be wrong to say that it is always composed of more than one
syllable.

139. What is a tonic syllable ?

A syllable which carries a tone will be called a tonic syllable. The tonic
syllables have a high degree of prominence which is a property of
stressed syllables, and a tonic syllable not only carries a tone but also a
type of stress that will be called tonic stress.

140. What is the structure ( components ) of the tone-unit ?

1. The head
A head is all of that part of a tone-unit that extends from the first stressed
syllable up to (but not including) the tonic syllable. It follows that if there
is no stressed syllable before the tonic syllable, there cannot be a head.
2: The pre-head
The pre-head is composed of all the unstressed syllables in a tone-unit
preceding the first stressed syllable.
3. The tail
Any syllables between the tonic syllable and the end of the tone-unit are
called the tail.

141. What are the different functions of intonation ?

1. The attitudinal function of intonation.
Intonation enables us to express emotions and attitudes as we speak, and
this adds a special kind of “meaning” to spoken language.

41
2. The accentual function of intonation.
Intonation helps to produce the effect of prominence on syllables that
need to be perceived as stressed, and in particular the placing of tonic
stress on a particular syllable marks out the word to which it belongs as
the most important in the tone-unit.
3. The grammatical function of intonation.
The listener is better able to recognise the grammar and syntactic
structure of what is being said by using the information contained in the
intonation; for example, such things as the placement of boundaries
between phrases, clauses or sentences, the difference between questions
and statements, and the use of grammatical subordination may be
indicated.
4. Intonation's discourse function.
Looking at the act of speaking in a broader way, we can see that
intonation can signal to the listener what is to be taken as “new”
information and what is already "given”, can suggest when the speaker is
indicating some sort of contrast or link with material in another tone-unit
and, in conversation, can convey to the listener what kind of response is
expected.

142. What are types of suprasegmental phonology ?

We can isolate three distinct types of suprasegmental variable: sequential,
prosodic and paralinguistic.

143. What is sequential ?

These components of intonation are found as elements in sequences of
other such elements occurring one after another (never simultaneously).
These are:
i) pre-heads, heads, tonic syllables and tails (with their pitch
possibilities);
ii) pauses;
iii) tone-unit boundaries.

42
144. What is Prosodic ?
These components are characteristics of speech which are constantly
present and observable while speech is going on. The most important are:
i) width of pitch range;
ii) key; iii) loudness;
iv) speed;
v) voice quality.

145. What is Paralinguistic ?

Paralinguistic effects are facial expressions, gestures , body movements,
laughs and sobs. These paralinguistic effects are obviously relevant to the
act of speaking but could not themselves properly be regarded as
components of speech.

146. What is a trill ?

If the articulator touches the point of articulation quickly and repeatedly,
the sound is a trill, e.g., the Arabic / r /.

147. What is a retroflex ?

If the apex curves back, the sound is a retroflex, e. g., the American / r /.

148. What are fronting and backing in articulating sounds ?

Any sound may undergo a certain degree of fronting or backing in
submission to the influence of a neighbouring sound in continuous
speech. For example, / k / in ( can ) is fronted, while / k / in ( coat ) is
backed. Consonants tend to be fronted if they neighbour front vowels and
backed if they neighbour back vowels.

149. What is complementary distribution ?

It is a term used in phonology to refer to the mutual exclusiveness of a
pair of sounds in a certain phonetic environment. In English, the voiceless
allophone of the / I / phoneme occurs when it is preceded by initial / p /
while it is voiced in other cases.

43
150. What is free variation ?
It is a term used in phonology to refer to the substitutability of one sound
for another in a given environment with no change in the meaning of the
word. When the speaker articulates a word like ( sit ) with an unreleased
or released plosive.

151. What are the types of phonemes ?

Phonemes are either segmental in linear concatenation or suprasegmental
superimposed on segmentals. Segmentals are either consonants or
vowels.

152. What is the difference between phoneme and grapheme ?

Phoneme is an abstract sound unit actualized as allophones. It is the
smallest unit in speech. Grapheme is the smallest unit in writing which
basically symbolizes the phoneme graphically. Grapheme is actualized by
allographs. For example : the grapheme ˂ a ˃ is actualized in one of these
allographs: a, A, ɑ and A.

153. What is devoicing ?

It is a process that results in a sound which is normally voiced being
pronounced as voiceless. In English, the voiced phoneme / l / is a
voiceless allophone when it is preceded by initial / p /, as in ( play ).

154. What is isochronous ?

It is a property of rhythm which identifies it as being composed of equal
intervals of time.

155. What is phonation ?

Phonation is the an alternative name of voicing which is the vibration of
the vocal cords.

156. What is pulmonic ?

It is an airstream created by the action of the lungs.

44
157. What is Received Pronunciation ( RP ) ?
It is a name given to the accent used as a standard for describing British
English pronunciation for most the 20th century and still in use of : BBC
accent.

158. What is spectrogram ?

It is a visual display of the results of the spectral analysis of speech, in the
form of a grey-and-white or coloured picture.

159. What is nasalization ?

It is the modification of speech sound ( usually vowels ) resulting in some
of the flow of air being allowed to escape through the nose.

160. What is aspiration ?

It is a noise produced by the rapid flow of air from the larynx through the
vocal tract, usually found after the release of plosive consonants in some
languages.

161. What are the features of English vowels ?

1. Vowels are oral sounds.
2. Vowels are voiced.
3. Vowels are characterized by a free flow of air through the oral cavity.
4. The distinguishing between different types of vowels is determined by
the position of the tongue.

162. According to the position of the tongue, how can vowels be

classified?
According to the position of the tongue that is used to produce a vowel,
vowels are front, central and back.

163. What is metathesis?

Metathesis is the transposition of speech sounds. For example, one may
say ( tradegy and tragedy )

164. What is epenthesis?

Epenthesis is the insertion of an extra consonant within a word. For
45
example, the /p/ may be heard in something . / sʌpƟɪη /.

165. What is epithesis?

Epithesis is the addition of an extra consonant to the end of a word. For
example, drown may be said to be / draʊnd /.

166. What is the relation between spelling and pronunciation in English

language?
Languages are reduced to writing by some kinds of writing systems. For
spelling, English has its alphabetic system, and for pronunciation, it has
its phonemic system. It is supposed that each letter always stands for the
same phoneme and each phoneme is always represented by the same
letter, but such a two-way one-for-one correspondence between letters
and phonemes does not perfectly exist in English. English letters are 26
while English phonemes are more than 36.

167. Discuss shifting stress?

The position of stress may shift with a change of context. Before a pause
or before weakly stressed syllables, words may a primary stress on the
last syllable, like ( unknown ).But, when it occurs directly before another
syllable with a primary stress, the stronger stress is shifted towards the
first syllable of the word, ( unknown thief ).

168. What is phonotactics?

In phonology, the study of the totality of the positions in which any
language element may occur or their distribution is called phonotactics.

169. Supply an example for a fortis alveolar fricative sound occurring

twice in a word.
Sense / sens /.

170. Supply an example for Rhythm in a sentence.

Walk down the path to the end of the ca nal
1 2 3 4 5

46
171. What is coda?
The coda (also known as auslaut) comprises the consonant sounds of a
syllable that follow the nucleus.

172. Discuss weak forms.

For the purpose of phonetic transcription, it is very essential to know the

strong forms and the weak forms of function words as follows:

Q. When are function forms dealt as strong forms or weak forms ?

1. At the end of a sentence, they are strong forms, but in other places,
they are weak forms.
For example, a function word ( of ) strong in (i), but weak in (ii):
i. Cars are what I`m fond of . / ɒv /.
ii. I`m fond of cars. / ǝv /.

2. When a function word is being contrasted with another word or co-

ordinated in the use of prepositions, they are strong forms. For example,
function words ( from / to ):
i. The letter is from him not to him. / frɒm / and / tu: / ( contrasted )
ii. I travel to and from London a lot. / tu: / and / frɒm / ( co-ordinated )

3. When a function word is given stress for the purpose of emphasis, it

has strong form. For example, a function word ( must ):
You must give me more money. / mʌst /.

4. When a function word is cited or quoted, it has a strong form. For

example, a function word ( and ):
You shouldn`t put " and " at the end of a sentence. / ᴂnd /.

47
N. Function word Strong Form Weak Form
1 the - / ðǝ / before consonants
/ ði / before vowels
2 a / an - / ǝ / before consonants
/ ǝn / before vowels
3 and / ᴂnd / / ǝn /
4 but / bʌt / / bǝt /
5 that / ðᴂt / as a / ðǝt / in a
demonstrative Relative clause
6 than / ðᴂn / / ðǝn /
7 his / hɪz / at the beginning / ɪz /
8 her / hɜ:r/ / ǝ / before consonants
/ ǝr / before vowels
9 your / ju:r / / jǝ / before consonants
/ jǝr / before vowels
10 She / he / we / / ʃi, hɪ, wi, ju / / ʃi, ɪ, wi, ju /
you / hi / at the beginning.
11 him / hɪm / / ɪm /
12 her / hǝr / /ǝ/
13 them / ðǝm/ / ðǝm/
14 us / ʌs / / ǝs /
15 at / ᴂt / / ǝt /
16 for / fͻ: / / fǝ /
17 from / frɒm / / frǝm /
18 of / ɒv / / ǝv /
19 to / tu / / tǝ /
20 as / ᴂz / / ǝz /
21 some / sʌm / / sǝm /
22 there / ðeǝ/ / ðǝ /
23 can / could / kᴂn / , / kɒd / / kǝn / , / kǝd /
24 have / has / / hᴂv / , / hᴂz / , / hᴂd / hǝv / , / hǝz / , / hǝd /
had /
25 shall / should / ʃᴂl / , / ʃʊd / / ʃǝl / , / ʃǝd /
26 must / mʌst / / mǝst /
27 do / does / du: / , / dʌz / /dǝ / before consonants
/ du / before vowels
 / dǝz /
28 am / ᴂm / / ǝm / bofore vowels
/ ǝ / before consonants
29 are / ɑ: / / ǝr / bofore vowels
/ ǝ / before consonants
30 was / wɒz / / wǝz /
31 were / wɜ: / / wǝr / bofore vowels
/ wǝ / before consonants
Table 2. Weak Forms

49
Section 3: Morphology
173. What is Morphology?
Morphology is the branch of linguistics that deals with morphemes. It is a
part of grammar, which includes both morphology and syntax.
Morphology deals with the word structure.

174. What is morpheme?

The morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit in language.

175. What are the characteristics of morpheme?

1. It is a word or a part of word that has meaning.
2. It cannot be divided into other smaller meaningful parts without
violation of its meaning or without meaningless reminders.
3. It reoccurs in different verbal environments with a relatively stable
meaning.

176. Compare free and bound morphemes?

Morphemes are of two kinds:
1. A free morpheme is one that can be uttered alone with meaning. For
example, ( red ).
2. A bound morpheme cannot be uttered alone with meaning. For
example, ( -ly ).

177. What is base morpheme?

Morphemes can be classified into base morpheme and affixes. Base
morpheme is the part of a word that has the principal meaning, For
example, in (meaningful), ( mean) is the base morpheme.
178. What are the requirements that base morpheme meets ?
1. It can occur as an immediate constituent of a word whose only other
immediate constituent is a prefix or suffix. For example, ( mean /
meaningful )
2. It is allomorph of a morpheme which has another allomorphs that is a
free form. For example, ( depth / deep).
3. It is a borrowing from another language in which it is a free form or a
base.
50
179. Discuss affixes.
An affix is a bound morpheme that occurs before, within or after a base.
There are three types of affixes:
1. Prefixes are bound morphemes that occur before a base. For example, (
un- ) in ( unhappy). English prefixes are a small class and they often
mean prepositions and adverbials
2. Infixes are bound morphemes inserted within a word. English infixes
are commonly replacements not additions. For example, ( -ee- ) is an
infix to make the plural of (foot / feet).
3. suffixes are bound morphemes that occur after a base. For example, ( -
ed ) in ( seemed).

180. What are morphs?

Morphs are discrete units used as realizations of morphemes in speech.
For example, (s) is a bound morpheme used for making plurals while / s
/ is its morph.

181. What is allomorph?

Morphemes are realized by more than one morph according to their
position in a word and such alternative morphs are called allomorphs. For
example, plural ( s ) has three allomorphs: ( s / es ).

182. What is morphotactics?

It is the study of the arrangement of morphemes in linear sequence.

183. what is a replacive morpheme?

Replacive morpheme: is an infix replaced for the purpose of making
irregular past forms of verbs, past participles and irregular plurals. For
example, ( run / ran ).

184. What is a zero morph?

A zero morph is a bound morph that is not changed when realizing the
morpheme. For example, ( sheep ) is both singular and plural.

51
185. What is a portmanteau morph?
It is a morph set up to handle cases where a formal feature can be
allocated to more than one morpheme.For example ( brunch :from
breakfast and lunch ).

186. What is an empty morph?

An empty morph is a morph which does not directly realize a
morpheme.E.g. in children /tʃɪldrən/, a morph /tʃɪld/.

187. What is a submorpheme?

It refers to a part of a morpheme that has recurrent form and meaning,
such as the (sl-) beginning of ( slimy, slug, etc )

188. What is the difference between monomorphemic and

polymorphemic words?
1. Monomorphemic: is a word consists of a single free morpheme. For
example, (free).
2. Polymorphemic: is a word consists of more than one morpheme. For
example, (meaninglessly)

189. What is morphophonemics?

It is a branch of linguistic referring to the analysis and classification of
phonological factors which affects the appearance of the morphemes or
the grammatical factors which affect the appearance of phonemes.

190. What is superfix?

Stresses that accompany syllables and a superimposed on them are
considered as superfixes by some linguists.

191. What is circumfix?

It is an affix, a part of which is added before the root and a part after.
English does not have circumfixes, but some languages do.

52
192. What are the inflectional affixes?
They are bound morphemes that have grammatical functions. They are:

N. Inflectional affixes Examples Name

1 -s pl cars, men Noun plural

2 -s sing. ps girl`s Noun singular possessive

3 -s pl ps girls` Noun plural possessive

4 -s 3d plays Present third person

singular

5 -ing vb playing Present participle

6 -d pt played, took Past tense

7 -d pp played, taken Past participle

8 -er cp stronger, better comparative

9 -est sp strongest, best superlative

Table 3. Inflectional Affixes

193. What are the characteristics of inflectional affixes?

1. They do not change the part of speech.
2. They come last in the word.
3. They go with all stems of the part of speech.
4. They close the word.

194. What are the derivational affixes?

They are added to a root to derive other word and they may cause a
change in the part of the speech. For example, work (v) + er = worker (n)

53
195. What are the characteristics of derivational affixes?
1. The words with which derivational affixes combine is an arbitrary
matter.
2. In most cases, derivational affixes change the part of the speech of the
word to which they are added.
3. They don`t usually close off a word.

194. What are suffixal homophones?

They are either inflectional or derivational suffixes that have
homophonous forms. For example ( -er ) is added to form a comparative
adjective ( faster ) or to form an agent noun ( hunter ).

195. What are the noun feminine forms?

They are certain derivational suffixes of foreign origin. They are:
-e ( fiancée )
-enne ( comedienne )
- ess ( patroness )
- etta ( Henrietta )
- ette ( farmerette )
- euse ( masseuse )
- ina ( Georgina )
- ine ( heroine )
- ster ( spinster )
- stress ( seamstress )
- ix ( aviatrix )

196. What are noun diminutive forms?

There are six English diminutive suffixes which convey the meaning
smallness and endearment or both. They are:
- ie, -I, iy ( aunti )
- ette ( towelette )
-kin, -ikin, -kins ( manikin )
- ling ( darling )
- et ( circlet )
- let ( booklet )

54
197. What is immediate constituent ( IC )?
Immediate constituent ( IC ) is a diagram which shows layers of structure
of a word by making successive divisions into ultimate constituents till all
component morphemes of a word is isolated. To make IC division, it is
advisable to follow the following steps:
1. If a word ends in an inflectional suffix, the first cut is between this
suffix and the rest of the word. For example, ( malformations ):
Mal formation ǀ s

2. The rest of the word after cut must be uttered alone with meaning.
For example, ( enlargement ):
Wrong : en ǀ large ment
Right : en large ǀ ment

3. The meaning of the immediate constituent should be related to the

meaning of the word. For example,( restrain )
Wrong : rest ǀ rain
Right : re ǀ strain

198. What is the difference between immediate constituent and ultimate

constituent?
Immediate constituent ( IC ) is a diagram which shows layers of structure
of a word by making successive divisions into component morphemes till
they all are is isolated. The component morphemes of a word are called
ultimate constituents.

199. Make an immediate constituent of ( ungentlemanly / insufferably ).

Un gentle man ly

In suffer able y

55
200. What is the difference between phonological conditioning and
morphological conditioning?

1. When the phonological environment determines which allomorph is

used, so the selection of allomorphs in phonological conditioning. For
example, ( -s pl ) is pronounced / s, z, ǝz / according to the preceding
sound.

2. When there is a certain environment that requires a certain allomorph

only by identifying specific morphemes, so the selection of allomorphs in
morphological conditioning. For example, ( -s pl ) of ( ox ) is ( oxen ).

201. What is the difference between additive morphemes and replacive

morphemes?

Additive affixes are added to a base while replacive affix is replaced in

inflection. For example: ( -ed ) is additive in ( play / played ), while ( -a )
is replacive in ( sing/ sang ).

202. What are homophones?

Phonological homophones are words which sound alike but differ in
meaning, such as ( heir, air, pare, pair). Morphological homophones are
words end with bound morphemes which are written alike, but they are
different morphemes, such as ( feels, cars, Ali`s ).

203. What are phonesthemes?

Phonesthemes are speech sounds that in themselves express, elicit,
suggest meaning. For example, / I / suggests smallness, as in ( bit ).

204. What is the difference between morpheme and word?

The morpheme is indivisible into smaller meaningful units, while words
may be divided into smaller meaningful units if it consists of more than
morpheme. Not every morpheme consists a word, while a word may
consist of one or more morphemes.

56
205. What is the difference between root and stem?
The root of a word is its base morpheme. The stem is the word to which
the affix is added. Al-khuli (2006:62) formulates the definition of the
stem as in:
Word – last affix = stem

206. What is the definition of word?

A word is any segment of a sentence bounded by successive points at
which pausing is possible. This pausing can be either silent or vocalized.

207. What is lexeme?

A lexeme is a unit of vocabulary which is listed in a dictionary.

208. How are English words classified?

According their bases and morphemes, English words are classified into:
1. Simple words that consist of a single free morpheme each. ( long / red).
2. Complex words that consist of either two bound forms or a bound form
and a free form. ( televise / telephone ).
3. Compound words that have two or more free forms. ( greenhouse /
spic-and-span )

209. How can compound words be distinguished from grammatical

structure?
1. Compound words cannot be divided by the insertion of any
grammatical material between the two parts, while grammatical structure
accept such insertion. For example:
a) She is a sweetheart.
b) She is a sweet heart.
In (a), sweetheart is a compound word which cannot be divided, while in
(b), sweet heart are two separated words which can be divided by a new
word, such as:
c) She is a sweet king heart.

57
2. A member of a compound word cannot participate in a grammatical
structure. For example, ( She is a sweetheart ) cannot be ( She is a very
sweetheart ).

3. Stress on a compound word is not as similar as stress on the two

words when they are separated.

210.What are the different processes of word formation?

The term word formation refers to the whole process of morphological
variation in the constitutions of words. Such processes are: compounding,
derivation, inflection, invention, echoism, clipping, acronymy, blending,
back-formation, folk etymology, antonomasia and reduplication.

211. What is compounding?

It is the joining of two or more words into a single word, as in (breakfast).

212. What is derivation?

It is forming of new words by combining derivational affixes or bound
bases with existing words, such as in ( re-write ).

213. What is inflection?

It is forming of words by adding inflectional affixes where the same
speech part comes as the output of the inflection, such as in ( mouse /
mice ).

214. What is Invention?

It is the inventing of new words which find their way into the common
vocabulary, such as Kodak and nylon.

215. What is echoism?

It is the formation of words whose sound suggests their meaning like hiss
and peewee.

216. What is clipping?

It means cutting off the beginning or the end of a word, or both, leaving a
part to stand for the whole, such as in lab and exam.
58
217. What is acronymy?
It is the process whereby a word is formed from the initials or beginning
segments of a succession of words, such as in MP ( military police).

218. What is blending?

It is the fusion of two words into one, usually the first part of one word
with the last part of another, as in gasohol and alcohol.

219. What is back-formation?

It is the formation of a word from one that looks its derivative, such as in
( editor ) from (edit).

220. What is folk etymology?

It is the process of changing a word in part or in wholes, to make it more
understandable and more like familiar words like ( let ball ) is famous in
games of tennis, players usually use ( net ball) as ( net) is part of the play.

221. What is antonmasia?

It means the formation of a common noun, a verb, or an adjective from
the name of a person or place. For example, a lover may be called ( a
romeo).

222. What is reduplication?

It is the process of forming a new word by doubling a morpheme, usually
with a change of vowel or initial consonant, as in ticktock.

223. What is a paradigm?

A paradigm is a set of related forms having the same stem, but different
affixes. Paradigms are either derivational or inflectional. Derivational
paradigm is such as ( head, ahead, behead, headlong, header, headship,
heady, subhead). Inflectional paradigms are four:

59
1. Noun Paradigm
Forms Stem Plural Possessive Plural+
Possessive
Inflectional - -s pl -s ps -s pl ps
suffixes
Models man men man`s men`s
worker workers worker`s workers`
Table 4. Noun paradigms
2. Pronoun Paradigm
Personal
Forms Subject Object Prenominal Substitutional
Possessive Possessive
1st I me my mine
2nd you you your yours
3rd M he him his his
3rd F she her her hers
3rd N it it its its
Plural
1st we us our ours
2nd you you your yours
3rd M they them their theirs
Inter./Relative who whom whose whose
Table 5. Pronoun Paradigms

60
3. Verb Paradigms
Forms stem Present Present Past Past
Third-Person Participle Tense Participle
Singular
Inflectional - -s 3rd -ing vb -d pt -d pp
suffixes
play plays playing played played
Models break breaks breaking broke broken
cut cuts cutting cut cut
Table 6. Verb Paradigms

4. Comparable Paradigms
Forms stems Comparatives Superlatives
Inflectional - -er cp -est sp
suffixes
heavy heavier heaviest
Models good better best
fast faster fastest
Table 7. Comparable Paradigms

224. The four form paradigms of nouns are maximal, and not all nouns
have the four forms. Discuss.
Many nouns do not take the possessive forms, since ( of ) structure often
takes the place of the ( -s ps) morpheme. For example, inanimate nouns
are likely to have (of) instead of (-s ps), as in ( door of the room). In
addition, some words have only one form of the paradigm as ( tennis).

61
225. How is it possible to test number in nouns?
There are three useful tests for number in the noun:
1. A noun is singular if it can take one of many substitutes: he/him,
this/that, she/her and it. Plurals can be substituted by: they/them or these/
those.
2. A number of a noun can be signaled by a modifier like several.
3. When the noun functions as a subject the following present verb (-s 3rd)
can determine its number.

226. What is suppletion?

Suppletion is a total change in the forms of a paradigm as in the paradigm
of ( go):
Go , goes, going, went, gone.

227. What are the main groups of words in English?

According to their grammatical behavior , modern grammarians ( as
Quirk et al ( 1985 ) and Stageberg ( 1981 ) ) put English words into three
main groups . First , form-classes which are nouns , adjectives , adverbs ,
verbs and uninflected words . Second , positional classes like nominal ,
verbal , adjectival and adverbials . Third , structure classes like
prepositions and auxiliaries .

228. What are form classes?

Crystal (2008:76) defines form classes as " an application in linguistics
and phonetics use of this item , to refer to a set of entities sharing certain
formal or semantic properties " .

229. What is a noun?

Crystal (2008:333) defines noun as " a term used in the grammatical
classification of words, traditionally defined as the ' name of a person ,
place or thing '. Aziz (1989:92) defines a noun in English according to its
location in a noun phrase since it realizes the head of the noun phrase .

230. How are nouns identified?

Nouns are identified by two aspects of form, their inflectional morphemes
62
and their derivational morphemes. The inflectional morphemes are ( -s pl
/ -s ps / -s pl ps ) and derivational morphemes as ( wise + dom =
wisdom).

231. What is a verb?

Crystal (2008:510) defines verb as " a term used in the grammatical
classification of words to refer to a class traditionally defined as ` doing `
or ` action ` words " .

232. How are verbs identified?

Verbs are identified by two aspects of form, their inflectional morphemes
and their derivational morphemes. The inflectional morphemes are ( -s 3d
/ -ing present p. / -d pt / -d pp ) and derivational morphemes as ( exam +
ine = examine).

233. What is an adjective?

Crystal (2008:11) defines adjective as " a term used in the grammatical
classification of words to refer to the main set of items which specify the
attributes of nouns ".

234. How are adjectives identified?

Adjectives are identified by two aspects of form, their inflectional
morphemes and their derivational morphemes. The inflectional
morphemes are ( -er cp / -est sp) and derivational morphemes as ( danger
+ ous = dangerous).

235. What is an adverb?

Crystal (2008:14) defines adverb as " a term used in the grammatical
classification of words to refer to a heterogeneous group of items whose
most frequent function is to specify the mode of action of the verb".

236. How are adverbs identified?

Adverbs are identified by their derivational morphemes which are four
suffixes: -ly, -wise, -ward and –s. As in : ( fortunately , studentwise,
northward, nights )

63
 237. What are uninflected words?
According to Stageberg (1981:164), they are words which cannot be
kenneled in one of the four form-classes ( nouns, verbs. Adjectives and
adverbs). For example structure classes, such as ( and ). They usually
don`t receive affixes to form a new word.

238. What are the characteristics of a structure class?

1. They often do not change form.
2. A structure class is small.
3. It is close class that doesn`t admit new members.

239. What is a qualifier?

A qualifier is a structure class which occurs in the position just before an
adjectival or an adverbial. Most qualifiers are uninflected words such as (
very).

240. What are prepositions?

Prepositions are structure classes which are usually followed by a noun,
noun phrase, personal pronoun, or noun-substitute called the object of the
preposition. English prepositions are about fifty. They are either
monosyllabic as ( with) or two-syllable preposition as ( behind).

241. What is a determiner?

A determiner is a structure class that patterns with a noun. It precedes the
noun and serves as a signal that a noun is soon to follow. Determiners are
definite ( the ) and indefinite ( a / an ).

242. What are auxiliaries?

Auxiliaries are structure classes which are closely associated with the
verb and are of three kinds: modals, primary auxiliaries ( have / do ) and
the periphrastic auxiliary ( do).

64
Section 4: Syntax
243. What is Grammar?

Grammar is a complex system, the parts of which cannot be properly

explained in abstraction from the whole. In this sense, all parts of a
grammar are mutually defining, and there is no simple linear path we can
take in explaining one part in terms of another.

244. What is Syntax?

Syntax is a traditional term for the study of the rules governing the way
Words are combined to form sentences in a language. In this use, syntax
is opposed to morphology, the study of word structure. An alternative
definition is the study of the interrelationships between elements of
sentence structure, and of the rules governing the arrangement of
sentences in sequences.

245. What is sentence?

Sentence is the largest structural unit in terms of which the grammar of a

language is organized.

246. What is clause?

Clause is a term used in some models of grammar to refer to a unit of

grammatical organization smaller than the sentences, but larger than
phrases, words or morphemes. The traditional classification is of clausal
units into main (independent or superordinate) and subordinate (or
dependent) clauses.

247. What is phrase?

Phrase is a term used in grammatical analysis to refer to a single element
of structure typically containing more than one word, and lacking the
subject-predicate structure typical of clauses; abbreviated as P in such
combinations as NP (= noun phrase), PP (= prepositional phrase), etc.
65
248. What are the elements of sentences?
A sentence may alternatively be seen as comprising five units called
elements of sentence structure: subject (S), verb (V), complement (C),
object (O) and adverbial (A). For example:
Tom (S) slowly (A) drove (V) the car (O).
Tom (S) is (V) now (A) a doctor (C).

249. What is the subject of the sentence?

The subject of the sentence has a close general relation to 'what is being
discussed', the theme of the sentence.

250. What is the predicate of the sentence?

The predicate is being said about a 'subject' that has already been
introduced in an earlier sentence.

251. What is the function of a tree diagram?

The function of a tree diagram in grammar is to label the constituents as

instances of particular units or classes of units in a sentence. It is used for
the purpose of parsing a sentence. Units may be reconstituted as follows:

Figure 7. Constituents of Clause

252. What is embedding in syntax?

Embedding is a grammatical phenomenon which accounts for the
indefinite extensibility of certain units of grammar. Both the noun phrase
and the prepositional phrase may be immediate constituents of a clause.
66
For example:
Some students will be working late in their rooms.

253. What is subordination in syntax?

Subordination is a kind of embedding occurs when one clause is made a
constituent of another cause. For example:
She was driving slowly when a boy crossed the road.

254. How to parse subordinated clauses?

If two clauses are joined to each other, the first is parsed normally and the
constituent clause which is called subordinate clause is introduced
according to its link-word, such as (which) relative clause. For example:

255. What is coordination in syntax?

Coordination is the principle of indefinite extensibility which is present in
grammar in another respect: two or more units of the same status on the
grammatical hierarchy may constitute a single unit of the same kind. For
example:
She was driving carefully when a boy crossed the door.

256. What are the types of clauses?

There are seven types of clauses:
67
1. SV : Ali died.
2. SVO : Ali played football.
3. SVC : Ali seems sad.
4. SVA : Ali is in Baghdad.
5. SVOO : Ali gave Muna a pen.
6. SVOC : Ali made Muna glad.
7. SVOA : Ali put the cheese in the fridge.

258.Compare direct object and indirect object.

Normally, the recipient object is called indirect object ( Oi) and the
effected object is called direct object ( Od) , as in the example:
The mother made Ali ( Oi) a meal( Od).

259.Compare subject complement and object complement.

A subject complement ( Cs) is an adjective which modifies the subject.
An object complement ( Co) is an adjective which modifies the object, as
in:
- He seems sick. ( Cs)
- He made her angry. ( Co)

260. What are the functions performed by different types of clauses?

There are three functions which may be performed by various types of
clauses:
1. Determination
It may be used for the function of words and (sometimes) phrases which,
in general, determine what kind of reference noun phrase has: for
example, whether it is definite (like the) or indefinite (like an), partitive
(like some) or universal (like all).

2. Modification
It is a largely optional function performed, for instance, by adjectives in
the noun phrase, and by intensifying adverbs in the adverb phrase.
Premodifiers precede the head, and postmodifiers follow it.

3. Complementation
It functions as a part of a phrase or clause which follows a word, and
68
completes the specification of a meaning relationship which that word
implies. As such, complementation may be either obligatory or optional
on the syntactic level. Complementation also overlaps with other
functions, such as adverbials and modifiers.

261. Compare closed classes and open classes?

There are two types of word classes:
1. Closed classes whose membership is fixed or limited and new items
are not regularly added such as prepositions.
2. Open classes whose membership is indefinite or unlimited, such as
nouns.

262. What are the subclasses of nouns?

Nouns fall into different subclasses :
1. According to their semantic and syntactic distinction , they can be
classified as proper nouns and common nouns . On the other hand ,
common nouns can be subclassified into countable nouns and
uncountable nouns . Furthermore , countable nouns are subdivided into
singular and plural.
2.According to their mere semantic distinction , nouns are classified into
concrete and abstract .

263. Compare concrete nouns and abstract nouns.

Concrete nouns are accessible to the senses , observable ,
measurable,…etc , and abstract nouns as typically non-observable and
non-measurable. Concrete nouns can be seen and touched , while abstract
nouns cannot be seen and touched .

264. What are the categories of Nouns?

Nouns have three main categories : number , gender and case.

265. Discuss number in nouns.

Trask (2007:191) defines number as " the grammatical category which
relates most directly to the number of entities " . Khalil ( 1999) adds that
" nouns can be divided into three classes on the basis of contrast :
69
 singular invariable nouns , plural invariable nouns and variable nouns "
(122-123).

266. Discuss gender in nouns.

Crystal (2008:206) defines gender as " a grammatical category used for
the analysis of word-classes displaying such contrast as masculine ,
feminine and neuter " . Eckersley and Eckersley (1960:41) deny that
gender has any grammatical function in modern English .Then ,they
appoint three categories of gender : masculine , feminine and neuter
gender .

267. Compare personal nouns and non-personal nouns.

1. There are five kinds of personal nouns:
i. Personal nouns that indicate masculine nouns . ( boy / man )
ii. Personal nouns that indicate feminine nouns . ( girl / woman )
iii. Personal nouns that indicate dual gender . ( teacher / doctor )
iv. Personal nouns that are treated as personal or non-personal . ( baby )
v. Collective nouns are viewed as personal if they are treated as plural
nouns . ( family / families )

2. There are four kinds of non-personal nouns:

i. Masculine higher animals . Normally , they are treated as neuter gender.
( dog )
ii. Feminine higher animals . Normally , they are treated as neuter gender.
( cow )
iii. Higher Organism . These nouns refer to ships , countries and other
inanimate things with which one is involved emotionally . ( ship )
iv. Lower Animals . ( snake )

268. Discuss case in nouns.

Crystal (2008:66) states that " case is a grammatical category used in the
analysis of word-classes ( or their associated phrases ) to identify the
syntactic relationship between words in a sentence … the traditional
classification is based on variations in the morphological forms of the
word". Common case is syntactically subclassified into subjective and
objective .
70
269. What are the subclasses of Verbs?
Verbs fall into two main divisions : auxiliary and lexical verbs . If the
verb is complex , the lexical lies last as a head preceded by the auxiliary .
The distinction between lexical and auxiliary verbs is according to the
basis of three grammatical processes : interrogation , negation and
preform .

270. Compare primary and modal auxiliaries?

There two main subclasses of auxiliaries : primary and modal . The
primary auxiliaries are : Do , Have and Be. The modal auxiliaries express
both a grammatical function as auxiliaries and a semantic function such
as possibility , probability , certainty , etc . Their semantic function is
usually termed ' modality ' .

271. Compare finite and nonfinite verbs?

Verbs may be classified as finite and non-finite verbs . A finite verb (
phrase ) is a form that can occur on its own in an independent sentence (
or main clause ) ; it permits formal contrasts in tense and mood . Non-
finite forms of the verb , on the other hand , occur on their own only in
dependent clauses.

272. What are the categories of verbs?

There are four main categories of verbs . They are : tense , aspect . mood
and voice .

273. Discuss tense in verbs.

Crystal (2008:479) defines tense as " a category used in the grammatical
description of verbs ( along with aspect and mood ), referring primarily to
the way grammar marks the time at which the action denoted by the verb
took place ". There are three main types of tense : present , past and
future . Then, every main tense has further four sub-types : simple ,
perfect , continuous and perfect continuous .

274. What is the difference between time and tense?

The notion of time is universal, and is independent of any particular
71
 language, or language at all. Tense is a linguistic device, varying from
language to language. It means the verb-form or forms used to express
certain time relations.

275. Discuss aspect in verbs.

Crystal (2008:38) defines aspect as " a category used in grammatical
description of verbs referring primarily to the way the grammar marks the
duration or type of temporal activity denoted by the verb ". English has
two types of aspect :
1. Progressive Aspect: which indicates a durative event , therefore , it
isn`t used with stative verbs.
2. Perfect aspect which views an event which started in the past and
finished nearly before the presence time .

276. Discuss mood in verbs.

Crystal (2008:312) defines mood as " a term used in the theoretical and
descriptive study of sentence / clause types , and especially of the verbs
they contain ". Mood marks properties such as possibility , probability
and certainty ".

277. Discuss modality in verbs.

Quirk et al (1985:219) states that " modality is the manner in which the
meaning of a clause is qualified so as to reflect the speaker`s judgement
of the likelihood of the proposition it expresses being true ". Generally ,
we can classify mood into two main types : subjunctive and imperative ,
and subjunctive mood can be further classified into mandative, formulaic
and the were-subjunctive.

278. Discuss voice in verbs.

According to Quirk et al ( 1985:159 ) , voice is " a grammatical category
which makes it possible to view the action of a sentence in either of two
ways without a change in the facts reported . "

279. What are the different types (gradients ) of passive?

There are three main gradients of passive: central passive , semi-passive
and pseudo-passive.
72
280. What is semi-passive?
Semi-passive, as a construction, has both verbal and adjectival
properties. Semi-passives are like true passives in having active
counterparts. A word such as " needed " can be used as a verb or as an
adjective . For example:
This machine is needed .

281. What is pseudo-passive?

Quirk et al ( 1985:169 ) defines pseudo-passive sentences as having
neither active transform nor a possibility of agent addition . They state
that pseudo-passive is realized with ` current ` copular verbs be , feel ,
look , etc and with `resulting` copular verbs get , become , grow , etc.

282. Compare transitive and intransitive verbs.

Verb can be described as transitive or intransitive based on whether it
requires an object to express a complete thought or not. A transitive verb
is one that only makes sense if it exerts its action on an object. An
intransitive verb will make sense without one. For example:
1. Ali studies English. ( Tran. V. )
2. The rain fell. ( Intran. V. )

283. What are the different types of transitive verbs?

There are three sub-types of transitive verbs:
1. Monotransitive verbs have only a direct object.
She made toys.
2. Ditransitive verbs have a direct object and an indirect or benefactive
object.
She made Ali lunch.
3. Complex-transitive verbs have a direct object and an object attribute.
She made Ali glad.

284. Compare stative verbs and dynamic verbs.

Verbs in English can be classified into two categories: stative verbs and
dynamic verbs. Dynamic verbs (sometimes referred to as "action verbs")
usually describe actions we can take, or things that happen. Stative verbs
73
 usually refer to a state or condition which is not changing or likely to
change

285. What are the Subclasses of Adjectives?

Adjectives can be syntactically classified into three subclasses: attributive
adjectives, predicative and comparative. Semantically , adjectives may be
divided into three subclasses : stative / dynamic , gradable / nongradable
and inherent / noninherent .

286. What are attributive adjectives?

Attributive adjectives differ from central adjectives in that the former do
not modify the noun head directly , whereas the latter usually do " . They
occur before nouns. For example :
1. The old house .
2. The old friend
The adjective old in (1) is central because it modifies the house as an
old one , but old in (2) is attributive adjective as it doesn`t the friend to be
old , but the friendship is old .

287. What are predicative adjectives?

The main difference between attributive adjectives and predicative
adjectives is their position. Attributives occur before the noun while
predicatives occur after it in the complement . There two types of
predicative adjectives : subject complement and object complement :
1. Ali is sick . ( subject complement )
2. The weather made Ali sick . ( object complement )

288. What are comparative and superlative adjectives?

There three degrees of comparison of adjectives . The comparative degree
is between two persons or things and it requires the use of than . The
superlative degree is used to compare a person or a thing with a group
and it doesn't require than . Then , the third degree is to express equality
between two persons or things , as in the following examples :
1. Ali is taller than Ahmed . ( Comparative adjective )
2. Ali is the tallest among his friends . ( Superlative adjective )
3. Ali is as tall as Ahmed . ( equalative adjective )
74
289. Compare stative adjectives and dynamic adjectives.
Most adjectives are stative as they cannot be used with a verb in the
progressive or an imperative . For example , it is impossible to say ( *He
is being short / *Be short ). Dynamic adjectives can be used with a verb
in progressive or imperative, as in ( Be careful).

290. Compare gradable adjectives and non-gradable adjectives.

Most adjectives are gradable that they can be comparative and superlative
adjectives as in ( good/ better / best ), while there is a small group of
adjectives which are nongradable , such as atomic .

291. Compare inherent adjectives and non-inherent adjectives.

The difference between inherent adjective and noninherent adjective is
settled by the directedness of reference of the noun head . Inherent
adjectives describes directly the noun head, while the non-inherent
adjective doesn`t describe the noun head , but something related to it .

292. What are the subclasses of adverbs?

The main subclasses of English adverbs are:
1. Adverbs of time which modify the time in which the verb happens .
Huda wakes up at 8 a.m . ( Adverb of time )
2. Adverbs of place which indicate the place in which the verb takes
place.
Suha lives in a small town . ( Adverb of place )
3. Adverbs of manner which modify the way by which a verb is
committed .
They behave strangely . ( Adverb of manner )
4. Adverbs of certainty which state the degree of insurance that a verb is
committed .
He probably thinks of Corona . ( Adverb of certainty)
5. Adverbs of completeness state how completely something happens or
is true .
Sally ca practically read . ( Adverb of completeness)
293. What is independent clause?
Independent clause is a clause can stand alone as a sentence. It contains a
subject and a verb and is a complete idea. For example:
75
I like spaghetti.

294. What is dependent clause?

Dependent clause is not a complete sentence. It must be attached to an
independent clause to become complete. This is also known as a
subordinate clause. For example:
Although I like spaghetti, I can`t have it now.

295. What are the different types of sentences according to their

structure?
There are four types of sentences according to their structure:
1. Simple Sentence:
A simple sentence contains a subject and a verb, and it may also have an
object and modifiers. However, it contains only one independent clause.
For example:
She completed her literature review.

2. Compound Sentence:
A compound sentence contains at least two independent clauses. These
two independent clauses can be combined with a comma and a
coordinating conjunction or with a semicolon. For example:
She completed her literature review, and she created her reference list.

3. Complex Sentences
A complex sentence contains at least one independent clause and at least
one dependent clause. Dependent clauses can refer to the subject (who,
which) the sequence/time (since, while), or the causal elements (because,
if) of the independent clause. For example:
Although she completed her literature review, she still needed to work on
her methods section.
4. Compound-Complex Sentence:
A compound-complex sentence contains at least two independent clauses
and at least one dependent clause. For example:
She completed her literature review, but she still needs to work on her
methods section even though she finished her methods course last
semester.
76
296. What are the different types of sentences according to their purpose
(function)?
There are four types of English sentence, classified by their purpose:

1. declarative sentence (statement)

2. interrogative sentence (question)
3. imperative sentence (command)
4. exclamative sentence (exclamation)

297. Discuss negation in English Grammar.

Negation is the opposite of assertion. It denies the happening of the
action. The scope of negation is the part of the sentences over which the
power of negation extends. The negation of English sentences is realized
by many ways:
1. The common way is by using ( not/ n`t ) immediately after the
operator, such as (didn`t).
2. Non-assertive equivalents, such as ( yet , never, at all , neither … nor).
3. Partial negation, such as ( seldom, little, few).
4. The subject is negated, such as ( Nobody).

298. Discuss interrogation in English Grammar.

Interrogation is questioning. The term question indicates function of a
clause or sentences, but when the reference is to sturucture, the term
interrogative is usually used. English questions are usually divided into
three kinds:
1. Yes-no questions. ( Polarity questions).
2. Wh- questions. ( Content questions).
3. Alternative questions. ( Tag- questions and intonation questions).

Questions in English are realized by one or more of these rules:

1. Inversion which means placing the operator before the subject.
2. Placing the question word in the initial position.
3. Rising intonation is used in polarity questions and falling intonation is
used in content questions.

77
299. Discuss Reporting Speech in English Grammar.
Transformation from direct speech to indirect speech involves changes in:
1. Punctuation. Inverted commas are normally omitted.
2. The independent clauses of the direct speech becomes a dependent or
subordinate clause.
3. The version of questions into statements begins with conjunctions.
4. The change of the tense of the verb phrase if the reporting in the past.
5. Pronouns usually change according to the context of the situation.
6. Deictic words, which point to the context of the sentence, usually
change.

300. Discuss English concord.

Concord is the relationship between two grammatical units such that one
of them displays a particular feature (e.g., plurality) that accords with a
displayed (or semantically implicit) feature in the other. English has both
grammatical and notional concord:
1. Grammatical concord:
It covers subject-verb agreement and pronoun reference agreement.
a) Subject-Verb agreement (person and number). For example, a 3 rd
person singular subject is followed by a verb plus -s suffix ending.
He likes moves.
b) Reflexive, possessive, relative and demonstrative pronouns agree with
the noun or pronoun they refer to in gender and/or number. For example:
He injured himself.

2. Notional Concord:
It involves semantic plurality.
a) A collective noun may take either singular or plural subject-verb
agreement. For example: ( The government has … / The government
have …. ).
b) Coordinated subjects are usually followed by a plural verb, as in:
White and brown sugar are cheap.
c) Correlatives 'either..or and neither..nor'
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The "proximity" rule is operative when correlatives are used the subject
closest to the verb determines the number of the verb used. For example:
Either John or his friends are lying.
d) Indefinite expressions (none)
When none, which is grammatically singular, functions as head of a
subject phrase that has a non-count noun, it takes singular verb, as in:
None of the money was given to the poor.
e) Relative Clause antecedent
When the relative clause modifies a noun phrase that has the indefinite
pronoun one followed by a plural antecedent, the verb is either singular
(grammatical concord) or plural (proximity rule), as in:
He is one of those students who always complain(s). I am one of those
who hate(s) math.
f) Clausal subjects
Agreement between a clausal subject and the verb depends upon the noun
that follows the verb. If the noun is non-count or singular, the verb is
singular, as in:
What we need most is courage.

301. Discuss possessive case in English.

The possessive ( genitive) case is used for showing possession (i.e.,
ownership). The possessive case applies to nouns, pronouns,
and determiners. For example:
1. Possessive Nouns. With a noun, the possessive case is usually
shown by preceding it with "of" or by adding 's (or just ') to the end.
2. Possessive Pronouns. The possessive-case pronouns are "mine,"
"yours," "his," "hers," "its," "ours," and "theirs."
3. Possessive Determiners. The possessive-case determiners are "my,"
"your," "his," "her," "its," "our," and "their." (The possessive
determiners are known as possessive adjectives in traditional
grammar.)

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302. Discuss nominative case in English.
The nominative case is the case used for a noun or pronoun which is
the subject of a verb. The nominative is one of the three cases in English:
subjective, objective, and possessive. For example :
Mark eats cake.
The noun "Mark" is the subject of the verb "eats." "Mark" is in the
nominative case. In English, nouns do not change in the different
cases. Pronouns, however, do.

303. Discuss vocative case in English.

The vocative case is used to show direct address (i.e., to show when you
are talking to somebody or something directly). In English, words in the
vocative case are offset using commas. For example:
I know, Stephen.
(The comma before Stephen is required to show Stephen is being
addressed. Without the comma, it means I know a person called Stephen.)

304. Discuss accusative case in English.

The accusative case is a grammatical case for nouns and pronouns. It
shows the relationship of a direct object to a verb. A direct object is the
recipient of a verb. The subject of the sentence does something to the
direct object, and the direct object is placed after the verb in a sentence.
For example:
She bought a car. ( a car is a direct object which resulted from the action
of buying).

305. Discuss dative case in English.

The dative case refers to the case used for a noun or pronoun that is an
indirect object. For example:
We made fish for you. ( you is in dative case.)

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306. Discuss determinatives ( determiners) in English.
Determinatives are a class of items whose main role is to co-occur with
nouns to express a wide range of semantic contrasts. They are:
1. Articles: a(n); the.
2. Adjectives OF quantity: one, two, three, etc.( all the cardinal numbers);
all, some, all, some, several, any, much, many, (a) few, (a) little, no,
enough, etc.
3. Distributive adjectives: each, every, both, neither, either.
4. Interrogative adjectives: which, what, whose.
4. Demonstrative adjectives: this, that, these, those.
5. Possessive adjectives: my, your, his, her, its, their, our.
6. Nouns and noun-phrases in the possessive case: e.g. John's. the man's,
an old lady's.

Many of these words may stand alone as pronouns, or may qualify nouns.
When they qualify nouns, they differ from qualificative adjectives (big,
blue, intelligent, etc.) in two important respects:
I. Word Order: They are always placed before any qualifying adjectives:
the red book, this old chair, my new brown hat.
2. Distribution. One of the appropriate determinatives must always be
used before a singular countable noun.

307. Discuss pronouns in English.

A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. Pronouns may be classified
into the following kinds:
1. Personal pronouns. ( he, him, etc.)
2. Possessive pronouns. ( his, our, etc.)
3. Demonstrative pronouns. ( this, that, these, those, such)
4. Reflexive and emphasizing pronouns. ( himself, oneself, etc.)
5. Interrogative pronouns. ( who, why, etc.)
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6. Quantifiers. ( some, any, all, etc.)
7. Relative pronouns. ( who, which, etc.)

308. What is the causative use of ( have )?

A construction containing have + a past participle is used to show that
without doing something ourselves, we cause it to be done. For example:
We have the car cleaned.

309. What are intensifiers?

Intensifiers are adverbs or adverbial phrases that strengthen the meaning
of other expressions and show emphasis. Words that we commonly use as
intensifiers include absolutely, completely, extremely, highly, rather,
really, so, too, totally, utterly, very and at all. For example:
She was so upset.

310. What is a phrasal verb?

A phrasal verb is a verb that is made up of a main verb together with
an adverb or a preposition, or both. Phrasal verbs can be intransitive (i.e.
they have no object) or transitive (i.e. they can have an object).For
example:
He looks after his sick father.

311. What is a preposition?

A preposition is a word used to link nouns, pronouns, or phrases to other
words within a sentence. They act to connect the people, objects, time
and locations of a sentence. Prepositions are usually short words, and
they are normally placed directly in front of nouns.

312. Exemplify ( bout ) as a preposition, an adverb and an adjective?

As a preposition, about means: of; concerning; in regard to.
There was an air of mystery about him.
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As an adverb, about means near in time, number, degree, approximately,
nearly and almost.
It's about five miles from here.
Dinner is about ready.
As an adjective, about means moving around, in existence, current or
prevalent.
He was up and about while he rest of us still slept.
Chicken pox is about.

313. What is a conjunction?

It is any member of a small class of words distinguished in many
languages by their function as connectors between words, phrases,
clauses, or sentences, as: and, because, but, however.

314. What is an interjection?

An interjection is a word or sound used to express some sudden feeling or
emotion. It thus belongs to the oldest form of the spoken language and
represents the most primitive type of utterance. For example: ( Ah! )

315. What are English conditional clauses?

English conditional clauses are of two kinds distinguished by the form
and meaning of the principal clause:
1. Open Conditions:
It is a condition which means it may or may not be fulfilled. For example:
If Ali studies hard, he will pass his exams.
2. Hypothetical Condition:
It contains a hypothesis which may be contrary to fact or just something
not thought of as fact. For example:
If I were you, I`d study hard.

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316. What are the semantic functions of have got/ have?
Have got and have are used for possession, relationship, illnesses, etc. For
example:
1. They have got a new car.
2. I had headache.
3. She has got three brothers.
But, for meals, a bath, a shower, something to drink or to eat, a swim, an
accident, an experience, a dream, a look, a chat ( conversation or
discussion), difficulty, trouble, a good time or a baby, we cannot use have
got, but we use have.

317. What is the semantic function of used to+ inf. v?

It is used to + inf. v express actions that happened regularly in the past,
but no longer happen. For example:
He used to smoke a lot, but now he stops smoking.

318. Compare the use of ( I will ) and ( I`m going to)?

We use ( will) when we decide to do something at the time of speaking.
The speaker has not decide before. We use ( be+ going to) when we have
already decided to do something. For example:
We`ll invite lots of people. ( Sudden decision)
We`re going to invite lots of people. ( Not sudden decision)

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Section 5: Semantics
319. What is Semantics?
It is the study of the meaning of words, phrases and sentences.

320. What is the distinction between Conceptual meaning and associative

Meaning?
Conceptual meaning covers these basic, essential components of meaning
which are conveyed by the literal use of a word. E.g needle thin , sharp,
steel, instrument.
Associative Meaning is the idea, connection what that specific word
brings to you. E.g needle : painful

321. What are the semantic roles?

They are roles that fulfill within the situation described by a sentence,
especially for noun phrases. They are also called thematic roles, such as
agent and theme, instrument and experiencer, location, source and goal.

322. Discuss agent and theme.

Agent is the entity that performs the action . Theme is the
entity that is involved in or affected by the action. For example:
Mary ( agent) wrote the letter ( theme).

323. Discuss instrument and experiencer.

Instrument is the entity that is used by the agent to perform the action.
Experiencer is when a noun phrase performs an action including a
feeling, a perception do not actually perform the
action, it happen by itself and you feel it. For example:
Mary wrote the letter with my pen ( instrument).
Mary ( experiencer) feels sad.

324. Discuss location, source and goal.

Location is the direction or the place of an entity. Source is where an
entity moves from. Goal is where an entity moves to .
Mary saw a fly on the wall ( location).
We drove from Baghdad ( source) to Kut ( goal).
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325. What is synonymy?
It is a lexical relation between two or more forms with very closely
related meanings. e.g broad – wide , hide – conceal

326. What is antonyms:

It is a lexical relation between two forms with opposite meaning e.g quick
– slow . big – small. Antonyms are usually divided into two different
types:

1.Gradable Antonyms : Antonyms that can be used in comparative

constructions. e.g bigger than – smaller than. The negative of one
member of the pair does not necessarily imply the other.
e.g. That dog is not old. (It does not have to mean “ that dog is young).
2. Non – Gradable Antonyms ( Complementary Pairs ) : Comparative
constructions are not normally used, and the negative of one member
does imply the other.
e.g. deader / more dead => not possible
e.g. that person is not dead : that person is alive.

327. What are reversies?

They are types of antonyms that do the opposite of the other action. e.g.
tie – untie , enter – exit

328. What is hyponymy

It is a lexical relation between two forms when the meaning of one form
is included in the meaning of another. e. g . rose – flower , carrot –
vegetable. Rose is a hyponymy of flower - carrot is a hyponymy of
vegetable. The general entity as an animal is called ( super ordinate) and
an item of its group is called ( co-hyponyms) of the super ordinate.

329. What are prototypes?

They resemble the idea of the characteristic instance for many co-
hyponyms. A prototype is the best example of a category. For example,
robin is a prototype of canary, dove, duck, etc.

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330. What is homophony?
It is a lexical relation when two or more different written forms have the
same pronunciation they are described as homophones. e.g bear – bare ,
meet – meat, write - right

331. What is homonymy?

We use the term homonymy when one form (written or spoken) has two
or more unrelated meanings. e.g bank ( bank – of a river ) , (bank –
financial institution ).

332. What is polysemy?

It is a lexical relation when one form ( written and spoken ) has multiple
meanings which are
all related by extension e. g . head => top of your body / top of a glass of
beer / top of a company.

333. What is metonymy?

It is a lexical relation between words based simply on a close connection
in everyday experience. e.g.
bottle – coke ( a container – contents relation).
car – wheels ( a whole – part relation ).
king – crown ( a representative – symbol relation ).

334. What is collocation?

It means that the words that naturally go together or they frequently occur
together, e. g. hammer – nail / table – chair / salt – pepper.

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Section 6: Pragmatics
335. What is Pragmatics?

Pragmatics is the study of what speakers mean, or 'speaker meaning'. It is

the study of invisible meaning or how we recognize what is meant even
when it is not actually said.

336. Discuss context.

There are two kinds of contexts:
1- One kind is best described as linguistic context, also known as co-text.
The co-text of a word is the set of other words used in the same phrase or
sentence. e.g. I get to the bank to cash a cheque. Bank is homonym. By
looking at other words in the sentence we know which type of bank is
intended.
2- Another type of context is described as physical context . Our
understanding of what we read and hear is tied to the physical context,
particularly the time and place. e.g. The word bank on the wall of a
building in a city.

337. Discuss deixis.

There are some words in the language that cannot be interpreted at all
unless the physical context is known. “ here, there, this, that, now, then,
yesterday, come “ , pronouns, such as “ I , you, him, her, them “ . e.g.
You will have to bring that back tomorrow, because they are not here
now. – this sentence is vague. You, that, tomorrow, they, here , now =>
these expressions are called deictic. There are three types of deixis:
1. Person deixis : expressions used to point to a person.
2. Place deixis : words used to point to a location.
3. Time deixis : expressions used to point to a time.

338. What is reference.

Reference is an act by which a speaker uses language to enable a listener
to identify something. e.g. Can I look at your Chomsky ? Chomsky refers
to something. The key process here is called inference.

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339. What is an inference?
It is any additional information used by the listener to connect what is
said to what must be meant . The listener has to infer that the name of the
writer of a book can be used to identify a book by that writer.

340. What is anaphora?

It is a linguistics item which takes its interpretations from something else
referred to in the same sentence or discourse. e.g. Can I have your book ?
- Yeah, it is on the table. The second underlined referring expression is an
example of anaphora and the first mention is called antecedent. “ Book “
is antecedent, “ it “ is the anaphoric expression.

341. What is presupposition?

It is a particular sort of inference. Speakers design their linguistic
messages on the basis of assumptions about what their hearers already
know. What a speaker assumes is true or known by the hearer can be
described as presupposition. e.g. Your brother is waiting for you. – There
is a presupposition that you have a brother.

342. Discuss speech acts?

The use of the term “ speech act “ covers actions such as requesting ,
commanding, questioning, informing. We use some linguistic forms with
some functions. When a speaker does not know something and asks the
hearer to provide the information, she typically produce a direct speech
act. e.g Can you ride a bike ?

343. Discuss politeness.

Politeness is showing awareness of another person’s face. Your face is
your public self-image. Face – threatening act represents a threat to
another person’s self-image. Whenever you say something that lessons
the possible treat to another’s face . It is called a face – saving act.

344. Compare negative and positive face.

You have both a negative and a positive face. Your negative face is the
need to be independent and to have freedom from imposition. Your
positive face is your need to be connected, to belong, to be a member of
the group.
Section 7: Discourse Analysis
345. What is discourse analysis?
The word discourse is usually defined as language beyond the sentence
and so the analysis of discourse is typically concerned with the study of
language in text and conversation.

346. What is cohesion?

Cohesion can be described as ties and connections which exist within a
text. Pronouns, references, lexical connections, terms which share a
common element of meaning, connectors are cohesive links within a text
which give us some insight in our judgements on whether something is
well-written or not.

347. What is coherence?

We need to create meaningful connections which are not actually
expressed by the words and sentences. We need to fill in a lot of gaps
which exist in the text. This factor is described as coherence. If there are
no cohesive ties within a fragment of discourse , we can understand them
in terms of the conventional actions performed by the speakers.

348. Discuss speech events.

We need to specify the roles of speaker and hearer and their relationship ,
whether they were friends, strangers, young, old, of equal or unequal
status and many other factors. All of these factors will have an influence
an what is said and how it is said.

349. Discuss conversational interaction (analysis).

Two or more people take turns at speaking. Participants wait until one
speaker indicates that he or she has finished , usually by signaling a
completion point. We have different conventions of turns – taking ;
cutting in an another speaker or waiting for an opportunity to take a turn.

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350. What is turn-taking?
A turn is the time when a speaker is talking and turn-taking is the skill of
knowing when to start and finish a turn in a conversation.

351. Discuss the Co-operative Principle?

In a conversational exchange , the participants are co-operating with each
other. According to Grice (1975), we have four maxims to be obeyed:
1. Quantity : As informative as required.
2. Quality : Say that which you believe to be true.
3. Relation : Be relevant.
4. Manner : Be clear , brief and orderly.

352. What is an implicature?

An implicature is something the speaker suggests or implies with an
utterance, even though it is not literally expressed. Grice
distinguished conversational implicatures, which arise because speakers
are expected to respect general rules of conversation, and conventional
ones, which are tied to certain words such as "but" or "therefore".

353. What is entailment?

They are particular type of inference which are not necessary or logical
consequences of what is said, but are defeasible (cancellable). For
example:
A: (to passerby): I am out of gas.
B: There is a gas station 'round the corner. ( Conversational implicature).
B: But unfortunately it's closed today. ( entailment).

354. What are hedges?

They are words or phrases used to indicate that we are not really sure that
what we are saying is sufficiently correct or complete. Hedges may take
the form of many different parts of speech, for example:
1. There might just be a few insignificant problems we need to address.
(adjective)
2. The party was somewhat spoiled by the return of the parents. (adverb)
3. I'm not an expert but you might want to try restarting your computer.
(clause)
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4. That's false, isn't it? (tag question clause)

355. What does a background knowledge mean?

We actually create what the text is about based on our expectations of
what normally happens.

356. Compare a Schema and a script?

A schema is a term for a conventional knowledge. Structure which exists
in memory. One particular schema is a script. A script is dynamic in
which a series of conventional actions takes place.

357. Discuss Speech Act Theory?

Speech act theory is a subfield of pragmatics that studies how words are
used not only to present information but also to carry out actions. It was
introduced by Austin and developed by Searle. It considers the degree to
which utterances are said to perform:
1. locutionary acts, which can be broken into two basic types: utterance
acts and propositional acts. An utterance act is a speech act that consists
of the verbal employment of units of expression such as words and
sentences
2. illocutionary acts, refer to the performance of an act in saying
something specific (as opposed to the general act of just saying
something), and/or
3. perlocutionary acts are speech acts that have an effect on the feelings,
thoughts, or actions of either the speaker or the listener. They seek to
change minds. They are external to the performance; they are inspiring,
persuading, or deterring.
For example:
1. "The black cat is stupid."
This statement is assertive; it is an illocutionary act in that it intends to
communicate
2. "Please find the black cat."
This statement is a perlocutionary act because it seeks to change
behavior. (The speaker wants you to drop whatever you are doing and go
find her cat.)

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Section 8: Sociolinguistics
358. What is standard Language?
Standard English is the variety which forms the basis of printed English
in newspapers and books, which is used in the mass media and which is
thought in schools. It is more easily described in terms of the written
language than the spoken language.

359. Compare accent and dialect.

Accent is the description of aspects of pronunciation which identify
where an individual speaker is from, regionally or socially. Dialect
describes features of grammar and vocabulary, as well as aspects of
pronunciation.

360. What is dialectology?

Despite occasional difficulties, there is a general impression of mutual
intelligibility among many speakers of different dialects of English. This
is one of the criteria used in the study of dialects, or dialectology, to
distinguish between two different dialects of the same language (whose
speakers can usually understand each other) and two different languages
(whose speakers can’t usually understand each other).

361. What are regional Dialects?

Some regional dialects clearly have stereotyped pronunciations
associated with them. The informants in many dialect surveys tended to
be NORMS, or non-mobile, older, rural, male speakers. Such speakers
were selected because it was believed that they were less likely to have
influences from outside the region in their speech.

362. What is isoglosses?

Isogloss is the line which represents a boundary between the areas with
regard to that one particular linguistic item. ( e.g. paper bag / paper sack ).
Dialect Boundary is a more solid line of a number of isoglosses.

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363. What is the dialect continuum?
Isoglosses and dialect boundaries don’t have sharp breaks from one
region to the next, they exist along a continuum. Speakers who move
back and forth across tis border, using different varieties with some ease,
may be described as bilialectal.

364 What is bilingualism?

People who know two distinct languages are called bilinguals.
Bilingualism can be resulted from political, social or individual.

365. What is diglossia ?

It is a rather special situation involving two distinct varieties of a
language which exists in some countries. In diglossia, there is a “low”
variety, acquired locally and used for everyday affairs, and a “high” or
special variety, learned in school and used for important matters. A type
of diglossia exists in Arabic-speaking countries where the high variety
(Classical Arabic) is used in formal lectures, serious political events and
especially in religious discussions.

366. Discuss language planning.

Government, legal and educational bodies in many countries have to plan
which varieties of the language spoken in the country are to be used for
official business. Language planning has five steps :
1- “ Selection “ : Choosing an official language.
2- “ Codification “ : Basic grammars, dictionaries and written models
used to establish the standard variety.
3- “ Elaboration “ : The standard variety being developed for use in all
aspects of social life and the appearance of a body of literary work
written in the standard.
4- “ Implementation “ : Government encourages use of the standard.
5- “ Acceptance “ : When a substantial majority of the population have
come to use the standard as the national language, not only social, but
also national identity.

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367. What is pidgins?
A pidgin is a variety of a language ( e.g. English ) which developed for
some practical purpose ( e.g. trading ). The English Pidgins are
characterized by an absence of any complex grammatical morphology
and a limited vocabulary.

368. What is a Creole?

When a pidgin develops beyond its role as a trade language and becomes
the first language of a social community, it is described as a Creole. A
Creole develops as the first language of the children of Pidgin speakers.
Creoles have large numbers of native speakers and are not restricted at all
in their uses.

369. What is decreolization?

Decreolization develops from a creole to a variety that is closer to the
external standard models. The more basic variety is called “ basilect “ .
The variety closer to the external model is “ Acrolect “ . Between these
two there’s a range of different varieties : “ Mesolects “. This is called the
Past-Creole Continuum.

370. What is sociolinguistics?

The term sociolinguistics is used generally for the study of the
relationship between language and society. This is a broad area of
investigation that developed through the interaction of linguistics with a
number of other academic disciplines.

371. What is the significance of Social dialects concentrate on?

Whereas the traditional study of regional dialects tended to concentrate
on the speech of people in rural areas, the study of social dialects has
been mainly concerned with speakers in towns and cities. When we look
for other examples of language use that might be characteristic of a social
dialect, we treat class as the social variable and the pronunciation or word
as the linguistic variable Education and occupation

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372. What is the significance of the linguistic variable (r)?
Linguistic variable (r)can be virtually the opposite in terms of social
status in two different places, yet in both places the patterns illustrate how
the use of this particular speech sound functions as a social marker. That
is, having this feature occur frequently in your speech (or not) marks you
as a member of a particular social group, whether you realize it or not.

373. What are Speech style and style-shifting?

Speech style is a social feature of language use. The most basic
distinction in speech style is between formal uses and informal uses.
Formal style is when we pay more careful attention to how we’re
speaking and informal style is when we pay less attention. They are
sometimes described as “careful style” and “casual style.” A change from
one to the other by an individual is called style-shifting.

374. What is prestige?

Prestige form is a way of explaining the direction in which certain
individuals change their speech. When that language and social variation
change is in the direction of a form that is more frequent in the speech of
those perceived to have higher social status, we are dealing with overt
prestige, or status that is generally recognized as “better” or more
positively valued in the larger community.

375. What is speech accommodation?

It is our ability to modify our speech style toward or away from the
perceived style of the person(s) we’re talking to. We can adopt a speech
style that attempts to reduce social distance, described as convergence,
and use forms that are similar to those used by the person we’re talking
to.

376. What is register?

A register is a conventional way of using language that is appropriate in a
specific context, which may be identified as situational (e.g. in church),
occupational (e.g. among lawyers) or topical (e.g. talking about
language).

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378. What is jargon?
It is special technical vocabulary (e.g. plaintiff, suffix) associated with a
specific area of work or interest. In social terms, jargon helps to create
and maintain connections among those who see themselves as “insiders”
in some way and to exclude “outsiders.”

379. What is slang?

It is more typically used among those who are outside established higher-
status groups. Slang, or “colloquial speech,” describes words or phrases
that are used instead of more everyday terms among younger speakers
and other groups with special interests.

380. What is Vernacular language?

It is a general expression for a kind of social dialect, typically spoken by
a lower-status group, which is treated as “non-standard” because of
marked differences from the “standard” language.

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Section 9: Psycholinguistics
381. What is Neurolinguistics?
It is the study of relationship between language and the brain.

382. What are language areas in the brain?

The brain has two basic parts : The left hemisphere ( Broca’s Area) , and
the right hemisphere (Wernicke’s area).

383. What are Broca’s Area and Wernicke’s Area?

Broca’s Area ( the anterior speech cortex ) deals with producing speech.
Wernicke’s Area (the posterior speech cortex ) deals with comprehension.

384. What are the Motor Cortex and the Arcuate Fasciculus?
The Motor Cortex controls movement of muscles, when speaking face,
jaw, tongue, and larynx. The Arcuate Fasciculus forms a crucial
connection between Wernicke’s area and Broca’s area.

385. What is the Localization View?

The word is heard and comprehended by Wernicke’s area , the signal is
transferred via the arcuate fasciculus to Broca’s area where preparations
are made to produce it. A signal is then sent to the motor cortex to
physically articulate the word. But this is an oversimplified version of
what may actually takes place.

386. What is aphasia?

Aphasia is defined as impairment of language function due to localized
cerebral damage which leads to difficulty in understanding and/or
producing linguistic forms.

387. What is Broca’s Aphasia ( Motor Aphasia )?

It is serious language disorder characterized by a substantially reduced
amount of speech, distorted articulation and slow often effortful speech.
They generally use lexical morphemes but not functional morphemes.

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388. What is Wernick’s Aphasia ( Sensory Aphasia )?
It is the type of language disorder which results in difficulties in auditory
comprehension. Anyone suffers from this disorder can actually produce
very fluent speech which is, however, often difficult to make sense of it.

389. What is conduction aphasia?

It is identified with damage to the arcuate fasciculus. This time people do
not have articulation problems but may have disrupted rhythm because of
pauses and hesitations.

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Section 10: Methods of Teaching and Testing
390. Discuss English as a first language.
English as a first language refers to native speakers of the English
speaking world who learn the language as their mother tongue. For
example, British English has distinctive aspects of pronunciation and
usage compared with American English. The process of learning is
natural and full of variety. Motivation is Strong in the young learner as he
is prompted by inner drive.

391. Discuss English as a second language.

A second language is one which has some specific functions within a
multilingual society or minority groups, and is learned after the mother
tongue. As a second language, English is taught in conditions where there
is some reinforcement from the child's immediate environment and the
language is used extensively in everyday life.

392. Discuss English as a foreign language.

A foreign language is one which has no internal function in the learner's
country. It is learnt in order to communicate with native speakers or inter
language users of the foreign language. In this setting, as in the Arab
world, English has no official status. Learning of the foreign language is
confined to the classroom. That is, the language is taught and used in
schools.

393. Discuss the place of English in the Arab World.

The reasons for learning English in the Arab world, may be summarized
as follows:
1. The political, cultural and economic relationship between the Arab
world and the English-speaking countries creates the need for educated
Arabs to be competent in English.
2. The achievements of the English-speaking world in many different
fields requires learning English.
3. Widespread exposure to English mass media.
4. English is the first international language of commerce.
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5. Command of the language enables one to appreciate the work of other
people and the way they think, since it is the major vehicle by means of
which every branch of human thought is discussed, translated and made
available.
6. In travelling abroad, English is very helpful in communication.
Communication.
7. English is a means of communication between non-native speakers.
8. A good command of English is an essential requirement for careers,
especially at the senior levels.
9. English is a world language and the common property of all cultures.

394. Compare language acquisition and language learning.

The term 'Language Acquisition' is often used to denote the process
which results in the knowledge of one`s mother tongue in normal
conditions. The process is natural and starts from infancy at the time
when the child is acquiring knowledge and skills from the immediate
environment before formal schooling. 'Language Learning' is used in a
foreign language context, that is in learning a second language. The
process of learning here proceeds in a quite different way. Here the
learning is systematic and gradual. It usually takes place in artificial
settings at school where the learner is 'exposed to the language for short
periods

395. What are the features of the Grammar - Translation Method (Indirect
Method)?
1. The method aims at knowing the grammar of the language which
provides the rules for putting words together.
2. It does not set out rules enabling the learner to construct systematically
correct .complex sentences.
3. It takes little account of present-day language usage. Instead, it
imposes norms generally derived from the language of the great authors
of previous centuries.
4. It emphasizes the written language and communicative skills are
neglected since the stress is on knowing rules and exceptions.
5. Pupils practice reading for the sake of memorizing a number of
vocabulary items and for translation.
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6. Little attention is given to accurate pronunciation and intubation.
7. Much vocabulary is taught in the form of lists of separate words.
8. The technique of giving definitions, rules and explanations very
frequently makes the process of teaching boring and little benefit to the
pupils.

396. What are the disadvantages of the Grammar - Translation Method

(Indirect Method)?
1. The pupils' role is largely /- passive. There are two reasons for this.
The functional and social nature of the language is disregarded in the
grammar-translation method, and the training is often C carried out by
drills taken from classical texts which usually have nothing to do with the
pupils' interests and 'needs.
2. The student leans more about how the language works than about how
to use the language in a communicative way.

397. What are the features of the Direct Method?

1. Grammatical rules are not taught. They are acquired onsciously
through practical use
2. The new material is presented orally.
3. Reading and writing are deferred for months. Reading aloud is done in
the early stages and pronunciation is emphasized.
4. The culture of the target language is also taught inductively.

398. What are the disadvantages of the Direct Method?

1. This method is criticized for being time-consuming.
2. This process might be successful with concrete sentences but fails with
abstract words.
3.The direct method suffers from lack of selection gradation and
controlled presentation of contents.

399. What are the features of the Reading Method?

1. The method is divided into intensive and extensive reading which are
graded in order to develop gradually the pupil's reading ability.
2. The vocabulary of the early readings is strictly controlled.

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3.The teaching of grammar rules is based principally on the structures
found in the reading passages.
4. Minimal attention is paid to pronunciation, whereas translation
receives due care.
5. Writing is restricted to the exercises which might help pupils
understand the vocabulary and structures that are necessary to follow the
text.

400. What are the disadvantage of the Reading Method?

The Reading method places a great emphasis on one skill i.e. Reading,
whereas other skills are neglected.

401. What are the features of the Aural- Oral Approach (The Audio-
Lingual Method)?
1. This method gives priority to the spoken language which the pupils
needs as an instrument of communication.
2. There is an extended pre-reading period at the beginning of learning
the foreign language.
3. Great importance is attached to pronunciation with special attention to
intonation.
4. There is a great effort to prevent pupils' errors and successful responses
are immediately reinforced.
5. The method presents language units in terms of sentence patterns.
6. Structures are sequenced and taught one at a time.
7. There is little or no grammatical explanation. Structures are sequenced
and taught one at a time. Structural patterns are taught by using pattern
practice.
8. Vocabulary is strictly limited and learned in appropriate context.
9. A little use of the mother tongue by the teacher is permitted.
Translation is avoided.

402. What are the disadvantages of the Aural- Oral Approach (The
Audio-Lingual Method)?
1. This method emphasizes speech at the expense of other language skills,
especially writing.
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2. The ordering of listening, speaking, reading and writing is not
essential.
3. The method takes no account of the creative use of language and
cognition, as it emphasizes mechanical repetition through the use of 'oral
drills.
4. In focusing on the form rather than on the content or meaning, the
method fails to prepare the learner to use the language for meaningful
communication.
5. The method equates the acquisition of the rules of the target language
with the ability to communicate effectively in it.
6. This method requires small classes, carefully prepared materials and a
lot of time.

403. What are the features of the Communicative Approach?

1. The theory of language learning underlying the approach is holistic
rather than behaviouristic.
2. Communicative competence implies knowledge of the grammatical
system of the language as well as performance.
3. Unlike the audio-lingual method, the communicative approach gives
priority to the semantic content of language learning.
4. One aspect of communication is the interaction between speakers. This
approach provides communicative functions and notions.
5. This approach sets out to incorporate sociocultural allusions and
psycholinguistic components.
6. The approach sets realistic learning tasks and activities that create
situations in which information recorded.

404. What are the disadvantages of the Communicative Approach?

1. The approach relies extensively on the functional-notional syllables
which places heavy demands on the pupils.
2. The various categories of language functions are overlapping and not
systematically graded like the structures of the language.
3. One of the major tenets of the communicative approach is the rules of
use or rules of communication. However, there has been no precise
definition of what form such rules might take.

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4. A major premise underlying the communicative approach is its
emphasis on pupils' needs and interests. This implies that every teacher
should modify the syllabus to correspond with the needs of his pupils.
This is not possible to implement as it will require the teacher to write a
separate syllabus for each pupil in the class.
5. The concept of appropriateness in this approach is overvalued as there
is much focusing on the meaning of speech acts and utterances.
6. A basic communicative principle is that previous to foreign language
teaching did not give real or proper concern to meaning.
7. Communicative testing is neither valid nor reliable and the entire
process is confusing.

405. What are the characteristics of a good test?

1. Validity: a valid test measures what it ought to be testing.
2. Reliability: a test should provide consistency in measuring the items
being evaluated.
3. Practicality: a practical test is easy to administer and to score without
wasting too much time or effort.
4. Relevance: the items of an effective test should measure reasonably
well the desired objectives or achievement.
5. Balance: a practical test evaluates both linguistic and communicative
competence.
6. Economy: an efficient test makes best use of the teacher`s limited time
for preparing and grading, and of the pupils` assigned time for answering
all the items.
7. Authenticity: the language of the test should reflect everyday
discourse.
8. Difficulty: the test questions should be appropriate in difficulty.
9. Clarity: it is essential that all questions and instructions should be clear
so as to enable pupils to know exactly what the examiner wants them to
do.
10. Objectivity: the questions and answers should be clear and definite so
that the marker would give the score a pupil deserves.
11. Time: a good test is one that is appropriate in length for the allotted
time.
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406. What is difference between open and closed ended questions?
A closed-ended question is made up of pre-populated answer choices for
the respondent to choose from; while an open-ended question asks the
respondent to provide feedback in their own words and it can be
answered with “Yes” or “No,” or they have a limited set of possible
answers.

407. What are the levels ( types) of test objectivity?

Three common types of objective test items are multiple-choice, true-
false, and matching. The term “objective” is used because the answers for
these types of test items are either right or wrong and require no
interpretation or judgment on the part of the scorer as is the case with
subjective tests like essays.

408. What is the difference between a subjective and objective test?

A subjective test is evaluated by giving an opinion. It can be compared
with an objective test, which has right or wrong answers and so can be
marked objectively. Subjective tests are more challenging and expensive
to prepare, administer and evaluate correctly, but they can be more valid.

409. What are the different types of test?

There are four types of testing in schools today: diagnostic, formative,
benchmark, and summative.
410. What is the goal summative assessment?
The goal of summative assessment is to evaluate student learning at the
end of an instructional unit by comparing it against some standard or
benchmark. Summative assessments are often high stakes, which means
that they have a high point value. Examples of summative assessments
include: a midterm exam.
411. What is accreditation?
Accreditation is the act of granting credit or recognition, especially to an
educational institution that maintains suitable standards. Accreditation is
necessary to any person or institution in education that needs to prove that
they meet a general standard of quality.
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Appendix: How to Construct a Thesis
412. What are the constituting fundamentals of a thesis?
1. Title page
2. Dedication (if there is any)
3. Table of contents (Index)
4. Acknowledgement (s)
5. Summary (abstract)
An abstract summarizes, usually in one paragraph of 300 words or less,
the major aspects of the entire paper in a prescribed sequence that
includes:
a) the overall purpose of the study and the research problem(s) you
investigated;
b) the basic design of the study;
c) major findings or trends found as a result of your

6. Introduction and objectives

The following elements are usually discussed in the introduction:
a. Statement of the problem
b. Research question (s)
c. Hypothesis
d. Significant and research outcomes
e. Objectives

7. Chapter 1: Literature Review

The literature review for thesis presents more details to survey almost all
information published and relevant on the subject.

8. Chapter 2: Materials and Methods

In methods researcher describe sampling procedure, design, equipment,
methods of study, statistical analysis in sufficient details to allow
reproduction by other workers.

9. Chapter 3: Results
Present results in logic sequence. Avoid repetition between text and
illustrations. Numbers should match with all sections of the thesis
(paper). Use uniform unit of measurement.

10. Chapter Four: Discussion and conclusions

Discussion is the only chapter in which the writer can express his/ her
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ideas or criticize other works based on his/ her findings and not on any
other ground. It provides implications and interpretations of findings,
their major breakthrough and or limitations. It relates observations to
relevant study and present status of knowledge. Conclusions Sum up the
main findings and their interpretation affirming clearly the message of the
paper.

11. References
12. Appendix (if there is any)

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References
413. What are the different books and references that you read to prepare
for the competitive exam?

1. Al Hamash ,K.I. and Abdulla ,J.J. (1976). A Course in Modern English

Grammar . The Institute for Development of English Language Teaching
in Iraq , Baghdad .

2. Aitchison, J. (1999). Linguistics .Jungle Publications ,U.K .

3. Akmajian, A. , Demersa, R.A. , Farmer, A.K. and Harnish, R.M.

(2001). Linguistics . An Introduction to Language and
Communication.The MIT Press, Cambridge .

4. Betti, M.J. and Al-Jubouri, C.F. (2014). Approaches and Methods of

Teaching English as a Foreign Language. Baghdad: Nippur Publishing.

5. Crystal, D. (2008). A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics .

Blackwell, Oxford .

6. Eckersley, C.A. and Eckersley, J.M. (1960) A Comprehensive English

Grammar for Foreign Students . Longman, London .
6. Khalil ,A.M. (1999) A Contrastive Grammar of English and Arabic .
Jordan Book Centre , Amman .

7. Lyons, J. (1981). Language and Linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press.

8. Quirk, R.S. , Greenbaum, S. ,Leech,G. and Svartvik, J. (1985) A

Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. Longman, London.

9. Roach, P. (2009). English Phonetics and Phonology. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press.

10. Roach, P. (2001). English Phonetics and Phonology. Oxford.

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11. Sampson, G. (1980). Schools of Linguistics. London: Hutchinson.

12. Stageberg,N.C. (1981). An Introduction English Grammar. Holt,

Rinehart and Winston, Inc , USA.

13. Swan, M. (2005). Grammar. Oxford.

14. Trask, R.L. (2007). Language and Linguistics : The Key Concepts.
Routledge, USA.

15. Yule, G. (1996). The study of Language. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press.

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