# Definitions Terms: Book Review Electronics Principle by Malvino

BOOK REVIEW ELECTRONICS PRINCIPLE BY MALVINO
CHAPTER 01 INTRODUCTION
# DEFINITIONS TERMS
1) A rule that relates quantities. Formula
Are formulas that a researcher creates and based

2) Definitions
on scientific observation.
It summarizes a relationship that already exists in

3) Law
nature.
4) A formula that we can get other formulas. Derivation
Sometimes called the first approximation, is the

5) simplest approximation equivalent circuit for a First Approximation
device.
Adds one or more components to the ideal

6) Second Approximation
approximation.
7) Produces a load that is constant. Ideal dc Voltage Source
Produces a constant load current for different load

8) dc Current Source
resistances.
A current source whose internal resistance is at least

9) Stiff Current Source
100 times larger than the load resistance.
10) A statement that we can prove mathematically. Theorem
Defined as the resistance that an ohmmeter

11) Thevenin Resistance
measures across the load terminals.
1
Defined as the load current when the load resistor is

12) Norton Current IN
shorted.
It states that for any theorem in electrical circuit

13) Duality Principle
analysis there is a dual (opposite) theorem in which.
Means finding out why a circuit is not doing what is

14) Troubleshooting
supposed to do.
1. the current through an

open device is zero.
15) Two facts about an open devices:
2. the voltage across it is
unknown
1. the voltage across a

shorted device is zero.
16) Two facts about a shorted devices:
2. the current through it is
unknown
2
CHAPTER 2 SEMICONDUCTORS
# DEFINITIONS TERMS
The reason why electrons are not pulled into the

1) Centrifugal
nucleus.
2) It controls the electrical properties of the atom. Valence Orbit
An element with electrical properties between

3) Semiconductors
those of a conductor and those of an insulator.
An example of a semiconductor and has four

4) Germanium
electrons in the valence orbit.
Another example of semiconductor and became

5) Silicon
the most practical in most electronics applications.
An orderly pattern formed when silicon atoms

6) Crystal
combined their self to form a solid.
7) A bond between the opposite cores. Covalent Bond
One way to increase conductivity of a

8) Doping
semiconductor by adding impurity atoms.
9) A doped semiconductor. Extrinsic Semiconductor
It is added to molten silicon to increase the number

10) Pentavalent Atom
of free electrons.
Atom with five electrons in valence orbit and also

11) Pentavalent Atom
called donor impurities.
3
Atom with three valence electrons and also called

12) Trivalent
acceptor atom.
Silicon that has been doped with a pentavalent

13) N-Type Semiconductor
impurity.
Silicon that has been doped with a trivalent

14) P-Type Semiconductor
impurity.
It is the border where the p-type and n-type regions

15) Junction
meet.
16) Another name for pn crystal. Junction Diode
The pair of positive and negative ions at the

17) Dipole
junction.
18) Charge empty region. Depletion Region
The electric field between the ions is equivalent to

19) Barrier Potential
difference of potential.
It is when the negative source terminal is

20) connected to the n-type material and the positive Forward Bias
is connected to the p-type material.
The negative battery terminal is connected to the p

21) Reverse Bias
side and the positive battery terminal to the n side.
The reverse current caused by the thermally

22) Saturation Current
produced minority carriers.
23) The temperature of the surrounding air. Ambient Temperature
4
The departure of the electron creates a vacancy in

24) Hole
the valance orbit.
25) The merging of a free electron and a hole. Recombination
The amount of time between the creation and

26) Lifetime
disappearance of a free electrons.
It means that we cannot get more minority-carrier

27) Saturation
current than is produced by the thermal energy.
28) A small current flows on the surface of the crystal. Surface-Leakage Current
The temperature inside a diode, right at the pn

29) Junction Temperature
junction.
The nucleus of a copper atom contains how many

30) 29
protons?
31) The net charge of a neutral copper atom. +1
How many valence electrons does a silicon atom

32) 4
have?
How many protons does the nucleus of a silicon

33) 14
atom contain?
5
CHAPTER 3 DIODE THEORY
# DEFINITIONS TERMS
A device where the graph of its current versus

1) Linear Device
voltage is a straight line.
A device where the graph of its current versus

2) Nonlinear Device
voltage is not straight line.
In the forward region, the voltage at which the

3) Knee Voltage
current starts to increase rapidly.
4) The knee voltage of a silicon diode. 0.7 V
5) The ohmic resistance of a semiconductor material. Bulk Resistance
The maximum power the diode can safely dissipate

6) Power Rating
without shortening its life or degrading its properties.
A diode acts like a switch that closes when forward-

7) Ideal Diode
biased and opens when reverse-biased.
It is a region where either avalanche or zener

8) Breakdown Region
effects occurs.
The maximum reverse voltage a diode can

9) withstand before avalanche or the zener effect Breakdown Voltage
occurs.
10) The maximum rating specified in the data sheet. Safety Factor
11) Load Line
6
A tool used to find the exact value of a diode

current and voltage.
12) In load line, this point represents maximum current. Saturation
This point represents the minimum current minimum

13) Cut-Off
current.
It represents a simultaneous solution between the

14) Q Point
diode curve and load line.
The knee voltage of a diode is approximately equal

15) Barrier Potential
to the.
7
CHAPTER 4 DIODE CIRCUIT
# DEFINITIONS TERMS
Electronic device that converts the ac input

1) Power Supply Rectifiers
voltage to an almost perfect dc output voltage.
A rectifier with only one diode in series with the load

2) Half-Wave Rectifier
resistor.
A transformer thatwill produce a secondary voltage

3) Step-Up
that is higher than a primary.
A transformer that will produce a secondary

4) Step-Down
voltage that is smaller than the primary.
A rectifier that is equivalent to two half-wave

5) Full-Wave Rectifier
rectifiers.
Type of rectifier circuit that has four diode, two of

6) Bridge Rectifer
which are conducting at the same time.
7) Used to filter the output of a rectifier. Choke-Input Filter
It states that, if you have two or more sources, you

can analyze the circuit for each source separately
8) Super Position Theorem
and then add the individual voltages to get the
total voltage.
The fluctuation in load voltage caused by the

9) charging and the discharging of capacitor input Ripple
filter.
10) A regulator that uses a transistor that switches Switching Regulator

between saturation and cut-off.
8
A filter that produce a dc output voltage equal to

11) Capacitor-Input Filter
the peak value of the rectified voltage.
The maximum voltage across the non-conducting

12) Peak Inverse Voltage
diode of a rectifier.
The initial rush of current when the power is turned

13) Surge Current
on.
This device not only reduces the ripple, it also holds

14) IC Voltage Regulator
the output voltage constant.
15) The diodes used in low-frequency power supplies. Rectifier Diodes
This diodes are optimized for use at high

16) Small-Signal Diodes
frequencies and have power ratings less than 0.5W.
A circuit that removes either positive or negative

17) Clipper
parts of a wave form.
The circuit removes all the positive parts of the input

18) Positive Clipper
signal.
The series resistance must be 100 times greater than

19) bulk resistance and 100 times smaller than the load Stiff Clipper
resistance.
The circuit removes all the negative parts of the

20) Negative Clipper
input signal.
It means, applying an external voltage to change

21) Bias
the reference level of a circuit.
22) Square Wave
9
The output signal when the input voltage is very

large compared to the bias level.
23) It adds a dc voltage to the signal. Clamper
The same as a rectifier with a capacitor input filter

24) Peak Detector
used for output voltage of the peak detector.
Connecting two or more stages so that the output

25) Cascaded Stage
of one stage is the input to the next.
A redesign of the peak-to-peak detector, it uses

26) Voltage Doubler
rectifier diodes instead of small-signal diodes.
10
CHAPTER 5 SPECIAL – PURPOSE DIODE
# DEFINITIONS TERMS
A diode designed to operate in reverse break over

1) Zener Diode
with a very stable voltage drop.
Forward;
2) Three regions where a zener diode can operate: Leakage;
Break-Down
As long as the reverse current is less than _________

3) IZM
the diode is operating with the safe range.
4) Referred as bulk resistance in the reverse region. Zener Resistance
5) Also called voltage regulator diode. Zener Diode
Circuit used when you want a dc output voltage

6) Zener Regulator
that is less than the output of a the power supply.
Sometimes called high-field emission, this occurs

when the intensity of the electric field becomes
7) Zener Effect
high enough to dislodge valence electrons in
reverse biased diode.
8) The breakdown voltage of a zener diode. Zener Voltage
It is defined as the change in breakdown voltage

9) Temperature Coefficient
per degree of increase of temperature.
The zener regulation is approaching a dropout or

10) failure condition when zener current is. Near Zero
11) Maximum Current
11
The power rating usually include in the data sheet

where diode can handle without exceeding.
Also include in the data sheet tells you how much

12) Derating Factor
you have to reduce the power rating of a device.
The technology that combines optics and

13) Optoelectronics
electronics.
Resistor that prevents the current from exceeding

14) Current-Limiting Resistor
the maximum current rating of the diode.
15) The brightness of an LED depends on the _________. Current
16) It contains seven rectangular LED’s. Seven-Segment Display
The seven-segment indicator were all anode are

17) Common-Anode Type
connected together.
The seven-segment indicator were all cathode are

18) Common-Cathode Type
connected together.
A reversed-biased diode that is sensitive to

19) Photodiode
incoming light.
A combination of LED and photo-diode, an input

20) signal to the LED is converted to varying light which Opto-Coupler
is detected by the photodiode.
21) Light that has many different phases. Non-coherent Light
22) Laser Diode

A diode that produce a coherent light.
23) This means that all the light wave is in-phase with Coherent Light
each other.
24) Fiber-Optic Cable
12
Analogous to a stranded wire cable, except that

the strands are thin flexible fibers of glass or plastic
that transmit light beams instead of free electrons.
The temporary storage of free electrons in the

25) upper energy band and holes n the lower energy Charge Storage
band.
26) The time it takes to turn off a forward-biased diode. Reverse Recovery Time
A special-purpose diode with no depletion layer,

27) extremely short reverse recovery time, and ability to Schottky Diode
rectify high-frequency signals.
A diode optimized for a reverse capacitance, the

28) larger the reverse voltage, the smaller the Varactor
capacitance.
The frequency of a lead-lag circuit or the

29) frequency of an LC tank circuit where the voltage Resonant Frequency
gain and phase shift are suitable for oscillation.
A device acts like two back-to-back zener diodes,

used across he primary winding of a power
30) Varistor
transformer to prevent line spikes from entering the
equipment.
These device keep the current through them fixed

31) Current-Regulator Diodes
when the voltage changes.
A diode conducts reverse current for a while and

32) Snap Diode
then suddenly snaps open.
Multiple input frequency.

33) Harmonics
13
A diode that conducts better in the reverse than in

34) Back Diode
the forward directions.
This type of diode exhibits a phenomenon known as

35) Tunnel Diode
negative resistance.
This means that an increase in forward voltage

36) Negative Resistance
produces a decrease in forward current.
The negative resistance of a tunnel diode is useful in

37) Oscillators
high-frequency circuits called.
14
CHAPTER 6 BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR
# DEFINITIONS TERMS
He invented the first junction

1) William Shockley
Transistor in 1951.
A semiconductor device that can Amplify (enlarge)

2) transistor
electronic Signals. And is like two back-to-back diodes.
A small ac device that contains Thousands of

3) Integrated circuit
miniaturized transistors
4) An abbreviation for “two Polarities” Bipolar
emitter, base &

5) Three doped region of transistor
collector
The bottom region and heavily

6) emitter
Doped
The middle region and lightly

7) Base
doped
The top region, between heavily

8) Collector
doped and lightly doped
emitter-base diode &

9) 2 Junctions of transistor
collector-base diode
10) Also known as lower diode emitter-base diode
11) Also known as upper diode collector-base diode
15
12) 2 ways to bias a transistor forward & reverse bias
3 Different currents in a transistor
13)
The sum of all currents into a point or junction equals the Kirchoff’s current law
14)
sum of all currents out of the point or junction. IE = IC + IB
This says that the collector current is approximately

15) IC ≈IE
equals the emitter current
Defined as the ratio of a dc collector current divided by

16)
the dc emitter current.
Defined as the ratio of the collector current to the dc

base current. Also known as the current gain, because
17) a small base current produces a much
larger collector current.
3 Useful ways to connect a transistor
18)
16
19) A subscripts used to represents a voltage source. Double subscripts
A subscripts used to represents a voltage between the

20) Single subscripts
subscripted point and ground.
21) The subscript for base voltage Source VBB
22) Subscript for collector voltage Source VCC
23) Voltage between base and emitter VBE
24) Voltage between the collector and emitter VCE
25) Voltage between the base and the ground VB
26) Voltage between the collector and the ground VC
27) Voltage between the emitter and ground VE
The sum of voltages around a loop or closed path is Kirchoff’s Voltage Law
28)
equal to zero. VCC = VCE + ICRC
This says that the transistor power equals the collector

29)
emitter voltage times the collector current.
One of the most important pieces of information on a

Maximum Power rating
30) data sheet.
PD(MAX)
17
He invented the escalator and was the first to make

31) Otis
elevators completely control led by microprocessors.
active region
breakdown region
32) 4 Distinct Operating Regions of transistor
saturation region
cutoff region
This represents the normal operation of a transistor.

33) In this region the emitter Diode is forward-biased, Active region
And the collector diode is Reverse-biased.
Another region of operation, The transistor should

34) never Operate in this region because it will be Breakdown region
destroyed.
The sloping part of the curve In this region, the

35) collector Diode has insufficient positive Voltage to Saturation region
collect all the free Electrons injected into the base
This represents a fourth possible region of operation of

36) the Transistor, wherein the base Current is zero but Cutoff region
there still Is a small collector current
Collector cutoff
37) A small collector current
current
Another way to get a set of Curves, a test instrument

38) Curve tracer
that Displays IC versus VCE for a Transistor.
Saturation and
They are referred as switching Circuits and there are
39) cutoff region
useful In digital and computer circuits
40) A transistor that can dissipate less than a watt. Small-signal transistor
41) power transistor

A transistor that can dissipate more than a watt.
18
42) One of the first “palmtop” computer produced by LG Phenom

Elecronics.
43) It is use to get rid of the internal heat faster. heat sink
Another system of analysis called h parameters and is

44)
defined as the symbol for current gain.
a)Trouble in the power

supply it self
b) Open lead between
the power supply and the
45) Common troubles when no supply voltage
collector emitter.
c) An open collector
resistor
d) Open base resistor
46)
19
CHAPTER 7 TRANSISTOR FUNDAMENTALS
# DEFINITIONS TERMS
Produces a fixed value of base current, it is most

1) Base Bias
useful in switching circuits.
Produces a fixed value of emitter current,

2) Emitter Bias
predominant in amplifying circuits.
A line that represents the effect of the load

3) Load Line
on IC & VCE
The point where in the load line intersects the

4) Saturation Point
saturation region of the collector curves.
The point at which the load line intersects the cutoff

5) Cuoff Point
region of the collector curves.
6) The operating point is labeled Q. Quiescent Point
Amplifying and
7) Two basic kinds of transistor circuits.
Switching
The saturation region under all conditions often

8) selects a base resistance that produces a current Hard Saturation
gain of 10.
It will refer to any design in which the saturated

9) current gain is only a little less than the active Soft Saturation
current gain.
10) The voltage between the emitter and ground. Emitter Voltage
11) Base-Emitter Open

The voltage between the collector and ground.
20
The base-emitter diode is open The collector-base

12) Collector-Base Open
diode is open.
It uses a saturated or cutoff transistor to control the

13) Base-Biased LED
current through an LED.
It uses the active region and cutoff to control the

14) Emitter-Biased LED
current through the LED.
A device that has more sensitivity than a

15) Phototransistor
photodiode.
This says that the collector current is higher than the

16) ICEO = βdcIR
Original reverse current by a factor of βdc
This is much more sensitive than the LED-

17) Optocoupler
photodiode
A surface amount transistor a smaller package,and

18) SOT-23
is used for transistor rated in the milliwatt range
This package is designed to dissipate the heat gene

19) SOT-89
Rated by transistor operating in the 1-W range.
It resembles the tiny dual-inline package commonly

20) SOIC package
used for ICS
21
CHAPTER 8 TRANSISTOR BIASING
# DEFINITIONS TERMS
1 It is the basic circuit design that can be modified to get more

Prototype
) advanced circuits
Base Bias
2
It is a prototype used in the design of switching circuits
)
Voltage divider
3 It is one in which the voltage divider appears stiff to the input
bias circuit
) resistance of the base.
(VDB) circuit
If the transistor has a current gain of 100, its collector current is

4 stiff voltage
100 times greater than the base current. This implies that the
) divider
emitter current is also 100 times greater than the base Current.
This means that the collector current will be approximately 10

5 firm voltage
percent lower than the
) divider
stiff value.
Two-supple
6 The negative supply forward biases the emitter diode. The
emitter
) positive supply reverse-biases the collector diode.
Bias
7 emitter-
) The emitter voltage is being fed back to the base circuit feedback bias
22
collector-
feedback bias
The basic idea is to feedback a voltage to the base in an

8 attempt to neutralize any change in collector current. Also
) called self-bias. It is more effective than emitter-
feedback bias in stabilizing the Q point.
Collector &
Emitter feed
back bias
9 These are the first steps to ward A more stable bias for
) transistor Circuits.
23
CHAPTER 9 AC MODELS
# DEFINITIONS TERMS
It couples or transmits the ac signal to the resistor. It is

1) also important because they allow us to couple an ac
signal into an amplifier without disturbing its Q point.
1. The capacitor is open

for dc analysis
2. The capacitor is shorted
2) 2 approximations for a Capacitor
for ac analysis
For ac analysis
Is defined as the ac output

3) voltage divided by the ac input voltage gain
voltage.
It is similar to a coupling capacitor because it appears

open to direct current and shorted to alternating
4) bypass capacitor
current. It is also used to create an ac ground.
It occurs when the reactance of the coupling

capacitor is much smaller than the resistance at the good by passing: Xc < 0.1R
5)
lowest frequency of the ac source.
Voltage-divider-biased
Is the standard way to build a discrete transistor
6) (VDB)amplifier
amplifier.
All components like resistors, capacitors, and

discrete circuit
7) transistors are separately inserted and connected to
get the final circuit.
9) distortion
24
The stretching and compressing of alternate half

cycles. It is undesirable in high fidelity amplifiers
because it changes the sound of voice.
It was developed by the LG electronics has a 20-watt GoldStar speaker

10)
sound solution that is as easy as hanging a picture
Is defined as the dc collector current divided by the Dc current gain

dc base current.
11)
ßdc = IC
IB
AC current gain
Is defined as the ac collector current divided by the
12)
ac base current. ic
ß=
ib
T model and ‫ ח‬model
13) Two equivalent transistor. Ebers-Moll model
They are used on data data sheets because they are

easier to measure than r’ parameters. h parameters
14)
25
CHAPTER 10 VOLTAGE AMPLIFIER
# DEFINITIONS TERMS
It is defined as the ac output voltage divided by the

1) Voltage Gain
ac input voltage.
2) The total ac load resistance. ac Collector Resistance
Two or more cascade amplifier this means using the

3) output of the first stage as the input to a second Multistage Amplifiers
stage.
An example of single-stage feedback. It works

reasonably well to stabilize the voltage gain,
4) Two-Stage Feedback
increase the input impedance and reduce
distortion.
26
CHAPTER 11 POWER AMPLIFIERS
# DEFINITIONS TERMS
1) It is typically used at the front end of system. Small-signal transistor
Means that the transistor operates in the active

2) AM Demodulation
region at all times.
In Class A amplifier the collector current flows for 360°

3)
what degree of the ac cycle?.
Means that the collector current flows for only half Class B operation
4)
the cycle (180°).
Means that the collector current flows for less than Class C operation
5)
180° of the ac cycle.
1. capacitive coupling
6) The different types of coupling. 2. transformer coupling
3. direct coupling
Transmits the amplified ac voltage to the next stage?

7) coupling capacitor
The ac voltage is coupled through a transformer to

8) transformer coupling
the next stage.
capacitive coupling
Types of coupling where both are examples of
9) and
ac coupling, which block the dc voltage.
transformer coupling
Type of coupling where there is a direct connection

between the collector of the first transistor and the direct coupling
10)
base of the second transistor.
27
11) Is the other name for direct- coupled amplifier. dc amplifier
12) Amplifier operates in the range of 20 Hz to 20 KHz?

audio amplifier
Amplifier amplifies frequencies above 20 KHz, or

13) RF amplifier
usually much higher.
Amplifiers works over a small frequency range like 450

narrowband
14) to 460 KHz?
Means that their ac load is a high- Q resonant tank

15) tuned RF amplifiers
tuned to a radio station or television channel?
Amplifier operates at large frequency range like 0 to

16) Wideband Amplifier
1 MHz?
17) The _____ is resonant at some frequency. LC tank
It is a signal level in which the peak-to-peak swing in

18) collector current is less than 10 percent of the small-signal operation
quiescent collector current.
It is a signal level in which the peak-to-peak signal

19) large-signal operation
uses all or most of the load line.
An amplifier produces a larger output suitable for

20) preamp
driving tone and volume controls.
An amplifier produces output power ranging from a

21) power amplifier
fee hundred milliwatts up to hundred of watts?
22) Is a voltage-divider –based (VDB) amplifier. dc load line
28
23) Is the ac equivalent circuit for the VDB amplifier. ac load line
Maximum peak-to-peak (MPP) output is always less

24) MPP<Vcc
than the supply voltage.
Power gain is equal to the ac output divided by the

25) G = Pout / Pin
ac input power.
26) The output power is given by: Pout = Vrms2 / RL
27) quiescent power dissipation is given by: PDQ = VCEQICQ
quiescent power
28) Is equal to the dc voltage times the current.
dissipation
When a signal is present, what happens to the power

29) dissipation of a transistor when the transistor converts decreases
some of the quiescent power to signal power?
The dc power supplied to an amplifier by the dc

30) Pdc = VCCIdc
source is:
Efficiency is equal to the ac output divided by the dc

31) ŋ = Pout / Pdc x 100%
input power.
between 0 and 100

32) The range of the efficiency of the amplifier.
percent
Is the common way to run a transistor in linear circuits

Class A
33) because it leads to the simplest and most stable
biasing circuits.
34) Means that one transistor conducts for half cycle Push-pull
while the other is off, and vice versa.
29
35) It is the main disadvantage of a Class B amplifier. the use of transformer
The maximum efficiency of the Class B push-pull

36) 78.50%
amplifier is:
37) Is the main application of Class C amplifier RF amplifier
Is the maximum efficiency of a tuned Class C 100%

38)
Amplifier.
The output voltage is maximum at the resonant

39)
frequency, given by: fr = 1 / 2π√ LC
Is approximately vertical because the winding

40) dc load line
resistance Rs of an RF inductor is very small.
41) It is the multiples of input frequency. harmonics
Has high impedance only at the fundamental

42) resonant tank circuit
frequency.
It is described useful when an oscilloscope is not

43) voltmeter test
handy.
44) Is usually a narrowband amplifier. tuned class C amplifier
45) The bandwidth (BW) o a resonant circuits defined as: BW = f2-f1
46) Is the narrower the bandwidth of the amplifier. smaller bandwidth
In a Class C amplifier what is the relationship of the inversely proportional

47)
bandwidth to the Q point?
30
Almost always have a circuit Q that is greater than

48) class C amplifiers
10.
.
Seen by the collector current source is maximum and
49) ac load impedance
purely resistive.
50) The Q point inductor is defined as: QL = XL / RS
It is convenient to defined the duty cycle as: D=W/T

51)
What amplifier is used for push-pull connection of two

52) Class B amplifier
transistors?
Produced at the junction passes through the

53) heat
transistor case and radiates to the surrounding air.
54) The temperature of this air is around 25ºC. ambient temperature
These are used to allow the heat to escape more

55) heat sink
easily to the surrounding air.
56) It provides a path out of the transistor for heat. metal tab
57) Equivalent parallel R: RP = QLXL
58) AC collector resistance: rc = RP II RL
48) Q of amplifier: Q = r c / XL
31
CHAPTER 12 EMITTER FOLLOWER
# DEFINITIONS TERMS
A kind of amplifier is used when it's necessary to

1) Emitter follower
couple a signal voltage to low impedance.
It is happens to the Common Emitter stage when becomes small

2) the load resistance is small compared to the because the stage is
collector resistance and the voltage gain. overloaded
a Class B push-pull
3) Emitter Follower is widely use in: amplifier
and voltage regulator
common-collector
4) Other name for emitter follower. amplifier
(CC)
5) The input signal coupled in Emitter follower at: the base
6) The output signal is taken from_______ terminal. the emitter
Because the output

It is the reason why the circuit is called emitter
7) voltage
follower?
follows the input voltage
The Swamped amplifier, the emitter follower uses

8) what kind of feedback negative feedback
An emitter follower called an amplifier if its voltage Because it has a current

9)
gain is only 1; gain of β.
32
The emitter can produce the large output current

10) low-impedance loads
that is needed by what kind of load?
Emitter follower though it is not a voltage amplifier it current amplifier or

11)
is what kind of amplifier. power amplifier
The step-up in
12) The major advantage of Emitter follower amplifier,
impedance
At the center of the ac

Where does the designer should the Q point be
load line to get the
13) located when the emitter follower is used as a
maximum peak-to peak
power amplifier at the end of a system?
output
The ac emitter resistance is less or more than the dc

14) less than
emitter Resistance.
The device acts like a single transistor with very high

15) Darlington connections
current gains.
Another way of connecting Darlington transistor Complementary

16)
which it is connected to the npn and pnp transistor. Darlington
It means that the collector current flows for only

17) Class B operation
180° of the ac cycle.
It has lower current gain

18) The advantage of a Class B amplifier. and higher stage
efficiency
Another call of a clipping that occurs between the

19) time one transistor cuts off and the other one crossover distortion
comes on.
33
a slight forward bias to

20) To eliminate crossover distortion we need to apply:
each emitter diode.
An amplifier is define as the angle of conduction

21) Class AB
angle between180° and 360° ?
setting up a stable Q
An amplifier is define as the angle of conduction
22) point
angle between:
near the cut off
Meant when the collector current may "run away"

23) by rising until excessive power destroys the thermal runaway
transistor.
ICQ should be between 1

24) The value of IC (sat) to avoid excessive crossover.
and 5% of IC (sat)
Another call of the stage that precedes the output

25) driver
stage.
The stage that is a swamped voltage amplifier that

26) produces a large signal for the output push-pull driver stage
amplifier.
1. provides dc bias for Q1

In a two-stage negative feedback the resistance R2 2. produce negative
27)
does what? feedback for the ac
signal
A circuit combines a zener regulator and an emitter

28) zener follower
follower
29) The input to the base of the emitter follower. zener voltage
34
1. base current is smaller

The two advantage of a zener folower over an than the output current
30)
ordinary zener. 2. it has low output
impedance
stable voltage gain, high

An emitter follower has because it is said to be
31) input impedance, and
heavily swamped.
low distortion
The output impedance of an amplifier is the same

32) Thevenin impedance
as:
Among the two amplifier which is more efficient, Class B is more efficient
33)
Class A or Class B? than Class A amplifier
The transistors use for complementary of Class B

34) npn and pnp transistor
push-pull amplifier.
A complementary transistor conducts on one half

35) npn transistor
cycles.
A complementary transistor conducts on the other

36) pnp transistor
half.
Rather than capacitive couple the signal into the direct-coupled driver
37)
output stage, what can we use? stage
The circuit produces regulated output voltage with

38) zener follower
large load current
35
CHAPTER 13 JFETs
# DEFINITIONS TERMS
The two types of charge a bipolar transistor relies

1) free electrons and holes
on.
2) The prefix "bi" stands for: "two"
Type of amplifier is called unipolar because its

3) operation depends on only one type of charge Field Effect Transistor (FET)
either free electron or holes.
4) Two kinds of unipolar transistor. JFETs and MOSFETs
Term that is related to the depletion layers around

5) field effect
each p region.
6) Is the most important applications of JFET source follower
The offset gate points to

7) The advantage in complicated multistage circuits. the
source end of the device
The channel between the source and drain that is

8) n- channel
composed of an n-type semiconductor.
The channel between the source and drain that is

9) p- channel
composed of an p-type semiconductor.
10) Another call of the minimum voltage. pinch off voltage
11)
Another call of the maximum voltage. breakdown voltage
36
current drain to source

12) IDSS stands for:
with a shorted gate
13) Another call of the almost horizontal region. active region
Another call of the almost vertical part of the drain ohmic region
14)
curve below the pinch off.
ohmic resistance of the

15) Another call of the RDS.
JFET
Another call of the cut-off voltage that the gate-source cut-off

16)
depletion layer touch. voltage
17) Another call of the graph of ID versus VGS. transconductance curve
The other name for JFET.

18) square-law device
When the gate voltage is half the cut-off voltage, one quarter of
19)
the value of the drain current is: maximum
37
CHAPTER 14 METAL – OXIDE SEMICONDUCTOR FET
# DEFINITIONS TERMS
The gate is insulated from

1) The difference of MOSFET over JFET
the channel.
INSULATED – GATE FIELD

2) Another term for MOSFET.
EFFECT TRANSISTOR
This means that bipolar transistor with lower VBE takes

3) CURRENT HOGGING
more collector current than the others.
MOSFET is referred as this because a gate voltage

4) greater than the threshold voltage enhances its E-MOSFET
conductivity.
A device B that allows device A to communicate with INTERFACE

5)
or control device C.
JFET is referred as this because its conductivity DEPLETION – MODE

6)
depends on the action of the depletion layers. DEVICE
When this conducting layer exists, free electrons can

7) N – TYPE INVERSION LAYER
flow easily from the source to the drain.
An insulator that prevents gate current for positive A THIN LAYER OF SILICON
8)
and negative voltages in MOSFET. DIOXIDE
This device contains a battery and a dc – to – ac

9) UPS
converter.
In this type, n and p channels are combined to

10) reduce the current drain of digital circuits. CMOS
38
Numbers, text, graphics and all other information that

11) DATA
can be coded as binary numbers.
A circuit when the output voltage is the opposite of

12)
the input voltage. INVERTER
13) Refers to a discontinuous signal. DIGITAL SIGNALS
This circuit includes digital circuits as a subset. It also

14) refers to circuits that turn on motors, lamps, heaters SWITCHING CIRCUITS
and other heavy current devices.
15) A circuit that converts an input dc voltage to an DC – TO – DC CONVERTER

output dc voltage that is either higher or lower.
It consists of thousands of microscopically small

16) INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
transistors.
A signal that changes continuously without sudden

17) ANALOG SIGNALS
jumps.
The minimum VGS that creates the n – type inversion

18) THRESHOLD VOLTAGE
layer.
Another term for E – MOSFET which is used in

19) applications that control motors, lamps, disk drives, POWER FET
printers, and power supplies.
20) The reason why the E – MOSFET revolutionized the ITS THRESHOLD VOLTAGE
computer industry.
39
LACK OF THERMAL
21) Major advantage Power FET over bipolar transistor.
RUNAWAY
1. VMOS
2. TMOS
Examples of Power FETs
22) 3. hexFET
4. Trench MOSFET
5. waveFET
1. Extremely Low
23) Main advantage of CMOS.
2.Power Consumption
Disadvantage of the internal zener diode in MOSFET. It reduces MOSFET’s high

24)
input resistance
1. Depletion – mode type

25) Two kinds of MOSFETs 2. Enhancement Mode
Type
40
CHAPTER 15 THYRISTORS
# DEFINITIONS TERMS
A semiconductor device that uses internal feedback

1) THYRISTOR
to produce switching action.
With this, a triac gives a full wave control average

2) PHASE CONTROLLER
load current.
It starts with the breakdown of either collector diode

3) BREAKOVER
and ends in both transistors in the saturated state.
A circuit that can remain in either open or closed

4) LATCH
state indefinitely
Any change in the base current of Q2 is amplified

5) and fed back through Q1 to magnify the original POSITIVE FEEDBACK
change.
This type of opening a latch depends on reducing

LOW – CURRENT DROP –
6) the latch current to a value low enough to bring the
OUT
transistors out of saturation.
OSCILLATORS
7) Application of unijunction transistor.
TIMING CIRCUITS
The input portion of an SCR.

8) GATE
The most widely used thyristor. SILICON – CONTROLLED

9)
RECTIFIER (SCR)
41
The low value of current where the transistors switch

10) HOLDING CURRENT
from saturation to cut – off.
This circuit can vary the lag angle of gate voltage

11) RC CIRCUIT
from 0 to 90º.
By low – current drop –

12) The way to open a four layer diode.
out
13) The way to close a four layer diode. By Break over
14) The top portion of an SCR. ANODE
15) The bottom part of an SCR. CATHODE
Reducing its current to

16) SCR can be rest by doing this method. less than the holding
current.
17) The key difference between Power FET and SCR. The way they turn off.
A condition wherein the knee at the zener

18) SOFT TURN – ON
breakdown is curved rather than sharp.
19) The triangular box in an IC amplifier. COMPARATOR
20) It acts like two SCRs in reverse parallel. TRIAC
21) The angle at which the SCR fires. FIRING ANGLE
The angle between the start and end of

22) CONDUCTION ANGLE
conduction.
42
Main cause of exceeding the critical rate of voltage

23) SWITCHING TRANSIENT
rise.
It includes the block diagrams of the equipment in MANUFACTURER

24)
which the function of each block is specified. INSTRUCTION MANUAL
silicon bidirectional
25) Another term for Diac.
curve
FOUR LAYER DIODES IN

26) The equivalent circuit of a Diac.
PARALLEL
An integrated circuit with a built –in zener diode,

27) IC CROWBAR
transistors and an SCR.
28) It is also known as the light – activated SCR. PHOTO SCR
This is designed for easy opening with a reversed

29) gate controlled switch
biased trigger.
A low power device compared to the SCR which

SILICON CONTROLLED
30) handles current in milli-amperes rather than
SWITCH
amperes.
Smaller jobs being done by the different parts of the

31) FUNCTIONAL BLOCKS
over-all circuit.
32) An X Y indicator for display system. COMPUTER MOUSE
33) Thinking in terms of functional level. SYSTEM LEVEL
34) Two bidirectional thyristors. 1. DIAC

2. TRIAC
43
1. Cut – off
35) The Schockley Diode has two operating regions.
2. Saturation
1. Four – layer diode

Other names for Schockley diode, 2. PNPN diode
36)
3. Silicon Unilateral
Switch (SUS)
1. SILICON –
CONTROLLED
37) Two most important thyristor.
RECTIFIER
2. TRIAC
44
CHAPTER 16 FREQUENCY EFFECTS
# DEFINITIONS TERMS
1) Type of amplifier designed to amplify AC signals AC amplifier
Type of amplifier designed to amplify DC signals as

2) DC amplifier
well as AC signals
The capacitance that exist between any

3) connecting wire in a transistor circuits that acts like Stray wiring capacitance
one plate of a capacitor, and the chassis ground
The frequency at which the voltage gain is equals

4) Cut-off frequency
0.707 of its maximum value.
5) Half-power frequencies Cut-off frequency
The band of frequency of an amplifier that lies

6) between 10 times the lower cut-off frequencies and Midband
0.1 times the upper frequency.
The capacitor that produces the upper cut-off

7) frequency and one that is more important than all Dominant capacitor
others in determining the cut-off frequency.
Amplifier that uses direct coupling between

8) amplifier stage. This allows the circuit to amplify all
DC amplifier
the way sown to 0 Hz.
A DC amplifier that has high voltage gain, high Op Amps (operational

9)
input impedance and low output impedance. amplifier)
10) Unit used/ attach when taking logarithm of power Decibel (dB)
gain (G)
45
Often used on data sheets to specify the power

11) Decibel power gain
gain of devices
Defined as the output voltage divided by the input Voltage gain (A)
12)
voltage. A = V out/ Vin
Each time the

ordinary power gain
increases (decreases)
by a factor of 2, the
decibel power gain
increases (decreases)
2 useful properties of decibel power gain
13) by 3 dB.
Each time the ordinary
power gain increases
(decreases) by a factor
of 10, the decibel power
gain increases
(decreases) by 10 dB.
2, 6 dB x ordinary
14) Basic rules for voltage gain
10, 20 dB x ordinary
15) Impedance (Z) for microwave system 50 Ω
16) Impedance (Z) for coaxial cable used in TV system 75 Ω
Impedance (Z) for twin-lead wire used also in TV

17)
system 300 Ω
18) Impedance (Z) used in telephone system 600 Ω
Equals to the square of voltage gain in any Power gain (G)

19)
impedance matched system. G = A2
20) Equals to the decibel voltage gain in any Decibel Power Gain
impedance matched system G dB = A dB
46
21) The inverse of logarithm Antilog / (log -1) / (1/log)
Decibel (dBm)
22)
Unit used to indicate the power level above 1 mW P dBm = 10 log [ P / 1 mW ]
The unit that can also be used to indicate the Decibels

23)
voltage level above 1 V V dBV = 20 log [ V/ 1V ]
Type of graph that uses decibels and can give us

24) more information about the amplifier response Bode plots
outside the midband.
In terms of music , the word that refer to the

doubling (x2) of the frequency Octaves
25)
*The ratio of lower frequency to the upper
frequency that uses a factor of 2.
The word refer to the ratio of lower frequency to the Decades

26)
upper frequency that uses a factor of 10.
The scale that has the same space separation for Linear scale
27)
all the numbers
The scale wherein the space between numbers are Logarithmic scale
28)
compressed logarithmically
A graph paper that has a linear scale on the Semi logarithmic

29) vertical axis and a logarithmic scale on the
horizontal axis
30) A graph that contains all the original information Ideal Bode Plot
when correction of 3dB is mentally included
Decreases of 20 dB per decade occur in an

31)
amplifier where there is one dominant capacitor Lower cutoff frequency
producing the :
47
Decreases of 20 dB per decade occur in an Upper cutoff frequency

32) amplifier where there is one dominant bypass
capacitor producing the :
Another term used by technicians and engineers in Corner frequency

33)
industries for “cut-off frequencies”
This term is used because the graph of the Ideal

34) Bode Plot breaks at each cut-off frequency and Break frequency
then decreases at a rate of 20dB per decade
35) It tells you the frequency limitation of an Op Amp Unity-gain frequency
Unwanted signals that can appear under certain Oscillations

36)
conditions in most Op Amps
37) The circuit with bypass capacitor and the output Lag circuit
voltage lags the input voltage at higher frequency
The charging and discharging of a capacitor

38) produce a ______ in the output voltage of an RC Lag
bypass circuit.
An amplifier that produces an output voltage that Inverting amplifier

39)
is 180 o out-of-phase with the input voltage.
The capacitor between the input and the output

40) terminals of an amplifier Feedback capacitor
This converts the feedback capacitor into two Miller’s theorem

41)
equivalent capacitors, one for the input and one
for the output side.
48
The phenomenon wherein the feedback

42) capacitance has been amplified to get a much Miller effect
higher capacitance
This means that the operational amplifier includes

43) one dominant bypass capacitor that rolls off the Internally compensated
voltage gain at a rate of 20 dB per decade
The circuit on a typical operational amplifier that

44) produces a dominant cut-off frequency. The Input lag circuit
voltage gain breaks at this cut-off frequency
In amplifier, this means that we use sinusoidal input

45)
voltage and measure the sinusoidal output voltage. Sin wave testing
In DC amplifier, this word refer t all frequencies from Bandwidth

46)
zero up to the cut-off frequency.
F2 = 0.35 / TR Risetime bandwidth

47)
relationship
Unity-gain frequency for most commercially 1 – over 200 MHz

48)
available op amps
Consider as the heart of the analog system Operational amplifier

49)
2 internal capacitance of transistor 1. )collector

50)
capacitance
2. )emitter capacitance
49
1. ) geometry and
internal structure of
the device
3 sources of stray effects 2. ) printed circuit
51) layout, including the
orientation of the
device and
conductive tracks
3. ) external leads on
the device
52) Graph of voltage gain versus input frequency Frequency response
Defined as 10 times the common logarithm of the Decibel power gain

53)
power gain
Capacitors that produces the lower cut-off Coupling and bypass

54)
frequency capacitor
1. ) internal transistor
Produces the upper cut-off frequency capacitance
55)
2. ) stray wiring
capacitance
Defined as 20 times the common logarithm of the Decibel voltage gain

56)
voltage gain.
50
CHAPTER 17 DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIERS
# DEFINITIONS TERMS
Refer to the amplifier that performs a mathematical Operational amplifier

1)
operation
2) It is a complete functional block with external pins IC Op Amps
Amplifier design to eliminate the need for an emitter

3)
bypass capacitance Differential amplifier
Two circuit stages in parallel with a common emitter

4)
resistor Differential amplifier
Defined as the voltage between the collector with AC output voltage

5)
the polarity (differential output)
1. ) non-inverting
6) 2 separate s input of a differential amplifier input
2. ) inverting input
1. )single-ended
2 output of a differential amplifier output
7)
2. )differential
output
The input voltage on a differential amplifier wherein

8) the output voltage is 180 o out-of-phase with the 2nd Inverting input
input (V2)
The input voltage on a differential amplifier wherein

9)
the output voltage is still in-phase with the 1st input. Non-inverting input
10)
Differential input
51
Total input when both the inverting and non-inverting

input voltages are present.
Operation of a differential amplifier wherein one of Single-ended input

11)
the inputs is used and the other is grounded. operation
12) Any change from the quiescent voltage. AC voltage (V out)
1. )input bias current

2. )input offset
13) 3 input characteristics of an operational amplifier. current
3. )input offset
voltage
14) The input offset current of identical transistors. Zero (0)
One way to reduce the output error voltage on the Using an equal base
15)
other side of the differential amplifier. resistance
The input voltage that would produce the same Input offset voltage
16)
output error voltage in a perfect differential amplifier.
A circuit which should be used if output error voltage Nulling circuit

17)
is a problem
The same input voltage being applied to each of the Common-mode signal
18) base of a differential amplifier with single-ended
output
Defined as the voltage gain divided by common- Common-mode

19)
mode voltage gain rejection ratio (CMRR)
This means components are produced and Integrated

20)
connected during the manufacturing process on a
single chip.
21)
A small piece of semiconductor materials. Chips
52
22) The wafer that will be used as a chassis for integrated P-substrate
components.
A thin layer of an N-type semiconductor on a heated Epitaxial layer

23)
chemical reaction.
Sealing off the surface and prevents further chemical Passivation

24)
reactions
Kind of insulation wherein integrated components Depletion-layer

25)
are insulated from one another. insulation
26) A Greek word that means “one stone”. Monolithic
Monolithic IC
27) The most common type of IC.
1. )amplifier
2. )voltage regulator
Common application of Monolithic IC’s. 3. )crowbars
28)
4. )AM receivers
5. )TV circuits
6. )computer circuits
It is used in IC’s because it is a convenient way to Current mirror

29)
create current source and active loads.
30) Refers to fewer than 12 components IC. SSI
31) Refers to between 12 to 100 components IC. MSI
32) Refer to more than 100 components IC. LSI
33) Refers to more than 1000 components IC. VLSI
34)
53
Refer to more than 1000000 components IC ULSI
54
CHAPTER 18 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
# DEFINITIONS TERMS
Typical operational
1) It has a non-inverting input, an inverting input and a amplifier
single-ended output (op amps)
Has an infinite open-loop voltage gain, infinite input Ideal op amps

2)
resistance and 0 (zero output) impedance Z.
The 1st stage that determines the input Differential amplifier

3)
characteristics of the op amps.
1. )differential input
4)
2 important factors that apply to typical op amps 2. ) single-ended output
Refer to ideal op amps that represents a perfect Voltage-Controlled

5)
voltage amplifier Voltage Source (VCVS)
1. )infinite gain
frequency
2. )infinite unity-gain
3. )infinite input
6) Characteristics of an ideal op amps impedance
4. )infinite CMRR
5. )zero output
resistance
6. )zero bias current
7. )zero offset
Used to adjust the overall voltage gain to a much

7) lower value in exchange for stable linear operation. Negative feedback
When no feedback paths/loop is used, the voltage Open-loop voltage gain

8)
gain is maximum.
55
It is used in the later stages to get more voltage Bipolar transistors

9)
gains
Circuit that produces a cut-off frequency of 10 Hz in Lag circuit

10)
an LM741C.
Circuit that uses operational amplifier, resistor, and

11) capacitor to tailor the frequency response for Active filters
different applications.
The advantage of using external compensating the designer has more

12) capacitor. control over the high-
frequency performance
A slow change in output caused by the effect of

13) changing temperature on operational amplifier Thermal drift
parameters.
Quiescent output voltage of an ideal operational

14)
amplifier. 0 V.
This is the maximum output current the operational Short circuit output
15)
amplifier can produce. current
It is the frequency at which the voltage gain equals Unity-gain frequency

16)
to 1.
A capacitor inside operational amplifier that

17) prevents oscillations that would interfere with the Compensating capacitor
desired signal.
18) A sudden transition in voltage from one DC level to Voltage step

a higher DC level.
19) This is equal to the change in output voltage Slew rate

divided by the change in time. SR = ΔV out /Δ t
56
The highest frequency that can be amplified Power bandwidth / large

20) without slew rate distortion. signal bandwidth of the
op amp
1. small signal
bandwidth
determined by the
first order
2 bandwidth to consider when analyzing the response of the op
21)
operation of op amp circuit. amp
2. large-signal or
power bandwidth
determined by slew
rate
The most basic operational amplifier circuit that

22) uses a negative feedback to stabilize the overall Inverting amplifier
voltage gain.
A wire between some point in a circuit and ground.

23)
Ground to both voltage and current. Mechanical ground
The type of ground which is widely used shortcut for

24)
analyzing an inverting amplifier. Virtual ground
25) Half-ground quality; short for voltage and open for Virtual ground
current.
The voltage where there is a feedback path

26)
between output and the input. Closed-loop voltage gain
It is equal to the ratio of feedback resistance to the Closed-loop voltage gain

27)
input resistance. ACL = R2/R1
This reduces the output error caused by input bias

28) current, input offset current, and input offset Negative feedback
voltage.
57
Another basic operational amplifier circuit that uses

29)
negative feedback to stabilize the overall voltage Non-inverting amplifier
gain
A wire between 2 points in a circuit that is short for Mechanical short

30)
both voltage and current.
Type of short that can be used for analyzing non-

31) inverting amplifier short for voltage and open for Virtual short
current.
1. since Rin is infinite, both

The virtual short uses these two properties of an input currents are zero
32)
ideal operational amplifier 2. since AOL is infinite, V1 –
V2 is zero
An amplifier used to combine two or more analog

33)
signals into a single output Summing amplifier
A circuit that combines all the amplified signals into

34)
a single output Summing circuit
The convenient way of combining audio signals in Using a mixer

35)
a high-fidelity system
It is the equivalent of emitter follower, except that Voltage follower

36)
this works much better
Is a perfect follower circuit because it produces an Voltage follower

37)
output voltage that is equal to the input voltage
Is the ideal interface to use between a high

38)
impedance source and a low impedance load. Voltage follower
39)
Represents about a third of all linear IC’s Op Amps
58
1. audio amplifier
40) Other linear IC’s 2. video amplifier
3. voltage regulator
This equal to the change in the input offset voltage Power Supply Rejection
41)
divided by the change in the supply voltages. Ratio (PSRR) = ΔV in /Δ
Vs
This means that there are either two or four op Dual and quad op amps
42)
amps in the same package.
Audio amplifiers with less than 50 mW of output Preamplifier (preamp)

43)
power.
Amplifiers that has an output powers from 50 – 500 Medium-level audio

44)
mW. amplifier
Amplifier that has a flat response (constant decibel Video/wideband

45)
voltage gain) over a broad range of frequencies. amplifier
This have voltage gains and bandwidth that you IC video amplifiers
46) can adjust by connecting different external
resistors.
47) It is usually the 1st stage in an AM, FM or TV Radio frequency (RF)

receivers. amplifier
48) It is usually the middle stage in an AM, FM, or TV Intermediate frequency

receivers. (IF) amplifier
59
CHAPTER 19 FEEDBACK AMPLIFIER
# DEFINITIONS TERMS
1. ) VCVS (Voltage
controlled voltage
source)
2. ) ICVS (current
controlled voltage
Four types of negative feedback source)
1) 3. ) VCIS (voltage
controlled current
source)
4. ) ICIS (current
controlled current
source)
Type of negative feedback that has input and

output voltage and it has a stabilized voltage gain, Voltage controlled
2)
infinite input impedance, and zero output voltage source (VSVS)
impedance (ideal voltage amplifier).
Type of negative feedback that has an input

Current-controlled
3) current controls an output voltage, because of this
voltage-source (ICVS)
it sometimes called transresistance amplifier.
This word is used because the ratio of Vout / Iin has

4) Resistance
the unit of Ohms (Ω).
This prefix refers that has an input voltage

Voltage-controlled
5) controlling the output current, because of this it
current source (VSIC)
sometimes called transconductance amplifier.
6) This word is used because the ratio of Iout / Vin has Conductance
the unit of siemens.
Type of feedback amplifier wherein the output

7)
current is amplified to get a larger output current. Current-controlled
(Ideal current amplifier) has stabilized current gain, current source (ICIS)
60
zero input impedance and infinite output

impedance.
This type of amplifier is when you put voltage at the

8) Voltage to current
input and you get ampere (current) at the output.
converter
This amplifier has a voltage output when you input

9) Current to voltage
current
converter
Defined as feedback voltage divided by the output Feedback fraction (B)

10)
voltage B = V2/ Vout
This indicates how much the output voltage is

11) attenuated before the feedback signal reaches the Feedback attenuation
inverting input. factor
This means that it almost eliminates the internal

Negative feedback
operational amplifier variations and makes the
12) stabilizes the voltage
closed-loop voltage gain dependent primarily on
gain
external resistance.
It is the voltage gain of the forward and feedback

13)
path. Loop gain
It depends on having a very low percent error

14) between the ideal and the exact closed-loop Gain stability
voltage gains.
Occur when the open-loop voltage gain is

15) Worst-case error
minimum.
16) Overall output impedance of a VCVS amplifier. Closed-loop output

impedance
This occurs in the later stages of amplifier with large

17) signals because the input/output response of the
Non-linear distortion
amplifying devices becomes linear.
61
18) The rms value of all the harmonics measured Harmonic distortion
together tells us how much distortion has occurred.
19) The instrument used to measure harmonic distortion Distortion analyzer
It acts like a perfect current amplifier, because it

20) has very low input impedance and very high output ICIS amplifier
impedance.
Gain Bandwidth Product

21) The product of gain and bandwidth. (GBP)
ACL x f2 = f unity
Occurs when voltage input is high enough to

22) Slew rate distortion
saturate one transistor and cut-off the others.
VCVS prototype with addition of coupling

23) AC amplifier
capacitors.
62
CHAPTER 20 LINEAR OP AMP CIRCUITS
# DEFINITIONS TERMS
1. inverting amplifier
2. non-inverting
amplifier
3. differential
amplifier
Variety of basic Linear Op Amp circuits 4. instrumentation
1)
amplifier
5. current boosters
6. controlled current
sources
7. automatic gain
control circuit
1. stable voltage gain

2. high input
2) Advantages of non-inverting amplifier impedance
3. low output
impedance
A circuit that produces an extremely accurate and

3) Voltage reference
stable value of output voltage.
This kind of circuit is used in communication receiver

4) to reduce listeners fatigue by having a low voltage
Squelch circuit
gain when no signal is being received.
Circuit in which the input signal drives both inputs of

5) the Op Amps simultaneously and produces the output Inverter/non-inverter
with superposition of 2 amplified signals. circuit
6) A rather unusual circuit because its voltage gain can Sign changer circuit
be varied from -1 to +1.
A point when (wiper at center) where a common-

7) Crossover point
mode signal drives the Op Amps and the output is
ideally zero.
63
A circuit that allows us to adjust voltage gain

8) Adjustable and reversible
between +n to –n.
gain circuit
A circuit that can ideally produce a phase shift of 0 o

9) Phase shifter
to 180o
The most important characteristic of differential

CMRR
amplifier because the typical input signal is a small
10) (Common-Mode
differential voltage and a large common-mode
Rejection Ratio)
voltage.
11) The desired input voltage of a differential amplifier.

Differential input voltage
Amplifier often used in applications in which the

12) Differential amplifier
differential input signal is a small DC voltage (mV).
The voltage gain that distinguish from the common-

13)
mode voltage gain. Differential voltage gain
Said to be balanced when the ratio of resistance on

14) the left side equals the ratio of resistance on the right Wheatstone Bridge
side. R1/R2 = R3/R4.
A device that converts an electrical quantity into a

15) Output transducer
non-electrical quantity.
A device that converts a non-electrical quantity into

16) Input transducer
an electrical quantity
A resistor that converts a change in light intensity into

17) Photoresistors
a change in resistance.
A resistor that converts a change in temperature into

18) Thermistors
a change in resistance.
64
19) A diode that converts current into light LED
A device which converts AC voltage into sound

20) waves Loudspeaker
1. temperature
2. sound
3. light
4. humidity
Available quantities for wide variety of transducers 5. velocity
21)
6. acceleration
7. force
8. radioactivity
9. strain
10. pressure
A differential amplifier that has a large voltage gain,

22) a high CMRR, low input offsets, low temperature drift Instrumentation amplifier
and high input impedance.
A resistor which has a temperature drift for as low as 1

23) Precision resistors
ppm/oC
This is used when building the instrumentation

24) amplifier to have high CMRR and low offset in the Precision Op Amps
input.
The technique to minimize the effects of leakage

25) current and cable capacitance, the shield should be Ground driving
bootstrapped to the common-mode potential.
The word that refers to a fine adjustment rather than a

26) “trim”
coarse adjustment.
65
It means burning off resistor areas on a semiconductor

27) chip with a laser to get an extremely precise value of Laser trimming
resistance.
It is typically have a voltage gain between 1 to 1000

that can be set with 1 external resistor, a CMRR
greater than 100 dB, an input impedance greater
28) Monolithic
than 100 MΩ, an input offset voltage less than 0.1
instrumentation amplifier
mV., a drift of less than 0.5 μV/ oC and other
outstanding parameter.
The circuit that subtract two input voltages to

29) produce an output voltage equal to the difference of Subtractor
two input voltages.
A circuit that has inverting and non-inverting inputs.

The inverting and non-inverting side has two input
30) Summing amplifier
channels, and the total gain is the superposition of the
channel gains.
A circuit whose output equals the average of the

31) Averager
input voltages.
In digital electronics, it is a weighted summing circuit

32) that produced an output equal to the weighted sum Digital to analog
of the inputs. converter
33) Input voltages that have a value either 1 or 0. Digital input voltages
A power transistor or other devices that has a current

34) Current boosters
gain and a higher current rating than the Op Amps.
It increases the short-circuit output current of the Op Unidirectional current

35)
Amps. boosters
66
It refers to the supply lines of an op-amp because

36) Rail-to-rail
they look like rails on a schematic diagram.
This means that the input and output voltages van

37) swing all the way to the positive or negative supply Rail-to-rail operation
voltage.
In radio or television, this is used to keep the volume

38) from changing abruptly when we tune in different AGC
stations. (Automatic Gain Control)
Voltage controlled
39)
In AGC circuit, the main function of JFET is ______. resistance
This reduces the power-supply ripple and noise

40) Bypass capacitor
appearing at the non-inverting input.
This current-source is a bidirectional voltage- The Howland current

41)
controlled current source. source
67
CHAPTER 21 ACTIVE FILTERS
# DEFINITIONS TERMS
Lowpass
high pass
1) bandpass
Five basic types of responses.
bandstop
all-pass
Ideally the _____ should be zero in the bandpass

2) attenuation, stopband
and infinite in the _____ with a brick wall transition.
Identifies by its low attenuation and its edge

3) passband
frequency.
Identifies by its high attenuation and its edge

4) stopband
frequency.
Butterworth
Chebyshev
5) Five approximations.
inverse chebyshev
elleiptic
Bessel
Oscillator uses the charging of a capacitor to
6) relaxation oscillator
generate an output signal.
68
CHAPTER 22 NONLINEAR OP-AMP CIRCUITS
# DEFINITIONS TERMS
1) Comparator with a zero reference voltage. Zer-crossing detector
2) Other name for a comparators with zero reference. limit detectors
Used to protect the comparator against excessively

3) Diode clamps
large input voltages.
4) Usually the interface of the outputs with digital. comparators
Any kind of unwanted signal that is not derived

5) Noise
from the harmonically related to the input signal.
Noise can cause _____ of a comparator positive

6) false triggering
feedback is used to create hysterisis.
7) Prevents the noise from producing false triggering create hysteresis
The _____ also speeds up the switching between

8) positive feedback
output states.
9) A double-end limit detector. window comparator
Double-end limit
10) Detects when the input voltage is between two
detector
limits.
69
CHAPTER 23 OSCILLATORS
# DEFINITIONS TERMS
For the oscillator to start, the loop gain must be

1) greater than ___ when the phase shift around the 1
loop is 0°.
tungsten lamp or other

2) Used to decrease the loop gain 1.
nonlinear
Uses an amplifier and RC circuits to produced the

3) required loop gain and phase shift at the resonant Twin- T oscillator
frequency.
4) Uses amplifier and RC circuit to produce oscillation. phase shit oscillator
5) Most widely used LC oscillators. Colpitts Oscillators
Oscillator uses a transformer to produce feedback

6) Armstrong Oscillators
signal
Oscillator uses an inductive voltage divider to

7) Hartley Oscillator
produce the feedback signal.
RS flip flop
8) Two comparators of a 555 Timer.
npn transistor
70
71
BOOK REVIEW GROB 7TH EDITION
Chapter I: Electricity
INTRODUCTION
• An invisible force that can produce heat, light, and motion. Electricity
• The force for _________ is an attraction or repulsion between Motion
electric charges.
• The basic form for a quantity of electricity. Electric Charge
• The closed path for the movement of charges. Circuit
NEGATIVE AND POSITIVE POLARITIES
• Two basic particles of electric charge. Electron and Proton

• _______ is the smallest amount of electric charge having the Electron
characteristic called negative polarity.
• The proton is a basic particle with ________. Positive Polarity
• Is it true or false that the neutral condition means equal positive True
and negative charges?
ELECTRONS AND PROTONS IN THE ATOM
• The smallest particle of the basic elements that form solid, Atom
liquids, gases we know as physical substances.
• Central mass of an atom Nucleus
• Proton is _______ times heavier than an electron. 1840
• Electrons that can move freely from one atom to the next. Free electrons
• Electrons that can move easily from atom to atom in a material. Conductor
• The best conductor. Silver
• A material with atoms in which the electrons tend to stay in their Insulator
own orbits.
• An insulating material and also can store electric charges. Dielectric
• A material that conducts less than the metal conductors but more Semiconductors
than the insulators.
• Practically all transistors are made of _________. Silicon
• Defined as a substance that cannot be decomposed any further Elements
by chemical action.
• Greek word that means a particle too small to be subdivided. Atom
• Semiconductors have _____ electrons in the outermost ring. 4
• ____ Electrons in the outside ring is a stable structure. 8
• A group of two or more atoms. Molecule
• A group of two or more elements. Compound
• The smallest unit of a compound with the same chemical Molecule
characteristics.
• Atomic number of oxygen. 8
1
STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM
• In 1913, ________ proposed our present planetary model of Niels Bohr

the atom
• A new idea of nuclear atom was developed by _________. Lord Rutherford
Max Planck and
• The quantum theory of radiation was developed by ________. Albert Einstein
• This gives the number of protons or electrons required in the Atomic Number
atom for each element.
• Atomic number of hydrogen is ______. 1
• The planetary electrons are in successive shells. K, L, M, N, O, P, Q
• Maximum electrons in Q shell. 8
• ____ Shell is the closest to the nucleus. K
• The number of electrons in an incomplete outermost shell. Electron Valence
• A completed outer shell has a valence of _______. Zero
• Carbon has a valence of __. 4
• The number of outer electrons is considered __________, as Positive Valence
these electrons are in addition to the stable shells.
• __________ indicate magnetic properties of atom. Subshells
• _________ is electrically neutral without any net charge. Neutron
• Neutron has a mass same as a _______. Proton
• _________ has a positive charge of a hydrogen nucleus. Proton
0.16 x 10-18 C,
• Charge of electron, in orbital shells negative
0.16 x 10-18 C,
• Charge of proton, in nucleus. positive
• Charge of neutron, in nucleus. None
• Mass of electron, orbital shells. 9.108 x 10-28 g
• Mass of proton, in nucleus. 1.672 x 10-24 g
• Mass of neutron, in nucleus. 1.675 x 10-24 g
• Mechanical force of attraction or repulsion between charges is
the fundamental method by which electricity makes itself Static Electricity
evident.
• Value of a coulomb. 6.25 x 1018 C
• The analysis of static charges and their forces. Electrostatics
• The symbol of electric charge. Q or q
• A French physicist who measured the force between charges Charles A. Coulomb
• A dielectric with positive electric charge of 2C has 12.5 x 1018 0
electrons added. What is its charge then?
• An American physicist who measured the extremely small force Robert A. Millikan
of electron and proton.
• One coulomb is equivalent to __________ electrons. 6.25 x 1018
• __________ refers to the possibility of doing work. Potential
• The result of work done in separating electrons and protons. Charge
2
• A measure of work needed to move an electric charge. Volt

1 joule of work per
• One volt equals to ___________ coulomb of charge
• The potential difference between two charges forces a third Electric Current
charge to move.
• The value of the charge moves at the rate of 6.25 x 1018 One Ampere
electrons flowing past a given point per second.
• The ampere unit of current was named after __________. Andre M. Ampere
• A measure of how intense or concentrated the electron flow is. Current/Amperage
• Current multiplied by time is equivalent to a ________. Charge
• The charge of 5 C moves past a given point in 1s. How much the 5A
current?
• The most common charge. Electron
• Vacant space where an electron is missing. Hole charge
• Type of current of Ion. Ion current
• An atom that has either lost or gained one or more valence Ion
electrons to become electrically charged.
• The opposition which limits the amount of current that can be Resistance
produced by the applied voltage.
• The practical unit of resistance. Ohm
• The opposite of resistance. Conductance
• A German physicist who named after the unit of resistance George Simon Ohm
• A European inventor who named after the unit of conductance. Ernst Van Siemens
• The current that flow through the load resistance. Load Current
• The motion of positive charges in the opposite direction from the Conventional
electron flow. Current
• Similar characteristic of a Direct Current and Alternating Heating Effect
Current
• Unit for cycle per second. Hertz
• Frequency used in most homes. 60 hertz
• Is it true when the polarity of the applied voltage reverses, the True
direction of current flow also reverses?
• _______ Produces voltage by means of a conductor rotating in Generator
a magnetic field.
• An element that is often used as a source of photoelectrons. Cesium
• The emitting electrode. Cathode
• It is used to collect emitted electrons. Anode
• The quantity unit of electrons or protons Coulomb
• Potential difference between two unlike charges. Voltage
• Opposition that reduces amount of current Resistance
3
Chapter 2: Resistors
INTRODUCTION
Carbon-composition
• The most often used construction of a resistor. type
• The purpose of using a resistor in a circuit is to reduce Current (I)
__________ to a specific value.
• True or false: the resistance has a common effect for DC and True
AC circuits.
TYPES OF RESISTORS
Resistance and its
• Two main characteristics of a resistor. power rating
• It means the power is wasted. Dissipation
• The power rating of carbon resistors. 1W or less
• Resistors with higher resistance values usually have lower They have less
wattage ratings because __________. current
• True or false: the lower the power rating, the smaller the True
physical size of the resistor.
• A type of resistor that has a special type of wire called Wire-wound Resistor
resistance wire.
• The power rating available in small wire-wound resistors. 3 to 4W
• This type of resistor is made of finely divided carbon or Carbon-composition
graphite mixed with a powdered insulating material. Resistor
• These are metal caps with leads of tinned copper wire of Axial leads
resistor for soldering the connection into circuit.
• Available values of carbon resistors. 1 to 20Ω
• The power rating of carbon resistor. 0.1 to 2W
Carbon film type
• Two kinds of film-type resistors. and Metal-film
• This type of resistor has a carbon coating fired onto a solid Chip resistors
ceramic substrate.
• This type of resistor is a wire-wound resistor made to burn open
easily when the power rating is exceeded. It then serves the Fusible resistors
dual functions of a fuse and a resistor to limit the current.
RESISTOR COLOR CODING

Electronic Industries
• The organization standardized the color coding of resistor. Association (EIA)
The first digit in the
• In reading the resistor color coding value, the first band close to numerical value of
the edge gives ______. resistor.
• In reading the resistor color coding value, the third band The decimal
indicates ______. multiplier.
4
• The amount by which the resistor can be different from the Tolerance
color-coded value.
• The typical tolerance of wire-wound resistor. ±5%
• The typical tolerance of precision wire-wound resistor. ±1% or less
VARIABLE RESISTORS
• It can be wire-wound or carbon-type resistor. Variable Resistor
• Typical value of carbon controls of variable resistor. 1000Ω to 5MΩ
• Typical power rating of variable resistor. ½ to 2W
• The way resistor varies with the shaft control. Taper of the control
• It is convenient unit for providing any one resistor within a wide Decade box
range of values.
RHEOSTATS AND POTENTIOMETERS

• It is a variable resistor with two terminals connected in series Rheostat
with a load. The purpose is to vary the amount of current.
• It is generally called pot and it has three terminals. Potentiometer
• The purposes of the circuit I to tap off variable part of the Potentiometer circuit
100V from the source.
• These are generally wire-wound high-wattage resistors for Commercial
power applications. rheostats
POWER RATING OF RESISTORS

• A resistor should have _________ to dissipate the power
produced by the current flowing through the resistance, without High wattage rating
becoming too hot.
• A type of resistor that operates at high temperature, a typical Wire wound resistor
value being 300°C for the maximum temperature.
SERIES AND PARALLEL COMBINATIONS OF RESISTORS

• Two equal resistors in ________ double the resistance. Series
• Two equal resistors in ________ have one-half the resistance. Parallel
Equivalent of one
• The equivalent of total resistance of four equal resistors in resistor with four
series-parallel combination. times the power
rating
RESISTORS TROUBLES
There is no current
• When the open resistor is a series component, ____________. in the entire series
path.
• These are preferred in applications such as volume and tone
controls because the smoother change in resistance results in less Carbon controls
noise when the variable arm is rotated.
• Resistance measurements are made with a _____________. Ohmmeter
5
• A ____________ resistor reads infinitely high ohms. Open

• A resistor can change in value beyond it tolerance caused by Heat over a long
__________. period of time
Chapter 3: Ohm’s Law
INTRODUCTION
• He discovered the Ohm’s Law. Georg Simon Ohm

• It is used to determine the amount of electric power in the Ohm’s Law
circuit.
• True or false: Ohm’s law applies to both DC and AC circuits. True
THE CURRENT I=V/R
• He discovered the Ohm’s Law. Georg Simon Ohm

• The ohm’s law is equal to __________________. V=IR
• In Ohm’s law, increase in voltage is _________ in current. Decrease
Directly
• The current is _______________ to volts and ______________ proportional;
to the resistance. inversely
proportional
THE VOLTAGE V=IR
• The voltage is ______________ to current and resistance. Direct proportional
THE RESISTANCE R=V/I
Inversely
• The resistance is ______________ to current and proportional;
_____________ to the voltage. proportional
PRACTICAL UNITS
• It is the amount of current through a one-ohm resistance that has One ampere
one volt of potential difference applied across it.
• It is the potential difference across a one-ohm resistance that One volt
has one ampere of current through it.
• It is the amount of opposition in a resistance that has a V/I ratio One ohm
of 1, allowing one ampere of current with one volt applied.
MULTIPLE UNITS
• 1 milli-ampere multiply by 1 kilo ohms is equal to __________. 1 volt

• 1 micro-ampere multiply by 1 mega-ohm is equal to 1 volt
_________.
6
• 1 milli ampere is equal to _______________. 1000 µA
LINEAR PROPORTION BETWEEN V AND I
• The formula which states that V and I are directly proportional Ohm’s Law
for any value of R.
• In ohm’s law, increases of volts will __________ the current. Increase
• It shows how much current the resistor allows for different Volt-ampere
voltages. characteristic graph
• In a volt-ampere characteristic graph, the value in y axis or Current values
ordinate is _______________.
• In a volt-ampere characteristic graph, the value in x axis or Voltage values
abscissa is _____________.
• In ohm’s law, voltage and current are __________. Directly proportional
• This type has a nonlinear volt-ampere characteristic. Nonlinear resistance
• Whether the resistor is linear is not, the current is ________ for Less
more resistance, with applied voltage constant.
ELECTRIC POWER
• The unit of electric power. Watt

James Watt (1736-
• He discovers the unit of electric power. 1819)
• It equals the work done in one second by one volt of potential One watt of power
difference in moving one coulomb of charge.
• It is the time rate of doing work. Power
• It is the time rate at which charges is forced to move by Electric power
voltage.
764 Watts or 550 ft
• 1 horse power is equal to____________. lb/s
• One horse power is approximately equal to ____________. ¾ kW
• It is the power used during a period of time. Work
• One joule is equal to ________ 1watt second
• One watt is equal to ___________. 1 joule/second
• One joule is equal to ________ coulomb 6.25 x 1018 eV
• This is a unit commonly for large amounts of electrical work or Kilowatt-hour
energy.
• The amount is calculated simply as the product of the power in
kilowatts multiplied by the time in hours during which the power Kilowatt-hour
is used.
POWER DISSIPATION IN RESISTANCE
7
• It is produced when current flows in a resistance because friction

between the moving free electrons and the atoms obstructs the Heat
path of electron flow.
• It is generated by the source of applied voltage and consumed Power
in the resistance in the form of heat.
• It is desirable because the component must produce heat in Electric Power
order to do its job. Dissipation
0.24 calorie of heat
• 1 watt during the time of 1sec is equivalent to __________. energy
POWER FORMULA
• Power is equivalent to __________. VI; I2R; V2/R

• The calculations that can be used for just about all types of Ohm’s Law
circuits.
CHOOSING THE RESISTOR FOR A CIRCUIT
• Its purpose is to limit the current flowing in the circuit. Resistor

• The safety factor in the power rating in carbon resistor. 2
• Power rating of a resistor that would allow the circuit to High Power Rating
operate normally and last longer without breaking down from Resistors
excessive heat.
• Using a resistor with a suitable power rating provides the Voltage rating
required ___________.
ELECTRIC SHOCK
• It is a sudden involuntary contraction of the muscles, with a

feeling of pain, caused by current through the body. It can be Shock
fatal.
• The greatest shock hazard is from ______ that can supply High-voltage circuits
appreciable amounts of power.
• The value of “let go” current for men. 9mA
• The value of “let go” current for women. 6mA
• The greatest danger of shock is form a source having an output
of ________ with enough power to maintain the load current More than 30 V
through the body when it is connected across the applied
voltage.
•
OPEN-CIRCUIT AND SHORT-CIRCUIT TROUBLES
• It is useful for calculating I, V, and R in a closed circuit with Ohm’s Law

normal values.
• The amount of current could be infinitely high with _________. No resistor
8
Chapter 4: Series Circuits

INTRODUCTION
• The purpose of this circuit is to connect different components Series Circuits

that need the same current.
WHY I IS THE SAME IN ALL PARTS OF A SERIES CIRCUIT
• It is a movement of charges between two points, produced by Electric Current

the applied voltage.
• The order in which components are connected in series does not Current
affect the ___________.
• It is the same amount at the same time in all series components. Current
• The free electrons moving away from one point are continuously
replaced by free electrons flowing from a ____________ in the Adjacent Point
series circuit.
TOTAL R EQUALS THE SUM OF ALL SERIES RESISTANCES
• It is equal to the sum of the individual resistances. Total Resistance

• A combination of series resistance. String
• It is equals the sum of individual resistance. String Resistance
SERIES IR VOLTAGE DROPS
• The voltage across the resistor is equal to _________. IxR

• With no current through a resistor, the resistor has __________ Resistance
only.
• In series circuits, the _________has the largest IR voltage drop Highest R
across it.
THE SUM OF SERIES IR DROPS EQUALS THE APPLIED VT
• It is the sum of the series IR drops. Total Voltage (VT)
POLARITY OF IR VOLTAGE DROPS
• When an IR voltage drop exists across a resistance, one end More positive or
must be either ________________ than the other end. more negative
• The polarity of IR voltage can be associated with the direction Current through a
of ___________. resistor
• The top end of R in the diagrams is _______. Negative
• True or false: The resistor does not know which direction of True
current we are thinking of.
9
TOTAL POWER IN A SERIES CIRCUIT
• The power needed to produce current in each series resistor is Heat

used up in the form of __________.
• It is the sum of the individual values of power dissipated in each Total Power
part of the circuit.
SERIES-AIDING AND SERIES OPPOSING VOLTAGES
• These are connected with polarities that allow current in the Series-aiding
same direction. Voltages
• Voltages are connected ______ when the plus terminal of one is Series-aiding
connected to the negative terminal of the text.
• Voltages are connected ______ when the negative terminal of Series-opposing
one is connected to the negative terminal of the text.
• If the series-opposing voltages are equal, the net voltage is Zero
equal to __________.
ANALYZING SERIES CIRCUITS
• We must know the _________ to calculate current because the Total Resistance
total applied voltage is given.
• A common application of series circuits is to use a resistance to Drop
______ the voltage from the source to a lower value.
EFFECT OF AN OPEN CIRCUIT IN A SERIES PATH
• It is break in the current path. Open Circuit

• The resistance of the _________ is very high because an Open path
insulator like air takes place conducting path of the circuit.
• With an open in any part of a series circuit, the current is _____ Zero
in the entire circuit.
• Each of the resistors in the open circuit has an IR drop of Zero
______.
• There is ___________ with the open circuit because there is no No Current
complete path outside the battery between its two terminals.
• The __________ have the entire applied voltage indicates a Open Terminals
good way to find an open component in a series string.
SERIES CIRCUIT FOR THE AND LOGIC FUNCTION
• It allows voltage at the input to be passed through to the output Gate Circuit
only under certain conditions.
• The _________ gate functions correspond to switches in series. AND gate
10
Chapter 5: Parallel Circuits

INTRODUCTION
• There have one common voltage across all the branches but Parallel Circuits
separate branch currents that can be different.
• It is formed when two or more components are connected across Parallel Circuits
one voltage source.
THE APPLIED VOLTAGE VA IS THE SAME ACROSS PARALLEL BRANCHES
Typical House
• The typical application of parallel circuits. Wiring
• It is formed when two or more components are connected across Parallel Circuits
one voltage source.
EACH BRANCH I EQUALS VA/R
• In applying Ohm’s Law, it is important to note that the current

equals the voltage applied across by the circuit divided by the Resistance
___________ resistance between the two points where that
voltage is applied.
• The ___________ can be different in parallel circuits that have Current (I)
different R because V is the same across all the branches.
THE MAIN-LINE IT EQUALS THE SUM OF THE BRANCH CURRENTS
• Components to be connected in parallel are usually wired Directly

_________ across each other.
Current in the Main-
• It is equal to the sun of the branch currents. Line
RESISTANCES IN PARALLEL
• In ohm’s law, divide the common voltage across the parallel Total current of all
resistances by the ___________. the branches
• It is equal to the applied voltage divided by the total current of Required Resistance
all the branches. (REQ)
• A combination of parallel branches. Bank
• This applies to any number of parallel resistances of any value. Reciprocal Formula
On branch divided
• If R is equal in all branches, the REQ is equal to the value of by the number of
__________ branches.
11
CONDUCTANCE IN PARALLEL
• It is equal to the reciprocal of resistance. Conductance

• Working with _____ may be more convenient than resistance is Conductance (G)
parallel since it avoid to use of the reciprocal formula for REQ.
TOTAL POWER IN PARALLEL CIRCUITS
• It is equal to sum of the individual values of power in each Total Power

branch.
• It can alter the distribution of voltage or current, but power is Series or parallel
the rate at which energy is applied. connections
ANALYZING PARALLEL CIRCUITS
• When you know the voltage across one branch, this voltage is Across all the
__________. branches
• If you know IT and one of the branch currents I1, you can find I2 Subtracting I1 from IT
by _______________.
EFFECT OF AN OPEN BRANCH IN PARALLEL CIRCUITS
• An open in any circuit is a ____________ that results in no Infinite Resistance

current.
• In parallel circuits, open circuits in one branch results No current through
___________, but in other branches can have their normal that branch
current.
EFFECT OF A SHORT CIRCUIT ACROSS PARALLEL BRANCHES
• In parallel circuits, a short circuit has _________, resulting in Zero Resistance

excessive current.
All the parallel
• In parallel circuits, when one branch is short-circuited, paths are also short-
__________. circuited.
PARALLEL CIRCUIT FOR THE OR LOGIC FUNCTION
• The __________ gate function corresponds to switches in OR Gate

parallel.
Chapter 6: Series - Parallel Circuits
12
INTRODUCTION
• It is used when it is necessary to provide different amounts of Series-Parallel

voltage and current for the components using one source of Circuit
applied voltage.
FINDING RT FOR SERIES-PARALLEL RESISTANCES
• To find the total resistance in the series-parallel circuit,

we______ add the series resistance and combine the parallel Add
resistance.
RESISTANCE STRINGS IN PARALLEL
• In series-parallel circuits, with too low a _________, there

would be insufficient current for normal operation and the bulbs Voltage
would not operate at normal brilliance.
• Each branch current equals the voltage applied across the The total resistance
branch divided by __________ in the branch.
• For any one resistance in a string, the current in the string
multiplied by the resistance equals the ___________ across that IR Voltage Drop
particular resistance.
• It is equal to the sum of the branch currents for all parallel Total line current
strings.
Resistance of the
• It is equal to the applied voltage divided by the total line total series-parallel
current. circuit
• The series parts have the same _________. Current
• The parallel parts have the same __________. Voltage
RESISTANCE BANKS IN SERIES
• The group of parallel resistance. Bank

• The purpose of a resistance banks in series circuit is to provide
the same voltage for two or more resistance in a bank, where Less than
the bank voltage must be ___________ the applied voltage by
the amount of IR drop across any series resistance.
• The general procedure for the banks in series circuits is to find Equivalent
the ________________ of each bank and then add all the resistance
series resistance.
RESISTANCE BANKS AND STRINGS IN SERIES-PARALLEL
• To find the currents and voltages in this circuit, first find Total Resistance
__________ in order to calculate the main-line current.
13
ANALYZING SERIES-PARALLEL CIRCUITS
• With parallel string across the main line, the branch currents Total Resistance
and total current can be found without _______.
• When parallel strings have series resistance in the main line,
______ must be calculated to find IT, assuming no branch current Total Resistance
is known.
• It is applied across the RT of the entire circuit, producing an IT Source Voltage
that flows only in the main line.
• Any individual series resistance has its own IR drop that must be Less than
_____ the total VT.
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
• It has four terminals, two for input voltage and two for output. Bridge Circuit
Sir Charles
• Inventor of the Wheatstone Bridge Wheatstone (1802 –
1875)
• In this circuit, an unknown resistance is balanced against a
standard accurate resistor for precise measurement of Wheatstone Bridge
resistance.
• It can be analyzed as simply series resistance strings in parallel Balanced Bridge
when the current is zero through the meter. Circuit
CHASSIS – GROUND CONNECTIONS
• It is usually made by driving copper rods into the ground and

connecting the ground wire of the electrical system to these Ground Connection
rods.
Cold side or low
• A chassis ground in which connected to earth ground. side
Hot side or High
• A chassis ground in which not connected to earth ground. side
VOLTAGES MEASURED TO CHASSIS GROUND
• When a circuit has the chassis as a common return, we generally Chassis

measure the voltages with respect to ___________.
Positive voltages to
• The negative side of total voltage is grounded. negative ground
• The voltage source is inverted. Any point in the circuit must be Negative Voltages
more negative than the positive terminal of the source, even to Positive Ground
when this terminal is grounded.
OPENS AND SHORTS IN SERIES-PARALLEL CIRCUITS
14
• It has practically zero resistance. Short Circuit

• It has infinitely high resistance with practically zero current. Open Circuit
Chapter 7: Voltage Dividers and Current Dividers

INTRODUCTION
Voltage Division
• It gives the series voltages even when the current is not known. Formula
• It gives the branch currents even when the branch voltage is not Current Division
known. Formula
SERIES VOLTAGE DIVIDERS
• It is the same all the resistance in a series circuit. Current

• Each resistance provides an IR drop V equal to its proportional Voltage Dividers
part of the applied voltage.
• The series resistance has the most _________. Voltage
• The advantage of the voltage divider method is we can find the
proportional voltage drops from VT and the series resistance Current
without knowing the amount of ________
CURRENT DIVIDERS WITH TWO PARALLEL RESISTANCES
Current Division
• It can be used only for two branch resistances. Formula
CURRENT DIVISION BY PARALLEL CONDUCTANCES
• If conductance is the reciprocal of resistance, therefore, Directly

conductance and current are ____________ proportional.
• The method of _______ is usually easier to use than the method Conductance
of resistances from three or more branches.
SERIES VOLTAGE DIVIDER WITH PARALLEL LOAD CURRENT
• It is often used to tap off part of the applied voltage VT for a Voltage divider
load that needs less voltage than VT.
• All the current in the circuit must come from the _______. Source Voltage
• It is a steady drain of the source. Bleeder Current
DESIGN OF A LOADED VOLTAGE DIVIDER
• This type of circuit is used for the output of a power supply in Loaded Voltage
electronic equipment to supply different voltages at the taps, Divider
with different load currents.
15
Chapter 8: Direct Current Meters

INTRODUCTION
• Meters with values printed on a scale and moving a pointer that Analog meters
indicates values on the scale.
• Meters with numerical readouts that indicates values directly. Digital meters
• To measure voltage, the test leads of the voltmeter are
connected in __________ across two points of potential Parallel
difference.
• To measure currents in units of amperes, milli-amperes, or micro- Series
amperes, the meter is a __________ component in the circuit.
• A combinational meter, like the VOM and DMM will all three Multimeter or
functions. multitester
MOVING COIL METER
Volt-ohm-milli-
• It can be used to measure voltage or resistance. ammeter
• It is generally used in a VOM in which the construction consists
essentially of a coil of fine wire on a drum mounted between Moving coil meter
the poles of a permanent magnet.
• It is directly proportional to the amount of current in the coil. Pointer deflection
• It is an extremely sensitive instrument for measuring very small Galvanometer
values of current.
• It is used for reading the value of a small momentary current, to Ballistic
measure electric charge. galvanometer
• The moving coil arrangement is often called a ___________, D’Arsonval
after its inventor, who patented this meter movement in 1881. Movement
• The optical error caused by looking at the meter from the side. Parallax error
• The meter movement can be constructed with moving coil and
pointer suspended by a metal band, instead of the pivot and Taut-band meters
jewel design with a restoring spring.
MEASURING THE CURRENT
• The current meter must be in _________ in the circuit where the Series
current is to be measured.
• True or false: in a series circuit, the current is the same through True
all series components.
METER SHUNTS
• It is a precision resistor connected across the meter movement

for the purpose of shunting, or bypassing, a specific fraction of Meter shunt
the circuit’s current around the meter movement.
16
VOLTMETERS
• It is commonly used for measuring voltage by the addition of a Voltmeter

high resistance series with the movement.
• The series resistance must be _________ than the coil resistance Higher
in order to limit the current through the coil.
• It is a series resistor usually connected inside the voltmeter case. Multiplier
• Since a voltmeter has high resistance, it must be connected in
______________ to measure the potential difference across Parallel
two points in a circuit.
• The ohms-per-volt rating is also called ___________ of the Sensitivity
voltmeter.
LOADING EFFECT OF A VOLTMETER
• The effect when the voltmeter resistance is not high enough,

connecting if across a circuit can reduce the measured voltage Loading down
compared with the voltage present without the voltmeter.
• It can be minimized by using voltmeter with a resistance much
greater than the resistance across which the voltage is Loading effect
measured.
• It causes the voltage reading to be too slow because high volt Loading effect of a
resistance is too low as a parallel resistance. voltmeter
OHMMETERS
• It consists of an internal battery, meter movement, a current- Ohmmeter

linking resistance.
• For measuring resistance, the ohmmeter leads are connected External resistance
across the __________ to be measured.
• Typical resistance of series ohmmeter circuit. 1500Ω
• When the ohmmeter leads are open, not touching each other, Zero
the current is _________.
• The arrangement of the ohms scale increases from left to right. Back-off scale
• A symbol which means that the measured resistance is infinitely
Lazy eight or “∞”
greater than the ohmmeter resistance.
• It is given for each ohms range because the highest resistance is Multiplying factor
infinite on all the ohms ranges.
• For higher values of external resistance, the meter current
_________ to indicate higher resistances on the back-off ohms Decreases
scale.
• To compensate for lower voltage output as the internal battery
ages, an ohmmeter includes a ____________ to calibrate the Variable resistor
ohms scale.
17
• A back-off ohmmeter is always adjusted for __________. Zero ohms
MULTIMETERS
• It is use to measure voltage, current, or resistance. Multimeter

• The main types of Multimeters VOM and DMM
• Most analog Multimeters have an AC voltage scale calibrated Decibels (dB)
in _________ for measuring AC signals.
• It is a logarithmic unit used for comparisons of power levels or Decibels (dB)
voltage levels.
• Positive decibel values, above the zero mark, indicate AC 0.775 V
voltages above the reference of ___________.
• It is a probe with a clamp that fits around the current-carrying
wire in which its magnetic field is used to indicate the amount of Amp-clamp probe
current.
• The accessory probe that can be used with a multimeter to
measure DC voltages up to 30kV. The probe is basically just an High-voltage probe
external multiplier resistance for the DC voltmeter.
DIGITAL MULTIMETERS
• This type of test instrument has become very popular because

the digital value of the measurement is displayed automatically Digital multimeter
with decimal point, polarity, and the unit for voltage, ampere,
or ohms.
• These are generally easier to use because they eliminate the
human error that often occurs in reading different scales on an Digital meters
analog meter with a pointer.
• The basis of the DMM operation is the use of a ____________ Analog to digital
circuit. circuit
• It is a visual display with decimal values in which generally used Liquid-crystal
to show the values processed by digital circuit. display (LCD)
• The input resistance of the DMM is in the range of _________. 10 to 20MΩ
Internal diode
• The DMM has a ____________ that serves as an AC converter. rectifier
• A DMM ohmmeter usually has an open-circuit voltage across the 0.4V
meter leads of about __________.
• To measure current in DMM, the ______ provide proportional IR Internal resistors
voltage.
• It is supplied by the DMM for the diode to test the voltage Current
across it junction.
• For diode test in DMM, the short-circuit junction will read 0V
_______.
• It enough for practically all measurements made in 3 ½ digit resolution
troubleshooting electronic equipment.
18
• It is where the meter automatically shifts to a higher range as Auto-range function

soon as an overload is indicated.
• Maximum diode test voltage in DMM. 2V
• Maximum DC voltage range of DMM. 1000V
• Test frequency used for audio equipment. 400Hz
• Test frequency used for power-line equipment. 60Hz
• The range of current measurements of DMM. 0 to 320mA
• The bar at the bottom of the display is used only to show the
relative magnitude of the input compared to the full-scale value Analog display
of the range in use.
METER APPLICATIONS
• To avoid excessive current through the meter, it is good practice

to start on a _________ when measuring an unknown value of High range
voltage or current.
• A good fuse reads ___. 0Ω
• It can also be checked with the power on in the circuit by using Fuse
a voltmeter.
CHECKING THE CONTINUITY WITH THE OHMMETER
• A wire conductor that is continuous without a break has Zero ohms

practically _________ of resistance.
• It can be useful in testing for the continuity. Ohmmeter
• Infinite resistance means that the wire element is ________. Open
Chapter 9: Kirchoff’s Laws

INTRODUCTION
• The algebraic sum of the voltage sources and IR voltage drops Zero
in any closed path must total ________.
• At any point in a circuit the algebraic sum of the currents Zero
directed in and out must total ________.
• Creator of Kirchoff’s Law Gustav R. Kirchoff
KIRCHOFF’S CURRENT LAW (KCL)
• The algebraic sum of the currents entering and leaving any Kirchoff’s Current
point in a circuit must equal the algebraic sum of the currents Law (KCL)
out of that point.
• It means combining positive and negative values. Algebraic Sum
19
• Consider all currents into a branch point as __________ and all Positive; Negative
current directed away from that point as ____________.
• It is really the basis for the practical rule in parallel circuits that Kirchoff’s Current
the total line current must equal the sum of the branch currents. Law (KCL)
KIRCHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW (KVL)
• Go around any closed path and consider any voltage whose

negative terminal is reached first as a negative term and any Kirchoff’s Voltage
voltage whose positive terminal is reached first as a positive Law (KVL)
term.
• Any closed path is called __________. Loop
• The Greek letter which means “sum of”. Sigma “Σ”
• When a loop does not have any voltage source, the algebraic Zero
sum of the IR voltage drops alone must total ________.
METHOD OF BRANCH CURRENTS
• Using the Kirchoff’s law, first indicate the ___________ and Current Directions
mark the voltage polarity across each resistor.
• It is a branch point where currents divide or combine. Principal Node
NODE-VOLTAGE ANALYSIS
• These currents are used for specifying the voltage drops around Branch Current
the loops.
• A branch point in which the voltage drops specify the currents. Node
• Solving the __________, we can calculate the unknown branch Loop Equations
currents.
METHOD OF MESH CURRENTS
• It is the simplest possible closed path. Mesh

• It is assumed to flow around a mesh without dividing. Mesh Current
• The number of meshes equals the number of _________, which Mesh currents
is the number of equations required.
• In each mesh equations, the algebraic sum of the voltage drops Applied voltage
equals the ____________.
Pattern of algebraic
• The advantage of mesh currents is the ______, without the need signs for the
for tracing any branching currents. voltages
• The only positive IR voltage in a mesh is for the ____ of each Total Resistance
mesh current in its own mesh.
Chapter 10: Network Theorems
20
INTRODUCTION
• It is just a combination of components, such as resistances Network

interconnected in a way to achieve a particular end result.
• It usually provides shorter methods of solving the circuit than the Network Theorems
Kirchoff’s law.
SUPERPOSITION
• This theorem is very useful because it extends the use of Ohm’s Superposition
Law to circuits that have more than one source.
• In a network with two or more sources, the current or voltage Superposition
for any components is the algebraic sum of the effects Theorems
produced by each source acting separately.
• Each __________ can have any number of series resistances. Voltage Divider
• It means that current is proportional to the applied voltage Linear
• It means that the current is the same amount for opposite Bilateral
polarities of the source voltage.
• There are components that doesn’t amplify or rectify. Passive components
• These are components such as transistors, semiconductors diodes,
and electron tubes in which are never bilateral and often are Active Components
not linear.
THEVENIN’S THEOREM
• Named after M. L. Thevenin, a French engineer, this theorem is Thevenin’s Theorem

very useful in simplifying the voltages in a network.
• It states that the entire network connected to two terminals can
be replaced by a single voltage source VTH in series with a Thevenin’s Theorem
single resistance RTH.
• It is the open-circuit voltage across terminal. VTH
• It is the open-circuit resistance across terminals. RTH
THEVENIZING A CIRCUIT WITH TWO VOLTAGE SOURCES
• To calculate VTH, find ______ across the open terminals. Voltage

• To calculate RTH, ____________ the sources V1 and V2. Short-circuit
• True or false: Thevenin equation simplifies the superposition True
equation.
THEVENIZING A BRIDGE CIRCUIT
• To calculate VTH, find ______ across the open terminals. Voltage

• To calculate RTH, ____________ the sources V1 and V2. Short-circuit
NORTON’S THEOREM
21
• Named after E. L. Norton, a scientist with Bell Telephone

Laboratories, this theorem is used for simplifying a network in Norton’s Theorem
terms of currents instead of voltages.
• It states that the entire network connected to two terminals can
be replaced by a single current source IN in parallel with a Norton’s Theorem
single resistance RN.
• It is the resistance looking back from open terminals. RN
• Any components directly across the two terminals are also short- Wire Jumper
circuited by the _________.
THEVENIN – NORTON CONVERSIONS
• It says that any network can be represented by a voltage Thevenin’s Theorem

source and series resistance.
• It says that any network can be represented by a current source Norton’s Theorem
and shunt resistance.
• The resistance RN always has the same value as _____. RTH
CONVERSION OF VOLTAGE AND CURRENT SOURCES
• It is a specific example of the general principle that any

voltage source with its series resistance can be converted to an Norton Conversion
equivalent current source with the same resistance in parallel.
• It can often simplify circuits, especially those with two or more Conversion of
sources. Voltage and Current
MILLMAN’S THEOREM
• This theorem provides a shortcut for finding the common voltage

across any number of parallel branches with different voltage Millman’s Theorem
sources.
• This formula is derived from converting the voltage sources to Net VXY
current sources and combining the results.
CIRCUITS WITH CURRENT SOURCES
• When current sources are in _________, they can be combined. Parallel

• When voltage sources are in _______, they can be combined. Series
• When current sources are in ________, convert to voltage Series
sources so that they can be combined.
• When voltage sources are in ________, convert to current Parallel
sources so that they can be combined.
T OR Y AND Π OR Δ CONNECTIONS
22
• In the Y-to-Δ conversion, each side of the delta is found by first

taking all possible _____ of the arms of the wye, using two Cross Products
arms at a time.
• In the Δ-to-Y conversion, each arm of the wye is found by
taking the ________ of the two adjacent sides in the delta and Product
dividing by the sum of the three sides of the delta.
• When all the resistor values are equal in a network, it is balanced
_________.
Chapter 11: Conductors and Insulators

INTRODUCTION
• These have a very low resistance. Conductors
• Typical value of resistance in copper wire of 10 ft. 0.1Ω
• It is used in the manufacture of carbon composition resistors. Carbon
FUNCTION OF THE CONDUCTORS
• The resistance of the two 10 – ft lengths of copper wire

0.08Ω
conductor is ________.
STANDARD WIRE GAGE SIZES
• It specifies the size of the round wire in terms of its diameter Gage Number
and cross sectional area.
• As the gage numbers increases from __________, the diameter
and circular area decrease. Higher gage numbers indicate 1 – 40
thinner wire sizes.
• The circular area ________ for every three gage sizes. Doubles
• The higher the gage number and thinner the wire, the _______ Greater
the resistance of the wire for any given length.
• In typical applications, hookup wire for electronic circuits with
current in the order of mill amperes is generally about No. 22 gage
________.
• House wiring for circuits where the current is 5 – 15A is usually No. 14 gage
________.
• Minimum sizes for house wiring are set by ____________. Local Electrical Code
• The cross sectional area of round wire is measured in Circular Mil
_________.
• It is one – thousandth of an inch. Mil
• It is the cross sectional area of a wire with a diameter of 1 mil. Circular Mil
TYPES OF WIRE CONDUCTORS
23
• Most wire conductors are ________. Copper

• It is easier to solder for connections. Tinned Wire
• It is flexible, easier to handle and less likely to develop an Stranded Wire
open break.
• It is often has an insulating coating of enamel or shellac. Very Thin Wire
• Hookup that is bare should be enclosed in a hollow insulating Spaghetti
sleeve called ___________.
• Is it used fro very low resistance. Braided conductor
• Two or more conductors in a common covering form a Cable
________.
• It has 25 conductors but not in pairs. Ribbon Cable
• Constant spacing between two conductors through the entire Transmission Line
length provides a _____________.
• It is generally used for the signals in cable television. Coaxial Cable
• Two conductors are imbedded in plastic to provide constant
spacing. This type of line is commonly used in television for Twin – Lead Wire
connecting the antenna to the receiver.
• It specifies an opposition to current that can include resistance, Impedance
inductance and capacitance.
• It is constant for any length because it depends on the square Characteristic
root of ratio for the inductance in the line to the capacitance Impedance
between the conductors.
• For ¼ inch coaxial cable, it s characteristic impedance is
75Ω
approximately _______.
• For twin lead wire with 3/8 inch spacing, the characteristic
300Ω
impedance is _______.
CONNECTORS
• It is often used for screw – type materials. Spade Lug

• It is commonly used for shielded cables with audio equipment. RCA – type Plug
• It is still used in some applications, but in a smaller size. Phone Plug
• It is universally used in cable television because of its F Connector
convenience.
• It has eight wires in a flat, plastic ribbon. Multiple Connector
• It is a standard connector for computer equipment. It has 26 RS – 232
pins.
PRINTED WIRING
• Most electronic circuits are mounted on a plastic insulating Printed Circuit Board
board with printed wiring. (PCB)
• Pins at end terminals, usually with multiple connections. Stakes
24
SWITCHES
• These are commonly used to open or close a circuit. Switches

Single Pole Single
• It provides an ON or OFF position for one circuit. Throw (SPST)
Single Pole Double
• It provides switching for one side of the circuit. Throw (SPDT)
Double Pole Double
• It provides switching for both lines of either of two circuits. Throw (DPDT)
• It has eight miniature rocker switches. DIP Switch
• It is an automatic switch with contacts that can be closed or Relay Switches
opened by current in the relay coil.
FUSES
• It is used as a protection against an overload resulting from a Fuse

short circuit.
Aluminum, tin
• The metal fuse element may be made of __________. coated copper or
nickel
• This type of fuse has a coiled construction. They are designed to Slow – Blow Fuse
open only on a continued overload.
• These have a thermal element in the form of a spring. Circuit Breaker
Short length of bare
• It is sometimes used as a fuse in television receivers. wire
• It can be mounted between two terminal strips on the chassis. Wire link
•
Chapter 12: Batteries

INTRODUCTION
• It is a group of cells that generate energy from the internal Battery

chemical reaction.
• It consists of two different conducting materials as the Cell
electrodes that are immersed in an electrolyte.
• A battery with an output of 1.5v. Carbon zinc dry cell
• These are used for all types of portable electronic equipment, Dry Battery
photographic equipment and toys.
Lead Sulfuric Acid
• It is the type almost always used for automobile batteries. Cell
25
GENERAL FEATURES OF BATTERIES
• It is combination of cells. Battery

• It was used to supply enough current to heat the filament for A Battery
thermoionic emission of electrons from a heated source.
4.5 – 6 V with
• Typical rating of A battery. 150mA or more
• It was used for a small negative DC bias voltage at the control C Battery
grid.
• A battery that has a medium voltage and current ratings B Battery
• This type of cell cannot be recharged. Primary Cells
• This type of cell can be recharged because the chemical action Secondary
is reversible. Cells
• The discharging and recharging of the cell is called _______. Cycling
• Secondary can be recharged. Storage Cell
• The most common type of secondary cell. Lead Acid Cell
• In this type of cell, the electrolyte cannot be spilled and the cell Dry Cells
can operate in any position.
• This type is a secondary cell that can be recharged, but it has a Sealed Rechargeable
sealed electrolyte that cannot be refilled. Cells
THE VOLTAIC CELL
• The method of converting chemical energy into electric energy. Voltaic Cell
• Voltaic cell is also called a _______, named after Luigi Galvanic Cell
Galvani.
• It gives relative activity in forming ion charges for some of the Electromotive Series
chemical elements.
CARBON – ZINC DRY CELL
• This is probably the most common type of dry cell. It is also Carbon – Zinc Dry
called the Leclanche cell. Cell
• It consists of a zinc anode and a manganese dioxide cathode in Electrochemical
a moist electrolyte. System
• It is a combination of ammonium chloride and zinc chloride Electrolyte
dissolved in water.
• The reaction in which the ammonia releases hydrogen gas which Polarization
collects around the carbon electrode.
• Carbon – zinc dry cells are generally designed for an 70°F
operating temperature of _______.
ALKALINE CELL
26
Manganese – Zinc
• Type of cell which has an alkaline electrolyte. Cell
• It consists of a powered zinc anode and a manganese dioxide Electrochemical
cathode in an alkaline electrolyte. System
• The outstanding performance of the alkaline cell is due to its Low Internal
_________. Resistance
• This type is actually a modified carbon – zinc cell but the Zinc Chloride Cells
electrolyte contains only zinc chloride.
ADDITIONAL TYPES OF PRIMARY CELLS
• The electrochemical system consists of a zinc anode, a mercury

compound for the cathode, and an electrolyte of potassium or Mercury Cell
sodium hydroxide.
• The mercury cell can perform well at elevated temperatures, up 130 - 200°f
to _________.
• The electrochemical system consists of a zinc anode, a cathode
of silver oxide with small amounts of manganese dioxide, and Silver Oxide Cell
an electrolyte of potassium or sodium hydroxide.
SUMMARY OF DRY CELLS
Carbon-zinc, zinc
• Types of dry cells. chloride, and
alkaline
• Which is better for heavy duty use; alkaline or zinc chloride Alkaline Cell
type?
LITHIUM CELL
• This type is a relatively new primary cell. Lithium Cell

• Lithium cell can provide at least _______ more energy than the 10 times
equivalent carbon zinc cell.
• The sulfur dioxide is kept in a liquid state using a high pressure Lithium Sulfur
container and an organic liquid solvent. Dioxide
LEAD ACID WET CELLS
• Where high values of load current are necessary, it is the type Lead Acid Wet Cells
most commonly used.
• It is a dilute solution of sulfuric acid. Electrolyte
• It is a secondary cell or storage cell, which can be recharged. Lead Acid Wet Cells
• It is a combination of hydrogen and sulfate ions. Sulfuric Acid
• These are generally rated in terms of how discharge current Lead Acid Batteries
they can supply for a specified period of time.
• Typical values of automobile batteries. 100 – 300 AH
27
• It is a ratio comparing the weight of a substance with the weight Specific Gravity
of water.
• It refers to a method in which the charger and the battery are
always connected to each other for supplying current to the Float Charging
load.
ADDITIONAL TYPES OF SECONDARY CELLS
• It is a storage cell that can be recharged by reversing the Secondary Cells

internal chemical reaction.
• It is the common type of storage cell. Lead Acid Cell
• This type is popular because of its ability to deliver high current Nickel Cadmium
and to be cycled many times for recharging. Cell
• It is a true storage cell with a reversible chemical reaction for NiCd Cell
recharging that can be cycled up to 1000 times.
• Developed by Thomas Edison, this cell was once extensively in Nickel – Iron
industrial truck and railway applications. (Edison) Cell
• This type has been used in limited railway applications. Nickel Zinc Cell
Zinc Chlorine
• This cell has been under development for use in electric vehicles. (Hydrate) Cell
• This type is under development for commercial energy Lithium Iron Sulfide
applications. Cell
• This is another type of cell being developed for electric vehicle
applications. The cell is designed to operate at temperature Sodium Sulfur Cell
between 550 and 650°F.
• A recent development in battery technology is the
rechargeable plastic cell made from a conductive polymer, Plastic Cell
which is a combination of organic chemical compounds.
• It consists of an electrolyte between two polymer electrodes. Plastic Cell
• This type converts the sun’s light energy direct into electric Solar Cell
energy.
SERIES AND PARALLEL CELLS
• The combination of cells. Battery

• The current capacity of battery with cells in _______ is the
same as for one cell because the same current flows through all Series
the series cells.
• It is equivalent to increasing the size of the electrodes and Parallel Connection
electrolyte.
• In order to provide higher output and more current capacity, Series – Parallel
cells can be connected in ____________. Combination
28
CURRENT DRAIN DEPENDS ON LOAD RESISTANCE
• The cell delivers ________ for a higher resistance in the load Less Current
circuits.
• The cell can deliver a ________ load current for a longer time. Smaller
INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF A GENERATOR
• Any source that produces voltage output continuously. Generator

• It is important when a generator supplies load current. Internal Resistance
• It is the opposition to load current inside the generator. Internal Resistance
• Typical values of internal resistance of carbon zinc D size cell. 0.1Ω
WHY THE TERMINAL VOLTAGE DROPS WITH MORE LOAD CURRENT
• The full generated voltage is available across the output Open Circuit Voltage
terminals.
• The ______ the internal resistance of a generator, the better it
is in terms of being able to produce full output voltage when Lower
supplying current for a load.
CONSTANT VOLTAGE AND CONSTANT CURRENT SOURCES
• A generator with very low internal resistance is considered to Constant Voltage

be a __________. Source
• It has very high resistance, compared with the external load Constant Current
resistance, resulting in constant current, although the output Generator
voltage varies.
MATCHING A LOAD RESISTANCE TO THE GENERATOR
• When load resistance is to match the internal resistance, Maximum Power

_____________ is transferred from the generator to the load. Transfer
• The load should have as high a resistance as possible. Maximum Voltage
• It increases as load resistance increases. Efficiency
Chapter 13: Magnetism

INTRODUCTION
• It is derived from the iron oxide mineral magnetite. Magnetism

• It refers specifically to the magnetic properties of iron. Ferromagnetism
29
THE MAGNETIC FIELD
North and South

• These are the points of concentration of magnetic strength. Poles
• The magnet can be considered as the _____ for an external Generator
magnetic field, provided by the two opposite poles at the ends.
• These are unaffected by non magnetic materials. Magnetic Field Lines
• The end of the magnet bar in which pointed at the North. North-seeking pole
• The end of the magnet bar in which pointed at the South. South-seeking pole
• A North Pole (N) and a South Poke (S) tend to _________ each Attract
other.
• A North Pole (N) tends to ________ another North Pole (N), Repels
which is also, can apply in the South Pole (S).
THE MAGNETIC FLUX (Φ)
• The entire group of magnetic field lines, which can be

Magnetic Flux (Φ)
considered to flow outward from the North Poke of a magnet.
• It has more lines of forces and more flux than a weak magnetic Strong magnetic
field. field
• It is equal to one magnetic field. One Maxwell (Mx)
• It can provide a magnetic flux of about 5000Mx. 1-lb of magnet
James Clark
• An important Scottish mathematical physicist who contributed Maxwell (1831 –
much to the electrical and field theory. 1879)
• It is equal to 1 x 108 lines or maxwells. Weber
Wilhelm Weber
• The weber unit is named for _________, a German physicist. (1804 – 1890)
Centimeter-gram-
• This system defines small units. second system
(CGS)
Meter-kilogram-
• This system is for larger units of a more practical size. second system
(MKS)
System International
• It provides a worldwide standard in MKS dimensions. (SI)
• With magnetic flux, the maxwell is a _______ unit. CGS
• The weber is a _________ unit. MKS or SI unit
• For science and engineering, the _______ units are preferred SI units
values.
FLUX DENSITY (B)
• It is the number of magnetic field lines per unit area of a section Flux Density (B)
perpendicular to the direction of flux.
30
• In the CGS system, this unit is one line per square centimeter, or Gauss
1 Mx/cm2.
• The unit Gauss is named for ____________, a German Karl F. Gauss (1777
mathematician. – 1855)
• As typical values, flux density for the earth’s magnetic field can 2G
be about __________.
• In SI, the unit of flux density is weber per square meter. One Tesla (T)
weber per square meter is called ___.
• The unit tesla is named for ___________, a Yugoslav-born Nikola Tesla (1857 –
American Inventor in electricity and magnetism. 1943)
INDUCTION BY THE MAGNETIC FIELD
• The electric or magnetic effect of one body on another without Induction

any physical contact between them.
• The ability to concentrate magnetic flux. Permeability
• The flux density in air. 1G
• The relative permeability of the iron core. 200
• Typical values of relative permeability for iron and steel. 100 – 9000
AIR GAP OF A MAGNET
• The air space between poles of a magnet is its _______. Air Gap
• When it is desired to concentrate magnetic lines within a Closed Magnetic
magnet, however, the magnet can be formed as ___________. Loop
Toroid or Ring
• It is made in the form of a doughnut. Magnet
• It is often used for the core. Iron
• This type of electromagnet has maximum strength in the iron Ring Magnet
ring, with little flux outside.
• The small part of the field in the air. Leakage Flux
Protect permanent
• The principle of the closed magnetic ring is used to ______. magnet in storage.
• It maintains the strength of the permanent magnet as it becomes Keeper
magnetized by induction to form a closed loop.
TYPES OF MAGNET
• It needs current from an external source to maintain its magnetic Electromagnet

field.
• With this magnet, not only is its magnetic field present without
any external current, but the magnet can maintain its strength Permanent Magnet
indefinitely.
• With the length much greater than its width, the coil is called Solenoid
___.
31
• It is a switch with contacts that are opened or closed by an Relay

electromagnet.
Magnetic Tape
• Common application of electromagnet. Recording
• These are made of hard magnetic materials, such as cobalt Permanent Magnet
steel, magnetized by induction in the manufacturing process.
• A common material of permanent magnet. A commercial alloy Alnico
of aluminum.
• It is often used for permanent magnet loudspeakers. Alnico V
About 5 lb, with a
• A typical size for a steady magnetic field. flux of 500 – 25,000
lines or maxwells
• The point at which a magnetic material losses its ferromagnetic Curie Temperature
properties.
• The Curie temperature for iron. 800°C
• These include iron, steel, nickel, cobalt, and commercial alloys Ferromagnetic
such as alnico and Permalloy. Materials
• Permeability of the ferromagnetic materials. 50 – 50,000
• The relative permeability of Permalloy. 100,000
Paramagnetic
• These include aluminum, platinum, manganese, and chromium. Materials
• The permeability of the paramagnetic materials. More than 1
• These include bismuth, antimony, copper, zinc, mercury, gold, Diamagnetic
and silver. Materials
• The permeability of the diamagnetic materials. Less than 1
Magnetic field
associated with
• The basis of all magnetic effects is the __________. electric charges in
motion.
• In terms of molecular structure, iron atoms are grouped in Domains
microscopically small arrangements called ____.
• Each domain is an elementary ________, with two opposite Dipole magnet
poles.
• In crystal form, the iron atoms have domains that are _______ Parallel
to the axes of the crystal.
FERRITES
• This is the name for nonmetallic materials that have the Ferrites
ferromagnetic properties of iron.
• The ferrites have __________ permeability. Very high
• The permeability of ferrites. 50 – 3000
• The specific resistance is ________, which makes the ferrite an
105Ω.cm
insulator.
32
Ferrite core in the

• A common application of ferrite. coils of RF
transformers
• It is used in small coils and transformers for signal frequencies Ferrite Core
up to 20MHz.
• It is used as a string for one or more beads of ferrite beads. Bare wire
• The purpose of this is to reduce the current just for an undesired choke
radio frequency.
MAGNETIC SHIELDING
• The idea of preventing one component from affecting another Shielding

through their common electric or magnetic field.
• It is best for two shielding functions. Good Conductor
Good Magnetic
• The best shield for a steady magnetic field is a Material of High
______________. Permeability
• It is produced by a permanent magnet, a coil with steady direct Steady Field
current, or the earth’s magnetic field.
• The shield can be considered as a __________ for the lines of Short circuit
magnetic flux.
THE HALL EFFECT
• A small voltage is generated across a conductor carrying Hall Effect

current in an external magnetic field.
• The semiconductor material __________ is generally used to Indium Arsenide
produce larger values of Hall voltage. (InAs)
• It is directly proportional to the value of flux density. Hall Voltage (VH)
• Flux density of InAs. 10kG
Chapter 14: Magnetic Units
INTRODUCTION
• It is always associated with charges in motion. Magnetic Field

Magnetizing force or
• The current supplies a _____________ that increases with the Magneto Motive
amount of current. Force (mmf)
• It produces a flux density that increases with the permeability Field Intensity (H)
of the medium.
AMPERE – TURNS OF MAGNETO MOTIVE FORCE (MMF)
• With a coil magnet, the ________ depends on how many Strength of the
current flows in the turns of the coil. Magnetic Field
• The more current, the ___________ the magnetic field Stronger
33
• It specifies the amount of magnetizing force or magnetic Quantity IN

potential.
• The SI abbreviation for ampere – turn is ____, since the number
of turns in a coil usually is constant but the current can be A
varied.
• With thinner wire, _______ turns can be used in a given space. More
• The CGS unit of mmf is _________. Gilbert (Gb)
William Gilbert
• An English scientist who investigated the magnetism of the Earth. (1540 – 1603)
• One ampere-turn is equal to __________. 1.26 Gb
• The number is approximately _________, derived from the 4π/10
surface area of a sphere.
FIELD INTENSITY (H)
• It depends on how long the coil is. Field Intensity (H)

• The field intensity for a solenoid is at the ___________. Center of an air core
Through the entire
• The field intensity for a iron core is at the ___________. core
• It is basically mmf per unit of length. Field Intensity (H)
• The CGS unit for H is _________. Oersted (Oe)
H. C. Oersted (1777
• A Danish physicist who discovered electromagnetism – 1851)
Ampere – turns per
• The unit for field intensity (H). meter
PERMEABILITY (µ)
• Using SI units, it is the flux density in webers per square meter. B

• It is the absolute permeability, in unit of B/H. Permeability (µ)
• The values of relative permeability (µr) must be multiplied by 1.26 x 10-6
______ for µo to calculate µ as B/H in SI units.
B – H MAGNETIZATION CURVE
• It is often used to show how much flux density (B) results from B – H Curve
increasing the amount of field intensity (H).
• The current in the coil equals to ________. V/R
• The __________ of magnetizing force increase with more Ampere – turns IN
current.
• The field intensity (H) increases with _________. Higher IN
• The __________ depends on the field intensity (H) and Flux Density (B)
permeability of the iron.
34
• The effects of little change in flux density when the field Saturation
intensity increases.
MAGNETIC HYSTERESIS
• It means “a lagging behind”. Hysteresis

• The flux ________ the increases or decreases in magnetizing Lags
force.
• The energy wasted in heat as the molecular dipoles lag the Hysteresis Loss
magnetizing force.
• It is actually a B – H curve with an AC magnetizing force. Hysteresis Loop
• The value of flux density in which is residual induction of a Retentivity
magnetic material.
• The value of -HC, which is equals the magnetizing force that
must be applied in the reverse direction to reduce the flux Coercive Force
density to zero.
• The method of demagnetization. Degaussing
OHM’S LAW FOR MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
• The opposition to the production of flux in a material. Reluctance (R)

• Reluctance is inversely proportional to _____________. Permeability
• It has high permeability and low reluctance. Iron
• It has low permeability and high reluctance. Air or Vacuum
• It is considered to produce flux in a magnetic material against Mmf
the opposition of its reluctance (R).
Ampere – turns per
• The reluctance is ________ in SI units. weber
Gilberts per
• The reluctance is ________ in CGS System. maxwell
RELATIONS BETWEEN MAGNETIC UNITS
• Generally used for magnetic circuits. SI units

• For a coil having 50 turns and 2A, how much is the mmf? 100A.t
COMPARISON OF MAGNETIC AND ELECTRIC FIELDS
• The entire group of electric lines of force of the static charges. Electrostatic Flux
• It is associated with the voltage between static charges. Electric Field
• It is associated with moving charges or current. Magnetic Field
• It states that the force increases with the amount of charge. Coulomb’s Law
35
• MKS unit were standardized in 1960 by International System International

Agreement. (SI)
• The reciprocal of reluctance. Permeance
• The SI unit for conductance. Siemens (S)
• It is the ability of a magnetic material to concentrate magnetic Permeability
flux.
• It is the ability of an insulator to concentrate electric flux. Permittivity
Chapter 15: Electromagnetic Induction

INTRODUCTION
• He found that current in a wire could move a magnetic compass Oersted

needle.
• A magnetic field in motion forces electrons to move, producing Current
___________.
• The Henry unit of inductance is named after __________. Joseph Henry
• The farad unit of capacitance is named after __________. Michael Faraday
• It combines effect of an electric current and magnetism. Electromagnetism
MAGNETIC FIELD AROUND AN ELECTRIC CURRENT
• The magnetic lines are ________, as the field is symmetrical Circular

with respect to the wire in the center.
• The magnetic field with circular lines of force is in a Plane Perpendicular
_____________ to the current in the wire.
• If you look along the wire in the direction of electron flow, the Counterclockwise
magnetic field is ___________.
• The opposite direction of electron flow produces a Reversed Field
___________.
• When the magnetic lines of two fields are in the same direction, The lines of force
_______________. aid each other.
• With the magnetic lines in opposite directions, ___________. The fields cancel.
MAGNETIC POLARITY OF A COIL
• A coil of a wire conductor with more than one turn is generally Solenoid
called _________.
• An ideal solenoid has a length much greater than its Diameter
___________.
• If the coil is grasped with the fingers of the left hand curled North Pole of the
around the coil in the direction of electron flow, the thumb points coil.
to the ______________.
• It is used here because the current is electron flow. Left Hand Rule
36
Direction of the
current and the
• The magnetic polarity depends on the ______________. direction of the
winding
• It can be over and under, starting from one end of the coil, or Direction of winding
under and over with respect to the same starting point.
MOTOR ACTION BETWEEN TWO MAGNETIC FIELDS
• The physical motion resulting from the force of magnetic fields. Motor Action
• The direction of motion of the net force is always toward the Weaker Field
_________.
Current in a
• It has an associated magnetic field. Conductor
• The conductor must be ____________ to the magnetic field. Perpendicular
• With the conductor at 90°, or perpendicular to the external Maximum
field, the action between the two magnetic fields is _________.
• With the conductor at 0°, or parallel to the external field, there No effect between
is ___________. them.
Only the
• When the conductor is at an angle between 0° and 90°, perpendicular
______________. component is
effective.
• The effect of a force in producing motion in which the resulting
forces are upward on one side of the loop and downward on Torque
the other side, making it rotate.
• It is proportional to the current; the amount of rotation indicates Torque
how many current flows through the coil.
INDUCED CURRENT
• The action in which the motion of magnetic lines cutting across a Induction
conductor forces free electrons in the conductor to move.
• It is the result of generator action as the mechanical work put
into moving the magnetic field is converted into electric energy Induced Current
when current flows in the conductor.
Current flows in the
• When the magnet is moved downward, _____________. direction shown.
• Without motion, there is ________ current No current
• It is necessary in order to have the flux lines of the magnetic Motion
field cut across the conductor.
• The conductor must be ___________ to make its induced current
have an associated magnetic field in the same plane as the Perpendicular
external flux.
37
• The effect of electromagnetic induction is increased where a Coil

__________ is used for the conductor.
LENZ’ LAW
• It is simply states that the direction of the induced current must

be such that its own magnetic field will oppose the action that Lenz’ Law
produced the induced current.
• The direction of the induced current is determined by the Left – Hand Rule
________ for electron flow.
GENERATING AN INDUCED VOLTAGE
• It is an electromotive force (emf), generated by the work of Potential Difference

cutting across the flux.
• With a coil, the induced emf is increased by the ___________. Number of turns
• The polarity of the induced voltage follows from the direction Induced Current
of ____________.
• It represents a voltage source with a potential difference Induced voltage as a
resulting from the separation of charges produced by generator
electromagnetic induction
• In a motor, current is applied so that an associated magnetic Motion of the
field can react with the external flux to produce __________ conductor
FARADAY’S LAW OF INDUCED VOLTAGE
• The more magnetic lines of force that cut across the conductor, Higher
the _________ the amount of induced voltage.
• The more turns in a coil, the ___________ the induced voltage Higher
• It is the sum of all individual voltages generated in each turn in vind
series.
• The __________ the flux cuts a conductor, the higher the Faster
induced voltage.
• The amount of induced voltage can be calculated by Faraday’s Law
___________.
• It means a change in the flux φ. dφ
• It means a change in time. dt
Lower value of
• A smaller value of dφ/dt, results in a _______________. induced voltage.
• If the external flux increases, the magnetic field of the induced Opposite Direction
current will be in the ____________.
• The induced voltage has the polarity the __________ the Opposes
change.
38
Chapter 16: Alternating Voltage and Current

INTRODUCTION
• The number of cycles per second is the frequency whose unit is Hertz (Hz)
________.
• It is equal to one cycle per second. One Hertz
• In alternating current, it reverses polarity at a specific rate. Voltage
• For either polarity, it varies in amplitude. AC Voltage
ALTERNATING CURRENT APPLICATIONS
Characteristics of
• It is the reason why AC circuits have so many applications. Varying Values
• The changing magnetic flux of a varying current can produce Induced Voltage
____________.
• It is important with the changing electric field of a varying Capacitance (C)
voltage.
ALTERNATING VOLTAGE GENERATOR
• One complete revolution of the loop around the circle. Cycle

• The half cycle of revolution. Alternation
• It can be defined, therefore, as including the variations between
two successive points having the same value and varying in the Cycle
same direction.
• It is convenient to consider parts of the cycle in ________. Angles
• In angular measure it is convenient to use a specific unit angle Radian
called _______.
• The circumference around the circle. 2πr
• Zero degrees are also _________. Zero Radians
THE SINE WAVE
• The amount of induced voltage is proportional to the sine of the Sine Wave or
angle of rotation in the circular motion producing the voltage. Sinusoid
• The sine wave has a sharper slope of changing values when the Near Zero Axis
wave is __________.
• The angle of sine wave in which the amplitudes of a sine wave 0° to 90°
increase exactly as the sine value for the angle of rotation.
• The angle of sine wave in which the values decreases as a 90° to 180°
mirror image of the first 90°
• The angle of sine wave in which the amplitudes of a sine wave 180° to 360°
increase exactly opposite of the first and second.
39
ALTERNATING CURRENT
• When a sine wave of alternating voltage is connected across a

load resistance, the current that flows in the circuit is A sine wave
_________.
• The amount of current is equal to. V/R
• Only the waveforms for _________ can be compared. V and I
VOLTAGE AND CURRENT VALUES FOR A SINE WAVE
• It is the maximum value VM or IM.

Peak Value
• It applies to either the positive or the negative peak.
• These values can be used for either current or voltage to define Peak, Average, or
specific magnitudes for comparing one wave with another. RMS
• In order to include both peak amplitudes, the _________may Peak-to-peak Value
be specified.
• This is an arithmetic average of all the values in a sine wave for Average Value
one alternation, or half-cycle.
• The most common method of specifying the amount of a sine Root Mean Square
wave of voltage or current is by relating it to DC voltage and or Effective Value
current that will produce the same heating effect.
• The advantage of _______ is that is provides a measure based RMS
on the ability of the sine wave to produce power.
• The ratio of the RMS to average values. Form Factor
FREQUENCY
• The number of cycles per second. Frequency

• It is measured between two successive points that have the same Complete Cycle
value and direction.
• The unit of frequency. Hertz
• It is a Latin word for “I hear” Audio
• The approximate range of audible frequencies. 16 – 16,000 Hz
• The higher the frequency, the ______ the pitch or tone of the Higher
sound.
• High audio frequencies, about 3000Hz and above, can be Treble
considered to provide ______ tone.
• Low audio frequencies, about 300Hz and below, can be Bass
considered to provide ______ tone.
• It is determined by amplitude. Loudness
• Sound waves above the audible range of frequencies. Ultrasonic Waves
• Sound waves in the audible range of frequencies below Sonic or Sound
16,000Hz can be considered __________. Frequencies
40
PERIOD
• The amount of time it takes to go through one cycle. Period

• The higher the frequency, the ______ the period. Shorter
• The basic unit of time. Second
• These are reciprocals of the corresponding units for frequency. Units of Time
WAVELENGTH
• It is the length of one complete wave or cycle. Wavelength

• For electronic radio waves, the velocity in air or vacuum is 3 x 1010 cm/s (Speed
__________. of Light)
• The velocity of sound waves in air. 1130ft/s
PHASE ANGLE
• In order to compare the phase angle between two waves, they Same Frequency
must have the ___________.
• The sine and cosine waveforms really have the same variations,
Sinusoids
but displaced by 90°.
• The 90° angle in sinusoids. Quadrature Phase
• These are used for a quantity that has direction, requiring an Phasor or Vector
angle to specify the value completely.
• A phase angle of 0° means the two waves are _______. In Phase
• An angle of 180° means _________. Out of Phase
THE TIME FACTOR IN FREQUENCY AND PHASE
• The angle of 360° represents the time for _______. One cycle or Period
ALTERNATING CURRENT CIRCUITS WITH RESISTANCE
• It is the same in all parts of the series circuits. Current

• The voltage across the _______ is the same as the applied Parallel Branches
voltage.
NON-SINUSIODAL AC WAVEFORMS
• It is the basic waveform for AC variations for several reasons. Sine Wave
Non-Sinusoidal
• Any waveform that is not sine or cosine wave. Waveform
• It is measured between two points having the same amplitude Cycle
and varying in the same direction.
41
• It is measured from the zero axes to the maximum positive or Peak Amplitude
negative value.
• The RMS values of 0.707 of maximum apply only to Sine Wave
_________.
• It is applied only to sine wave, as angular measures are used Phase Angles
only for sine waves.
• All the waveforms represent ____________. AC Voltage
• It represents a voltage that slowly increases, with a uniform or
linear rate of change, to its peak value, and then drops sharply Sawtooth Wave
to its starting value.
• Waveform of the sawtooth. Ramp Voltage
HARMONIC FREQUENCIES
Harmonic
• Exact multiples of the fundamental frequency. Frequencies
• These are useful in analyzing distorted sine waves or non- Harmonics
sinusoidal waveforms.
• Unit for frequencies multiples which is a range of 2:1. Octave
THE 60 – HZ AC POWER LINE
• The 120 V source of commercial electricity is the _________, 60Hz Power Lines or
indicating it is the main line for all the parallel branches. the Mains
• The incoming electric service to residences is normally given as 120VRMS
________.
• The advantage of AC over DC power is ___________. Greater Efficiency
• Frequency of the AC power line in the United States. 60Hz
• Frequency of the AC power mains in the England and most 50Hz
European countries is __________..
• The 60 Hz power line frequency is maintained accurate to ±0.333%
_________.
• The color coding for the grounded neutral wiring. White
• The color coding for the high side wiring Black or Red
• The color coding for the grounded wiring Green
• The three – wire service with a grounded neutral. Edison System
• It is grounded at the service entrance to a water pipe or metal Neutral Wire
rode driven into the earth.
• It is the practice of connecting one side of the power line to the Grounding
earth or ground.
Ground – Fault
• It is a device that can sense excessive leakage current and open Circuit Interrupter
the circuit as a protection against shock hazard. (GCFI)
MOTORS AND GENERATORS
42
• It converts mechanical energy into electric energy. Generator

• It can converts electricity into a rotary motion. Motor
• In a generator, it connects to the external circuit to provide the Armature
generator output voltage.
• In a motor, it connects to the electrical source that drives the Armature
motor.
• It is often constructed in the form of a drum, using many Armature
conductor loops for increased output.
• The rotating armature is the ______ part of the assembly. Rotor
• This electromagnet provides the flux cut by the rotor. Field Winding
• In a motor, it is produced by the same source that supplies the Field Winding
armature.
• In a generator, it may be obtained from a separate exciter Field Winding
source.
• Residual magnetism in the iron yoke of the field allows Self-excited
_________ to start. Generator
• When the field winding is stationary, it is the ______ part of Stator
the assembly.
• It enables the rotating loop to be connected to the stationary Slip Rings
wire leads for the external circuit.
• These graphite connectors are spring mounted to brush against Brushes
the spinning rings on the rotor.
• It converts the AC machine to DC operation. Commutator
Wire wound or
• The rotor of an inductor motors may be ______ squirrel caged type
• It is constructed with a frame of metal bars. Rotors
• This type operates on either alternating or direct current Universal Motor
because the field and armature are in series.
• For large power requirements, It is usually a rotating field, Alternators
while the armature is the stator.
THREE – PHASE AC POWER
• In an alternator with three generator windings equally spaced

around the circle, the windings will produce output voltages 120° out of phase
_________ with each other.
Wye or Star
• The three windings are in the form of a Y also called _______. Connections
Chapter 17: Inductance

INTRODUCTION
43
• It is the ability of a conductor to produce induced voltage when Inductance

the current varies.
• Long wire has ________ inductance than a short wire. More
• Components manufactured to have definite value of inductance Inductors
are just coils of wires called _________.
• The unit of inductance. Henry
• These are used in RF circuits because higher frequencies need Air – Core Coils
less inductance for the required inductive effect.
• These are used in the audio frequency range and for lower Iron – Core Inductors
frequencies in general.
INDUCTION BY ALTERNATING CURRENT
• It is the result of flux cutting across a conductor. Induced Voltage

• In AC circuits, it is continuously changing and producing induced Current
voltage.
• The effect when the direct current is changing between zero
and its steady value, the inductance affects the circuit at the Transient Response
time of switching.
SELF – INDUCTANCE L
• The ability of a conductor to induce voltage in itself when the Self – inductance or
current changes. Inductance
• The unit of inductance in which named after ______. Joseph Henry
• It is the amount of inductance that allows one volt to be induced
when the current changes at the rate of one ampere per One Henry
second.
• A greater number of turn _____ the inductance. Increases
• More area enclosed by each turn ____ the inductance. Increases
• The inductance increases with __________ of the core. Permeability
• The permeability of an air core 1
• A typical air – core RF inductor is called ________. Choke
• Inductance values for iron core inductors for the 60Hz power 1 – 25µH
line.
SELF – INDUCED VOLTAGE VL
• The self induced voltage across an inductance L produced by a vL = L

di
change in current can be stated as ________. dt
• It is an actual voltage that can be measured when voltage is Induced Voltage
produced only while the current is changing.
HOW VL OPPOSES A CHANGE IN CURRENT
44
• It is the characteristic that opposes any change in current Inductance

• It states the reaction voltage opposes it cause, which is the Lenz’ Law
change in current.
MUTUAL INDUCTANCE LM
• When the current in an inductor changes, the varying flux can

cut across any other inductor nearby, producing _____ in both Induced Voltage
inductors.
• Two coils have ______ of 1H when a current change of 1A/s in Mutual Inductance
one coil induces 1V in the other coil.
• Any magnetic lines that do not link the two coils result in Leakage Flux
________.
Coefficient of
• The fraction of total flux. Coupling
• A high value of coefficient of coupling Tight Coupling
• It allows the current in one coil to induce less voltage in the Loose Coupling
other coil.
• It increases with higher values for the primary and secondary Mutual Impedance
inductances and tighter coupling.
TRANSFORMERS
• It is an important application of mutual inductance. Transformer

Transfer primary
• The purpose of the transformer is to ________. voltage to the
secondary.
• It is used to provide power for the load resistance instead of
connecting it directly across the generator, whenever the load Transformer
requires an AC voltage higher or lower than the generator
voltage.
• The ratio of the number of turns in the primary to the number in Turn Ratio
the secondary.
• The ratio of the voltage induced in each turn of the secondary Voltage Ratio
and primary.
• It is the inverse of the voltage ratio. The voltage step – up in the Current Ratio
secondary means current step – down, and vice versa.
• It consists of the one continuous coil with a tapped connection.
These are used often because they are compact, efficient, and Auto Transformers
usually cost less since they have only one winding.
• The secondary is not connected directly to the AC power line in Reducing the chance
the primary produces _________. of the electric shock.
Transformer
• It is defined as the ratio of power out to power in. Efficiency
45
• For the RF transformer, the color code of the output electrode of Blue
transistor amplifier.
• For the RF transformer, the color code of the DC supply voltage Red
for this electrode.
• For the RF transformer, the color code of the input electrode of Green
next amplifier.
• For the RF transformer, the color code of the return line of Black or White
secondary winding.
• For the power transformer, the color code of the primary leads Black
without tap.
• For the power transformer, the color code of the tap on primary Black with Yellow
• For the power transformer, the color code of the high voltage Red
secondary to rectifier in power supply.
• For the power transformer, the color code of the tap on high Red with Yellow
voltage secondary.
• For the power transformer, the color code of the low voltage Green - Yellow
secondary.
CORE LOSSES
• It flows in a circular path through the cross section of the core. It Eddy Current
represents wasted power dissipated as heat in the core.
• It not only isolates the coil from external varying magnetic
fields, but also minimizes the effect of the coil’s RF current for RF Shield Cover
external circuits.
• It is the result from the additional power needed to reserve the
magnetic field in magnetic materials in the presence of Hysteresis Losses
alternating current.
Inductance for small
• It is limited to low values in the microhenry or millihenry range. coils with an air core
TYPES OF CORE
• The purpose of _______ is to reduce the amount of eddy Core

currents.
• It is a shell-type core formed with a group of individual Laminated Core
laminations.
• It is generally use to reduce eddy currents in the iron core of an Powdered Iron Core
inductance for radio frequencies.
• Powdered iron core consists of individual insulated granules Slug
pressed into one solid form called _______.
• It can be for high frequencies with minimum eddy current losses. Ferrite Core
46
VARIABLE INDUCTANCE
• It is an arrangement for varying the position of one coil within Variometer

the other.
• It is an autotransformer with a variable tap to change the turn Variac
ratio.
INDUCTANCES IN SERIES OR PARALLEL
• This case depends on the amount of mutual coupling and on

whether the coils are connected series aiding or series Series Coil
opposing.
• It means that the common current produces the same direction of Series Aiding
magnetic field for two coils.
• It is the connection in opposing fields. Series Opposing
STRAY INDUCTANCE
• The inductance of any wiring not included in the conventional Stray Inductance
inductors.
ENERGY IN MAGNETIC FIELD OF INDUCTANCE
• The ________ associated with current in an inductance has

electric energy supplied by the voltage source producing the Magnetic Flux
current.
TROUBLE IN COILS
• The most common trouble in coils is ________. Open Winding

• It has DC resistance equal to the resistance of the wire used in Coil
the winding.
• An open winding in coils has __________. Infinite Resistance
No primary current
• When the primary of a transformer is open, _______. can flow
It cannot supply
• When the secondary of a transformer is open, _______. power to any load
resistance.
Excessive primary
• When the secondary of a transformer is short, _______. current flows.
Chapter 18: Inductive Reactance

INTRODUCTION
• It indicates reactances. X
• It is an opposition to current, measured in ohms. Reactance
• The amount of XL is equal to _________. 2πfL
47
HOW XL REDUCES THE AMOUNT OF I

• The higher the frequency of the alternating current, the _____ is Higher
the XL opposition.
Steady Direct
• There is no XL for _________. Current
• An inductance can have _______ to reduce the amount of Inductive Reactance
• The ________ value depends on the amount of inductance and Inductive Reactance
the frequency of the alternating current.
XL = 2ΠFL
• This formula includes the effect of frequency and inductance for
XL = 2πfL
calculating the inductive reactance.
• Inductive reactance has a unit of ______. Ohms
SERIES OR PARALLEL INDUCTIVE REACTANCES

• The total is the sum of the individual values. Series Reactance
• It will be less than the lowest branch resistance. Parallel Reactance
OHM’S LAW APPLIED TO XL

• The amount of current in an AC circuit with just inductive Applied voltage
reactance is equal to _____. divided by XL
APPLICATIONS OF XL FOR DIFFERENT FREQUENCIES

Provide minimum
• The general use of inductance is to ________. reactance.
• Inductive reactance is less than 1000Ω for frequencies below 60 Hz
________.
• Inductive reactance is equal to _______ at 60 Hz 1000Ω
• Inductive reactance is more than 1000Ω for frequencies below 60Hz
________.
WAVE SHAPE OF VL INDUCED BY SINE WAVE CURRENT
• The induced voltage curve has its zero values the induced Maximum
current cure is _________.
• The ratio of vL/iL actually specifies the inductive reactance in Ohms
_____.
Chapter 19: Inductive Circuits

INTRODUCTION
• It is use as a choke to reduce the current. Coil
48
SINE WAVE IL LAGS VL BY 90°
• It can be measured between any two points having the same 90° Difference
value on the iL and vL values.
Because the vL
• Why the phase angle is 90°? depends on the rate
of the change of iL.
XL AND R IN SERIES
• When a coil has series resistance, the current is limited by Both XL and R
_______.
• Voltage VL is _______ with I. 90° out of phase
• It just shows the 90° angle without any addition. Phasor
IMPEDANCE Z TRIANGLE
• A triangle of R and XL in series corresponds to the voltage Impedance Triangle

triangle.
Phase angle of the
• The angle between the generator voltage and its current. circuit
• It is a trigonometric function of any angle, equal to the ratio of Tangent
the opposite side to the adjacent side of a triangle.
• The angle that has the tangent equal to ________. 1 - 45°
• It specifies the angle’s tangent function as a numerical value. Ratio of XL/R
• In a _______ circuit, the higher value of XL compared of R, the Series
more inductive the circuit is.
•
Chapter 26: Resonance

INTRODUCTION
• The main application of this is in RF circuits for tuning to an AC Resonance

signal of the desired frequency.
• It can select a particular frequency for the output, with many Resonant Circuit
different frequencies at the input.
THE RESONANCE EFFECT
• It increases as the frequency is increased.. Inductive Reactance

Capacitive
• It decreases with higher frequencies. Reactance
• This case of equal and opposite reactances. Resonance
49
• The AC circuit can be called _________. Resonant Circuit

• It can be resonant. It all depends on the frequency. LC Circuits
• The frequency at which the opposite reactances are equal. Resonant Frequency
• In this use, the LC circuit provides maximum voltage output at
the resonant frequency, compared with amount at any other Tuning
frequency either below or above resonance.
Tuning in Radio and
• One of the applications of resonance. Television
SERIES RESONANCE
• In a series AC circuit, the inductive reactance _______ by 90°, Leads

compared with the zero reference angle of resistance.
• In a series AC circuit, the capacitive reactance _______ by 90°, Lags
compared with the zero reference angle of resistance.
• The series resonance should be ______________ for a sharp As small as possible
increase in current at resonance.
The amount rise of
current to its
• The main characteristic of series resonance. maximum at the
resonant frequency
• Below the resonant frequency, the _________ is small. XL
• Above the resonant frequency, the ________ is small. XC
• At the resonant frequency, __________ are equal. XC and XL
• The impedance of the series circuit. Minimum
• The current is ____________ at the resonant frequency. Maximum
• The current is ____________ with the generator voltage, or the In phase
phase voltage of the circuit is 0°.
• The voltage is ____________ across either L or C alone. Maximum
• The impendence is __________ at resonant frequency. minimum
PARALLEL RESONANCE
• At parallel resonance, the line current is __________. Minimum

• At parallel resonance, the impedance is __________. Maximum
LC circuit as the load
• The main application of parallel resonance. impedance
• At the resonant frequency of 1000 kHz, the line current is at its 0.000133µA
minimum value of ___________.
• It is at minimum at the resonant frequency. Line Current
• The line current is _____________ with the generator voltage, In phase
or the phase angle of the circuit is 0°.
• The impedance is ______ at the resonant frequency. Maximum
• A parallel resonant LC circuit is called __________. Tank Circuit
50
• The ability of the LC circuit to supply complete sine waves. Flywheel Effect
• The process of producing sine waves after a pulse of energy Ringing
has been applied.
RESONANT FREQUENCY
Reactance at
• It changes with different combination of L and C. resonance
• With more inductance, then less __________ can be used for Capacitance
the same resonant frequency.
• The test instrument for measuring inductance or capacitance. Q meter
Q MAGNIFICATION FACTOR OF RESONANT CIRCUIT
• It is indicated by the factor Q in sharpness of resonance of the Quality or Figure of

resonant circuit. Merit
• Since the series resistance limits the amount of current at
resonance, the lower the _____________, the sharper the Resistance
increase to maximum current at the resonant frequency.
• With typical RF coils, an approximate rule is the maximum Q
1000Ω
can be obtained when XL is about _________.
• It can be considered a magnification factor that determines how Q of the resonant
much the voltage across L or C is increased by the resonant rise circuit
of current in a series circuit.
• The coil of AC resistance can be _______ than double the DC More
resistance measured with an on ohmmeter.
• For parallel resonance, the ____________ determines by how
much the impedance across the parallel LC circuit is increased Q Magnification
because of the minimum line current.
• At resonant frequency, the minimum line current is _______. 1/Q
BANDWIDTH OF RESONANT CIRCUIT
• LC circuit is resonant at ____________. One Frequency

• The width of the resonant band of frequencies centered on the Bandwidth of the
resonant frequency. tuned circuit
• The group of frequencies with a response 70.7% of maximum Bandwidth of the
or more. tuned circuit
• For series circuit, the bandwidth is measured between the two
frequencies producing 70.7% of the ___________ at resonant Maximum current
frequency.
• For parallel circuit, the bandwidth is measured between the two Maximum
frequencies producing 70.7% of the ___________ at resonant Impedance
frequency.
51
• Sharp resonance with high Q means ____________. Narrow Bandwidth

• The _________ the resonant frequency, the greater is the
range of frequency values included in the bandwidth for a Higher
given sharpness of resonance.
• The slope is the sharper for the sides is called __________. Skirts
• The total impedance of the series reactance ad resistance is 1.4
_________ times greater than R.
TUNING
• This means obtaining resonance at different frequencies by Tuning

varying either L or C.
• The change in resonant frequency is inversely proportional to Tuning Ratio
the square root of the change in L or C.
• It consists of fixed plates called stator and rotor which has the
plates that move in and out. The tuning is done by the air Radio Tuning Dial
capacitor.
• For electronic tuning, the capacitance is varied by a Varactor
___________.
MISTUNING
• When the frequency of the input voltage is lower tan the

resonant frequency of a series LC circuit, the capacitance is Greater
__________ than the inductive reactance.
• Above the resonant frequency, the inductive reactance is Greater
_________ than the capacitive reactance.
• With a _________, the smaller amount of inductive reactance
below resonance results in more inductive branch than Parallel LC Circuit
capacitive branch current.
• Above the resonant frequency, the net line current is Capacitive
___________.
ANALYSIS OF PARALLEL RESONANT CIRCUITS
• Parallel resonance is more ___________ than series resonance. Complex

• With a low Q circuit impedance must be calculated in terms of Branch Impedance
the _______________.
• The condition for unity power factor. Anti-resonance
• For a series resonant circuit there are no ___________ to Parallel Branch
consider.
DAMPING OF PARALLEL RESONANT CIRCUITS
• The effect of varying parallel is opposite from the _______. Series

• Less resistance in a parallel branch allows __________. More current
52
Resonant dip to
• It is less sharp with more resistive line current. minimum line
current
• For the opposite case of shunt resistance being infinite. Open Circuit
CHOOSING L AND C FOR A RESONANT CIRCUIT
• At very high frequencies, _______ must be the minimum Capacitor

possible value.
• At medium frequencies, _______ must be used. Inductor
• The circuit is resonant at _________ whether L or C is in series 159 kHz
or parallel.
Chapter 27: Filters

INTRODUCTION
• It separates different components that are mixed together. Filters

• It can separate particles from liquid or small particles from Mechanical Filter
large particles.
• It can separate different frequency components. Electrical Filter
Inductors and
• These are used for filtering. Capacitors
Separating audio
• Most common filtering applications. from radio
frequencies.
EXAMPLES OF FILTERING
• It can pass the higher – frequency component to the load

resistance, which is the case of high – pass filter, or a low – Electrical Filters
pass filter can be used to favor the lower frequencies.
• For the case of audio mixed the radio frequencies, _________ Low – Pass Filters
allows the audio frequencies in the output.
• It allows the radio frequencies to be passed to the load. High – Pass Filters
DIRECT CURRENT COMBINED WITH ALTERNATING CURRENT
• Current that varies in amplitude but does not reverse in Pulsating or

polarity. Fluctuating DC
• The effect in which the DC component has been inserted into the DC Insertion
AC variations.
• The AC component that consists of the variations above and AC Ripple
below the DC axis.
• As a common application, __________ always have fluctuating Transistor
DC voltage or Current when used from amplifying an AC signal.
53
Transformer with a
• It isolates or blocks steady direct current in the primary. separate secondary
winding
TRANSFORMER COUPLING
• It produces induced secondary voltage just for variations in Transformer

primary current.
• It corresponds to a steady value of primary current that has a DC Axis
constant magnetic field.
• The phase of the AC secondary voltage may be _________, 180° opposite
depending on the connections and direction of the windings.
CAPACITOR COUPLING
• This method is probably the most common type of coupling in Capacitor Coupling
amplifier circuits.
• It means connecting the output of one circuit to the input of the Coupling
next.
• It is effectively a high pass filter for pulsating direct current. RC Coupling Circuit
• It blocks the steady DC voltage but passes the AC component. Capacitance
• It is the steady DC component of the input voltage in the RC Voltage across CC
coupling circuit.
• In RC coupling circuit, when vin decreases below the average The capacitor loses
level, __________. charge
BYPASS CAPACITORS
• It is path around a component. Bypass

• These are often used in parallel with resistance to bypass the Capacitors
AC component of a pulsating DC voltage.
FILTER CIRCUITS
• It allows the lower frequency components of the applied Low – Pass Filters
voltage to develop output voltage across the load resistance.
• It allows the higher frequency components of the applied High – Pass Filters
voltage to develop voltage across the output load resistance.
• The case of RC coupling circuit is an example of _________. High – Pass Filters
More AC voltage is
• With higher frequencies in the AC components, ____________. coupled.
• Most common types of filters. L, T, and π
• The _____________uses coupling capacitance in series with the High – Pass Filters
load or choke inductance in parallel in the load
• The __________ uses inductance in series or bypass Low – Pass Filters
capacitance in parallel with the load.
54
LOW – PASS FILTERS
• The ability to reduce the amplitude of undesired frequencies. Attenuation

• The frequency at which the attenuation reduces the output to Cut – Off Frequency
70.7 percent response.
• Frequency lower than the cut – off frequency. Passband
• Frequency higher than the cut – off frequency. Stopband
• A low resistance generator needs the ____________ so that the
choke can provide a high series impedance for the bypass T Filter
capacitor.
• It is more suitable with a high resistance generator where the
π Filter
input capacitor can be effective as a bypass.
• Filters that uses only capacitors, inductors, and resistors. Passive Filters
• Filters that uses the operational amplifiers (op amp) on an IC Active Filters
chip, with R and C.
HIGH – PASS FILTERS
• It passes to the load all frequencies higher than the cutoff High – Pass Filter
frequency.
• Filter that allows a band of frequencies to be coupled to the Bandpass Filter
load.
• Its purpose is to have the filter present constant impedance at Constant – K Filter
the input and output terminals.
• The design is based on the ratio of the filter cutoff frequency to The m-derived Filter
the frequency of infinite attenuation.
RESONANT FILTERS
• It provides a convenient method of filtering a band of radio Tuned Circuits

frequencies.
• Filters that prevents a band of frequencies from being coupled Bandstop Filter
to the load.
• In the application of a bandstop filter to suppress certain Wavetrap
frequencies, the LC circuit is often called __________.
• It has maximum current and minimum impedance at the resonant Series Resonant
frequency. Circuit
Parallel Resonant
• It has maximum impedance at the resonant frequency. Circuit
• Filters which uses quartz crystals. Crystal Filters
• The characteristic of some crystals in which can be made to
vibrate by a voltage input or produce voltage output when it is Piezoelectric Effect
compressed, expanded, or twisted.
• Crystal used in crystal filters. Lead Titanate
55
INTERFERENCE FILTERS
• It is a conductor for interfering RF currents produced by motors, Power – Line Filters

fluorescent, lightning circuits, and RF equipments.
• Filters that attenuate frequencies below 54MHz, which is lowest Television Antenna
frequency for channel 2. Filter
Chapter 28: Electronic Devices
INTRODUCTION
• A group of chemical elements with special electrical

characteristic and has a unique atomic structure that allows the Semiconductor
addition of specific impurity elements to produce useful features
that can be applied in electronic circuits.
Silicon and
• Most common semiconductors. Germanium
SEMICONDUCTORS
• Materials that are not as good as the metals as electrical Semiconductor

conductors but they are not insulators.
• Electron valence of all semiconductor elements. ±4
• Atomic number of silicon. 14
• A combination of atoms sharing groups of valence electrons. Covalent Bond
• All semiconductor devices are ____________, generally using Solid-State
silicon. Components
• Semiconductor that doesn’t have impurities. Intrinsic
• _________ is the common source of silicon.
Sand
• Silicon Dioxide.
• The year where the element silicon was discovered. 1823
• The year where the element germanium was discovered. 1886
• Germanium is recovered from the ___________. Ash of certain coals
1
• Germanium has only about ________ the resistance of Silicon.
1000
• The process of adding impurity elements that result in the Doping
desired electrical characteristics.
Extrinsic
• Doped semiconductor is also called _________. Semiconductor
Arsenic, Antimony,
• Doping elements for N-type. or Phosphorus
56
Boron, Aluminum,
• Doping elements for P-type. Gallium, or Indium
• The one missing electron in such a covalent bond that is Hole
considered as a free positive charge.
• The charge that is same amount as a proton, equal to that of an Hole Charge
electron but with opposite polarity.
• Electron flow in P-type semiconductor. Hole Current
• When the majority charges are made to move in a Forward Current or
semiconductor by an applied voltage, the result is a relatively Easy Current
large amount of ___________.
Reverse Current or
• Very small current of minority charges. Leakage Current
• ________ is an atom, with it nucleus, where the atom has a net Ion
charge, either positive or negative.
THE PN JUNCTION
• _________ provides an internal contact potential, which is 0.7v PN junction

for silicon and 0.3v for germanium.
• Width of the PN junction. 10-4 cm
• The combination of opposite charge in the PN junction that is Electron-hole pairs
neutral.
• External voltage of Silicon 0.7 V
• External voltage of Germanium 0.3 V
• The barrier voltage is higher for a ____________ because its
lower atomic number allows more stability in the covalent Silicon Junction
bonds.
• _________ of the junction is characteristic of the element. Barrier Voltage (Vb)
• Because of its neutral electron-hole pairs, the junction area is
considered as ____________. It has no free charge carriers Depletion Zone
that can be moved.
• Barrier voltage ______ when higher than room temperature is Decreases
applied.
• Connection of wire conductors without any barrier potential. Ohmic Contact
SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES
• A _________ is essentially a PN junction. Diode

• The CR stands for ___________ in the schematic diagrams. Crystal Rectifier
• ________ is the positive side of the diode. Anode
• ________ is the negative side of the diode. Cathode
• This function is converting ac input from the 60Hz power line to Power-Supply
dc output. Rectifier
• A rectifier that only using one diode. Half-Wave Rectifier
57
• It uses a diode to rectify a modulated signal in order to recover Signal Detector

the modulating signal.
• In these circuits, the diode functions as a switch.
Digital Logic Gates
• It is on when the diode conducts and off without conduction.
Capacitive Diode
• Diode that can use for electronic tuning. (Varactor)
• Common current for rectifiers. 1A
High Current
• The stud mount type of diode generally has ____________. Ratings.
• Type of power supply that requires four diodes. Bridge Rectifiers
• The PIV rating for popular diode is typically __________. 1000 V
• Rating of maximum forward current. 1-25 A
• The value that can be used across the diode in reverse polarity, Peak Inverse
negative at the anode, without disrupting the electrical Voltage (PIV)
characteristics of the junction.
PNP AND NPN TRANSISTORS
• A component consists of a P or N semiconductor between Transistor

opposite types.
Supplies free
• The function of emitter in the transistor. charges
Controls the flow of
• The function of base in the transistor. charges
Collects the charges
• The function of collector in the transistor. from the emitter
• With the N-type base, the transistor is _________. PNP
• Most small transistors are _________ type. NPN
• Most small transistors are made of ___________. Silicon
• In schematic diagram of transistor, the arrow indicates the flow Emitter
of current to the __________.
• In the transistor schematic diagram, if the arrow is pointed to PNP
the base, the transistor is _________ type.
Bipolar Junction
• The NPN and PNP types are called __________. Transistors
Collector, base,
• Three terminals of BJT. emitter
• Bipolar junction transistor is a __________ device. Current-controlled
• With three electrodes, the transistor is considered a _________. Triode
• Practically, all __________ in electronics circuits use transistors. Amplifiers
• Transistors are the main components in _________. IC chips
• The transistor was invented in ______ at Bell Telephone 1948
Laboratories.
• The name transistor is derived from ________, meaning that it Transresistor
can transfer its internal resistance from low resistor in the
58
emitter-base circuit to a much higher resistor in the collector-

base circuit.
• This junction has forward voltage applied across the PN or NP Emitter-Base
junction in order to allow the free charges of the emitter to Junction
move into the base.
• Typically, ________ is a normally off device because it needs Junction Transistor
forward voltage applied to start conducting.
Collector-Base
• The function of this junction is to remove charges from the base. Junction
• Practically, _____ transistors take dc supply voltage at the NPN
collector for reverse voltage.
• The typical values of dc supply voltage of transistor depending 3-100v
on the power rating of the transistor.
No majority current
• The reverse voltage across the collector-base junction means can flow from
_________. collector to base
• The ________ has heavy doping to supply free charges. Emitter
• The ________ has only light doping and is very thin. Base
• The ________ voltage is relatively high. Collector
• For typical amplifiers, the actual _________ may have a lower
value than the supply voltage because of voltage drops in the Electrode Voltage
circuit.
• Typically, _________ or more of the emitter charges provide 98-99%
collector current.
• It is standard practice to consider _________ into Hole current
semiconductor as the positive direction of current.
• For most transistors, ____ is in microamperes or milliamperes. IB
• _______ is in milliamperes or in amperes in power transistors. IC and IE
• The factor why a transistor can amplify signal input is because Collector
the base current controls the _________ current
• The increase of base current means increase of ________. Collector current
• To produce current, the emitter-base junction must have at Forward voltage
enough ___________.
• For a silicon transistor, the typical values of VBE are _______. 0.5-0.7v
• With enough VBE to provide emitter current, the transistor can Amplification
produce __________.
FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTOR (FET)
• This semiconductor device is an amplifier with the same function

Field-Effect
as a junction transistor.
Transistor (FET)
• It is a unipolar device.
• FET input resistance is very high. The typical value is _______. 15MΩ
• FET is a ___________ device. Voltage-controlled
59
Drain, source, and

• Three terminals of FET. gate
• A part of FET that serves as a platform on which the other Bulk or substrate
electrodes are diffused.
• This is the terminal where the charge carriers enter the channel Source
bar to provide current through the channel.
• This is the terminal where current leaves the channel. Drain
• This terminal controls the conductance of the channel between
the source and drain. The input voltage is generally applied to Gate
this terminal.
• Terminals that has no polarity since they are just ohmic contacts. Source and drain
• ________ Voltage at the gate induces negative charges in the positive
channel.
• It consists of a metal electrode for the gate separated from the Insulated-Gate FET
channel by a thin layer of silicon oxide. (IGFET)
• In IGFET, _________ is used to apply a voltage to the gate to Electrostatic
induce charges in the channel. induction
Depletion and
• Two type of IGFET. enhancement mode
• The depletion type of IGFET is a normally _____-device. On
• In EIA, IGFET depletion-enhancement type C requires _______. Positive gate bias
• In EIA, IGFET depletion-enhancement type A takes _______for Negative gate bias
a middle value of drain current.
• In EIA, IGFET depletion-enhancement type B can operate with Zero gate current
_______.
Junction Field-Effect
• JFET means ___________. Transistor
•
THYRISTORS
• This name is a general term for semiconductor devices like the

silicon controlled rectifier and the triac often used for power-
control circuits. Thyristors
• A solid-state electronic switch for high values of current in the
range of amperes.
• The name thyristor comes from an older device called a
_________, which is a gas-filled tube formerly used for similar Thyratron
applications.
• The thyristor is a __________ device. PNPN
• Reverse voltage at any junction of thyristor prevents _________ Forward current
between the two end terminals
• It is a power rectifier device that needs a forward gate voltage Silicon Controller
to start conduction. It is considered as a reverse-blocking triode Rectifier (SCR)
thyristor.
60
Anode, cathode, and

• Terminals of SCR. gate
• Typical values for the gate electrode of SCR. 1-3V
• Typical value of gate current of SCR. 10-20mA
• The minimum value of anode current needed to sustain Holding Current
conduction.
• The value needed to switch the anode circuit on from the off Latching Current
condition.
• The latching current is typically _______ times more than the Three
holding current.
• The thyristor device which is equivalent to a bidirectional SCR. Triac
Half-cycles of the
• The triac can supply power to the load for both _________. AC input
• This thyristor is a two-terminal device without a gate electrode. Diac
It is used as a bidirectional trigger diode.
• The typical value of firing potential of the diac. 30V
• True or false, unijunction transistor not a transistor amplifier. True
• A negative resistance characteristic of UJT means that the Increases
current _________ with less voltage.
• The power rating of UJT is __________. Less than 1 W.
• The name ______________ is sometimes used for UJT. Double-base diode
• Maximum emitter current of UJT is ______. 8-20mA
SEMICONDUCTOR TYPE NUMBERS AND CASE STYLES
• In EIA, the letter __ indicates a semiconductor device. N

• In JIS, the letter __ indicates a semiconductor device. S
Joint Electronic
• The semiconductor packaging is standardized by _________. Device Engineering
Council (JEDEC)
• Case styles labeled TO is for ________. Transistor outline
• ____________ is a metal chassis or any metal structure that Heat sink
conducts heat away from the transistor.
• True or false, transistor gets hot in normal operation from the True
collector current.
• The ______ package is for the high-power applications. TO-3
• Typically, small-signal transistors generally have a maximum 200 to 800 mW
power dissipation of ____________.
• Small-signal transistors have a collector current of ____. 1-50 mA
• Package case of medium-power transistor. TO-5
• Typical power rating of medium-power transistor. 5W
• Typical collector current rating of medium-power transistor. 2A
• Typical power rating of TO-220 transistor. 10W
• Typical collector current rating of TO-220 transistor. 4A
61
• Typical power rating of TO-3 transistor. 25-100 W

• Typical collector current rating of TO-3 transistor. 5A
SPECIAL-PURPOSE DIODES
• A semiconductor diode is just a _________. PN Junction

• The main use of semiconductor diode. Rectification
• This semiconductor device is also called a capacitive diode. Varactor
• With reverse voltage of the varactor, the _________ enables
the junction to serve as a capacitance because of the separated Barrier Voltage
charges in the depletion zone.
• The capacitance values in the varactor are in _______ range. Pico farad
• The amount of _______ of the varactor can be controlled by Capacitance
varying the reverse voltage.
• The __________ is negative at then anode of the varactor. Reverse voltage
• The __________ determines the oscillator frequency of the LC tuned circuit
varactor.
• Across the tuned circuit, that varactor provides ________ as Capacitance (CV)
part of capacitance that determines the resonant frequency.
• Also known as the voltage-reference diode. Zener Diode
• The name Zener diode is named after __________, who C.A. Zener
analyzed the voltage breakdown of insulators.
• Typical reverse breakdown voltage of the Zener diode. 3 to 100 V
• In a Zener diode, the voltage __________ is constant as a Voltage
reference value that can be used for voltage regulation.
• The name ____________ is also used for a Zener diode. Avalanche Diode
• Another term for a tunnel diode. Esaki Diode
• ___________ can cause a tunneling effect of charge carriers Heavy doping
through the depletion zone at junction.
• __________ is a low-power device for microwave frequencies, Tunnel diode
with relative freedom from radiation effects.
• For best efficiency for LED, special compounds of __________ Gallium (Ga)
are used.
• In Light-emitting diodes, a ________ radiates light when current PN junction
passes through the unit.
• Type of voltage used in LED. Forward Voltage
• Typical voltage value of LED to produce a forward current 1.6 V
• Typical value of forward current of LED. 20mA
• These are made of a photosensitive material, where the Photocells
resistance decreases with more light.
• Material used in photocells. Sulfide
• The resistance without light. Dark Resistance
• Typically range of the dark resistance. Mega ohms
62
VISUAL CHARACTER DISPLAYS
• The ________________ has more elements of display than the Dot Matrix
seven-segment display device.
• The __________ is displayed by having all seven segments lit. Digit 8
• The _________ uses a combination of five columns of dots Dot Matrix Display
vertically with seven horizontal rows.
• In dot matrix, how many combinations of dots can be lit? 35
• The complete assortment of characters is called _______. Font
• The type of package of seven-segment display. DIP package
• The __________ display uses thin filaments for each segment, Incandescent
similar to those in regular light bulbs.
• The display that requires relatively high voltage and emits Gas-discharge Tube
orange glow.
• The __________ display gives off a greenish glow and Fluorescent
operates at lower voltages.
Light-emitting diode
• The very common display which is usually has a red glow. Display
• The newer display that creates black characters on a silver Liquid Crystal
background. Display
• In actual applications, IC units called _________ are used to Decoder/drivers
activate the segments for desired number.
• The ____ is formed when segments a, b, and c are lit in LED 7
display.
Low-frequency AC
• Segments on the LCD are driven by ___________. signals
False, it must not
• True or false, direct current must be used to LCD. use cause it will
damage them.
VACUUM TUBES
• A ________ has a glass envelope enclosing metal electrodes in Vacuum Tube

a vacuum.
• A ________ is heated to emit electrons. Cathode
• A ________ is a two-terminal device, since the heater Diode Tube
connections are not considered as electrodes.
• In diode tube, the _________ is connected to a power source to Heater or filament
heat the cathode to a high temperature, which emits electrons.
• A ________ has three electrodes: cathode, plate, and control- Triode Tube
grid electrode.
63
• The _____ is a fine metal wire wrapped around two supports

placed in the space between the cathode and anode. It Control Grid
connected to a base pin so that its voltage determines how
many electrons can travel from the cathode to the plate.
• For small triode amplifier tubes, typical values of positive plate 90 to 300 V
voltage are ______.
• This tube has an additional grid, resulting in four electrodes. Tetrode
• The ___________ purpose is to screen the plate from the
control gird, in order to reduce the amount of capacitance Screen Grid
between the two electrodes.
• The screen grid must have _________ applied. Positive DC voltage
• This tube has one more electrode which is placed between the Pentode
plate and the screen grid.
• The _________ purpose is to suppress secondary emission form Suppressor Grid
the plate.
TESTING DIODES, TRANSISTORS, AND THYRISTORS
• It can be used to check either for an open circuit or a short Ohmmeter

circuit.
• In an ohmmeter, short indicated practically in ________. Zero Ohms
• In an ohmmeter, open circuit indicated practically in ________. Infinite Ohms
• When the ratio of reverse to forward resistance is _______, the Very High
diode is probably good.
• When both the forward and reverse resistances are very low, Short Circuit
close to zero, the diode junction is ___________.
• When _____________ are very high, close to infinite, the diode Forward and reverse
probably has an open at the terminal. resistance
• When the forward voltage for VBE is 0.6 to 0.7 V, the transistor Silicon
is _________.
• When the forward voltage for VBE is 0.2 to 0.3 V, the transistor Germanium
is _________.
Chapter 29: Electronic Circuits
INTRODUCTION
• Two common types of semiconductor devices that make it Transistor and

possible to have so many applications of electronics. Diodes
• One of the main applications of transistors. Amplifier Circuit
• A device that increases the magnitude or amplitude of signal Amplifier
variations to make the desired signal stronger.
64
Integrated Circuit
• _________ combines transistors and diodes in one unit. (IC) chip
• Transistor or diode that not in an IC chip because the part is Discrete Component
complete itself.
ANALOG AND DIGITAL SIGNALS
• __________ consists mainly of amplifiers for voltage or current Analog Circuits

variations that are smooth and continuous.
• __________ provide electronic switching of voltage pulses. Digital Circuits
• The analog form is generally called a ________ type of IC unit Linear
because analog information deals with proportional values.
• The ________ in electronic circuits are changes in voltage and Signal
current that corresponds to the desired information.
• The electrical variations have a direct relation to the changes Analog Signal
that represent the information.
• A _________ consists of a train of pulses for the voltage or Digital Signal
current.
• The pulse in digital signal is called ___________. Bit
• Group of bits is called ___________. Word
• A word can have up to _______ bits. 32
• An 8-bit word is called __________. byte
AMPLIFIER GAIN
• An amplifier circuit has ability to _________ the amount of Increase

signal.
• Defined as the ratio of output signal to input signal. Gain
Measurement of amplifier circuit.
• ___________ is a general form of symbol of amplifier. Triangle
• Typical values of voltage gain for transistor amplifier circuits. 10 to 2000
• The amplifier can be considered as a _________ circuit Inverter
because it can reverse the polarity of the signal.
• It is more important in amplifier is the ________ of the output Current Gain
signal.
• True or false: there are no units for current gain it is a ratio of True
the same two units of current.
• Typical values of current gain with transistors. 1 to 500
• The product of the voltage gain times the current gain. Power Gain
It can drive a load
that requires
• A high value of power gain for an amplifier means _________. appreciable voltage
and current
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False, discrete is
• True of False: IC chips have higher power rating than discrete higher than the IC
transistor. chip
• Each amplifier circuit with one transistor is called ________. Stage
• When the output terminal of one stage drives the input terminal Cascade
of the next stage, the two stages are connected in __________.
• In amplifier stages that are in cascaded form, the total gain is Multiplied
__________.
CHARACTERISTICS OF AMPLIFIER CIRCUITS
• Transistors are called a _________ because it can amplify the Active device
signal.
• Resistors, inductors, and capacitors are considered _________. Passive device
• The ________ reduces the amount of current. Resistance
• Resistance provides a __________ which is equal to IR. Voltage drop
• A ________ can charge and discharge with changes in voltage. Capacitor
• Capacitive reactance _________ for higher frequencies. Decreases
• Capacitor is practically a __________ circuit. Open
To block dc voltage,
couple ac signal,
• The functions of capacitors in amplifier circuits are; and bypass the ac
signal around the
components
• Typical value that is commonly used for a coupling or bypass 5µF
capacitor in audio amplifiers.
• Typical value that is commonly used for RF circuits. 100pF
• A ___________ allows direct current with dc voltage applied. Inductor
• The amount of inductive reactance _______ with higher Increases
frequencies and more inductive.
• Inductors are used where it is desired to have _________ for High impedance
• Both inductor and capacitor can be used in _________. Resonant circuits
• The range of audio frequency. 20 to 20,000 Hz
• The frequency range for high-fidelity audio equipment. 50 to 15,000 Hz
• The range of audio frequencies in telephone. 100 to 3,000 Hz
MF, HF, VHF, and
• Four bands that included in RF range. UHF
• Range of AM radio broadcast service. 635 to 1605 kHz
• Range of FM commercial radio service. 88 to 108 MHz
• Range of TV broadcast stations. 6 MHz
• RF amplifiers are usually tuned with _______ resonant at the LC circuits
desired frequency.
66
• A ___________ is a special case for amplifying audio and Wideband Amplifier

radio frequencies.
• The amount of gain in a tuned RF amplifier is its ________. Sensitivity
• __________ is how narrow the response is in terms of the band Selectivity
of frequencies that are amplified.
OSCILLATORS
• The process of ________ means that variations in amplitude Oscillation

are repeated continuously at a specific frequency.
• A mechanical example of oscillation. Swinging Pendulum
• A ___________ generates ac signal output without any AC
signal input from an external source. It is an AC generator for Oscillator
audio or radio frequencies.
• True or false: the oscillator output can generate without using False, it cannot
energy. generate
• The _________ means that the AC signal for oscillator
feedback must be in the same phase that an AC input signal Positive polarity
would have for amplification.
• The ________ results from the two phase reversals of 180° Positive feedback
each.
• This type of circuit uses a tuning circuit and amplifier which Tuned RF feedback
provide feedback. Oscillators
• The tuned circuit is often called a ________ because it stores Tank Circuit
energy.
• In the oscillator circuit, the capacitor is the tuning capacitor Set the frequency of
which is use to _________. the oscillator output.
• These are named for the inventors of the two main types of Hartley and Colpitts
circuits for an RF feedback oscillator. Oscillators
• In this type of circuit, the feedback is provided by a tapped coil
which serves as an AC voltage divider for the output voltage Hartley Circuit
and feedback signal.
• In this type of circuit, similar results are obtained with a Colpitts Circuit
capacitive voltage divider.
• In this type of circuit, a piezoelectric crystal is used as a Crystal Oscillators
resonant circuit.
• The __________ means the crystal can vibrate mechanically Piezoelectric effect
when excited electrically and produce AC voltage output.
• Typical values of resonant frequency of crystal oscillators. 0.5 to 30 MHz
Very high Q which
• The advantage of crystal over the LC circuit is _________. results in good
frequency stability
RC feedback
• This type of circuit is used for audio oscillators. Oscillators
• Typical frequencies for the RC feedback oscillators. 20Hz to 200kHz
67
MULTIVIBRATORS
• The ________ is in a class by itself as an oscillator because it is Multivibrator (MV)

important as a pulse generator in digital electronics.
• Multivibrator serves as a __________ to synchronize the timing Reference clock
in a digital system for the switching of pulses.
• The voltage levels oscillate between the high and low levels
because of the changes between conduction and cutoff in the Relaxation
MV circuit is sometimes called _________ because of the Oscillator
periods of cutoff.
• True or false: the Multivibrator operates as an oscillator without True
need for any input signal.
• The Multivibrator is a ___________. Pulse Generator
• In Multivibrator, _______ in a stage means it is turned on with Conduction
driving voltage at the input.
• In Multivibrator, the OFF means that the stage in not conducting Cutoff Voltage
because of _________ at the input.
• In Multivibrator, the ON means that the stage is conducting and Low
the output voltage is _______.
• The __________ is a type of Multivibrator which is not stable in Astable
terms of the ON and OFF states of their stage. This circuit is a Multivibrator
free-running oscillator.
• The __________ is a type of Multivibrator that can be made to Bistable
remain stable with either stage OFF and the other ON. It has Multivibrator
two stable states.
• The function of forcing the stage into conduction when the circuit
stays in one of these states until an input pulse is applied to the Triggering
off stage to make it conduct.
• The name _________ is used for the bistable Multivibrator
circuit to describe this idea of switching the ON-OFF states one Flip-flop
way and then the opposite way by means of input trigger
pulses.
• This circuit has only one stable state. An input pulse is needed to Monostable or One-
trigger the OFF stage in to conduction. shot Multivibrator
MODULATION
• It can be defined as modifying the characteristics of one Modulation

waveform with the variations in another signal.
• Common examples of modulation. AM and FM
• The frequencies of carrier wave must be much ______ than the Higher
modulating frequency.
68
• In AM radio broadcasting, audio frequency signals modulate a RF carrier wave

__________.
• The lower-frequency signal for the modulation. Baseband signal
• In AM and FM radio broadcasting, the baseband modulation is Audio signal
a ____________.
• In television, ________ is used as the baseband modulation. Video signal
Peak-to-peak
amplitude,
• Three characteristic of the carrier wave in baseband instantaneous
modulation. frequency, and
phase angle
Amplitude
• The carrier input to the modulator comes from an RF oscillator. Modulation
• ____________ means that the output amplitudes are not Nonlinear
exactly proportional to the input signal. Amplification
• In the AM output signal, the _________ have variations that RF peak-to-peak
correspond to the audio modulation. amplitude
Modulation
• The outline of varying amplitudes. envelope
• True or false: the RF amplitude variations are symmetrical True
around the zero axis.
• Frequency spacing of AM radio broadcasting. 10kHz
• Frequency spacing is needed in AM radio broadcast for the ±5kHz
bandwidth of __________ with an AF baseband signal.
• AF baseband signal of AM radio broadcast. 50 to 5000 Hz
• In television service, _________ channels are used for 6MHz
broadcasting.
• Frequency bandwidth of channel 2. 54-60MHz
• Frequency bandwidth in television service is needed for a video 0 to 4 MHz
baseband signal of _______.
To allow for the
• A modulated signal needs more bandwidth than the carrier variations produced
wave itself because ___________. by the modulation
• The necessary bandwidth is at least ________ to the Equal
frequencies in the baseband signal.
The part of the
baseband signal
• More than 100% modulation cannot be used in an AM signal would be missing
because ______________________. and the carrier
amplitude is zero.
• In this method, the instantaneous frequency of the carrier wave Frequency
is made to vary in step with the variation of voltage in the Modulation
baseband signal.
• The FM radio broadcast band. 88-108 MHz
• Frequency spacing of FM radio broadcast band. 200kHz or 0.2MHz
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• In this method, the instantaneous phase angle of the RF carrier Phase Modulation
wave is made to vary in step with the modulating voltage.
Equivalent FM or
• Phase modulation produces ____________. Indirect FM
• Phase angle produces a larger change in the ___________ for RF carrier frequency
higher audio modulating frequencies.
• Many FM transmitters use a phase-modulator circuit because Good frequency
__________________. stability.
• This method is necessary with the pulses representing digital Pulse Modulation
information.
PAM, PFM, PWM,
• Typical systems of pulse modulation. PCM
The carrier power is
• Pulse modulation is efficient because ______________. on for only the time
of the pulses.
• Pulse modulation needs ___________ for the harmonic Greater bandwidth
frequency components of sharp pulses.
DIODE RECTIFIERS
• The non-conducting diode is practically a _________ circuit. Open

• The current in the positive half-cycle of the diode is a Conventional current
__________ because it only flows in one direction. or electron flow
• A _________ can operate in such a way that it really serves as Diode
electronic switch.
• Current can flow in the diode only when the ____ is positive. Anode
The anode is
• The diode is off when ___________. negative
• A process of switching in accordance with a specific polarity. Commutating
• One of the most common applications of the diode rectifier is DC power supply
the ___________.
• Half-wave rectifier uses ________ diode because only one-half One
of the AC input cycles are used from DC output.
• In the diode circuit, a __________ is used to act as a surge- Resistor
limiter which prevents excessive current through the diode
• The capacitors in the half-wave rectifier circuit are used for Filters
___________.
• The ___________ represents the combined resistance of all the Output resistor
load currents connected to the output of the DC power supply.
The input filter
• The DC output voltage may be higher than the RMS value of capacitor can charge
the AC input voltage because ______________. to the peak value
• The value of DC output voltage, compared to the AC input The amount of DC
voltage, depends on ___________. load current
70
Inverted power
• The circuit which have an opposite polarity of DC output. supply
• The frequencies of AC ripple. 60 to 120 Hz
• The inductor filter of a power supply is an iron-core choke used Series components
as a _________.
• The inductor filter of a power supply must have _______ High
reactance at the frequency of the AC ripple.
• Half-wave rectifier with ___ diode is the basic power supply. One
• A two diode power supply can be arranged in a _________ Full-wave rectifier
circuit.
• The higher ripple frequency means ________________. Easier to filter
• A __________ is a rectifier circuit for small values of signal Detector
voltage.
• Type of diode that have less resistance. Germanium Diode
TROUBLESHOOTING THE DC SUPPLY VOLTAGE
• The effect when the filters in a power supply do not have

enough capacitance and the result is too much of the AC ripple Hum
component in the DC output voltage.
No DC output and
• Troubles in a power supply are generally __________. Insufficient DC
output
Chapter 30: Transistor Amplifiers

INTRODUCTION
• Any _______ operates by having a small input able to control Amplifier

more power in the output circuit.
• Amplifier circuits for __________ operate with a combination AC signals
of AC and DC values.
CIRCUIT CONFIGURATIONS
• This description specifies which electrodes in the amplifier are Circuit Configuration
used for input and output signals.
• The ___________ usually is the one that does not have any Common Electrode
signal in the circuit configuration.
• True or false: all the circuit configurations of the transistor have
reverse voltage for the collector and forward bias for the True
emitter-base junction.
• The _________________ circuit is the one generally used for
amplifiers because it has the best combination of current gain Common-Emitter
and voltage gain.
71
• The only advantage of __________ is that it has the best Common-Base

stability with an increase in temperature.
Collector current
• The common-base circuit has no current gain from the input to must be less than
output because ______________. emitter current.
• A transistor circuit which input voltage is applied to the base Common-Emitter
with respect to the grounded emitter.
Collector current is
• The common-emitter has current gain because _____________. much larger than
base current.
• The disadvantage of common-emitter circuit is that Reverse leakage
_______________ is amplified in the circuit. current
Common-emitter
• The only amplifier that inverts the polarity of signal voltage. amplifier
• A circuit configuration of the transistor which input voltage is Common-collector
applied to the base with respect to the grounded collector.
The output signal
• There is no voltage gain in common-collector circuit because provides negative
__________. feedback to the base
input.
• The name __________ is generally used for the common- Emitter-follower
collector circuit.
• The emitter-follower circuit is often used for ____________. Impedance matching
• The circuit configuration consists of two emitter followers Darlington Pair
connected in cascade.
CLASS A, B, OR C OPERATION
• The amplifier class of operation is defined by the ________ Percentage of the

that is able to produce output signal. input signal
DC bias compared to
cutoff value and the
• The class of operation depends on this two amplitudes: peak AC signal
compare with DC
bias.
• The class of operation determines the ____________ of the Power efficiency
signal may be produced by the amplifier. and distortion
• In this type of operation, the DC bias allows an average output Class A
current of about one-half the maximum value.
False, It never cut-
• True of false: output current of class A operation can cut-off. off
• In this type of operation, the output current flows 180°, or Class B
approximately one-half of the input cycle.
• In class B operation, the negative half-cycles of input signal are Output current then
cut-off in the output because _____________. is zero.
72
• True or false: class b operation requires more DC bias and True

more AC signal drive than the class A.
• Class B operation with a single stage corresponds to Half-wave
___________ of the AC signal input. rectification
• In this type of operation, the output current flows for less than
one-half the input cycle. Typical operation is 120° of output Class C
current during the positive half-cycle of input.
• Class C operation is used for ______________ because of its Tuned RF power
high efficiency. amplifiers
• In class A operation, distortion is ______, but also are AC Lowest
power output and efficiency.
• Typical values of percent distortion of class A operation. 5 to 10
• Typical values of efficiency of class A operation. 20 to 40%
• Typical values of efficiency of class C operation. 80%
• The ___________ operation allows the greatest AC power Class C
output but with the most distortion.
• With audio amplifiers, _________ must be used in a single Class A
stage for minimum distortion.
• A _______________ amplifying an amplitude-modulated
signal must operate class A for minimum distortion of the RF stage
modulation.
• Most small-signal amplifiers operate in ______________. Class A
• The circuit used in class B which in each stage of which supplies Push-pull amplifier
opposites half-cycles of the signal input.
Audio power output
• Push-pull circuit is often used for _______________. to a loudspeaker.
• In class C operation, __________ circuit can provide a full-sine LC circuit
wave cycle of output for each pulse of the output current.
Output current is
very low compared
• Class C operation have high efficiency because ___________. with the peak signal
amplitude.
• A ___________ operates as a class C operation. Pulse clipper circuit
ANALYSIS OF COMMON-EMITTER (CE) AMPLIFIER
• Typical values of VBE are in _________ for junction transistor. Tenths of a volt
• The required bias at the base for a class A amplifier is 0.6 to 0.7 V
_________ for silicon.
• The required bias at the base for a class A amplifier is 0.2 to 0.3 V
_________ for germanium.
• A __________ means that the amplifier conducts current of Class A operation
360° of the signal cycle for minimum distortion.
• The maximum AC input signal without overload distortion. ±0.1 V
73
• Without any forward bias, a junction transistor is cut off by Barrier potential
__________.
• The __________ is the lowest VBE that allows appreciable Cut-in voltage
collector current.
• The __________ is the highest VBE that allows it to produce Saturation voltage
proportional changes in collector current.
• True or false: at saturation, the maximum collector current does False, it doesn’t
increase with an increase of forward voltage. increase
• The transistor amplifier itself is usually labeled ________. Q
• True or false: one supply voltage is used for both collector and True
base in the common-emitter circuit.
• The signal changes in _________ produce variations in the Collector current (iC)
voltage drop across the collector load for the output circuit.
• In signal analysis of the common-emitter circuit, positive signal Increase
voltage in the forward direction __________ the base current.
• True or false: the base bias produces the required collector True
current with the specified RL.
• Each of the cascaded amplifiers increases the __________ Signal current
enough to drive the next stage.
COLLECTOR CHARACTERISTIC CURVES
• The _________ shows the volt-ampere characteristics for the

collector and also provided by the manufacturer in a transistor Characteristic curve
manual or application notes.
• For the common-emitter circuit, the collector curves are for Base current
different values of __________.
• For common-base circuit, the collector curves are for different Emitter current
values of __________.
• For more collector current, the transistor needs more ________. Base current
• This specification for a junction transistor indicates the amount of Beta (β)
current gain in the common-emitter circuit. characteristic
False, because it is a
• True or false: there is a unit for beta (β). ratio of two currents.
Alpha (α)
• This ratio compares collector current to emitter current.
characteristic
LETTER SYMBOLS FOR TRANSISTORS
• Symbols in capital letters and subscripts are used for Average DC values
_________.
The supply voltage
• Double subscripts that are repeated in VCC indicate that does not
__________. change.
• The symbol _________ is used to denote the DC supply voltage VEE
for the emitter.
74
Instantaneous value
that vary with
• The small letters are used for ___________. fluctuating DC
waveform
• A small letter in the subscript indicates the _____________. AC waveform
• A capital letter with a small in the subscript indicates the RMS value of the AC
_____________ component
• The symbol ____________ denotes reverse leakage current. ICBO
• Small letter “h” stands for ___________. Hybrid parameters
FET AMPLIFIERS
• This circuit corresponds to the common-emitter with junction

transistors. With an FET, the input signal is applied to the gate Common-source
which is the control electrode. Amplified output signal is taken circuit
from the drain. The source is the common electrode
• In this circuit, the input signal is applied to the source, with Common-gate circuit
output from the drain.
• In this circuit, the input signal is applied to the gate, with output Common-drain
from the source. circuit
• Common-drain circuit is named ________, corresponding to the Source follower
emitter follower with junction transistors.
• The circuit configuration used most often for FET amplifiers. Common-source
• This factor is important for the FET because it specifies how the Transconductance
gate voltage controls the drain current. (gm)
• The unit of gm because it is a ratio of current over voltage. Siemens
• The ______ indicates a mutual conductance relation of how the
effect of the input voltage at the gate is transferred to the gm
output current in the drain current.
TYPES OF DISTORTIONS
• The __________ has been introduced in the amplifier when the

waveform of the amplified output signal is not exactly the same Distortion
as that of the input signal.
• The _________ is produced by operating the amplifier over the Amplitude distortion
nonlinear part of the transfer characteristic of the amplifier.
• This distortions occurs when the input signal or drive is excessive Overload distortion
• Any _________ in a class A amplifier is a measure of the Shift of DC level
amount of amplitude distortion.
• The change of the relative amplitudes is the same as introducing Harmonic distortion
harmonic components not present in the input signal.
• A ___________ is composed of a fundamental sine wave at the Square Wave
same frequency plus odd-harmonic frequency components.
• Typical values of harmonic distortion at full power output. 1to 5%
75
• The effect which results in harmonics introduced in the amplifier

can combine with each other or with original frequencies to Intermodulation
produce new frequencies that are not harmonics of the distortion
fundamental.
• ____________ is the reason for the rough, unpleasant sound of
amplitude distortion, because that distortion is not harmonically Intermodulation
related to the signal.
• The distortion that results when the gain of the amplifier varies Frequency distortion
with frequency.
• The uniform gain at the center of the curve. Flat response
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
• ___________ means coupling part of the amplified output Feedback

signal back to the input.
• The result when the feedback is in phase with the input signal. Positive feedback
• Positive feedback is used in _________. Oscillator circuits.
• The result when the feedback is out-of- phase with the input Negative feedback
signal.
• The amount of feedback is determined by __________ which is Feedback network
also can vary the feedback for different frequencies.
• The amount of amplifier gain with feedback. Closed-loop gain
• The amount of amplifier gain without feedback. Open-loop gain
There is partial
• The reason why negative feedback reduces distortion is cancellation of the
because ___________. out-of-phase signals
• True or false: such signal frequencies have more positive False, it has more
feedback. negative feedback
• True or false: both amplitude and frequency distortion are True
reduced in negative feedback.
Chapter 31: Digital Electronics
INTRODUCTION
• It involves circuits that operate using only two voltage levels for Digital Electronics
all input and output signals.
• The two voltage levels most commonly used in digital 0 and 5 v
electronics.
• Modern calculators and computers that process binary numbers Logic Gates
use decision-making elements called _______.
Combinational logic
circuits and
• Two broad categories of digital logic circuits. sequential logic
circuits
76
• A circuit is considered a ___________ if its output goes either Combinational logic

low or high with a specified combination input signals. circuits
• This circuit must have a definite order or sequence for its inputs Sequential logic
before the desired output is obtained. circuits
• The basic building block of combinational logic circuits. Logic gates
• The basic building block of sequential logic circuits. Flip-flop
COMPARING BINARY AND DECIMAL NUMBERS
• True or false, in binary number system, there are only two True
digits, 0 and 1.
• All number systems have a _________ which specifies how Base or radix
many digits can be used in each place count.
• In the decimal number system, the base is _____. 10
• In the binary number system, the base is ____. 2
• The most commonly used number system. Decimal
• A number system that is used in digital electronics. Binary
• True or false: typical binary numbers are often written in True
groups of four or eight digits.
• Each digit of binary numbers is referred to as a _______. Bit
• A string of four bits are called _________. Nibble
• Eight bits makes a __________. Byte
• For either binary or decimal numbers, the digit at the right is Least significant
referred to as a _________. digit (LSD)
Most significant
• The digit at the left-most is referred to as a _________. digit (MSD)
DECIMAL TO BINARY CONVERSION
• The method used to convert a decimal number to its binary Double-dabble

equivalent. It requires successive divisions by 2.
HEXADECIMAL NUMBERS
• It is used extensively in the microcomputer field. It has a base of Hexadecimal

16. Numbers
• The first ten digits in the hexadecimal system are represented 0-9
by _________.
• The ______________ are used to represent the numbers 10, A-F
11,12,13,14 and 15.
• The method used to convert a decimal number to a Hex-dabble
hexadecimal number.
• The process of replacing long strings of data with a much Chunking
shorter string.
77
BINARY CODED DECIMAL SYSTEM
Binary coded
• Commonly used number system in the field of digital electronics decimal system
in which expresses each decimal digit as a 4-bit nibble. (BCD)
• The highest BCD value that a 4-bit nibble could represent. 9
• It is used when it is necessary to transfer decimal information BCD number system
into or out of a digital machine.
• True or false: when using the BCD number system, all zeros can False, zeros must be
be dropped. retained.
THE ASCII CODE
• The _____________ is an alphanumeric code; it has binary ASCII Code

values for each letter, number, and symbol.
• Each keystroke on an ASCII keyboard produces a Binary code
corresponding _________ for the designated character.
• ASCII code represented by a ___________ in the form of X6, 7-bit binary word
X5, X4, X3, X2, X1, and X0.
• The first bit of ASCII code. X6
• The ASCII code for the capital letter “W”. 1010111
LOGIC GATES, SYMBOLS, AND TRUTH TABLES
• It is a circuit that has one or more input signals but only one Logic Gate
output signal.
• The ______________ list all input possibilities and the Truth table
corresponding output for each input.
• True or false: logic gates can be analyzed by constructing a True
truth table.
• It has only one input and one output, where the output is the Inverters
opposite of the input.
• The small bubble on inverter diagram represents __________. Inversion
• The number of possibilities listed in the truth table is 2N
__________.
• A logic circuit with two or more inputs but only one output. The
output is high if any or all inputs are high. The output is low only OR Gate
when all inputs are low.
• A logic circuit with two or more inputs. The output is low if any
or all inputs are low. The output is high only when all inputs are AND Gate
high.
output is low if any or all inputs are high. The output is low only NOR Gate
when all inputs are low.
78
output is high if any or all inputs are low. The output is low only NAND Gate
when all inputs are high.
output is high when an odd number of 1s is applied to its inputs. XOR Gate
The output is low when an even number of 1s is applied to its
inputs.
output is high when an even number of 1s is applied to its XNOR Gate
inputs. The output is low when an odd number of 1s is applied
to its inputs.
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
• Logical system of using binary information in digital circuits. Boolean algebra

• For the basic logic inverter the Boolean algebra expression
X=Ā
would be ____________.
• The over-bar above the input variable A represents Inversion or
__________. complementing
• To invert or complement, a binary number means to change it to Opposite state
the _____.
• The “+” sign stands for ___________. OR addition
• The multiplication dot stands for __________. AND operation
• The Boolean expression for the NOR gate. A +B = X
• The Boolean expression for the NAND gate. A•B = X
• The Boolean expression for the XNOR gate. A⊕B = X
• The Boolean expression for the XOR gate. A⊕B = X
DEMORGAN’S THEOREM
• Important principles of Boolean algebra which can help to Demorgan’s

greatly simplify expressions in which a product or sum is Theorem
inverted.
• First theorem of Demorgan’s theorem. A +B = A . B
• Second theorem of Demorgan’s theorem. A•B = A +B
ACTIVE HIGH/ACTIVE LOW TERMINOLOGY
• When an input or output line on a logic gate symbol does not Active high
show a bubble, it indicates that these lines are _________.
• When an input or output line on a logic gate symbol does show Active low
a bubble, these lines are said to be _________.
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• The presence or absence of _________ on the inputs and

output of logic gates indicates whether a line is considered to Bubble
be high or low.
• When an input variable or output in a Boolean expression has
no over-bar, it means that the input variables or outputs are Active high
______.
• If an input variable or output in a Boolean expression does
have an over-bar, it means that the input variables or outputs Active low
are ______.
TREATING UNUSED INPUTS ON LOGIC GATES
• True or false: unused inputs on logic gates should never be left True
disconnected or floating.
• Unused inputs on AND and NAND gates should be connected
directly to __________ or tied to another input that is being VCC (+5V)
used.
• Unused inputs are always ________. High
• The unused input should never be tied to ground for an AND The output would
gate because ______________. always be low.
• Unused inputs on OR and NOR gates should be tied to Ground
________.
• The unused inputs on OR gates should never be tied to VCC The output will
because ___________. remain high.
• NAND OR NOR gates can be used as __________ if all inputs Inverters
are tied together.
TTL CIRCUITS AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS
Transistor-transistor
• It is the most popular family of digital devices. Logic (TTL)
• It is a group of compatible devices with the same logic voltage Digital family
levels and DC supply voltage.
• The __________ are categorized according to the number of Digital IC
logic gates contained in one IC.
Bipolar and MOS
• Two basic technologies for manufacturing digital ICs. technology
• It fabricates bipolar transistors on an IC. Bipolar technology
• It fabricates MOSFETS on an IC. MOS technology
• It is used for SSI and MSI. Bipolar technology
• It is used for LSI, VLSI, and USLI. MOS technology
• True or false: bipolar device have faster switching speeds than True
MOS devices.
• It is used when it is required to package hundreds or thousands MOS technology
of logic gates into one chip.
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• The TTL devices are often referred to as the ___________. 7400 series
• The 7400 device is a __________, which means that this chip Quad 2-input NAND
contains four 2-input NAND gates inside. gate
• The 7404 device is called ________. Hex inverter
Three, 3-input NOR
• The 7427 contains ___________. gates
• The 7400 series uses VCC of _____________. +5V
• The arrangement of schematic diagram of hex inverter in which Totem-pole output
used because of its low output impedance.
• If an input to a standard TTL logic gate is 0.8V or less, the logic Low input
gate recognizes this as ______.
• If an input to a standard TTL logic gate is 2.0V or more, the High input
logic gate recognizes this as ______.
• The range of two input voltage levels of TTL logic gates are Worst case input
referred to as a ___________. voltages
• The maximum number of TTL inputs that can be reliably driven Fan-out
by a standard TTL output is called the _________.
• 7400 series device will work over a temperature of 0° to 70° C
___________.
• Range of supply voltage of 5400 series device. 4.5 - 5.5 V
• Temperature range of 5400 series device. -55° to 125°C
• True or false: 5400 series device should never be substituted True
with 7400 series devices.
CMOS DEVICES
• The basic logic gates such as inverter, AND, OR, NAND, and MOSFET
NOR gates are manufactured using ____________.
Slower switching
• Disadvantages of MOS. speed and extreme
sensitivity to ESD
• Complementary metal oxide semiconductor field effect CMOS
transistor
• True or false: CMOS devices have slower switching speeds as True
compared to TTL.
P-channel and N-
• The MOSFETS most often used in the construction of logic gates. channel
enhancement types
• Commonly used CMOS device series. 4000 series
• Range of supply voltage of 4000 series. 3-15 V
COMBINATIONAL LOGIC CIRCUITS
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• Digital circuits often consist of several different ________,

interconnected in such a way as to perform a specific logic Logic gate
function.
Minterm Boolean
• Sum of products is called ________. expression
• Any logic circuit of AND gates and OR gates can be replaced NAND gates
with equivalent _________.
• True or false: double inversion is the same as no inversion at all. True
BINARY ADDERS
• The _____________ of computer is where arithmetic operations Arithmetic Logic Unit

such as addition take place. (ALU)
• Logic circuits that has provisions for carry-out of 1 but not carry- Half adder
in.
• Digital circuit that has provisions for carry-in of 1 and carry-out Full adder
of 1.
FLIP-FLOPS
• It is a digital circuit that has two stable states. It can hold or Flip-flop
store digital data.
• True or false: the flip-flop can remain in either stable state True
indefinitely.
• Flip-flops are used to store ____________. Binary information
• The __________________ that can store bits of data are an Digital memory
essential part of any computer system. circuits
• The most basic type of flip-flop that can be built using either RS flip-flop
two NOR gates or two NAND gates.
• The flip-flop is said to be set when __________. Q=1 and Q’=0
• The flip-flop is said to be reset when __________. Q=0 and Q’=1
• These can pull TTL inputs to ground for binary 0. Pull-down resistors
• The maximum resistance of pull-down resistors should not 500Ω
exceed ______.
• These pulls the TTL inputs up to +VCC for a binary 1. Pull-up resistors
• It is a RS flip-flop that has a clock (CLK) input. Clocked RS flip-flop
• It is a square wave that has a maximum value of +5V and Clock voltage
minimum value of 0V.
• It prevents the flip-flop outputs from changing until exactly right Clock input signal
time.
• Type of flip-flop in which the flip-flop can edge-triggered. D-type flip-flop
• The flip-flop is edge-triggered because the flip-flop only Clock
responds when the _____ is changing states.
• This flip-flop will respond only to a negative-going clock pulse. JK flip-flop
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• In JK flip-flop, the flip-flop is ______ when the clock is low, Inactive

high, or on its positive- going edge.
BINARY COUNTERS AND REGISTERS
• JK flip-flops can also be connected together to form a Binary counter

________.
• These are used when it is necessary to count the number of clock Binary counters
pulses that arrive at a clock input.
• Equivalent circuit of binary counters. Four JK flip-flop
• The counter in which the output of one flip-flop is fed to the Ripple counter
clock input of another.
• The _________ of the counter is the number of output states it Modulus
has.
• It is a digital circuit that can hold or store digital data. Buffer register
• Equivalent circuit of buffer register. Memory circuit
NEW LOGIC SYMBOLS
• In 1984, a new set of standard symbols was introduced by the IIEE and ANSI
_______________.
• The _______ inside the inverter gate rectangle denotes a gate 1
with only one input.
• The _______ symbol inside the AND gate rectangle means the
output will go active high only when the all inputs are active &
high.
• The symbol inside the OR gate rectangle means that the output
≥
will go active high when one or more inputs are active high.
TROUBLESHOOTING DIGITAL CIRCUITS
• One of the most commonly used pieces of test equipment for

troubleshooting digital circuits. It has two LED indicators that Logic probe
light to indicate whether a voltage level is equivalent to binary
0 or binary 1.
• It is a troubleshooting tool that generates a short-duration pulse Logic pulsers
when activated manually, usually by pressing a button.
• A very special oscilloscope that has either 8 or 16 input leads
for connection to the circuit, which allows the electronic Logic analyzer
technician or engineer to see how all the different circuits are
functioning at the same time.
• A very useful tool to help determine the exact location of a Current tracer
short without breaking the circuit.
Chapter 32: Integrated Circuits
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INTRODUCTION
• This is actually microelectronic circuits. Integrated Circuits

• It is used in computers, calculators, and digital clocks as well as Digital IC
many other digital devices.
• It is used in analog-type circuits such as audio amplifiers,
voltage regulators, operational amplifiers, and radio frequency Linear IC
circuits.
False, there are low-
• True or false: most linear IC’s are high-power devices. power devices.
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS
Operational
• It is a high-gain, direct-coupled, differential amplifier. Amplifier (Op amp)
• True or false: operational amplifiers are the most commonly True
used type of linear integrated circuit (IC).
• Common op amp which different manufacturers produce. 741
• The output of op amp is taken at the emitters of transistors Push-pull
which are connected in a _____________ configuration.
• The push-pull configuration in the output of op amp allows the Very low output
op amp to have a ____________. impedance
• The ___________ affects the operation of the op amp at Compensating
higher frequencies and it is used to prevent undesirable capacitor
oscillations from occurring within the op amp.
• Typical value of compensating capacitor of the op amp. 30pF
• Figure of schematic symbol of an op amp. Triangle
• Pin 7 of 741 op amp connects to ________. +VCC
• Pin __ of 741 op amp connects to -VCC. Pin 4
• Pin ___ of 741 op amp connects to the op amp input. Pin 2 and 3
• Pin 6 of 741 op amp connects to the ________. Op amp output
• The _____________ of an op amp is its voltage gain when Open-loop voltage
there is no negative feedback. gain AVOL
Output voltage to its
• The open-loop voltage gain of an op amp is the ratio of differential input
_________. voltage
• The typical value of AVOL for a 741 op amp. 200,000
• True or false: output voltage of an op amp will be positive if
the non-inverting input is made positive with respect to the True
inverting input.
• When the voltage at the non-inverting (+) input is made
negative with respect to its inverting (-) input, the output is Negative
_________.
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Positive saturation
• The upper limit of output voltage of op amp. voltage
Negative saturation
• The lower limit of output voltage of op amp. voltage
• If the output voltage of any op amp lies between positive and
negative saturation voltage, then the differential input voltage Zero
can be considered as ________.
• Typical input bias current of 741 op amp. 80nA
• The difference between the current flowing for the non-inverting
terminal and the current flowing from the inverting input Input offset current
terminal.
• Typical input offset current of 741 op amp. 20nA
• The frequency where gain of open-loop equals to 1. Unity frequency
• Unity frequency of 741 is approximately ________. 1MHz
• The ___________ tells how fast the output voltage can change. Slew rate
Volts per
• The slew rate of an op amp is specified in _____. microsecond
• Slew rate of 741 op amp. 0.5V/µs
• Slew rate distortion of a sine wave produces a _________. Triangular wave
• True or false: the higher the peak voltage of a sine waves for a True
given frequency, the greater the initial slope.
• If the initial slope of the output waveform exceeds the slew rate Slew rate distortion
of the op amp, ____________ will occur.
• The _________ of an op amp circuit is the highest undistorted
frequency out of an op amp for a given slew rate and peak Power bandwidth
voltage.
• The output short circuit current of 741 op amp. 25mA
Common mode
• It is defined as its ability to amplify differential input signals rejection ratio
while attenuating or rejecting common mode signals. (CMRR)
• Typical CMRR of 741 op amp. 90dB
OP AMP CIRCUITS
• Most op amp uses ____________ feedback. Negative

• True or false: op amp circuits without negative feedback are True
too unstable to be useful.
• It reduces the overall voltage gain of the op amp circuit. Negative feedback
• Type of amplifier in which the input and output signals are 180°
out of phase when input voltage is applied to the inverting (-) Inverting amplifier
input terminal.
• It provides the negative feedback of inverting amplifier, which Resistors RF and Ri
in turn controls the circuit’s overall voltage gain.
• Type of op amp circuit in which the input signal drives the non- Non-inverting
inverting input terminal of the op amp. amplifier
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• For the non-inverting amplifier circuit, the input and output In phase
signals are always ___________.
• The op amp circuit connected to provide a voltage gain of one, Voltage follower
or unity.
• Voltage follower provides no voltage gain because op amp Buffer
circuits will ______ the voltage source for the load.
THREE- TERMINAL IC VOLTAGE REGULATORS
• IC’s feature when the internal temperature of the chip reaches a

certain temperature, the regulator shuts down and prevents the Thermal shutdown
chip from getting any hotter.
• The range of load current of IC voltage regulators. 100mA – 3A
• The popular series of three-terminal IC voltage regulators. LM340 series
• To ensure proper operation of a three-terminal IC voltage
regulator, the unregulated DC input voltage must always be at 2-3V
least ________ higher than its regulated DC output voltage.
• This IC has 1.25V reference voltage between its output terminal LM317
and adjustment terminal.
555 TIMERS
• A very popular IC used in timing circuits. 555 timers

• Range of supply voltage of 555 timers. 5-18V
• This circuit will produce a single output pulse when a trigger Monostable (one
input pulse is applied. shot) multivibrator
• True or false: in monostable operation, the larger the RC time True
constant, the greater the length of the output pulse.
• In this circuit, the capacitor voltage is initially 0V when power is Astable
applied. multivibrator
Additional Lecture:
• Branch of physics dealing with the behavior of electronics in Electronics

vacuums and in gases, with their conduction, with effect in
86
semiconductors and with the utilization of these properties for

the design of electronic devices.
• Hans Christian Oersted showed that an electric current produces 1820
magnetic effects.
• The element silicon was discovered. 1924
• Michael Faraday discovered that magnet in motion can 1831
generate electricity.
• The element germanium was discovered. 1886
• J.A. Fleming introduces the first vacuum tube diode called 1904
Fleming Valve.
• Dr. Lee de Forest introduces the first vacuum tube amplifier 1906
called Audion Tube.
• Shockley, Bardeen and Brattain developed the first transistor at 1948
Bell Telephone Laboratories.
• Jack St. Clair Kilby invented the first integrated circuit, which is
a place shift oscillator at Texas Instruments. 1958
Methods of Electron Emission
• Emission wherein electrons are emitted from the emitter by

supplying heat energy.
Thermionic Emission
• The most widely used type of emission because it is very
convenient method of obtaining electron emission.
• The process in which electromagnetic radiation (light) incident Photoelectric
upon a metal surface causes as every to be transferred to free Emission
electron and eject then from the surface.
• The emission of electrons by a metal surface when it is
bombarded by rapidly moving electrons resulting to collision of Secondary Emission
some electrons within the metal surface that causes them to be
projected outward like a billiard ball.
• The emission of electrons takes place by the application of
strong electric field at the surface of a metal, usually at room High-Field Emission
temperature.
• The work of additional energy required to emit an electron Work function
from the surface of a metal, measured in eV.
Vacuum Tube
• An electron tube containing an almost perfect vacuum that emits (Thermo-ionic
electron from a hot metal cathode, precursor of the transistor. Valve)
Types of Vacuum Tube
• An electron tube with two- electrodes (anode and cathode). Vacuum Tube Diode
• Used primarily as a rectifier. (Fleming Valve)
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• The cloud stream of electrons formed on the space between

cathode and plate that introduce repelling effects thus reducing Space charge
plate current.
• A thermo-ionic vacuum tube with three electrodes; anode,
cathode and control grid. Triode
• Used to amplify signals and eliminate space charge that is (Audion Tube)
present in a vacuum tube diode.
• Consist of a five mesh placed very close to the cathode where
the plate is held at some positive potential with respect to Control Grid
cathode while control grid is placed at negative potential with
respect to cathode.
• A four electrode tube containing an anode, cathode, control Tetrode
grid, and screen grid.
• A thermoionic valve which has five electrodes (anode, cathode, Pentode
control grid, screen grid, and suppressor grid).
• And electron-beam tube built so that directed electron becomes
contribute substantially to its power handling capability special Beam Power Tube
deflecting electrodes are used to concentrate the electrons into
beams, also known as tetrode.
• The ratio of the charge in anode voltage of an electron tube to
a charge in control electrode (grid ) voltage that produces the Amplification Factor
same change in anode current when other voltages and currents (µ)
are held constant.
• The equivalent resistance of the interval plate to cathode circuit. Plate Resistance (rp)
• It is the ratio of a change in anode current with respect to a Transconductance
change in control grid voltage. (gm)
Semiconductor Fundamentals
• The smallest particle of an element that still retains the Atom
characteristics of that element.
• Positively charged particles. Proton
• Uncharged particle Neutrons
• Basic particles of negative charge. Electrons
• An atom or molecule that has been electrically unbalanced by Ion
the loss or gain of one or more electrons.
• An atom that has lost an electron Positive Ion
• An atom that has gained an electron. Negative Ion
• It is formed when the electron in the outer shell of an atom gains
sufficient energy from the surrounding media and break away Free Electrons
from the parent atom.
• Capable of moving from one atom to another in the material. Free Electrons
• Any material that will support a generous flow of charge when
a voltage source at limited magnitude is applied across its Conductor
terminal.
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• A material that offers a very low level of conductivity under Insulator

pressure from an applied voltage source.
• A material that has a conductivity level somewhere between an Semiconductor
insulator and a conductor.
• Class of material whose electrical properties lie between the
extremes of conductors and insulators that exhibits relatively Semiconductor
high resistance in a pure state and much lower resistance when
it contains small amounts of certain impurities.
• Semiconductors that have been carefully refined to reduce the Intrinsic
impurities to a very low level. Semiconductor
• Semiconductor whose electrical properties are dependent in Extrinsic
impurities added to the semiconductor crystals. Semiconductor
• Process of adding impurity elements to increase the number of
free charges that can be moved by an externally applied Doping
voltage.
• Impurity that gives up electrons. Donor Impurity
• Impurity that accepts electrons. Acceptor Impurity
• Semiconductor whose density of hole concentration in the
volume bond is exceeded by the density of electrons in the N-type Material
conduction bond.
• Form of semiconductor material whose electron density in
conductor bond is exceeded by the density of holes in the P-type Material
valence bond.
• The tendency of an atom to share electrons with their Covalent Bonding
neighboring atoms to achieve stable condition.
• The merging of free moving and spatially separated electrons
and holes, stopping their movement and current carrying Recombination
capability.
• The amount of time between the creations and disappearance Lifetime
of free electrons.
• A two-terminal semiconductor device that exhibit a nonlinear Semiconductor
current voltage characteristics. Diodes
• The maximum reverse voltage that a diode can with stands Peak Inverse
destroying the junction. Voltage (PIV)
• Current that flows through a Reverse Bias Diode caused by Reverse Saturation
thermally produced minority carriers. Current
• Caused by surface impurities and imperfection in the crystal Surface Leakage
structure. Current
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM
89
• A complete electronic circuit in which both the active passive Integrated Circuit
components are fabricated on an extremely tiny clip of silicon.
• A phenomenon that is associated with the presence of motion of Electricity
electrons and other charged particles.
• Composed of atoms which are made up of nucleus around which Matter
an infinitesimal charge revolves.
• A substance consisting of electrons, protons and neutrons Atom
• A substance consisting of atoms of only one kind. Element
• A combination of 2 or more different atoms or elements. Compound
• Smallest part of a compound that retains the properties of the Molecule
compound.
• Basic quantity for negative charge; can be valence electron
being the electrons of the outermost shell; can be bound Electron
electrons of the innermost; can be free or conduction electrons
that are free to move.
• Basic quantity for positive charge; neutral particle in atom. Proton
• Materials with less than 4 valence electrons; allows electrical Conductors
current to flow easily; Example Cu, Al, Au and Ag.
• Materials with more than 4 valence electrons; prevents the flow
of electrical current; conductor insulation serves as physical Insulators
shield of wire against heat or moisture. Example: plastics, glass,
rubber and etc.
• With exactly 4 valence electrons; have electrical characteristic Semiconductor
in between conductor and insulator.
• Energy difference between that valence and conduction band; Energy Gap
1.1.eV for Si, 0.67eV for Ge.
• Region of the valence shell and valence electrons. Valence Band
• Region where free electrons are said to be present. Conduction Band
• Region where no electron exist. Forbidden Band
• Static electricity at rest with any motion; the result of work done
in separating electrons of its atoms; coulomb (C0, unit for Charge
electrical charge named after Charles Coulomb.
• Unlike or dissimilar charges attract each other Law of Electrical
• Like or similar charges repel each other. Charges
• The force between charges is proportional to the amount of
charges and inversely proportional to the square of the Coulomb’s Law
distance between charges.
• It is a rate charge in motion; a continuous flow of free electrons; Current
I= Q/t: Example: 1 ampere = 1 coulomb/ second.
• It is the base unit of current; named in honor to the French Ampere (A)
physicist Andre Marie Ampere.
• Current flows only in one direction. Direct Current (DC)
Alternating Current
• Current flows in alternate direction periodically. (AC)
90
• Force that is used to move the charges particles such as Electromotive Force
electrons. (emf or e)
• The ability to charges body to do work on charges particles Electric Potential
such as electrons.
• A potential energy difference (or simply P.D) that exists across
two points which tend to cause a flow of electrons.
• A unit of potential difference and named after Italian physicist
Alessandro Volta. 1 volt will push 1 ampere of current through Voltage
1 ohm resistance.
• V= W/Q
Example: Volt= 1 Joule/Coulomb or 1 Newton-meter/
Coulomb
• A property pf electric circuit, material and substance that tend
to limit the amount of current that can be produced by the Resistance
applied voltage and converts electrical energy into heat (R or r)
energy.
• The basic unit of resistance named after George Simon Ohm. Ohm (Ω)
• The resistance of conducting material is directly proportional to
its length (R directly proportional to L and inversely Resistance Law
proportional to its across-sectional area (R directly proportional
to I/A).
• Conductivity is the reciprocal of resistivity. Conductance
• Unit of conductance formerly known as mho Siemens (S)
• Combination of resistance and reactance in AC circuit Impedance (Z)
• Reciprocal of impedance. Admittance (Y)
• Opposition to current offered by capacitive and inductive Reactance (X)
elements.
• Reciprocal of reactance. Susceptance (B)
• The accomplishment of motion against the action of a force Work
which tends to oppose the motion.
• SI unit of work energy. Joule
1 Joule= 1 Newton-meter= 1 Coulomb/Volt
• Unit of energy for single electron Electronvolt
1eV= 1.6x10-19 (eV)
• Rate of producing work or consuming energy. Power
P= W/t = VI= I2R=V2/R
• The SI unit of electric power named after James Watt. Watts
• Power rating of electric rating motor. Horsepower
1 Hp= 746 Watts or 0.746 KW
• It is the ability to do work. Energy
For heat energy: 1 Kcal= 4180 J. 1BTU= 778.16 ft-lb
• A device having known specific values of resistance in ohms (Ω)
that limits the amount of current flowing through it. Resistor
• Can divide the voltage in a circuit.
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• With power rating that show how much power can be safely
dissipated.
• The resistor in an incandescent lamp. Fine Tungsten Wire
• Used as heating elements in toasters, flat irons, and other Nickel-chromium
heating resistance heating elements. alloy
• It offers few Ohms of resistance. Nichrome Wire
• 1/8W to 2W in rating, and its Ohmic rating can be determined Carbon composition
by its color code.
• They are very accurate and it’s ohmic and wattage (above
2W) is painted on its covering. Can be made from a Nichrome Wire Wound
wire wound ranges from 5W to 100 W.
• It uses a thin film of metal particle mixture to achieve various Metal Film
resistances.
• Two terminal variable resistors. Rheostat
• Three terminal variable resistor; connected in a circuit to vary
the voltage; taper of a potentiometer refers to the way in Potentiometer
which the resistance changes in relation to the position of its
slider.
• A potentiometer equipped with a plastic thumbwheel or a slot Trimmer/ Trimpots
for a screwdriver for occasional adjustment.
Thermistor Varistors
• Temperature sensitive resistor; uses: protective device, or Voltage
temperature measurement or control. Dependent Resistor
(VDR)
• Light sensitive resistors; use: sensing light, sense people or items Photoresistor, or
passing a point, adjust television picture brightness to match Light Dependent
room light. Resistor (LDR)
• Opposes change in current
• Allows DC but blocks AC
• Stores energy by concentrating the magnetic field of current Inductor
• Also know as choke
• Termed as solenoid for coil with more than one turn
• Property of a circuit that opposes the change in current
expressed in Henries (H).
• For a N-turn coil wound around certain core, it is defined as the Inductance (L)
amount of flux linkage of the coil per unit current through the
coil.
• One time constant is the amount of time for an inductor to Time Constant
energized and de-energized up to 63.2%.
Instantaneous
• The amount of current flowing through the inductor at certain Current of an
time constant. Inductor
• Used for radio frequency applications; inductance in µH to mH; Air-core inductor
typical coefficient of coupling from 0.05 to 0.3.
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• Used for 60Hz and audio frequency applications; inductance Iron-core conductor
from 1H to 25H’ typical coefficient of coupling equals 1.
• It stores electric energy
• Preciously called as condenser (deprecated) Capacitor
• Essentially consist of two conducting plates called electrodes
separated by a layer called dielectric.
• The electrical size of the capacitor.
• A measure of how much electric energy a capacitor can store
expressed in Farads (F). Capacitance (C)
• Previously called capacity (depreciated will permit the
establishment of flux lines within the dielectric.
• The reciprocal of capacitance. It has a unit of daraf. Elastance (S)
S= 1/C
• One time constant is the amount of tome for an inductor to Time Constant
energized and de-energized up to 63.2%.
• capacitance values range approximately 1pF to 0.1µF; Used Mica
over a wide temperature range (-55 to 155°C)
• Package as “rolled sandwich”; variety of values, 500pF to Paper
50µF.
• Used include polystyrene, polycarbonate, and polyester Plastic Film
(Mylar); available in typical ranges 500µpF to 10µF.
• Low-k ceramic capacitor changes their value appreciably with Ceramic
temperature, dc voltage and frequency.
• It can be aluminum and tantalum and either polarized or non-
polarized; used where large value of capacitance in a small Electrolytic
volume is required.
• Capacitance values ranges from a few Pico farads up to Air variable
500pF; maximum voltage rating is 9kV.
• It utilized for tuning and din hybrid microelectronics circuit. Trimmer
• No larger than a match head. It is volumetric efficient. Chip Capacitors
• A short circuit caused by dielectric breakdown or an open circuit Catastrophic
caused by connection failure.
• Results in a gradual decrease in leakage resistance and hence Degradation
gradual increase in leakage current.
• Specifies the maximum DC voltage that can be applied without Voltage Rating
the risk of damage.
• Indicates the amount and direction of damage in capacitance Temperature
value with temperature. Coefficient
• The current that result in the total discharge of a capacitor if the Leakage Current
capacitor is disconnected from the charging network.
• The voltage that can be applied across a capacitor for long Working Voltage
period of time.
• A natural phenomenon in which some material (ferromagnetic)
can be attached by a magnet but not other material (non- Magnetism
magnetic).
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• A substance that attracts pieces of iron (and its compound),

steel, nickel, cobalt.
• Natural magnet exhibits permanent magnetism.
Magnet
• Lodes tone, a natural magnet.
• Artificial magnets produce by exposing or subjecting a
magnetic material into a magnetizing force.
• A permanent magnet often used in speakers. Alnico
• It is used in high power transformers. Hipernik
• A placed across poles to maintain strength during storage. Keeper
• It is the air space between poles and magnet. Air Gap
• Another name of demagnetization. Degaussing
• Temperature where materials lose magnetism. Curie Temperature
• It is know as the magnetic lines of force. Represent the lines Flux
which seem to emanate from north and terminates to South Pole.
• The cgs unit of flux named after Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell (Mx)
Maxwell (1831-1879).
• The SI unit of flux and named after German physicist Wilhelm Weber (Wb)
Webert (1804-1891).
• Specifies the amount of magnetic lines per unit area (A). Flux Density
• The cgs unit and named after Johann Karl Freidrich Gauss Gauss (G)
(1777-1855).
• The SI unit and named after Croatian engineer Nikola Tesla Tesla
(1856-1943)
Magnemotive Force
• The amount of magnetizing force or magnetic potential. (mmf)
• It is needed to reduce flux density to zero. Coercive Force
• Arrangement of atoms under mmf. Domain
• The cgs unit and named after William Gilbert (1540-1603). Gilbert (Gb)
Magnetic Field
• Amount of Magnemotive force per unit length. Intensity (H)
• The cgs unit and named after Danish physicist Hans Christian Gilbert (Gb)
Oersted (1777-1871).
• A property that concentrates the magnetic flux. It is a measure
of the ability of magnetic circuit to permit the setting up of flux.
A counter part of conductance in an electric circuit. Reluctant, Permeance (P)
reciprocal of permeance which is the limiter of the magnetic
circuit to the establishment of a magnetic flux.
• With very high relative permeability from 50 to 5000.

• Strongly magnetized in the same direction as magnetizing Ferromagnetic
force.
• Example: Alnico, cobalt, iron, nickel, steel, ferrites.
• With relative permeability slightly greater than 1
• Weakly magnetized in the same direction as the magnetizing Paramagnetic
force
94
• Example: aluminum, chromium, manganese, platinum

• With permeability equals to space or vacuum permeability
which is equals to 4π x 10 -7 H/m.
• With relative permeability equals to 1. Non-magnetic
• Do allow magnetism to pass through them, but they never
become magnetized to any noticeable degree.
• With relative permeability slightly less than 1.
• Weakly magnetized in opposite direction as magnetizing force. Diamagnetic
• Examples: antimony, bismuth, copper, gold, mercury, silver, zinc.
• The delayed reaction of the magnetization of a ferromagnetic Hysteresis
material with the change of magnetizing force.
• The amount of force that can bring the residual magnetism to Coercive Force
zero.
• “The amount of induced voltage is directly defendant on the
number of turns of a coil and on the rate a flux cuts the Faraday’s Law
conductor”.
Faraday’s 1st law of
• States that electromagnetic force is induced whenever a Electromagnetic
conductor cuts a magnetic flux. Induction
Faraday’s 2nd Law
• “The magnitude of induced emf is proportional to the relative of Electromagnetic
of change of flux:” Induction
• States that “The direction of the induced current produces
magnetic field that opposes the action that produced the Lenz’ Law
induced current”.
• The concept whereby a small voltage is generated whenever a Hall Effect
conductor with current in an external magnetic field known.
• The effect that describes the ability of a mechanically stressed
ferromagnetic wire to recognized rapid switching of Wiegand Effect
magnetization subjected to a DC magnetic field.
ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS
• It represents a net flow of charges past given point, expressed

in amperes (A) Electric Current (I)
• It is specified by a magnitude and a direction.
Electron Drift
• It is the speed with which charge drifts in a conductor.
Velocity (or velocity
• It is about a fraction of a meter per second. of charge)
• It represents the amount of energy expended or the amount of Voltage (or potential
work done in moving a certain amount of charge from one point difference) between
to the other per unit charge, expressed in volts (V). two points, v or V
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• It represents the amount of energy absorbed by (or work done

ON) charges per unit charges when positive charges are moved Voltage Rise
to a positive region (or negative charges are moved to a
negative region), in order to overcome the force of repulsion.
• It represents the amount of energy released by (or work done
BY) charges per unit charges when positive charges are moved Voltage Drop
to a negative region (or negative charges are moved to a
positive region), in order to neutralized the force of attraction.
• It is the speed with which the effect of emf is experienced at all Velocity of
parts of a conductor resulting in the flow of current propagation of
• It is approximately equal to 3 x 108 m/s. electric field
CIRCUIT COMPONENTS
• These are capable of generating and supplying energy. Active Elements

• It maintains a specified voltage between its terminals Independent Voltage
regardless of the circuit connected to its terminals. Source
• It provides a specified current through it regardless of the circuit Independent Current
to which it is connected. Source
• These are voltage (or current) sources whose terminal voltage Dependent or
(or current) is controlled by a voltage or current defined at Controlled Sources
some other location in the circuit.
• Theses are essential for producing amplifiers, which are
electrical devices that produce outputs more powerful than their
inputs. Controlled Sources
• These are an integral part of active filters and other kinds of
electronic circuits.
• It can absorb (or store) energy. Passive elements
• It absorbs and converts energy. Resistors
Capacitors (or
• It stores energy in an electrostatic field. condensers)
• It stores energy in an electromagnetic field Inductors (or coils)
• When the frequency of the current through a wire increases, the Increases
resistance of the wire ____________,
• The tendency of the current to flow near the surface (or skin) of
the wire due to unequal or non-uniform flux distribution within Skin Effect
the area of the wire.
• It is the reciprocal of resistance, expressed in siemens (S). Conductance (G)
• It is a means by which different types of wires are compared
% Conductivity of a
with the standard copper conductor.
Wire
• It may be computed by mass or by volume.
• It states that in an electric circuit or a resistive element, the Ohm’s Law
current and the voltage are directly proportional.
• The constant of proportionality between voltage and current is Resistance
called ______________.
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• It represents the opposition to the flow of current.

• These are elements used to limit the current, divide the voltage
or convert electrical energy into heat energy (as in heaters) or Resistors
light energy (as in lamp filaments).
• Type of resistors whose VI characteristic curve is linear. Linear Resistor
• Molded carbon Composition resistors. Fixed Resistor
Vitreous – Enameled
• For all types of equipment. Wire – Wound
Resistors
High – Voltage
• For HV applications up to 10kV requiring high levels of Cement Film
stability. Resistor
• For high stability, low temperature coefficient and low noise Metal – Film
level requirement. Precision Resistors
Surface Mount
• Ideal for printed circuit boards. power Resistor
Thick – Film Chip
• For design flexibility with hybrid circuitry. Resistors
• Used to vary the resistance. Rheostat
• Used to control potential levels. Potentiometer
• Resistors whose VI characteristic curve is nonlinear.
Non – linear
• Examples are filaments of incandescent lamps, diodes, Resistor
thermistors, varistors, etc.
• When work is done, _______ is expended. Energy
• When energy is converted from one form to another, _______ Work
is done.
• Energy is neither created nor destroyed Law of Conservation
• It is only converted from one form to another. of Energy
• It is the energy converted to a form that is not useful to a Energy Loss
system.
• It is the ratio of the output power (or energy) to the input power Efficiency
(or energy).
• Product of all individual efficiencies. Overall Efficiency
DC RESISTIVE CIRCUITS
• It states that the algebraic sum of all currents at a junction or Kirchoff’s Current
node is equal to zero. Law (KCL)
• It states that the algebraic sum of all voltages around a closed Kirchoff’s Voltage
path or loop is zero. Law (KVL)
• It states that in a series circuit, the ratio of any two voltages (or Voltage Division
combination of voltages) is equal to the ratio of the respective Principle (or Voltage
resistance (or group of resistance in series). Divider Rule)
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• It states that in a parallel circuit, the ratio of any two branch– Current Division
currents is equal to the reverse ratio of the respective resistance Principle (or Current
(or equal to the ratio of the respective conductances). Divider Rule)
• It states that maximum power is delivered to the load when the Maximum Power
load resistance matches the internal resistance of the source. Transfer Theorem
• It involves series connected resistive elements whose values are
designed in order that specified or desired smaller voltages Voltage Dividers
may be provided fro ma single voltage source.
• It is used to limit the source current and to reduce or drop the Series Dropping
available source voltage to the required load voltage. Resistance
• It is used to regulate the load voltage. Bleeder Resistance
• It involves the direct application of Kirchoff’s Voltage Law Mesh Analysis
• It involves the direct application of Kirchoff’s Current Law. Nodal Analysis
NETWORK THEOREMS
• It states that any linear response of a linear bilateral system is

equal to the algebraic sum of all linear responses produced by
all sources acting independently in the system. Superposition
• It is more commonly utilized in the frequency – domain analysis Theorem
of AC circuits driven by sources operating at different
frequencies.
• It states that any linear response of a passive, linear system
may be expressed as a function of all independent sources Principle of Linearity
applied to the system.
• It states that any active, one port network may be represented
by an equivalent by an equivalent model consisting of the series Thevenin’s Theorem
combination of a voltage source and a resistance.
• It states that any active, one port network may be represented
by an equivalent by an equivalent model consisting of the Norton’s Theorem
parallel combination of a current source and a resistance.
• It involves the conversion of a network with the π (or delta) Delta – Wye (or Wye
configuration into a network with the T (or wye) configuration, – Delta)
and vice versa, in order to facilitate network analysis. Transformation
FUNDAMENTALS OF ALTERNATING CURRENT (AC) CIRCUITS
• These are stable linear circuits operating in the steady state Alternating Current
with sinusoidal excitation. (AC) Circuits
• It involves finding the steady state response forced by a
Sinusoidal excitation after the natural or transient response has AC Circuit Analysis
elapsed.
98
• Generation of AC voltage by means of rotating machines (AC Electromagnetic

generator or alternator).
• Generation of AC voltage by means of oscillator circuits in
signal generators whereby alternating current is produced from Electronic
a DC source (inverters).
• Time required for the waveform to complete one cycle (in Period (T)
seconds or radians).
• Number of cycles the waveform completes per second (cps or Frequency (f)
Hz).
Angular or Radian
• 2πf = 2π/T rad/s
Frequency (ω)
Amplitude or Peak
• The maximum positive or negative instantaneous value. Value
• An angular measurement that specifies the position of the Phase Angle
waveform relative to a reference.
• Between two sinusoidal waveforms operating at the same Phase Difference (or
frequency deviation between the zero (and maximum) Phase Shift)
instantaneous values of the two waveforms.
COMPLEX ALGEBRA
• In circuit analysis, j acts as a ________. 90° operator
Rectangular Form
• Forms of complex quantities Polar Form
Exponential Form
• It represents the total opposition to the flow of alternating
current, expressed in ohms (Ω).
Impedance (Z)
• It represents the passive elements R, L, C and their combination
in the frequency domain.
• The reciprocal of impedance, expressed in siemens (G). Admittance (Y)
• Fro the resistive element, the current through it is ________ with In Phase
the voltage across it.
• For the purely inductive element, the current through it _______ Leads
the voltage across it by 90°.
• For the inductive circuit (series RL or parallel RL), the current
______ the voltage by an angle less than 90° (equal to the Lags
angle of the equivalent impedance).
• For the capacitive circuit (series RC or parallel RC), the current
______ the voltage by an angle less than 90° (equal to the Leads
angle of the equivalent impedance).
• In a series circuit, the ratio of any two voltages is also the ratio Voltage Division
of the corresponding impedances. Rule
• In a parallel circuit, the ratio of any two currents is also the Current Division
ratio of the corresponding admittance or the inverse ratio of the Rule
corresponding impedances.
POWER IN AC CIRCUITS
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• It represents the rate at which energy is stored or released in

any of the energy – storing elements (the inductor or the Reactive Power (Q)
capacitor).
• It represents the rate at which total energy is supplied to the Apparent Power (S)
system.
• P/S = cos θ Power Factor (pf)
• Q/S = sin θ Reactive Factor (rf)
• It shows the relationship of P, Q, and S derived from the power Power Triangle
vector diagram (using the current as reference).
• It involves the use of a power measuring instrument such as the
wattmeter to obtain the average power delivered to a system Power Measurement
connected after the meter.
BALANCED THREE PHASE SYSTEMS

• It comprises three identical single – phase systems operating at Balanced Three
a 120° - phase displacement from one another. Phase System
• It can provide only one type of voltage (line to line) to both Three Phase, 3 –
single – phase and three – phase loads. Wire Systems
• It can provide two types of voltage (line to line and line to Three Phase, 4 –
neutral) to both single – phase and three – phase loads. Wire Systems
Two single phase
• Three phase power may be measured using ____________. wattmeter
RESONANT (OR TUNED) CIRCUITS
• It is a circuit achieves resonant condition by varying the source Resonant Circuit

frequency.
• It is a circuit that achieves resonant condition by varying a Tuned Circuit
circuit parameter (either L or C).
• The magnitude of the equivalent impedance (or admittance) is Series Resonance
Maximum.
• The magnitude of the equivalent impedance (or admittance) is Parallel Resonance
Minimum. or Anti – Resonance
• R/L = f2 – f1 Bandwidth (BW)
1 1 Quality Factor or
• Q = XL/R =XC/R = Figure of Merit (Q)
R C
Resonant Rise in
• VL = VC = Q x VS Voltage across L or
C
• It describes a two – port network and its model by defining the
relation ship that exists between the voltage and currents at the Two – Port Network
ports.
Generalized
• It may be utilized to calculate the forced response produced by Impedance Z (S) or
a complex – frequency excitation with a particular value of S. Admittance Y (S)
100
• It describes a given network by relating any response of the Network Function H

network with the input or driving function. (S)
Driving – Point
• It relates the network’s terminal variables. Function
• It relates any other voltage or current within the network to the Transfer Function
input voltage or current.
RESONANCE AND FILTERS
• It is the condition where the current is in phase with the voltage. Resonance
• During resonance, the circuit power factor is _______. Unity
• Circuits that achieves resonant condition by varying the source Resonant Circuit
frequency.
• A circuit that achieves resonant condition by varying a circuit Tuned Circuit
parameter. (either L or C)
• Resonant Condition:
a. The current is in phase with the applied voltage in an
RLC circuit. Resonant Condition
b. The magnitude of the equivalent (or admittance) is
either
i. Minimum- for series resonance
ii. Maximum- for parallel or anti-resonance
• At resonance the circuit acts as a low impedance and frequency Series Resonance
selective network.
• It refers to the goodness of a reactive component. I series
circuit: the voltage magnification factor at the time of Quality Factor
resonance.
• A range of frequencies taken between two-half power points Bandwidth
which operation is satisfactory.
• At resonance, the circuit acts as high impedance and a Parallel Resonance
frequency selective network.
• A circuit designed to pass desired frequencies and reject or
attenuate undesired frequencies.
Filter
• Basic filter network needs to have frequency dependent devices
like inductor or capacitor.
• It shows the output or gain of the network with respect to the Frequency Response
signal; frequency
• The frequency that divides the response curve into either pass Cut-off Frequency
band or stop band.
• Rate of change in voltage gain (dB) for every frequency Roll-off Rate
interval (octave or decade).
101
• It is the ability of a circuit to respond more readily to signals of

a particular frequency to which it is tuned than to signals of Selectivity
other frequencies.
• Consist of passive elements, R,L, and C
• Can generate a maximum gain of 1.
• May require bulky and expensive inductors. Passive Filter
• Perform poorly at frequencies below the audio frequency
range (300 to 3000 Hz); useful at high frequencies
• Consist of combinations of resistors, capacitors and op amps

• Smaller and less expensive than passive filters
• Can provide amplifier gain in addition to providing the same
frequency response as passive filters.
• Can be combined with buffer (voltage followers) to isolate each Active Filters
stage of the filter from source and load impedance effects.
• It is less reliable and less stable than passive filters.
• Operate well below 100 Hz; kHz requires power supply.
• Classification According to Frequency Responds
1. Low Pass Filter
▪ A circuit offering easy passage to low-frequency
signals and difficult passage to high-frequency
signals.
▪ With low pass filter, the frequencies between zero
and the cut-off frequency are called the pass
band.
▪ Ideal low pass filter has zero phases of the
nonsinusoidal signal is preserved.
2. High Pass Filter

▪ Filter that passes with frequencies above the cut-off
and rejects frequencies below the cut-off.
▪ Frequencies between zero and cut-off frequency is
the stop band.
▪ Frequencies above the cut-off are pass band.
• High Pass Filter
▪ Filter that passes signals with frequencies above
the cut-off and rejects frequencies below the cut-
off. High Pas Filter
▪ Frequencies between zero and the cut-frequency
are the stop band.
▪ Frequencies above the cut-off are pass board.
• Band Pass Filter
▪ Works to screen out frequencies that are too low Band Pass Filter
or too high, giving easy passage only to
frequencies within a certain range.
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▪ Band-pass filters can be made by stacking a low-

pass filter on the end of a high-pass filter, or visa-
versa.
▪ The pass band is all the frequencies between the
lower and the upper frequencies.
▪ Frequencies below the lower and above the cut-
off frequency are stopband.
▪ Ideal band pass filter has zero attenuation in the
passband, infinite attenuation in the stopbanb and
two vertical transitions.
• Bandpass filter is the difference is the difference between its
upper and lower 3-dB cut-off frequencies. Bandwidth
BW= f2- f1
• The Q of a bandpass filter is defined as the center frequency Quality Factor
divided by the bandwidth.
• If Q is less than 1, the bandpass filter is called a __________. Wideband Filter
• If Q is greater than 1, the filter is called a ___________. Narrowband Filter
• Also called band eliminated or band reject.
• Also it is sometimes called a notch filter because it notches out
or removes all frequencies in the stopband. Bandstop Filter
• It passes all frequencies above and below a particular range
set by the component values.
• A filter that is designed that has passband and no stop band.
• It passes signals between zero and infinite frequencies.
• Zero attenuation to all frequencies. All Pass Filter
• It is used in producing a certain amount of phase shift for the
signal being filtered without changing its amplitude.
• A filter with a very flat amplitude response in the passband
• Butterworth approximation is maximally flat approximation
because the passband attenuation is zero. Butterworth Filter
• First-order Butterworth filter rolls at the rate of 20 dB per
decade or 6 dB per decade
• Roll off faster in the transition region than a Butterworth filter.
• Ripples and overshoot appear in the passband of the
frequency response. Chebyshev Filter
• A filter with a roll-off rate greater than -20dB per decade or -
6dB per octave.
• Need for flat passband response as well as fast roll-off.
• It has a flat passband response and rippled stopband Inverse Chebyshev
response. Filter
• Roll-off rate in the transition region is comparable to the roll off
rate of Chebyshev filter.
• Need for the fastest possible roll-off in the transition region
Elliptic Filter
• Also known as the CAUER filter
103
• This Filter optimizes the transition region at the expensive of the

passband and stopband.
• A filter that has a linear phase characteristics and no overshoot
on the output with a pulse input.
• It has a flat passband and Monotonic stop band similar to
Butterworth approximation.
Bessel Filter
• It has the highest order or greatest circuit complexity of all
approximations.
• Bessel approximation is optimized to produce a linear phase
shift with frequency.
• Order of a passive filter (symbolizes by n) equals the number
of inductors and capacitors in the filter.
• If a passive filter has two inductors and two capacitors, n=4
Order of Filter
• Thus the order tells us how complicated the filter is.
• The order of an active filter defends on the number of RC
circuits (called poles) it contains.
n= number of capacitors.
ENERGY CONVERSIONS
• Rotating electrical machines that convert mechanical energy Generators
input to usable electrical energy.
• It is cylindrical in shape to which even number of poles is Yoke
bolted.
• It supports the field coil and spread the flux over large area. Pole and Pole Shoe
• The source of flux. The current flowing through this winding
can be controlled to control the flux passing through the Field Winding
machine.
• A cylindrical core. Made of sheet steel laminations and
insulated from each other by a thin layer of paper and Armature
vanish to reduce iron losses.
• Cylindrical in shape and consist of segments of hard drawn
copper. A mica strip insulates each segment from each other. Commutator
Windings of armature and terminated on it.
• It is used to connect the external circuit to the armature. Brushes
• Type of winding which coil ends are connected to Lap Winding
commutator segments that are near to one another.
• Type of winding which the coil ends are connected to
commutator segments that are of some distance from one Wave
another; nearly 360 electrical degrees.
• Armature current paths for both DC motor and DC Parallel paths
generator.
• This is a voltage generated across the armature of the DC Generated Voltage of a
generator. It is an AC not DC. DC Generator (EMF)
104
• It is responsible in converting the generated AC voltage in Commutator

the armature to DC.
• It is reversal of current in the coil when the coil passes Induced Voltage
through the brush position.
• When the generator is loaded, the armature conductor
carries current and hence current carrying conductors Armature Reaction
produce a magnetic flux of its own which affects the flux
created by the main poles.
• A filed of strength in the gap is weakened under the leading
Effects of Armature
pole tips and strengthens under the trailing pole tip.
Reaction
• Magnetic filed of the machine is distorted.
• Neutralizes the cross-magnetizing effects of armature
reaction.
• These windings are connected in series with armature in such Compensating Winding
a way that the current in it flows in opposite direction to that
flowing in armature conductors directly below the poles
shoes.
• A better method of providing a commutating field
Interpoles
• Does not reduce armature reaction.
• The filed wingding is energized from an external dc source. Exciter
It maybe a battery or another dc generator.
• The filed winding is energized by its own armature. Self excited generator
• The field winding is energized by its own armature. Shunt generator
• The filed is connected in series with the armature. Series Generator
• It uses both the shunt and series field coils to produce its Compound generator
excitation.
• Losses due to current in the various windings of the machine.
a. Armature copper loss Copper loss
b. Filed copper loss
c. Brush contact loss
• Magnetic or core losses.
a. Hysteresis loss Iron Loss
b. Eddy current losses
• Air friction of rotating armature
• Bearing friction Mechanical losses
• Brush friction
• Machines designed to generate alternating currents. Alternators
• When the rotor rotates, the stator conductors are cut by the
magnetic flux, hence they have induced emf produced in
them. Because of the magnetic poles are alternately N and S Operating Principle
poles, they induced an emf and hence current in the
armature conductors, which first flow in one direction and
then in the other.
• It is produced in the stator conductors whose frequency Alternating Emf
defends on the number of poles moving past in a conductor
105
in one second and whose directions given by Fleming’s right-

hand rule.
• Are rotating electrical machines that convert electrical
energy into mechanical energy.
• The presence of back emf causes the armature current to
automatically changes with the increases of load on the Motors
motor. If there is no back emf, the armature may take very
high current and winding may be damage (like during
starting, the current is high)
• These are motors that utilize DC energy as input to produce DC Motors
mechanical actions.
• Its field is connected across the armature. Nearly constant or
adjustable speed. Medium starting torque. Used for fan, Shunt Motors
blower, pump, grinder, etc.
• The field winding is connected in series with the armature. It
has variable speed. High starting torque. Used for elevators, Series Motor
crane, conveyor, hoist, gear drive, etc.
• It has variable speed or adjustable speed. Has series and
shunt field coil similar to compound generator. High starting Compound Motor
torque. Used for elevator, conveyor, milling machine,
punching machine, etc.
• Percentage rise in the motor when the mechanical load is Speed Regulation
removed.
• An AC machine that operates at synchronous speed and Synchronous Motors
converts electrical energy to mechanical energy
• It houses three phase armature windings in the slots of the Stator
core and receives power from three-phase supply.
• It has a number of alternate N and S poles. The rotor poles
are excited by an exciter, which is a DC generator, mounted Rotor
on the rotor shaft.
• The motor is said to be under-excited if the filed excitation is
such that the back emf is less than the applied voltage. The Under-excitation
motor has a lagging power factor.
• The motor operates at almost unity power factor. Normal excitation
• The motor operates in the leading power factor. Over- excitation
• Used where a constant speed is required. Uses of Synchronous
• Used in power factor correction in the factories. Motors
• When a three- phase supply is applied to the stator, a
rotating magnetic filed is produced. This rotating magnetic
field produces induced emf in the rotor windings that the
cause induced current to circulate. Principles of Induction
• By Lenz’ law, this induced current tends to opposite the action Motors
producing it and therefore circulate in such a manner that a
torque is produced. However, the rotor dies not rotate as
fast as the rotating magnetic field.
• The speed at which the rotating flux rotates. Synchronous Speed
106
• Actual speed of the motor. It can’t be calculated but can be Rotor Speed
measured using tachometer or speedometer.
• The difference between the synchronous speed and the Slip
actual speed.
• It is used where low power is needed and speed control is
needed. Squirrel cage motor
Lip ring induction

• It is used only when high starting torque is required. motor (wound motor)
• A motor generator set consists of two machines; an AC motor
and a DC generator which are mechanical coupled. AC Motor-generator sets
motor may be synchronous or an induction motor.
• A synchronous or rotary converter is a single machine with
one armature and one field. It combines the function of a Rotary converters
synchronous motor and a dc generator.
• It is a device that converts alternating current into
unidirectional current by virtue of a characteristic permitting Rectifiers
appreciable flow of currents in only one direction.
• Trade name for rotating amplifiers. It is a quick response dc

generator, the output of which is controlled by a very small Amplidyne
field power.
• A generator employing silicon rectifiers as static commutation

devices. It is of particular value as aircraft generator,
difficulties having been experienced with sliding contacts Brushless Generator
under conditions of high running speed, dry rarefied and
wide temperature range.
• Another name for rotary transformer. A composite machine
having a single magnet frame but two separate armature Dynamotor
windings, one acting as a generator and the other as a
motor and independent commutator.
• A single-stage rotating amplifier relying on the use of Rototrol
positive feedback.
• Trade name for rotating amplifier with cross field excitation. Magnicon
• A device for converting thermal energy into electric by Magneto
breaking a stream of hot ionized gas. It is also known as hydrodynamic
plasma hydrodynamic generator. Generator
• A generation device in which a stream of gas is ionized, the
positive ions being carried away by the stream while the Electro hydrodynamic
electrons are collected by an electrode ring causing a Generator
current to flow through a wire between the ring and a
collecting grid.
• Trade name for rotating amplifier. It is similar to the nature Metadyne Generator
of amplidyne.
107
• A machine similar to metadyne generator with the

supplementary set of brushes connected to an external dc Metadyne Converter
supply so that the output power does not require any
appreciable mechanical power input to the transformer.
• An induction motor and synchronous converter mechanically Motor Converter
and electrically coupled. It converts as to dc.
• A converter consisting of an ac motor directly coupled to a
dc generator. There is no electrical connection between the Motor Generator
two machines.
• A converter based on electronic devices of the
semiconductor, mercury arc or gaseous type, usually in Static Converter
combination with a transformer.
Thermocouple
• Thermal- electrical conversion device. Generator
• It is an AC static device that transfers power from one circuit Transformers
to another without a rotating part and change of frequency.
• The windings are placed on outside of the core. Core type
• The windings are placed on the inside of the core such that Shell type
the magnetic circuit completely surrounds the winding.
• These include Hysteresis loss and eddy current loss. These are Iron Losses
independent of the load.
• It is a heating loss due to the collision of iron’s magnetic Hysteresis Loss
particles when it aligned to the external magnetic rotation.
• It is a loss due to eddy currents (eddy currents are circulating Eddy Current Loss
around the magnetic core of the transformer)
• Losses due to the Ohmic resistance of the windings. Copper Losses
Condition for
• Copper Loss= Core Loss Maximum Efficiency
• The purpose of this test is to determine the no-load loss or The Open circuit test or
core loss. Impedance Test
• An economical way to determining the following:
a. Equivalent impedance, leakage reactance and total The Short Circuit Test or
resistance of the transformer as referred to the winding Impedance Test
in which the measuring instruments are placed.
b. Rated or full-load copper loss.
• It has only one winding which performs the function of both
primary and secondary wingding. Theses transformers are Autotransformer
used as regulating transformers where only a small
variation of voltage is required.
• The conduction of electric current through the solution of an Electrolysis
electrolyte together with the resulting chemical changes.
• The plate or electrode through which current enters the
electrolyte. The plate or electrode connected to the Anode
positive terminal.
108
• The plate or electrode through which the current is leaving

the electrolyte. The plate or electrode connected to the Cathode
negative terminal of supply.
• When the current is passed through the electrolyte gets Ions
chemically decomposed.
• The ions having negative charge. Anions
• The ions having positive charge. Cations
• The mass of an ion set free by a current in the process of Faraday’s 1st Law of
electrolysis is proportional to the total quantity of charges Electrolysis
that has passed through the electrolyte.
• When the same current passes through several electrolytes
for the same time, the mass of various ions deposited at Faraday’s 2nd Law of
each of the electrodes are proportional to their chemical Electrolysis
equivalents.
• The process of depositing a thin layer of precious metal Electroplating
over an inferior metal.
• An assembly of voltaic primary or secondary cell. Battery
• Chemical action is not reversible. Primary Cells
• Also known as accumulator or storage batteries. Secondary Cells
• Uses alkali as an electrolyte. Alkali Cells
• The continuous dissolution of the zinc rod even when the cell
is not connected to the external circuit.
• This is due to impurities present in commercial zinc. The Local Action
impurities form small tiny cells, which are short circuited by
the main body of the zinc rod.
• The collection of hydrogen bubbles on the surface of the Polarization
copper plate.
DIODES AND SEMICONDUCTORS
▪ A type of diode that converts alternating current into a current

Diode Rectifier
with a large unidirectional component (DC).
▪ Consist of transformer with a single diode in the secondary
circuit that conduct current during positive or negative half Half Wave Rectifier
cycles of input.
▪ Maximum efficiency of rectification in half wave rectifier. 40.6%
▪ Half Wave Rectifier requires only _______ and can be used
one diode
with or without transformer.
▪ Half Wave Rectifier average output voltage is ________. Low
▪ Ripple Frequency of a half wave rectifier is ______ to filter. Hard
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▪ Full Wave Rectifier employs two diodes and _______ enabling

Center Tapped
current to conduct through the load during both half cycles of
Transformer
input AC voltage.
▪ Maximum efficiency of rectification in full wave rectifier. 81.2%
▪ A bridge arrangement of four diodes providing full wave
Full secondary
rectification of the ____________ of the power transformer
voltage
consequently eliminating a center tapped secondary.
▪ Full wave rectifier is more efficient since it operates on both
Half cycles
________ of the sine wave.
▪ Ripple frequency of full wave rectifier is _________ to filter. Easier
▪ Full wave rectifier diodes require _______ PIV rating. Higher
▪ For a given transformer of full wave rectifier, the peak voltage
requirement is _______ in the full wave rectifier than in the Lower
half-wave.
▪ A voltage multiplier is two or more peak detectors or peak
rectifiers that produce a _______ equal to a multiple of the DC voltage
peak input voltage.
▪ A rectifier that gives approximately doubles the output voltage Half-wave
of a conventional half-wave rectifier. Multiplier Doublers
▪ A diode circuits whose output is a function of the instantaneous
input amplitude for a range of values between predetermined Limiter (Clipper)
limits.
▪ Clipper diode network has the ability to “clip” off a portion of
the _______ signal without distorting the remaining part of the Input
alternating waveform.
▪ Clipper that has a diode appears as a series element. Series Limiter
▪ Parallel Limiter has a diode appears as a ________ element. Shunt
▪ For clipping line of series limiter, clipping line is at the _______. Abscissa
▪ A circuit that shifts the DC level of the input signal. Clampers
▪ Clamping Network always start with the part of the input
Turns on the diode
signals that _______.
▪ Clamping Network output waveform should be ________ to the
Similar
input waveform.
▪ The peak to peak value of the output signal of clamping
network should be ______ to the peak to peak value of the Equal
value signal.
▪ A semiconductor PN junction that when forward biased, emits
Light Emitting
light at a wavelength that is a function of its material and do
Diode (LED)
pants.
▪ Typical Average Forward Current of LED. 10-20mA
▪ Typical Forward Voltage of LED. 2.2-3V
▪ A semiconductor that can be used to establish a fixed reference
Zener Diode
voltage for biasing and comparison purposes.
▪ A semiconductor diode formed by contact between a
semiconductor layer and metal contact; it has a non-linear Schottky Diode
rectifying characteristic.
110
▪ A semiconductor PN junction device whose region of operation is

Photodiode
limited to the RB region.
▪ Planck’s Constant 6.624 x 10-24 J-s
▪ ____________ is a measure of the amount of luminous flux
Light Intensity
falling in a particular surface area.
▪ 1 lumens = ________ watts 1.496 x 10-10 W
▪ A solid state device that provide high electrical isolation by
Optoisolator
converting the input signal to light emission and reconverting it
(Optocoupler)
to an electrical signal.
▪ A heavily doped junction diode that has negative resistance in
Tunnel Diode
the forward direction over a portion of its operating range.
▪ A PN semiconductor diode whose capacitance varies with the
Varactor Diode
applied voltage.
▪ ______________ acts as a variable capacitor under reverse-
Varactor Diode
bias conditions.
▪ The PIV for each diode in a full wave center-tapped rectifier is
Twice
________ the peak output voltage plus one diode drop.
▪ Ripple factor of a rectifier is equal to the ratio of RMS value of average value of
AC component of signal and ______________. signal
▪ If one of the diodes in a full-wave bridge rectifier opens, the A half-wave
output is ____________. rectified voltage
TRANSISTOR FUNDAMENTALS
• Is a three – layer semiconductor device consisting of either two

N and one P- type layers of materials or two P & one N- type
layers of the semiconductor material. Transistors
• Basically a resistor that implies electrical impulses as they are
transferred from its input to its output terminals.
▪ PNP transistor
• Types of Bipolar Junction Transistor
▪ NPN transistor
TRANSISTOR CONFIGURATION
• In this circuit, the input signal is applied at the emitter, the

output is taken at the collector and the base is the common
Common Base
remind. This has very low input impedance. This circuit is seldom
Configuration
used for amplifiers.
• Grounded base
111
• The input is applied at the base, the amplified output is taken

from the collector & the emitter is the common terminal. This
circuit is the one generally used for transistors because the CE Common Emitter
amplifier has the best combination of current and voltage Configuration
gains.
• Grounded emitter.
• The circuit has the input applied at the base, the output taken Common Collector
at the emitter terminal and the collector is the common Configuration
terminal. This is often used for impedance matching.
TRANSISTOR BIASING
• Basic function of a transistor is to accomplish __________. Amplification

• The increase in magnitude of the signal without any change in Faithful amplification
shape.
• An electrical, mechanical, or magnetic force applied to a
device to establish a desired electrical or mechanical
reference level for its operation. Bias
• In transistors, this is a DC voltage or current that sets the
operating point for amplifying the AC signal.
▪ To turn “on” the
device
▪ To place it in
operation in the
• Reasons for Biasing region of its
characteristic
where the device
operates most
linearly
TYPES OF BIAS CIRCUIT
• Is taken from a battery or power supply. Fixed Biased

• The amplifier produces its own DC voltage from an IR drop
across resistor in the return circuit of the common terminal. Self Bias (Emitter
• The most often because it is economical & has stabilizing effect Stabilized Bias)
on the DC level of output current.
• The most stable type of biasing Voltage Divider Bias
• The ratio of a small change in IC to a small change in IE.
• Commonly called common base short circuit amplification Alpha (α)
factor.
• The ratio of a small change in IC to a small change in IB.
• Common called common-emitter forward-current amplification Beta (β)
factor.
• In common-collector configuration, the forward current gain is
Gamma (δ)
called _________.
112
AMPLIFIERS
• Circuits designed to increase the level of an electronic signal. Amplifiers

• Voltage amplifier
• Amplifiers according to function • Current amplifier
• Power amplifier
• Common-base
amplifier
• Common-collector
• Amplifiers according to configuration amplifier
• Common-emitter
amplifier
• Class A
• Class B
• Amplifiers according to class of operation
• Class C
• Class AB
• DC Amplifier
• Audio Amplifier
• Amplifiers according to frequency • RF Amplifier
• IF Amplifier
• Video Amplifier
• Direct
• Amplifiers according to method of coupling • Capacitive
• Inductive
• Transformer
• Small signal
amplifier
• Amplifiers according to the signal being amplified
• Large Signal
amplifier
COMPOUND CONFIGURATIONS
• A series with the output of one stage then applied as input to the
second stage. The cascade connection provides a multiplication of Cascade Connection
the gain of each stage for a larges gain.
• Has one transistor on top (in series with) another. This arrangement is
designed to provide high impendence with low voltage gain to Cascode Connection
ensure the input Miller capacitance is minimum.
• The main feature of this connection is that the composite transistor Darlington
acts a single unit with a current gain that is product of the current Connection
gain of individual transistor.
• The feedback pair connector is a two transistor circuit. It uses a PNP Feedback Pair
transistor driving an NPN.
• A unipolar device which as a voltage controlled device with either Field Effect Transistor
electron current in N- channel or a hole current in a P- Channel.
113
• A three terminal unipolar device which defends for its operation on

the control current by an electric field.
• Terminal where the charge carrier enter the channel bar to provide Source
current through channel
• Terminal where the current leaves the channel Drain
• Controls the conductance between the source and the drain Gate
• JFET (Junction
Field Effect
Transistor)
• MOSFET ( Metal
• Types of FET: Oxide
Semiconductor
FET)
• IGET (insulated
gate FET)
• Linear Region
• Indicates that low value of UPS, current varies directly with voltage Ohmic Region
following Ohm’s law
• Saturation Region/ Amplifier Region
• JFET operates as a constant current device because IP is relatively Pinch-off Region
independent of VDS.
• VDS is increased beyond its value corresponding to VA
• JFET enters the breakdown region when ID increase to an excessive Breakdown Region
value.
• Drain current with gate shorted source condition IDSS
STATIC CHARACTERISTIC OF JFET
• Gives relation between ID & VDS for different values of VGS. Drain Characteristic
(Running variable)
Transfer
• Gives relation between ID & VGS for different values of VDS. Characteristic
SMALL SIGNAL JFET PARAMETERS
• The AC resistance between drain and source terminals when JFET is AC Drain Resistance
operating in the pinch-off region. (rd)
• Forward transconductance forward trans-admittance slope of
Transconductance
transfer character.
(gm)
• Similar to gm characteristic of vacuum tubes
• Ratio of total voltage of drain to source and the total voltage of Amplification Factor
gate to source (µ)
114
DC drain resistance
• Also called static or ohmic resistance of the channel (RDS)
• Neutrally or lightly doped silicon
IGFET or MOSFET
• Serves as a platform on which the other electrodes are diffused
• Either void of free carrier or therefore unable to support conductors. Depletion Region
FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS AND OSCILLATORS
• It is the application of a portion of the output signal of a circuit

back to the input circuit.
Feedback
• One in which fraction of the amplifier output is fed back to the
input circuit.
• If the feedback signal is combined in phase with the input
signal.
Positive feedback
• If the feedback voltage or current is so applied to increase the (Regenerative)
input voltage or current.
• Application: Oscillator circuits
• If the feedback signal is combined 180 degrees out-of-phase
with input signals.
Negative Feedback
• If the feedback voltage or current id so applied to reduce (Degenerative)
amplifier input.
• Application: Amplifier circuits
• If the feedback network is connected in shunt across the output Voltage Sampling
mode.
• If the feedback network is connected in series with the output Current Sampling
loop.
• The feedback network is connected in series with the input loop Series Mixing
so that the feedback signal is in the form of voltage.
• The feedback network is connected in shunt with the input Shunt Mixing
terminal so that what is added to the input is current.
Effects of positive
• Increased gain that may lead to oscillation. feedback
• Process by which variations in amplitude or repeated
continuously at a specific frequency.
• Accomplished by using an amplifier in a circuit where part of Oscillation
the output is feedback to the input.
• The use of positive feedback which result in a feedback
amplifier having a closed loop gain greater than the unity.
• If the output signal varies sinusoidal. Sinusoidal Oscillator
• If the output voltage rises quickly to one voltage and later Square Wave or
drops quickly to another voltage level. Pulse Oscillator
115
• Uses an Op Amp and RC bridge circuit, with the oscillator Wein Bridge
frequency set by the R and C components Oscillator
• Inductors L1 and L2 have a mutual coupling M, which must be
taken into account in determining the equivalent inductance for Harley oscillator
the resonant tank circuit.
• Basically a tuned circuit oscillator using a piezoelectric crystal
as a resonant tank circuit.
• The crystal (usually quarts) has a greater stability in holding Crystal Oscillator
constant at whatever frequency the crystal is originally cut to
operate.
• Exhibits the properly that when mechanical stress is applied
across the faces of crystal, a difference of potential develops
Quartz Crystal
across opposite forces of the crystal.
• Peizo electric effect.
• The reactances of the series RLC are equal (and opposite). The
Series Resonant
impedance is very low.
Circuit
• Lower frequency
• Higher frequency
• The reactances of the series RLC equal the reactance of Parallel Resonant
capacitor. Circuit
• Very high impedance
OP AMPS AND DIGITAL ELECTRONICS

• A very high gain directly coupled negatively feedback
amplifier which can amplify signals having frequencies ranging
Operational
from 0Hz to 1MHz.
Amplifier
• Originally designed to perform mathematical operation like
summation, multiplication, differentiation and integration
Infinite Input
• It would consume no current from the source. Impedance
Zero Output
• It would look like a perfect voltage source to a load. Impedance
• Infinitely amplified at any input. Infinite gain
• The terminal marked (-) is called the inverting input. Whatever
signal polarity is applied to the inverting will cause the opposite Inverting input
polarity on the output terminal.
• The terminal marked (1) is called the non- inverting input.
Whatever polarity is applied to the non- inverting input Non Inverting Input
terminal will cause one polarity in the output terminal.
• Provides a gain with no polarity reversal. Unity follower
• Feedback component with capacitor. Integrator
116
• The output is the integral of the input with an inversion and

scale multiplies of 1/RC.
• The output is proportional to the time derivative of the input.
The magnitude of the output increases linearly with increasing
frequency, and the different circuit has high gain at high
frequencies. Differentiator
• This results in amplification of the high frequency components of
amplifier noise, and the noise output may completely obscure
the differential signal
• It is the marriage of both the inverting and non-inverting
amplifiers. Differential amplifier
• The output is the result of the difference between the two inputs.
• This can be used as a limit, level detector or switch.
• It can also be used to convert a ramp input to a pulse and the Comparator
pulse to reset the ramp.
• The difference in the DC voltages that must be applied to the
input terminals to obtain equal quiescent operating voltage (0 Input offset voltage
output voltage) at the output terminals.
• The difference in the current at the two input terminals. Input offset current
• The DC voltage at either output terminal with respect to the Quiescent operating
ground. voltage
• The total power drain of the device with no signal applied and DC device
no external load current. dissipation
• The ratio of the signal voltages developed at either of the two Common mode
output terminals to the common signal voltage applied to the voltage gain (AC)
two input terminals connected in parallel.
• The ratio of the change in output voltage at either output Differential Voltage
terminal with respect to the ground to difference in the input Gain Single Ended
voltages. Input-Output (Ad)
Common mode
• The ratio of the full differential voltage gain to the common rejection ratio
mode voltage gain. (CMRR)
• The ratio of the change in input voltage to the change in input Single ended input
current measured at either input terminal with respect to the resistance (Rin)
ground.
• The ratio of the change in output voltage to the change in Single ended output
output current measured at either output terminal with respect resistance (Rout)
to the ground.
• Device parameter indicating how fast the output voltage Slew rate
changes with time.
• The term describing the change in output voltage resulting from Drift
change in temperature.
• The reduction of op amp’s gain due to increasing operating Roll-off
frequency.
• Receives input of a linear voltage, comparing it to a reference Comparator circuit
input voltage to determine which is greater.
117
• The output is a digital signal that stays at a high level when the
non-inverting input is greater than the inverting input and
switches to a lower voltage level when the non inverting input
voltage goes below the input reference voltage level.
• Vary continuously over some range of values. Analog signals
• At one of two levels representing the binary values of one or Digital signals
zero.
• Uses a network of resistors
• Accepts inputs of binary values at typically 0V or VREF and Ladder network
provides an output voltage proportional to the binary input
value.
• Analog to digital conversion. Dual slope method
• Used to interconnect different type of signals, both linear and
digital.
Interfacing circuit
• May be used to drive a load or to obtain a signal as a receiver
circuit.
• Used in the generation of pulse signals that are triggered by an
input signals.
Timer circuit
• Generation of a clock signal that operates at a frequency set
by external resistor and capacitor.
• Made of a combination of linear comparators and digital flip
flops.
555 timer
• The entire circuit is usually housed in an 8-pin DIP package with
pin numbers.
INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
• A complete electronic circuit in which both the active passive Integrated Circuit
components are fabricated on an extremely tiny clip of silicon.
• Develop an IC in 1958. J.S Kilby
• Built by connecting separate components. Discrete
• The number of circuits contained in an IC package is less than Small Scale
30. Integration (SSI)
Medium Scale
• The number of circuit per package is 30 - 100. Integration (MSI)
Large Scale
• Circuit density is from 100-100,000 Integration (LSI)
Very Large Scale
• Circuit density is from 100,000 – 10M Integration (VLSI)
118
Ultra Large Scale

• Circuit density is from 10M-1B Integration (ULSI)
Super Large Scale
• Circuit density is more than 1B Integration (SLSI)
• Single stone
Monolithic
• Single solid structure
• All circuit components (both active and passive) are fabricated Monolithic
inseparably within a single continuous piece of Si crystalline Integrated Circuits
material.
• Only passive components are formed through thick and thin film
techniques on the insulating surface such as glass or a ceramic
Thick and thin Film
material.
IC
• The active elements are added externally as discrete elements
to complete a functional circuit.
• Resistors and conductors are formed by varying the width and
thickness of the film and by using materials of different
Resistivity.
• Capacitors are produced by sandwiching an insulating oxide Thin film IC
film between two conducting films.
• Small inductors can be made by depositing a spiral formation
of film.
• Transistors and diodes are externally added and Wire bonds
interconnected by _________.
• Constructed by depositing films of conducting material through Glass or ceramic
a mask on the surface of a substrate made of ___________.
• Printed thin film circuits.
• Silk screen printing techniques are employed to create the Thick film IC
desired circuit pattern on the surface of a substrate.
Fine stainless steel
• Screens are made of ______________. wire mesh
Pulverized glass
• Inks are pastes of _________. and Aluminum
• Are formed either by interconnecting a number of individual Hybrid or Multichip
chips or by a combination of film or monolithic IC techniques. IC
• The inputs and outputs can take on a continuous range of values Linear IC (Analog)
and the outputs are generally proportional to the inputs.
• Switching circuits.
• Monolithic integration because a computer uses a large number
of identical circuits.
• Employ relatively few capacitors and values of resistance, Digital IC
voltage and current are low
• Contain circuits whose input and output voltages are limited to 2
possible levels (low or high)
• Attachment of Wires to One IC. Bonding
• An extremely small part of silicon wafer on which IC is Chip (Die)
fabricated.
119
• Si wafer of 2 cm diameter is equivalent of _________. 1000 IC chips

• To check the proper electrical performance of each with the Circuit Probing
help of probes.
• Introduction of controlled small quantities of a material into the Diffusion
crystal structure for modifying its electrical characteristics.
• A glass plate with the circuit pattern drawn on it. Diffusion Mask
• Putting a cup over the IC and sealing it. Encapsulation
• Physical place of materials on a given surface. Epitaxy
• Removal of surface material from a chip by chemical means. Etching
• Providing ohmic contacts and interconnections by evaporating Metallization
aluminum over the chip
• A photosensitive emulsion which hardens when exposed to Photoresist
ultraviolet light.
• Incising or cutting whit ha sharp point. Scribing
• A thin slice of a semiconductor material either circular or
rectangular in shape in which a number of IC is fabricated Wafer
simultaneously.
• A P-type silicon bar is taken and cut into thin slices called Wafer preparation
wafers.
• An N-type silicon layer (15µm thick) is now grown on the P-type
substrate by placing the wafer in furnace at 1200°C and Expitaxial Growth
introducing a gas containing phosphorous.
• A thin layer of SiO2 is grown over the N-type layer by
exposing the wafer to an oxygen atmosphere at about Oxidization
1000°C.
• Involves selective etching of SiO2 layer with the help of
photographic mask, photo resist and etching solution. Photolithographic
• Helps to select particular areas of the N-layer which are Process
subjected to an isolation diffusion process.
• The wafer is subjected to a P-type diffusion process by which
N-type layer is isolated into islands on which transistor or some Isolation Diffusion
other components is fabricated.
• The P-type base of transistor is diffused into the N-type layer Base and Emitter
which itself acts as collector. Diffusion
• For good metal ohmic contact with diffused layers, N+ regions Pre-Ohmic Etch
are diffused into the structure.
• Done for making interconnections and providing bonding pads
around the circumference of the chip for later connection of Metallization
wires.
• Each IC on the wafer is checked electrically for proper Circuit Probing
performance by placing probes on the bonding pads.
• Wafer is broken down into individual chips containing the
Scribing and
integrated circuits.
Separating into
• Wafers are first scribed with a diamond tipped tool and then Chips
separated into single chips.
120
• The individual chip is very small and brittle.

Mounting and
• It is cemented or soldered to a gold plated header through Packing
which leads have already been connected.
• A cap is now placed over the circuit and seating done in an Encapsulation
inert atmosphere.
INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS
• In 1890, he demonstrates the use of electronics for the remote Nicola Tesla
control of a model boat.
• He develops the Fleming valve, which is the first vacuum tube Sir John Fleming
used for rectifying AC to DC.
• He discovers the vacuum tube amplifier. Lee De Forest
• In what year the electronic control of a DC motor is 1928
accomplished using vacuum tubes.
• It is year where the first commercially made variable-speed AC
motor control system is developed. This system varies the 1941
frequency of the motor by using vacuum-tube technology.
• In what year three American scientist John Bardeen, Walter 1947
Brattain, and William Shockley invent the transistor.
• In what year the first solid-state variable speed motor control 1957
system becomes commercially available.
• In what year the development of the laser for material 1960
processing and communications implemented.
• In 1968, the first _______ is developed by engineers at Programmable
General Motor’s Hydromantic division. controller
• In what year the first commercial fiber optic cable is installed. 1970
• He invents the microprocessor. Ted Hoff
• In 1979, the __________ are developed providing vision to Optical sensors
industrial condolers.
• In what year the robots with artificial intelligence become 1986
commercially available.
• In what year the 64-bit microprocessor commercially available. 1994
• It is an automatic control system that controls the physical motion
or position of an object. One example is the industrial robot Motion control
arm which performs welding operations and assembly system
procedures.
• One or more variables are regulated during the manufacturing Process control
of a product.
• It is a sequence of timed operations executed on the product Batch processing
being manufactured.
121
• One or more operations are being performed as the product is Continuous process
being passed through a process.
• It is the simplest way to control a system. It is a system without a Open-loop system
feedback.
• A system that provides continuous monitoring and self correcting
action of the operation for long period of time without Closed-loop system
interruption. It is a control system that uses feedback to control
an output variable.
• Includes all semiconductor devices which shown inherent on-off
behavior as opposed to allowing gradual change in conduction;
are regenerative switching devices and they cannot operate in
a linear manner. Thyristor
• Derived from the thyratron gas-tube predecessor with the same
characteristics. It is applied to a family of semiconductor
devices that are used extensively in electronic switching circuits.
• Small thyristor which do not switch the main load current; useful
in the gate triggering circuit of large load power switching
Silicon Controlled
thyristor.
Rectifier
• It is a three-terminal, three junctions, four-layer semiconductor
device that is designed to perform switching functions.
Conduction Angle
• The number of an AC cycle during which the SCR is turned ON (CA)
• The number of degrees of Ac cycle that elapses before the SCR Firing Delay Angle
is turned ON.
• Amount of gate current needed to fire a particular SCR 0.1 – 20mA
• Gate current trigger for most medium sized SCR. 10mA
• It is that voltage above which the SCR enter the conduction Forward break over
region. voltage
• It is that value of current below which the SCR switches from the
conduction state to the forward blocking region under stated Holding Current
condition.
• These are the regions corresponding to the open circuit Forward and reverse
condition for the controlled rectifier which block the flow of blocking regions
charge (current) from the anode to cathode.
• It is equivalent to the Zener or avalanche regions of the Reverse break over
fundamental two layer semiconductor diode. voltage
• It is determined by the setting of R2. Firing Delay Angle
• Low, the gate current will be sufficiently large to fire the SCR R2
when the supply voltage is low FDA is small.
• High, the supply voltage must climb higher to deliver enough R2
gate current to fire the SCR FDA is increased.
Unilateral
• Break over in only one direction Breakdown Device
• It is a solid-state device that uses break over voltage to go into Silicon Unilateral
conduction and provide a positive pulse. Switch
122
• A three terminal used to control the average current in either

direction when it is turned on.
• It is a solid-state device that acts like two SCR that have been Triac (Triode AC)
connected in parallel with each other inversely so that the one
SCR will conduct the positive half-cycle and the other will
conduct the negative half cycle.
• It is the amount of current the triac gate needs to stay in Latching Current
conduction after it has been initially turned on.
• It is the main terminal current required after the triac has been Holding Current
initially turned on.
• It is the amount of current that is necessary to go into conduction Gate Trigger Current
initially.
Main terminal RMS
• It is the maximum amount of current that the triac can control. current rating
• It can be turn ON by a single pulse of positive gate current, but Gate Turn-off Switch
in addition it can be turned off by a pulse of negative gate (GTO)
current.
• A break-over type switching device.
• A solid state device that has been specifically designed to Unijunction
provide a sharp pulse when its breakover voltage level is Transistor (UJT)
reached.
• Has effectively the same operating characteristic with as
standard UJT and is used in similar application. It is determined PUT (Programmable
by external circuiting rather than an intrinsic stand-off ratio. Unijunction
• It is similar to the UJT in that it has the ability to provide a pulse Transistor)
that is used to trigger SCR and other thyristors.
• A bilateral trigger diode; symmetrical trigger diode. Diac (Diode AC)
• Popular in low voltage for diacs trigger circuits; has lower Silicon Bilateral
breakdown voltages than diacs. Switch
• The higher the anode current, the lower the required anode to
cathode voltage to turn the device ON. To turn ON the device,
a negative pulse must be applied to the anode terminal, while Silicon Controlled
a positive pulse is required to turn OFF the device. A negative Switch
pulse at the anode gate will RB the BE junction of GI turning it
OFF, resulting in the open circuit state of device.
• An SCR whose state is controlled by the light falling upon a LASCR
semiconductor layer of the device.
• It is similar to the silicon bilateral switch. The major difference is Silicon
that it has a different firing voltage in the positive quadrant Asymmetrical
that nit does in the negative quadrant. Switch (SAS)
Asymmetrical
• It is similar to silicon bilateral switch except it has two different Silicon Bilateral
firing levels. Switch (ASBS)
• It also called the four layer diode.
• It is a unidirectional diac, which is basically an SUS without a Shockley diode
gate terminal.
123
• The most common electrical transducer. It can be used alone, or

they can be attached to a mechanical sensor to convert a
mechanical motion into an electrical variation. It consists of a Potentiometer
resistive element and a movable contact that can be positioned
anywhere along the length of the element.
• The movable contact of a potentiometer. Tap, wiper, or slider
Linear Variable
• It gives an AC output signal which is proportional to a physical Differential
displacement. Transformers (LVDT)
• Devices that detect the measured pressure and convert it into a Pressure transducers
mechanical movement.
• Deformed metal tube with an oval cross section. It is open at Bourdon tubes
one end and sealed at the other end.
• Essentially a series of metal diaphragms connected together.
When subjected to fluid pressure, a metal diaphragm will Bellows
distort slightly because of the elasticity of the material used to
construct it.
• Most common device for measuring industrial process
temperatures. It is pair of dissimilar metal wires joined together Thermocouples
in a complete loop.
• It measures temperature from a distance by sensing the visible
and/or invisible electromagnetic radiation emitted by the hot Optical pyrometers
body at a frequency which is indicative of the body’
temperature.
• Device which measures acceleration. Accelerometers
• Device which measures the angular speed of rotating shaft. Tachometers
• It uses the phenomenon of Hall Effect by which charge carriers Hall Effect
moving through ha magnetic field are forced to one side of the Transducers
conducting medium.
INSTRUMENTATION
• Measurement of quantities in Electrical Engineering or Electrical Instrumentation

or Electrical Engineering quantities such as voltage, current, etc
• Device that can give quantities description on a given Instrument
parameters.
• An electromechanical device with moving pointers spring and Analog Meters
moving coils or moving waves.
• Utilize electronic circuit in place of electromechanical and
provide a numerical reactant; auto rage; minimum power Digital Meters
consumption.
• Consists of movable coil situated within the magnetic field of a D’ Arsonval Meter
permanent magnet.
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• Consists of a moving coil, called armature that is free to move Electrodynamometer

within a magnetic field set-up by two stationary field coils.
• The soft iron vanes are fastened to the shaft that drives the Iron Vane
pointer and are free to move within the magnetic set up by the Movements
inclined coil.
• Arises the fact the meter face is not accurately marked. Calibration Error
Ammeter Loading
• Error caused by the internal resistance of the ammeter. Effect
• This is the resistor connected in parallel with meter to increase DC Ammeter Shunt
the measuring capability of the ammeter. Resistance (Rsh)
• A basic but versatile meters movement consisting of a fixed coil
divided into two equal halves and a moving coil between the Electrodynamometer
field coils. Used as a standard meter, transfer instrument, Movement
wattmeter and frequency meter.
• Consist of a fixed coil of many turns and two iron vanes planes Iron Vane Meter
in the fixed coil. Widely used in industry for applications such Movement
as in automobiles.
• An indicating mechanism resembling a variable capacitor. Used
for measurement of high voltage capacitor. Used for Electrostatic Meter
measurement of high voltage when very little current can be Movement
supplied by the circuit being measured.
• Consist of a heater element usually made of fine wire, two
dissimilar metals and a D' Arsonval meter movement. Used for Thermocouple Meter
measurement of radio frequency AC signals.
• Consist of a permanent magnet and a moving coil. D’ Arsonval Meter
• D ‘Arsonval meter used with half-wave rectification; to measure
alternating current with the D’ Arsonval meter, first rectify the Half - Wave
AC by the use of a diode rectifier to produce unidirectional
current flow.
• D ‘Arsonval meter with full-wave rectifier; to improve the
sensibility of a rectifier type of voltmeter, full wave rectification Full - Wave
is used.
• These are instruments for making a comparison, measurement
are widely used to measure resistance, inductance, capacitance, DC - Bridge Circuit
and impedances. Balance Dc Bridges of DC voltage or
resistance.
• It consists of two parallel resistance branches containing two
series element, usually resistors. A DC voltage source connected The Wheatstone
across the resistance network to provide a source of current. A Bridges
galvanometer is connected between the parallel branches to
detect a condition of balance.
• It is modified version of the Wheatstone bridge. It contains and
additional set of radio arms to compensate for the lead and The Kelvin Bridge
contact resistor of ohm or loss.
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• The best known and simplest of loop test used principally to

locate ground faults in short sections of communications and Murray Loop
power cables
• One of the most accurate methods of locating ground fault and Varley Loop
a short circuit in high loop such as long communication lines.
• Are used to measure inductance and capacitance accurately. Ac
bridges find widespread application in filters, oscillators and AC Bridges
other measurements.
AC Wheatstone
• Used for bridges balance condition Bridge
• Used to measure the impedance of capacitive circuits; also
called as Capacitance Comparison Bridge or the series Similar Angle Bridge
resistance capacitors bridge.
Opposite- Angle
• Are also called as parallel capacitance comparison. Bridge
• Used to determine an unknown inductance with capacitance Maxwell Bridge
standards.
• It measures either the equivalent-series components of the Wein Bridge
equivalent parallel components of impedance.
• Used for measuring properties, for phase angles of nearly 90°. Schering Bridge
• Used in laboratories to measure the impedance of both Radio- Frequency
capacitive an inductive circuit at higher frequencies. Bridge
MEDICAL ELECTRONICS
• Takes inside photos of a patient’s body; invented by Roentgen. X-ray

• A glass enclosed vacuum tube diode consisting of a cathode
that thermally emits electrons and anode that attracts these X-ray Tube
electrons.
• Electroencephalograph
Recording of electrical signals from the brain.
ECG
Graph- recording
Electro- electrical signals
Encephalo- Brain
• Medical instrument that records electric currents generated by EEG
the brain
• Computed Axial Tomography; combines the use of digital
computer together with a rotating X-ray device to create Computed Axial
detailed across sectional images or “slices of different organs Tomography (CAT)
and body parts such as the lungs, liver, kidneys, pancreas,
pelvis, extremities, brain, spins and blood vessels.
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• A device that administers an electric shock through the chest

wall of the heart.
Automated External
• A small, light weight device used to asses a person’s heart Defibrillation (AED)
rhythm. It is necessary; it administers an electric shock to restore
a normal rhythm in victims of sudden cardiac arrest.
• A specific type of imaging that used a low dose X-ray system Mammography
for examination of the breasts.
• Electrocardiogram: an non-invasive test that records the
electrical activity of the heart; used to measure the rate of
regularity of heartbeats as well as the size and position of the ECG or EKG
chambers , the presence of any damage to the heart and the
effects of drugs or devices used to regulate the heart (pace
maker)
• The use of sound waves to obtain a medical image or picture of
various organs and tissues in the body; a painless, non-invasive
and safe procedure which produces very precise images of Ultrasound
your soft sues and also reveals internal motions such as heart
beat and blood flow.
• Regulating heart beats Pacemakers
• SA node or sinus node; a small mass of specialized cells in the
top of hearts right atrium cupper chamber which makes Natural Pacemaker
electrical impulses that cause your heart to beat.
• A small battery operated device that helps the heart beat in a Artificial pace maker
regular rhythm.
• A test in which ultrasound is used to examine the heart. Echocardiograph
• Provides single dimension images that allow accurate M-mode
measurement at the heart chambers.
• Capable of displaying a cross-sectional slice of the beating 2-D-echo
heart.
• A test that asses the health of the muscles and the nerves Electromyography
controlling the muscles.
• A method of creating images of the inside of opaque organs in Magnetic Resonance
living organism as well as detecting the amount of bound water Imaging (MRI)
in geological structures.
• Nuclear; universally dropped due to negative connotations; uses
larges magnets and radio frequency waves to create moving NMRI
images.
ROBOTICS
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• Is a branch of society of manufacturing engineers (SME). Robot Institute

Accepted by the eleventh international symposium of industrial of America
robotics in 1981. (RIA)
• A reprogrammable multifunctional manipulator designed to move
materials, parts, tools, or other specialized devices through variable
programmed motions for the performance of variety of tasks.
• A machine has a mechanism including degrees of freedom, often
having one of the appearance arms ending on a wrist of holding a Robot
tool, a workplace, or an inspection device, its control unit use a
memorizing device and it may sometimes use sensing to account into
environment and circumstances, the multi-purpose machines are
generally designed to carry out repetitive function and can be
adapted to other function.
• Computer controlled robots were commercialized in early ______. 1970’s
• The first robot controlled by microcomputer appearing in _______. 1974
• The word “robot was coined in 1920 by the Czech author. K. Capele
• Robot is derived from the Greek word ________, meaning working
an industrial robot has been defined as a reprogrammable
multifunctional manipulator, designed to move materials, parts, tools
or other specialized devices by means of variable programmed Robota
motions, and to perform a variety of other task. In a broader
context, the term robot also includes manipulators that are activated
directly by an operator.
• It is an assembly of several major sections. It is made up of effectors Robot
tooling, the power supply, the controller and peripheral tooling.
• Provides necessary motion to move the tool or part into the proper
position for an operation. The sole function of the arm is to provide Arm
motion for the end tooling.
• It is the “engine” that drives the links (the sections between the joints Drive
into their desired position.
• Every robot is connected in a computer which keeps the pieces of
the arm working together. Its function also allows the robot to be Controller
networked to other system, so that it may work together with other
machines, processes, or robot.
• It is the tool that performs the actual work. We tend to think of
robot arm in a griper mechanism, but most robots in the industry
have more specialized end-of-the-arm tooling. Because robots End Effector
themselves are so flexible, there is an almost infinite variety of end
effectors, special tools, tool holders or manipulators assembles
designed specially for attachment to the robot arm itself.
• It is the “hand” connected to the robot’s arm. It is often different
from a human hand. It could be a tool such as a gripper, a vacuum End- Effector or
pump tweezers, scalpel, and blowtorch. Just about anything that Hand
helps it do its jobs.
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• Provides the necessary power for moving the robot arm through its
range of motion. Most industrial robots use electric motors or
stopper motors for their motion. The only disadvantages are the Power Supply
increasing cost of electrical power. Some are use hydraulic or
pneumatic power. The power source for hydraulic or pneumatic arms
is generally much large than their electrical equivalents, as well.
• Most robots of today are nearly deaf and blind. It can provide
some limited feedback to robot so it can do its job. Compared to
the senses and abilities of even the simplest living things, robots
have a very long way to go. It can send information, in the form at
electronic signals back to the controller. It also gives the robot
controller information about its surroundings and let it know the
exact position of the arm or the state of the world around it. Sight, Sensor
sound, touch, taste, and smell are the kinds of information we get
from our world. Robots can be designed and programmed to get
specific information that is beyond what our senses can tell us. For
instance, a robot sensor might “see” in the dark, detect tiny amounts
of invisible radiation or measure movement that is too small or fast
for human eye to be able to see or notice.
• Different types of robotic arms have different axis of motion. These
are called the ___________. Among many ways of classifying
robots, the degrees of freedom available to a fixed fully Degrees of
articulated arm. Motion of the entire arm is about the fixed base Freedom
called the waist motion. The third movement is called elbow
extension. Virtually all fully articulated robotic arms have these
three degrees of freedom.
• Many robotic arms have only one or two types of wrist motion of
shoulder and elbow, in the same plane as the motion of shoulder Pitch
and elbow.
• It is the side-to-side motion, at the right angles to the motion of Yaw
shoulder and elbow.
• It is a rotation of the wrist about the axis of the forearm, the motion Roll
you use when you tighten a screw.
• Also known as pick-and-place robot. These robots are programmed
for a specific sequence of operations. Its movement if from point to Fixed Variable
point and the sequence is repeated continuously. The variable Sequence
sequence- sequence robot can be programmed for as sequence of Robots
operations.
• An operator leads or walks the playback robot and its end of
effectors through the desired path. The other words, the operator
teaches the robot by shocking it what to do. The robot memorizes Playback Robot
and records the path and sequence of motions and can repeat them
continuously without any further action or guidance from the
operator.
Numerically
• The numerically controlled machine. The robot controlled by digital Controlled
data, and its sequence can be change with relative case. Robots
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• These robots are capable of performing some of the functions and

tasks carried out by human beings. These are equipped with a
variety of sensors with visual and tactile (touching) capabilities.
Much like human, these robots observes and evaluates the Intelligent
immediate environment and proximity to other objects, machinery, (sensory) Robot
etc. by perception and pattern recognition and proceeds with them.
Because the operation is too complex, powerful computers are
required to control this type of robot.
• The area within which a robotic arm can work is called its work
envelope. The end effectors can reach every point within the work
envelope. The shape of the work envelope defends on the number Work Envelope
of degrees of freedom and the type of articulation that the arm
has.
• It can move its end effectors in only 3 directions; up and down; left
to right along a track; and front to back. The work envelope of this
robot is box shaped. Rectilinear robots have a smaller range of Rectilinear
motion than the other types, but they are the easiest to program
because if the rectangular coordinate system they use.
• It has a greater range of motion than the rectilinear robots because
the arm can swing around its base in a circular or polar motion. The
up-and-down and front-to-rear motion of this robot is rectilinear the Cylindrical
work envelope is a cylindrical or cylinder with a core at the center
that cannot be reached.
• It has polar articulation at the waist and the shoulder, but uses
rectilinear motion for reach. The work envelope is roughly spherical, Spherical
minus a pie-shaped wedge
• It uses polar articulation for all degrees of freedom. This is the most
flexible scheme of articulation. It is also the most difficult to
program. The fully-articulated arm is the most popular arm in Fully-
industry because of its extended range of motion. Its work envelop Articulated
is usually pie-shaped crescent in the horizontal plane and an
irregular spheroid in the vertical plane.
• It produces only two position motion about any individual robot axis Positive- stop
by this we mean that there are only two positions that the waist can Program Robots
stop in, there are only two possible positions that the shoulder can
stop in, and so on, for each axis of motion.
• The essential feature that distinguishes a point-point program is its
range, rather than the two limit position. Thus if the mechanics of our
robot give it an inherent range of movements of 0° to 128° on its Point- to-point
shoulder, a point-to-point program with 8-bit resolution could Programs
position the shoulder at 0.0° at 0.5° at 1.0° at 1.5° at 2.0° and so Robots
on up to 127.5°
• It is like a point-to-point program but with the destination positions Continuous-path

very close together. It is able to move the tool device to a Programs
destination position very quickly though, and to move it via virtually
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invariable path, for the simple reason that the initial actual position
of each axis is very close to the destination position.
• It is used mainly in small training robots. Some of these robots have
sufficient accuracy to be used in very light industrial and laboratory
tasks, but for the most part the stepper motor robot is rarity in the
industry. Although it is used to power the pumps or the compressors Stepper motor
for hydraulic or pneumatic robots, the AC motor is not widely used
in powering electric robots. AC motors are not as easily controlled
for either speed or position.
• These are known for robots for their quiet operation and the
relatively small size of their power supplies. The growth of robotics Electric Drives
in the past few years has led to major advances in electrical motor Systems
design
• It is the backbone of industrial electrically powered robots. Torque,
acceleration, position and speed are easily controlled with a new
type of DC motor. The latest innovation in DC motor in the brushless
permanent magnet excited DC motor. At first glace, this motor looks DC motor
lie a PM stepper motor. A closer inspection may give the motor the
appearance of synchronous AC motors. In design it is a sort of
“inside out” permanent magnet DC motor.
• Hydraulic powered robots are used to handle heavy loads in
today’s industrial applications, such robot design utilize the Hydraulic Drive
mechanical advantage that can be gained with fluid power. In Systems
addition, in the linear and vane type fluid motors, rotary actuators
and hydraulic gear motors are widely used in industrial robotics
• Lower initial cost than a hydraulic system
• The lower operating cost than a hydraulic system
• Clean- no oil leaks to wipe up
• Quick response
• Programming of accurate positioning and velocity control are Pneumatic
impossible; use mechanical stops.
• Weak force capability
• Not so much holding strength when stopped as hydraulic system-
allows a heavy load
• The working volume of robots obviously needs to be sufficient so Working
that all the parts of working area can be reached. Volume
• The speed and acceleration of the robots must be large enough so Speed and
that task can be accomplished within an acceptable time. Acceleration
• The repeatability of the robot is a measure of tolerance within which Repeatability

the end affection can be returned to pre-recorded point.
• The resolution of the robot is the smallest step move that can be Resolution
made at a given position.
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• Accuracy of the robots ids different from that of repeatability. In

this case, the robot may have been programmed off line to move a Accuracy
given location 10 millimeters above a reference point. The accuracy
maybe improved by additional sensory feedback.
• Economics. In addition to technical factors, cost and benefit
consideration are significant aspects at robot selection and their use.
The increasing availability, reliability, and reduced of sophisticated
intelligent robot are having a major economic impact on Economics
manufacturing operation and gradually replacing human labor.
Where as hourly wages steadily rising, particularly in industrial
nations, the cost of robot operation per hour has increased more
slowly.
• Defending on a size of the robots work envelope, its speed and its
proximity to human, safety in a robot environment is an important Robot Safety
consideration. Particularly important are the programmers and
maintenance personnel that are in direct interaction with robots.
• It serves as the muscle of the system, produces the motion with Actuator
power supplied electrically, pneumatically or by hydraulics.
• A unit transmitting information and receiving instructions from a Communicator
remote operator.
• A central computer that integrates the activity of several Control
microprocessors. computer
• A mechanism consisting of several segments or arms. Manipulator
COMPUTERS
• An electronic data processing machine and capable of

performing mathematical and logical operation accurately and Computer
processing large volumes of data at high speeds
Vacuum tubes
• 1st Generation Computers (1951-1958) (UNIVAC)
• 2nd Generation Computers (1958-1965) Transistors
IC’s
• 3rd Generation Computers (1965-1970) Improved reliability
and faster speed
MSI and LSI
• 4th Generation Computer (1965-1970) Apple II, TRS-80
VLSI, optical
devices, parallel
• Current Generation Computer processing, etc.
Multi-user, multi-
tasking
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• Small volumes of data, performs complex calculations using Scientific

sophisticated formulas.
• Large volumes of data.
Business
• Simple calculations.
• Performs variety of operations, versatile enough to process General Purpose
diversified tasks.
• Performs specific operation. Example, automatic tire alignment. Special Purpose
• Programs that make a computer works
Software
• Set of instructions for the computer to follow
• Physical computer that make up the computer Hardware
• Interface or group of devices where people talk to the Input Unit
computer.
• Consist of electronics circuits that interpret and execute program
instructions as well as communicating with the input/output and
storage devices. Central Processing
Unit (CPU)
• Arithmetic logic unit
• Control Unit
• Devices that give out information coming from the computer.
Output Unit
• Device where computer interacts with the users.
• Storage where programs are placed inside the computer
systems.
Memory
• Main memory
• Secondary memory
• The keys on the computer keyboard are arranged in much the
same way as those on the typewriter. Keyboard
• Device that is moves by hand over a flat surface.

Mouse
• Has a ball on its underside.
• Device that uses beam to read special letters, numbers or Bar Code Reader
symbols.
• An indispensable output device similar to a television.
• VDU (Video Display Unit)
Monitor
• VDT (Video Display Terminal)
• CRT (Cathode Ray Tube)
• Produces printed reports as instructed by a computer program.
Printer
• Produces information on paper output.
• Combine a magnetic roller with powdered ink called toner to Laser Printer
transfer high quality of print.
• Have small nozzles that actually spray fast drying ink onto Inkjet printers
page to form images.
• Use pint head to strike on inked ribbon against paper like a Dot Matrix Printers
typewriter creating characters out of a series of dots.
• Device that uses a light source to read text and images directly Scanner
to the computer.
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• Looks like a photocopier.

• You need to lay the item to be scanned on a glass plate and Flatbed
the scanning head passes below the glass.
• Looks and acts like fax machine.
• The page or item is fed into the machine, scanned then split out Sheet fed
on the other end.
• Good choose for large volumes of text but not good for photos.
• Low cost alternative.
• Manual device you more over a flat surface, just as you do to Hand
your PC’s mouse.
• Type of permanent memory.
• Non-volatile Read Only Memory
• Stores some of the operating systems software of the computer.
• Basic input, output system
• The only software built-in into the computer system.
• Provides the interface between the computer hardware system BIOS
and the operating system.
• Provides control to all devices that require interaction or
services of the microprocessor.
• Complementary metal oxide semiconductor
• Where the various parameters needed by the bios to perform
its tasks are permanently saved in a little piece of CMOS. CMOS
• Power is supplied by a little battery so its contents will not be
lost after the PC is turned off.
• Enable a set of instruction so that the CPU can communicate with Chipset
other parts of the motherboard.
• Memory where data programs are stored
• Working storage of the computer from it
• Read/write memory RAM (Random
• Data are written to and read from it Access Memory)
• Temporary or volatile memory
• Data are lost when power is turned off
• The main board.
• The most input of the computer.
• Manage all transaction of data between CPU and the
peripherals. Motherboard
• Houses the CPU and its second level cache, the chipset, the
BIOS, main memory, I/O chips, parts for keyboard, serial I/O,
parallel I/O disks and plug in cards.
• Plug into an expansion slot in your PC’s
• Has a set of connectors that are exposed on the back of the PC
Sound Cards
• Microphone and speakers
• May include a volume control
134
• A metal box found at the portion of the system unit case

• Used to convert high, AC to a lower AC voltage to power up Power Supply
the computers electronics computer electronic components.
• Let you communicate over standard telephone lines with other
computer user transfer data exchange electronic files and Modems
every typed, conversation is real time.
• Hardware founds you into an expansion slot in your PC’s system Internal Modems
unit.
• Connected to the PC by plugging a cable into a part on the External Modems
system unit.
• Said to be base 10 because it uses 10 digits and the coefficient Decimal System
a are multiplied by power of 10
• 2 possible value 0 and 1 Binary System
Conversation of
• Multiplication is DY r and the coefficient found from the integers Decimal fraction to
may range in value from 0 to r-1 base r
• Used in digital computers for simplifying the subtraction Complements
operation and for logical manipulations.
• To represent a group of 2n distinct elements in a binary code
requires a minimum of n bits. Bit-binary Digit
• It is possible to arrange n bits in 2n distinct ways.
BCD- Binary Coded
• A straight assignment of the binary equivalent. Decimal
• An extra bit included with a message to make the total number Parity Bit
of 1’s either odd or even.
• A number in the reflected code changes by only one bit as it’s Reflected Code-
provides from one number to the text. Gray Code
• Binary code of a group of elements consisting of the 10 decimal
digits, the 2b letters of the alphabet and a certain number of Alphanumeric Codes
special symbols such as $.
• American standard code for information interchange ASCII
• Extended binary coded decimal interchange code EBCDIC
• Circuit whose input and output signals are 2-state, low or high Logic Circuit
voltage
• Deals with variables that take on 2 discrete values and with Binary Logic
operation that assume logical meaning
• A logic circuit with one or more input signal but only one output Gate
signal
• Represent by a dot or by the absence of an operator AND (Intersection)
• A table that shows all input and possibilities for a logic circuit Truth table
• Represented by a plug sign OR (Union)
• Represented by a prime (sometimes by a bar) NOT (inversion)
• Electronic digital circuits, logic circuits, digital and switching Logic Gates
circuits
135
• Complement of AND; abbreviation of Not- AND NAND

• Similar to OR but excludes the combination of both X and Y Exclusive or (XOR or
equal to 1 EOR)
• A function that is 1 when the 2 binary variables are equal. Equivalent or
Example: when both are 0 or both are 1. exclusive or NOT
• Produces the transfer function but does not produce any
particular logic operation since the binary value of the output is Buffer
equal to the binary value input.
• Set elements, a set of operators and a number of unproved Boolean Algebra
axioms or postulates. (Symbolic Logic)
• Introduces a systematic treatment to logic and developed for George Bode (1854)
this purpose an algebraic system.
• Introduced a -valued Boolean algebra called switching
algebra, in which he demonstrated that the properties of C.E. Shannon (1938)
disable electrical switching circuits can be represented by this
algebra.
• A binary variable may appear either in its normal form (x) or Canonical and
its complement form (x) standard Forms
• A symbol for each minterm is of mj where j denotes the decimal Minterm or Standard
equivalent of the binary number of the minterm designated Product
• The complement of a function express as the sum of minterms Conversion between
equals the sum of minterms missing from the original function Canonical Forms
• A Boolean expression containing OR terms called product terms Sum of Products
of one or more literals each. (SOM)
• May be regarded as a pictorial form of a truth table as an Karnaugh Map
extension of the Venn diagram
• Primary building block from which more complex function are Basic circuit
obtained.
• Specifies the number of standard loads that the output of the Fan-out
gate can drive without impairment of its normal operation
• The current flowing in the input or a gate in the same family Standard Load
• Power consumed by the gate which must be available from the Power Dissipation
power supply
• The average transition delay time for the signal to propagate Propagation Delay
from input to output when the signals change in value
• The limit of a noise voltage which may be present without Noise Margin
impairing the proper operation of the circuit
• These are applications where certain combination of input Don’t care
variables never occurs. conditions
• Consist of logic gates whose outputs at any time are Combinational Logic
determined directly from the present combination of inputs Circuits
without regard to previous inputs
• 2 binary inputs and 2 binary outputs Half Adder
• Consist of 2 inputs and 3 outputs Full Adder
136
• Comparator with hysteretic; digital circuit that produces a Schmitt Trigger

rectangular output from any input.
• A combinational logic circuit that recognize the presence of a
specific binary number or word. The input is a multi-bit binary Decoder
number and the output is a signal that indicates the presence of
a specific number of bit combinations.
• A digital function that produces a reverse operation from that Encoder
of a decoder.
• An electronic switch that permits any one of the number of Multiplier (data
inputs to be chosen and routed to the output; was Z or more selector circuit)
input and a single output.
• A combinational logic circuit that receives information on a
single line and transmits this information on one of 2n possible Demultiplexer
output lines.
• Employ memory elements (binary cells) in addition to logic Sequential Circuits
gates
• A system whose behavior can be defined from the knowledge Synchronous
of its signals at discrete instant of time. Sequential Circuit
• A two state circuit that can be remain in either state indefinitely,
Also called a Bistable Multivibrator. Flip Flop
• An external trigger can change the output.
• To eliminate the possibility of race condition. D flip-flop (D-latch)
• Change of the output to the opposite state in a JK Flip-Flop Toggle
• Ideal memory element when it comes to circuits that count. JK flip-flop
• Preset-direct set/clean-direct reset. Preset and clear
• Changing the output state of a flip-flop on the rising and falling Edge triggering
edge of a clock pulse.
• Changing the output state of the input signals must be held Hold Time
constant after the clock edge has struck.
• The minimum amount of the time the input to a flip-must be Set-up Time
preset before the clock edge arrives.
• The time it takes for the output of a gate or flip-flop to change Propagation delay
after the inputs have changed. time
• The time it takes for the output of an F/F responds to the level Level Clocking
(high or low) of the clock signal.
• The simplest type of F/F, consisting of 2 cross couples NAND Latch
and NOR latches
• Type of triggering using 2 cascade latches
Master- slave
Master → + half cycle Triggering
Slave → - half cycle
• An undesirable condition which may exist in a system when 2 or Race Condition
more inputs change simultaneously
• A group of memory elements that work together as a unit Register
• A register that temporarily stores a word during data Buffer register
processing.
137
• A register that can shift the stored bits one position to the left or Shift Register
right
• Has control inputs that determined what it does on the next Controlled Shift
clock pulse Register
• Means storing a word in the shift register by entering 1 bit per Serial Loading
CP
• A register capable of counting the member of clock pulses that
have arrived at its clock input; Electronic equivalent of a binary Counter
odometer
• Counts clock pulses only when commanded to do so Controlled Counter
• A counter in which the clock drives each F/F to eliminate the Synchronous
ripple delay Counters
• A counter producing words with 1 high bit which shift one Ring Counter
position per clock pulse.
• The no. of stable states a counter has Modules of Counter
• Divided by 10 circuit: decade counter MOD 10 Counter
• Counts down Down Counter
• F/F Outputs are connected to storing networks Up Down Counter
• The counter starts at the number greater than 0 Pre-settable Counter
• A non-inverting buffer that can be closed or opened by a 3 State Switch
control signal; a tri-state switch
Pre-settable Counter
• A counter that allows you to preset a number from which the (Programmable
count begins Counter)
• A group with wires used as a common word path by several BUS
registers
• Where the programs and data are stored before the Memory
calculations begin.
• A way of specifying the location of data in memory, similar to a Address
house address.
• The time it takes to read the contents of a memory location Access time
after it has been address.
• A type of memory in which the stored data is not lost when the Non-volatile
powers is turned off.
• A of memory in which the data stored in the memory is lost Volatile
when the power is turned off.
• Programmable ROM.
PROM
• Allows the user to store the data; cannot be erased
• A device that is ultraviolet-erasable and electrically EPROM
reprogrammable. (Erasable PROM)
EEPROM (Electrically
• Non-volatile like PROM, but does not require ultraviolet light Erasable PROM)
• Read-write memory; core RAM; work house of earlier RAM- Random
computers; non-volatile Access Memory
138
• Less bipolar or MOS F/F’s; data is retained indefinitely as long Static RAM
as power is applied
• Uses MOSFET and capacitors that stores data Dynamic RAM
• Sandwiches a thin films magnetic material between two Bubble Memory
permanent magnets.
• It means “small”. micro
• It means “must be able to process data.” processor
• Also known as the brain of the computer.
• A single chip that is capable of processing data and controlling
all the components, whether input or output. Microprocessor
• Interprets inputs from the computer thru electrical connection
(buses) and determines a response based on the program
stored in the main memory of the computer.
• Keep all other parts working together in the right time and Control Limit
sequence.
• It contains the microprocessor data processing logic. Arithmetic Logic Unit
• Prominent part of microprocessor wherein the data is being Register
stores
• Refers to all programs which can assist users to a particular Software
type of computer.
• A very detailed list of steps which must be followed to Program
accomplish task.
• A diagrammatic representation of sequence of events. Flow Chart
• A section of program which repeat over and over again. Loop
Straight-line
• Without any alternate routes or patches. program
• Allow us to write one program that can do different things at Branching
different times
• A section of program which causes different actions to be taken Branch
based on condition
• A portion of the program which is called upon to perform
specific tasks. When the tasks are furnished, the main part of Sub Routine
the program is returned to.
• Only language the computer actually understands; consists of Machine Language
1’s and 0’s
• A low level language which uses mnemonics in place of binary Assembly Language
patterns.
• Abbreviations for machine language instructions. Fortran (Formula
• Something that aids memory. Translation)
• Used advanced commands High level Language
• Tailored to the needs of business.
Cobol
• Common Business Oriented Language.
• Beginner’s all-purpose symbolic instruction code. BASIC
139
• Designed to be easy for non professional programmers to learn

and use.
• Named after French math. Blaire Pascal.
• Designed to encourage the programmer to adhere to what Pascal
considered “correct” programming practices.
In-between
• Between high level and low-level languages C and Forth Language
• When we write in assembly language we use abbreviations Assembly Language
mnemonics for certain operations or functions.
• More like English than machine language Source code
• You must look up the codes yourself. Manual assembly
• A program (usually stored in ROM) which gives the programmer
access to the microprocessor’s stack, accumulator, registers, and Monitor
so forth.
• A program which translates assembly language mnemonics into Assembler
binary patterns (machine language).
• Program which translates binary patterns into assembly Disassembler
language mnemonics.
• A complex program which convert computer instructions written Complier
in a source language.
• A tool which helps you stays organized as you write programs.
Worksheet
• Simply a form on which you can write your program.
• Simple as possible SAP
• A computer because it stores a program data before
calculation begin, and then it automatically carries out the SAP-1
program instructions without human intervention.
• Next step in the evolution toward modern computers because it SAP- 2
includes jump instructions.
• 8 bit microcomputers that are upward compatible with the SAP-3
8080 microprocessors.
140
BOOK REVIEW FORMULA GROB 7TH EDITION
CHAPTER 1: ELECTRICITY Hole 0.16 x 10- Positive Hole

18 C current
Two basic particles of electric charge:
• Electron Ohm’s Law:
• Proton Voltage = current x resistance
Basic forms of atom: Electrical Characteristics:

• Solid
• Liquid Characteristic Symbol Unit Formulas
• Gas Charge Q Coulomb(C) Q=IxT
Current I Ampere (A) I = Q/T
Parts of atom: Voltage V Volt (V) V=IxR
• Proton Resistance R Ohm (Ω) R = V/I
• Nucleus Conductance G Siemens (S) G = 1/R
• Electron
Shells of Orbital Electrons in the Atom: ADDITIONAL LECTURES:

Shell MaximumElectrons Inert Gas
Methods of electron emissions:
K 2 Helium
L 8 Neon • Thermionic Emission (Hot Cathode)
M 8 (up to calcium) or 18 Argon • Photoelectric Emission
N 8, 18, or 32 Krypton • Secondary Emission
O 8 or 18 Xenon • High-field emission (Cold Cathode)
P 8 or 18 Radon
Q 8 - Types of Vacuum Tubes:
Maximum number pf electrons in a filled inner shell: • Vacuum tube diode (Fleming Valve)
2n2
Stable Particles in the Atom:

Particle Charge Mass • Triode (Audion Tube)
Electron, in orbital 0.16x10-18 C, 9.108 x 10-
shells negative 24 g
0.16x10-18 C, 1.672 x 10-

Proton, in nucleus • Tetrode
positive 24 g
Neutron, in 1.675 x 10-

None
nucleus 24 g
Basic Law of Electricity:

• Pentode
• Charges of opposite polarity attract
• Charges of same polarity repels
Coulomb Charge Constant: • Beam Power Tube

6.25 x 1018 C
1 electron or Qe = 0.16 x 10-18 C Vacuum Tube Coefficients:
1 C = 6.25 x 1018 electrons
• Amplification Factor (µ)
onejouleofwork
AK ΔV p
coulombofcharge μ = μ =
ΔV GK ΔV g
Types of Electric Charges for Current: • Plate Resistance (rp)
Type of Amount of Type of ΔV P
Polarity rp =
charges charge current ΔIP
Electron 0.16 x 10- Negative Electron • Transconductance (gm)
18 C flow ΔV p
Ion Qe or Positive or Ion gm =
ΔI g
multiples negative current
Qe
µ = gm x rp
1
Number of electrons (Ne): Ne = 2n2 Schematic diagram of semiconductor:

Where: n = correspond to 1st, 2nd, 3rd, etc
orbit
anode cathode
Broad Categories of Materials:
Resistivity Temperature Resistance levels of semiconductor:
Materials
Values Coefficient ▪ DC or static resistance
Conductor ρ=10-6 Ω-cm Positive Vd
(copper) o Rdc =
ρ=50 Ω-cm Id
(Ge) ▪ AC resistance
Semiconductor Negative o Rac = Rj + Rb
ρ=50x103 Ω-
cm (Si) Where;
ρ ≈ 1012 Ω-cm Rb = bulk resistance (rp +rn)
Insulator Negative Rj = junction resistance
(mica)
26mV
=
Id
Energy Level Diagram: Diode Parameter:
Insulator Semiconductor Conductor ▪ PIV (Peak Inverse Voltage)
Eg = 1.1eV (Si) ▪ RSC (Reverse Saturation Current)
Eg = 0.62eV ▪ Surface Leakage Current
Eg>5eV (Ge) Eg = 0
Eg = 1.41eV
(GaAs) CHAPTER 2: RESISTORS
Color Code of Resistors:
Energy: COLOR CODE COLOR CODE
W=QV Black 0 Green 5
Brown 1 Blue 6
The charge Q: Red 2 Violet 7
Q=1.6x10-19 C Orange 3 Gray 8
Yellow 4 White 9
Work in Joules:
1eV=1.6x10-19 J
How to Read Resistors Stripes:
Types of Semiconductors:
▪ Elemental Band A first digit
Band B second digit
o Silicon (Si) Band C decimal multiplier
o Germanium (Ge) Band D
{ Gold 5%
Tolerance Silver 10%
▪ Compound
o Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)
Class of Semiconductors:
▪ Intrinsic Schematic Symbols of Resistors:
▪ Extrinsic
Type of Material of Semiconductors:

▪ N-Typed Material (Donor Atom)
o Phosphorus (P) Fixed Variable Tapped Potentiometer
o Antimony (Sb)
o Arsenic (As) Comparison of Resistor Types:
▪ P-Typed Material (Acceptor Atom) Carbon Type Resistor Wire Wound Resistor
Carbon granules in binder Turns of resistance wire
o Boron (B)
R up to 20MΩ R down to a fraction of 1Ω
o Aluminum (Al) Color-coded for resistance
o Gallium Resistance printed on circuit
value
o Indium (I) For low-current circuits; power For high-current circuits, rating
ratings of 1/10 to 2W of 5 to over 100W
2
Variable potentiometers and Low-resistance rheostats for
rheostats to 5MΩ, for controls varying current; potentiometers Total Power:
such as volume and tone in up to 50kΩ for voltage divider
receivers in power supply PT = P1 + P2 + P3 + P4 + P5 + … + PN
CHAPTER 3: OHM’S LAW AND Gate Functions:
Switches
Ohm’s Law Lamp
A B
V V Open Open OFF
I= V = IR R=
R I Open Closed OFF
Closed Open OFF
Where: Closed Closed ON
I =current (ampere)
R = resistance (ohm)
V = voltage (volt)
Power
CHAPTER 5: PARALLEL CIRCUITS
work
Power =
time I1 I2 I3
Work VA R1 R2 R3
Work = power × time
1 joule = 1watt-second Total Current:

1 watt = 1joule/second IT = I1 + I2 + I3 + I4 + I5 + … + IN
1 joule = 1 volt-coulomb
1 watt = 1 volt-ampere Total Resistance:
1 1 1 1
= + + + ... + etc.
REQ R1 R2 R3
1hp = 746 watts = ¾ Kilowatts = 550 ft-lb/s
1 joule = 6.25 x 1018eV R1× R2
REQ =
Conversion Factors: R1+ R2
Prefix Symbol Relation to Basic Unit
Mega M 1,000,000 or 1 x 106 If R is equal in all branches;
Kilo k 1000 or 1 x 103
R
Milli m 0.001 or 1 x 10-3 REQ =
Micro µ 0.000001 or 1 x 10-6 n
Total Power:
Power Formulas:
P=VI P=I2R P=V2/R PT = P1 + P2 + P3 + P4 + P5 + … + PN
Practical Units of Electricity: OR Gate Functions:

Coulom
Ampere Volt Watt Ohm Siemens Switches
b Lamp
6.25 x
A B
1018 coulomb joule joule volt ampere Open Open ON
electro second coulomb second ampere volt Open Closed ON
ns Closed Open ON
Closed Closed OFF
CHAPTER 4: SERIES CIRCUITS
ADDITIONAL LECTURE: ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS
R1 R2 R3
I
Electric Current (I):
VA
Δw dw
i = lim =
Δt → 0 Δ t dt
Total Resistance: dq = idt
RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 + R5 + … + RN q = ∫ idt
Total Voltage:
VT = V1 + V2 + V3 + V4 + V5 + … + VN Electron Drift Velocity (or Velocity of Charge):
3
i J • Dimensions – area and length

v= =
nAe ne • Type of material
• Temperature
Where: i = current in inductor • Frequency
n = number of free electrons per m3 Uniform cross – sectional area:
(Electron density) Where:
e =electron charge = 1.6 x 10-19c Rt = resistance at
A = area of the conductor l temperature t (Ω)
R∝ l = length (m)
J = current density = i/A A A = area (m2)
l I2 V ρt = Resistivity or specific
Voltage or Potential Difference (V): Rt = ρ t = ρt = ρt 2 resistance at temperature t
A V A (Ω.m)
Δw dw V = volume (m3)
i = lim =
Δq→0 Δq dq
dw = vdq Resistance vs. Temperature Curve:
w = ∫ vdq
Where:
R1 = resistance at temp t1
Prefix Symbol Value
Tera
Giga
T
G
1012
109
( ) ( )
R2 = R1 xx++tt21 = R1 tt22 -- TToo
R2 = resistance at temp t2
To = inferred absolute zero
temperature
Mega M 106 x = To α1 = temperature coefficient
R2 = R1[1+ α1(t2 - t1)]
Kilo K 103 of resistance
Milli m 10-3 1 1
Micro µ 10-6 = =
Nano n 10-9 x + t1 t1- To
Pico p 10-12
For the standard conductor (annealed or soft – drawn
Circuit Components: copper, 99.99% conductivity):
• Active Elements
o Independent Voltage Source ρ20°C = 1.724 x 10-8 Ω-m = 0.15328 Ω/meter.gram
o Independent Current Source To = -234.5°C
o Dependent or Controlled Source
▪ Voltage – controlled or Rac = kRdc
current – controlled voltage
source (VCVS or CCVS) Where: Rac = effective or RMS value of the resistance
▪ Voltage – controlled or Rdc = ohmic or DC value of the resistance
current – controlled current k = skin effect ratio
source (VCCS or CCCS)
Conductance (G):
1 1A A
G= = =σ
+ +
R ρl l
μVx - r iy - -
g Vx
-
β iy Where: σ = conductivity or specific conductance (S/m)
% conductivity of a wire:
VCVS CCVS VCCS CCCS
σwire ρCu
%cond = ×100% = ×100%
Where: µ = voltage gain σCu ρwire
β = current gain Ohm’s Law:
r = transresistance V
V=IR or I =
g = transconductance R
VX and iy = control variables Resistors:
• Fixed resistors
• Passive Elements o Molded carbon composition resistors
o Resistors o Vitreous – enameled wire – wound
o Capacitors (or condensers) resistor
o Inductors (or coils) o Metal – film precision resistors
o Surface mount power resistor
Nature of Resistance:
4
o Precision power wire – wound Vsc = zero

resistors
o Thick – film chip resistor
• Variable resistors:
o Rheostats
o Potentiometer
Work, Energy and Power Practical Voltage Source:
Work = Energy joules (J) IL

+
Rint
VT RL
Work (or Energy) = force x distance E
= weight x height -
= charge x voltage
Where:
1 Joule (J) = 1 Newton meter (Nm) E = open circuit terminal voltage
= 1 Kg m2 per sec2 Rint = internal resistance
= 1 coulomb volt (CV) ISC =E/Rint = short circuit current
Power: VT = E – internal drop = E - ILRint

Δw dw
p(t) = lim = Source Parameters:
Δt →0 Δt dt
RL
w(t) = ∫ p(t)dt VT = E
Rint + RL
E
Power is time – variant or constant: IL =
Rint + RL
W = Pt
W QV V2
P L = IL2 R L = ( E
)2
Rint +RL RL
P= = = VI = I2 R = PL RL
t t R eff = =
PL + PLOSS Rint + RL
Efficiency:
Wout Wout Pout Pout Maximum Power Transfer Theorem:
eff = = = =
Win Wout + Wloss Pin Pout + Ploss E2
PLmax =
4Rint
Overall efficiency = product of all individual
efficiencies Voltage Dividers:
Series Circuits: RSD

IT = I1 = I2 = I3 = … Source RB Load
VT = V1 + V2 + V3 + …
RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + …
PT = P1 + P2 + P3 + …
Where:
RSD = series – dropping resistance
Parallel Circuits:
RB = bleeder resistance
VT = V1 = V2 = V3 = …
IT = I1 + I2 + I3 + …
VNL - VFL
1 1 1 1 %VR = ×100%
= + + + ... VFL
RT R1 R2 R3
GT = G1 + G2 + G3 + …
PT = P1 + P2 + P3 + … Mesh Analysis:
• Identify the meshes and assign mesh currents
For an open – circuit branch: • Formulate the mesh (or voltage) equations
R = infinitely large • Solve the unknown mesh currents as required to
Ioc = zero obtain other desired values
Voc = any value
Nodal Analysis:
For a short – circuit branch: • Identify the major nodes, select one as reference
R = zero and assign node voltages.
Isc = any value
5
• Formulate the node (or current) equations. Applied voltage is divided Main-line current is divided
• Solve the unknown node voltages as required to into IR voltage drops into branch currents
The largest IR drop is across The largest branch I is in
obtain other desired values. the largest series R the smallest parallel R
Open in one component Open in one branch does
causes entire circuit to be not prevent I in other
open. branches
Network Theorems:
• Superposition Theorem
• Principle of Linearity CHAPTER 7: VOLTAGE AND CURRENT DIVIDERS
Voltage Dividers:
Linear
R
VS Passive IS V = × VT
System
RT
+ Vo - Current Dividers:
R2
I= × IT
R1+ R2
• Thevenin’s Theorem
• Norton’s Theorem G
• Delta – Wye (or Wye – Delta) Transformation I= × IT
GT
Delta to wye conversion: 1
G=
R
product of adjacent resistances in delta
Rwye =
sum of resistance in delta
CHAPTER 8: DIRECT CURRENT METERS
Delta to wye conversion:
Type of Multimeters:
sum of products of adjacent resistances in wye • VOM
Rdelta = • DMM
opposite resistance in wye
For Balanced Delta or Wye:
Shunt resistance:
Rdelta = 3Rwye
VM
• Millman’s Theorem RS =
IS
• Reciprocity Theorem
• Substitution (Compensation) Theorem Resistance of a multiplier:
full - scale V
CHAPTER 6: SERIES-PARALLEL CIRCUITS Rmult = - rM
full - scale I
R1 R2
Multiple Voltages – Scale Readings:
I
VA R3 I R4 10V Scale, Rv = 10000Ω 25V Scale, Rv = 25000Ω
Scale Scale
Mete Deflecti Mete Deflecti
Readin Readin
r, mA on r, mA on
Comparison of Series and Parallel Circuits g, V g, V
Series Circuits Parallel Circuits 0 0 0 0 0 0
Current the same in all Voltage the same across 0.5 ½ 5 0.2 2/10 5
components. all branches Full
1.0 10 0.4 4/10 10
V across each series R is I x scale
I in each branch R is V/R 0.5 ½ 12.5
R
VT = V 1 + V 2 + V3 + … + Full
IT = I1 + I2 + I3 + … + IN 1.0 25
VN scale
GT = G1 + G2 + G3 + …
RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + … + RN
+ GN
RT must be more than the REQ must be less than the Characteristics of a Voltmeter:
largest individual R smallest branch R
PT = P1 + P2 + P3 + … + 25 50kΩ 20000 Ω/V
PT = P1 + P2 + P3 + … + PN
PN 10 200kΩ 20000 Ω/V
50 1MΩ 20000 Ω/V
6
250 5MΩ 20000 Ω/V +VF to the P electrode

1000 20MΩ 20000 Ω/V Forward Voltage
-VF to the N electrode
-VR to the P electrode
Correction for Loading Effect: Reverse Voltage
+VR to the N electrode
R1R2
V = VM + VM
RV(R1 + R2)
Calibration of Ohmmeter:
Full
0 1500 1500 1 0
scale
2/3
750 1500 2250 2/3
scale
750 CHAPTER 10: NETWORK THEOREMS
1500 1500 3000 ½ ½ scale 1500
1/3 Thevenin’s Theorem Norton’s Theorem
3000 1500 4500 1/3 3000
scale
1/100 RTH A A
150000 1500 151500 0.01 150000
scale
RN
500000 1500 501500 0 none ∞ VTH IN
Comparison of VOM and DMM: B B

VOM DMM
Analog pointer reading Digital readout
DC voltmeter is 10 – Thevenin – Norton Conversion:
DC voltmeter changes with
20MΩ, the same on all
range Using Ohm’s Law:
ranges
Zero-ohms adjustment
V=IR; I=V/R
No zero-ohms adjustments
changed for each range
Ohms ranges up to R x
Ohms ranges up to 20MΩ;
10000Ω, as a multiplying RTH A A
each range is the maximum
factor
IN RN
V TH
Direct Current Meters:
B B
Power on in Power off in

Power on in circuit
circuit circuit
Connect in Connect in Millman’s Theorem
Connect is series V1 V2 V3
parallel parallel
High internal Low internal Has Internal
+ +
resistance resistance Battery VXY = R1 R2 R3 .... etc
1 1 1
Has internal Higher battery + +
Has internal series R1 R2 R3
shunts; lower voltage and
multipliers; higher
resistance for more sensitive
resistance for
higher current meter for higher
higher ranges Tee (Tee) or Y (WYE) Network
ranges ohms ranges
A
R2 R3 C
A C
R2
CHAPTER 9: KIRCHOFF’S LAW R3
R1
Kirchoff’s Current Law (KCL) R1

B
IIN = IOUT
B
Kirchoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) Π or Δ Network

ΣV=VT
Polarities of Forward and Reverse Voltage
7
RA RA
1 3 1 3
Element Potential, V
Lithium -2.96
RC RB RC RB
Magnesium -2.40
Aluminum -1.70
2 2
Zinc -0.76
2
Cadmium -0.40
Nickel -0.23
Conversions of Y to Δ, or T to π: Lead -0.13
R1R2 + R2R3 + R3R1 Hydrogen
RA = 0.00
R1 (reference)
R1R2 + R2R3 + R3R1 Copper +0.35
RB = Mercury +0.80
R2
Silver +0.80
R1R2 + R2R3 + R3R1 Gold +1.36
RC =
R3
Conversions of Δ Y, π to T:
RBRC Sizes for Popular Types of Dry Cells:
R1 =
RA + RB + RC
Size Height, in. Diameter, in
RCRA
R2 = D 2¼ 1¼
RA + RB + RC C 1¾ 1
RARB AA 1 7/8 9/16
R3 =
RA + RB + RC AAA 1¾ 3/8
Advantages of Induction Motors:

CHAPTER 12: BATTERIES • Simple in construction, robust and almost
unbreakable
Cell Types and Open Circuit Voltage: • Requires minimum care and maintenance
• Has high efficiency
Cell Name Type
Nominal Open • Has a reasonably good power factor.
Circuit Voltage • Self-testing.
Carbon Zinc Primary 1.5
Zinc Chloride Primary 1.5 Disadvantages of Induction Motors:
Manganese • Speed cannot be varied without loss of efficiency.
Primary or
Dioxide 1.5 • Speed decreases with the increase in load.
Secondary
(Alkaline)
• Has inferior torque.
Mercuric Oxide Primary 1.35
Silver Oxide Primary 1.5 DC Generators Main Parts:
Lithium Primary 3.0
• Yoke
Lead Acid Secondary 2.1
Nickel Cadmium Secondary 1.25 • Pole and Pole Shoe
Nickel Iron • Field Winding
Secondary 1.2 • Armature
(Edison Cell)
Silver Zinc Secondary 1.5 • Commutator
Silver Cadmium Secondary 1.1 • Brushes
Effect of various types of load on the alternator

Open Circuit Voltage of the Lead Acid Cell: terminal voltage
• Resistive loads (incandescent lamps, heating
V = specific gravity + 0.84 devices) or loads with unity power factor. 8% to
20% drop in terminal below its no-load value.
Internal Resistance of the Battery: • Inductive loads (induction motors, electrical welders,
VNL - VL fluorescent lightning) or loads with lagging power
ri = factor. 25% to 50% drop in terminal voltage
IL
below the load value.
Electromotive Series of Elements:
8
• Capacitive loads (capacitor devices or special Zinc- Nickel oxide 1.6

types of synchronous motor) or loads with leading
power factor. Tend to raise or increase the terminal
voltage of the alternator above the no-load value. Most Commonly Used Cells
Primary Cells
General Types of DC Armature Winding:
• Lap Winding Type Voltage Remarks
Used for flashlights and
• Wave Winding
toys; low cost and low
Carbon- Zinc 1.5 current capacity.
Zinc- Chloride 1.5 Higher current capacity.
Manganese Hydroxide Electrolyte and

Alkaline high current capacity.
Silver Oxide 1.5 Hydroxide electrolyte.
Lithium 2.8 Long life, high cost.
List of Batteries and their Corresponding Output

Secondary Cells
Primary
Type Voltage Remarks
Alkaline MnO2 1.15 Lead Acid 2.1 Wet electrolyte
Carbon- Zinc 1.5 Rechargeable dry cell,
Silver- Zinc 1.5 high current capacity
Electrolyte 2.8 Rechargeable dry cell,
Leclanche 1.2 Silver cadmium 1.05 high efficiency
Nickel- Rechargeable dry
Li- organic 2.8 cadmium 1.25 battery
Magnesium 1.5
Manganese dioxide (alkaline) 1.5
CHAPTER 13: MAGNETISM
Mercad 0.85
Conversions:
Mercury 1.2 1 µWb = 100 lines or Mx
Mercuric Oxide 1.35 1 Wb = 1 x 108 lines or Mx
1 T = 1 x 104 G
Silver Oxide 1.5 1 Mx/cm2 = 1 G
Solid 1.9
Flux Density (B):
Zinc-Air 1.1
Zinc- Chloride 1.5 φ
B=
A
Secondary Classification of Magnetic Materials:
• Ferromagnetic Materials
Edison 1.2 • Paramagnetic Materials
Lead-Acid 2.1 • Paramagnetic Materials
• Diamagnetic Materials
Manganese Dioxide (alkaline) 1.5
Nickel- cadmium 1.25 Magnetic Flux (Φ) and Flux Density (b)
Nickel- Hydrogen 1.2 MKS or SI
Name Symbol CGS Units
Units
Nickel- Iron 1.2 1 maxwell 1 weber
Flux or total φ=Bx
Silver- Cadmium 1.05 (Mx) = (Wb) =
lines area 1line 108 Mx
Silver- Zinc 1.5
Zinc- Chloride 2
9
Flux density, 1 gauss (G) 1 Tesla (T) AND CURRENT

φ 1Mx 1Wb
or lines per B= = =
unit area A 2 2 Values in a Sine Wave:
cm m
Angle θ Loop
Sin θ Voltage
Degrees Radians
0 0 0 zero
CHAPTER 14: MAGNETIC UNITS
π 50% of
30 0.5
International System of MKS Units (SI) for Magnetism: 6 maximum
Quantity
Symbo
Unit π 70.7% of
l 45 0.707
4 maximum
Flux φ Weber (Wb)
Flux Density B Wb/cm2 = Tesla (T) π 86.6% of
60 0.866
Potential mmf Ampere – turn (A . t) 3 maximum
Field Ampere – turn per meter ( A . Positive
H π
Intensity t/m) 90 1 maximum
Ampere – turn per weber ( A . 2 value
Reluctance R
t/Wb)
ρ= Weber per ampere – turn 180 π 0 Zero
Permeance Negative
1/R (Wb/A . t) 3π
µr or 270 -1 maximum
Relative µ
Km
None 2 value
Permeabilit
µ = µr B tesla (T) 360 2π 0 Zero
x 1.26 =
y H ampere - turn per meter (A . t/m)
x 10-6
CGS Units: Derivation of Average and RMS Values for a Sine
• For mmf: gilbert (Gb) Wave Alternation
o 1 A.t = 1.26 Gb
• For field intensity: oersted (Oe) Angle
Interval Sin θ
t Oe θ
o 1 A. = 0.0125 1 15 0.26 0.07
m t
A.
m 2 30 0.5 0.25
• Permeability: 3 45 0.71 0.5
o µo = 1G/Oe 4 60 0.87 0.75
5 75 0.97 0.93
Coulomb’s Law: 6 90 1 1
q1q2 7 105 0.97 0.93
F = 9 ×109 × 8 120 0.87 0.75
r2
9 135 0.71 0.5
Where:
10 150 0.5 0.25
F = force in Newton
q1, q2 = charge in coulombs 11 165 0.26 0.07
r = distance in meters 12 180 0 0
9 x 109 = constant factor Total 7.62 6
Average
RMS Value:
Voltage:
0.707
0.635
CHAPTER 15: ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
Faraday’s Law: RMS value = 0.707 x peak value
d Common Frequencies:
vind = N
dt Frequencies Applications
Where: AC Power
N = number of turns 60 Hz
Line
d 50 – 15,000 Audio
= in webers per second Hz Equipment
dt
535 – 1605 AM Radio
kHz Band
CHAPTER 16: ALTERNATING VOLTAGE TV Channel
54-60 MHz
2
10
88 – 108 FM Radio Energy:

MHz Band 1
Energy =  = LI2
2
Period:
1
T=
f
CHAPTER 26: RESONANCE
Wavelength: Resonant Frequency:
velocity 1
λ= fr =
frequency 2π LC
Capacitance:
Wavelength of Sound Waves: 1
1130ft/s C= 2 2
λ= 4π fr L
f Hz Inductance:
1
L= 2 2
4π fr C
Q of Series Circuit:
X
Q= L
rs
Voltage Output in Series Resonance:
CHAPTER 17: INDUCTANCE
Formula of Inductance: VL = VC = Q× Vgen
vL
L= Q in a Series Resonant Circuit:
di
dt V
N2 × A Q = out
L = μr × ×1.26 ×10-16 H Vin
l Q in a Parallel Resonant Circuit:
Z
1mH = 1 x10-3 H Q = EQ
1µH = 1 x 10-6 H XL
Self induced Voltage: Bandwidth of Resonant Circuit:

di f
vL = L Δf = r
dt Q
High-Q Circuit:
Coefficient of Coupling: Z ×Z
flux linkage between L1 and L2 Z EQ = 1 2
k= Z1 + Z 2
flux produced by L1
Comparison of Series and Parallel Resonance:
Mutual Impedance: Series Resonance Parallel Resonance
LM = k L1x L2 1 1
fr = fr =
2 π LC 2 π LC
I maximum at fr with θ of IT maximum at fr with θ of
Turns Ratio: 0°. 0°.
NP Impedance Z minimum at fr. Impedance Z maximum at fr.
Turns Ratio =
NS XL Vout XL Z
max
Q= or Q = Q= or Q =
Current Ratio: r V r X
s in s L
VS IS = VPIP
Q rise in voltage = Q x Q rise in impedance = Q x
VGEN VGEN
Transformer Efficiency:
fr fr
Pout Bandwidth = Δf = Bandwidth = Δf =
Efficiency = × 100% Q Q
Pin
11
Circuit capacitive below fr, Circuit inductive below fr,

C
but inductive above fr. but capacitive above fr. Q=R
Needs low resistance Needs high resistance source L
source for low rs, high Q, for high rs, high Q, and Bandwidth:
and sharp tuning sharp tuning R
Source is inside LC circuit. Source is outside LC circuit. BW = f2 - f1 =
2πL
fr
BW =
Conversion of rs or RP: Q
2
X Tuning Capacitance:
rs = L
Rp L
C= 2
XL
2 R + (2frL)2
Rp =
rs Resonant Frequency:
Characteristics of Series Resonance: fr =

1 1
2π LC
- ()
R 2
L
• XL=XC
• circuit impedance is minimum
Dynamic Impedance:
• current is maximum
L
• Z is resistive Z=
• At freq.>fo, Z is inductive RC
• At freq.<fo, Z is capacitive
Quality Factor/Figure of Merit (Q):

Filter Approximations:
Reactive Power
Q= Pass Stop Step
Type Roll-Off
Active Power Band Band Response
XL X C Monoto
Butterworth Flat Good Good
Q= = nic
R R Ripple Monoto Very
Chebyshev Poor
d nic Good
1 L Inverse Very
Q= Chebyshev
Flat Rippled
Good
Good
R C
Ripple
Elliptic Rippled Best Poor
d
Bandwidth: Monoto
Bessel Flat Poor Best
R nic
BW = f2 - f1 =
2πL
fr
BW = CHAPTER 27: FILTERS
Q
Typical Audio Frequency and Radio Frequency
Resonant Rise in Voltage across L or C: Coupling Capacitors:
VL=VC=Q x VS Values of CC
Frequency
Frequency R= R= R=
Band
Characteristics of Series Resonance: 1.6kΩ 16KΩ 160kΩ
Audio
• circuit impedance is maximum 100Hz 10µF 1µF 0.1µF
Frequency
• current is minimum 1000Hz 1µF 0.1µF 0.01µF
Audio
• Z is resistive Frequency
Audio
• At freq.<fo, Z is inductive 10kHz 0.1µF 0.01µF 0.001µF
Frequency
• At freq.>fo, Z is capacitive 100kHz 0.01µF 0.001µF 100pF
Radio
Frequency
Radio
1MHz 0.001µF 100pF 10pF
Frequency
Quality Factor/Figure of Merit (Q): Radio
10MHz 100pF 10pF 1pF
Reactive Power Frequency
Q= 100MHz 10pF 1pF 0.1pF
Very High
Active Power Frequency
R XCc = 1/10 R
Q=
XL
12
Typical Audio Frequency and Radio Frequency

Coupling Capacitors: Polarities of Forward and Reverse Voltage
Values of CC
Frequency +VF to the P electrode
Frequency R= R= R= Forward Voltage
Band -VF to the N electrode
16KΩ 1.6kΩ 160Ω
Audio -VR to the P electrode
100Hz 1µF 10µF 100µF Reverse Voltage
Frequency +VR to the N electrode
Audio
1000Hz 0.1µF 1µF 10µF
Frequency Diode Applications:
Audio
10kHz 0.01µF 0.1µF 1µF
Frequency ▪ Power-supply rectifier
100kHz 0.001µF 0.01µF 0.1µF
Radio ▪ Signal detector
Frequency ▪ Digital logic gates
Radio
1MHz 100pF 0.001µF 0.01µF
Frequency
Radio Parts of Junction Transistors:
10MHz 10pF 100pF 0.001µF ▪ Emitter
Frequency
100MHz 1pF 10pF 100pF
Very High ▪ Base
Frequency ▪ Collector
XC1 = 1/10 R
Types of Junction Transistor:

Low – Pass Filter: ▪ PNP
▪ NPN
L L
RL RL
Electrode Currents:
C
IE = IC + IB
Junction Transistors
Choke L in series Choke L in series Type Symbols Electrodes
L C
C =collector
L1 L2 B = base
C RL
C1 C2 RL NPN B E = emitter
Hole current
E
out from base
π-type with one choke C =collector
Inverted L Type with Choke C
B = base
and bypass capacitors
RL PNP B E = emitter
Hole current
C1 C2 RL
E
into base
Features of Field-Effect Transistor:

▪ The input resistance is very high.
π-type with series resistors
▪ The input circuit can take several volts for the input
signal.
High – Pass Filter:
Parts of FET:
▪ Source
CC
RL
C
R
▪ Gate
L
▪ Drain
Types of FET:
RC Coupling Circuit Inverted L Type ▪ JFET (Junction FET)
C
▪ MOSFET (Metal-oxide FET)
C1 C2 ▪ IGFET (Insulated-gate FET)
RL
L L1 L2 RL o Depletion mode
o Enhancement mode
T Type π-type
Types of Field-Effect Transistors:
Type Symbol Electrodes

CHAPTER 28: ELECTRONIC DEVICES
13
D D NPN Transistor, low frequency

D = Drain E P-gate thyristor
JFET G G = Gate G N-gate thyristor
S = Source H N-base unijunction transistor (UJT)
S J P-channel FET
IGFET or D = Drain K N-channel FET
MOSFET N- D G = Gate M Triac (bidirectional)
Channel G S S = Source 2SA/2SB PNP
IGFET or D = Drain 2SC/2SD NPN
MOSFET P- D G = Gate 2SJ/2SK FET
Channel G S S = Source 3SK Dual gate FET
IGFET or D = Drain
MOSFET N- D G = Gate ADDITIONAL LECTURES:
Channel G S S = Source
Enhancemen Diode Rectifiers:
t
• Half-Wave Rectifier
IGFET or
MOSFET P- D = Drain
Channel D
G = Gate PIV ≥Vm
Enhancemen G S S = Source VP
Vdc = = 0.318Vm
t π
Dual Gate D = Drain IP
IGFET or D G2= Gate 2 Idc = = 0.318Im
G2 π
MOSFET N- G1= Gate 1
G1 S
Vr(RMS) = 0.385Vm
Channel S = Source
Efficiency of Rectification:
PDC 0.406
η= =
Types of Thyristors: PAC rf
1+
Name Symbol Electrodes RL
K
G K = Cathode
Silicon Controlled Advantages: Disadvantages:
G = Gate
Rectifier (SCR) Simplicity Not very efficient
A = Anode
A Average output voltage is
Low cost
MT1 MT1 = main low
G terminal 1 It requires only one Ripple frequency is hard to
Triac MT2 = main diode filter
terminal 2
MT2 G = Gate
MT1
MT1 = main • Full-Wave Rectifier
terminal 1 PIV ≥2Vm
Diac 2VP
MT2 = main
terminal 2 Vdc = = 0.636Vm
MT2 π
B1 2IP
B2 = Base 2 Idc = = 0.636Im
E π
Injunction Transistor B1 = Base 1 Vr(RMS) = 0.308Vm
E = Emitter
B2
Efficiency of Rectification:
PDC 0.812
Semiconductor Type Numbers and Case Styles: η= =
1N Diode PAC rf
1+
2N Junction Transistor and FET RL
3N FET with two gates • Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier
S semiconductor PIV ≥Vm
A PNP Transistor, high frequency
B PNP Transistor, low frequency Advantages: Disadvantages:
C NPN Transistor, high frequency
14
Requires a center tapped Regulator:

More Efficient Voltage Regulator
transformer
Ripple frequency is Diode require high PIV |VNL - VFL|
easier to filter rating VR = ×100%
VFL
No problem with DC The peak voltage
core saturation requirement is lower
Current Regulator
Ripple factor of a rectifier: |INL - IFL|
CR = ×100%
Vrms IFL
r≡
Vdc Multiplier Circuits:
Where; • Half-wave Voltage Doubler
Vrms = RMS value of AC component of signal
Vdc = average value of signal • Full-wave Voltage Doubler
o two diodes, two capacitors
VL = 2Vm
Vr(RMS) = VRMS 2 - VDC 2 • Voltage Tripler & Quadrupler
o three diodes, three capacitors
IDCT IDC o four diodes, four capacitors
Vr(p - p) = = Limiters:
C fC
Two Categories:
o Series Limiters
Vr(p - p) IDC o Parallel Limiters
Vrms = =
2 3 2 3fC
Simple Series Clippers
Vm Positive Clipper
= 1+ 3r
VDC
0
Where: Vin Vo
Vr(p-p) = peak-to-peak VDC = average DC
ripple voltage voltage
IDC = ave. load current fp = pulse frequency
RL = load resistance C = filter capacitor Negative Clipper
Rectifi VDC IDC VAC IAC PI fo Eff. 0

er V Vin Vo
Half- VP IP VP IP 40.6
VP fm
wave π π 2 2 %
Full- 2VP 2IP VP IP 2f 81.2
wave π π 2 2 m %
Simple Parallel Clippers
Center Positive Clipper
- 2V
tappe P
d 0
Bridge VP Vin Vo
Efficiency:
Negative Clipper
PDC
%= ×100%
PAC
0
Vin Vo
Parts of Power Supply:
Transformer Rectifier Filter Regulator Biased Series Clippers
15
1lm = 1.496 x 10-10 W

1lm/ft2 = 1f-c = 1.609 x 10-9 W/m2
0
Vin Vo
• Zener Diode
RLVL
VL =
R + RL
Power Dissipated by Zener Diode:
PZ = VZIZ
0
Vin Vo
Name Symbol Applications

cathode
Used to establish a
fixed reference
Zener Diode
0 voltage for biasing &
Vin Vo
comparison purposes.
anode
Used in high
Schottky cathode
frequency
Barrier
application and for
Diode (Hot
Biased Parallel Clippers low voltage/high
Barrier or
current power
Surface
supplies and AC/DC
Barrier) anode
Vo converters
Vin 0
cathode Used in FM
VS
modulators, AFC
Varactor
devices, adjustable
Diode
band pass filters and
anode parametric amplifiers
Vo
0 cathode
Vin
Used in low-power
VS
Tunnel Diode high frequency
systems
anode
cathode
Vo
Vin
0 Can be used to
VS
Photo Diode receive digital data
at very high rate
anode
cathode
Double Clipper Light Used as light source,

Emitting signal indicators, and
Diode (LED) digit/sign displays
Vo1 Vo1 anode
Vin 0
VS1 VS 2
Clamping Circuits
Special Purpose Diode:

• Light Emitting Diode
VO
2V
Typical Average Forward Current: 10-20mA
Typical Forward Voltage: 2.2-3V
• Photodiode:
E= h x f
h = Planck’s constant
= 6.624 x 10-24 J/s
16
CHAPTER 30: TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIERS

VO
2V Comparisons of Circuits for Junction Transistors
Commo Common Common
Characteristi
n Base Emitter(CE Collector(C
c
(CB) ) C)
Signal into Emitter Base Base
Collecto
Signal out of Collector Emitter
VO 2V r
Advantage Stability High gain High ri
VS
Phase
No Yes No
inversion
Input
20Ω 1000Ω 150kΩ
resistance
Output
1MΩ 50kΩ 80Ω
VO
2V resistance
VS
Input voltages VBE at 25° for Junction Transistors

2V Average
VO Cut-in Saturation Active
Bias
Voltage Voltage Region
VS Voltage
Ge 0.1 0.4 0.1-0.4 0.2-0.3
Si 0.5 0.8 0.5-0.8 0.6-0.7
VO 2V Letter Symbols for Transistors

VS
Symbol Definition Notes
Collector Supply Same system for
VCC
Voltage collector currents;
VC Average DC Voltage also for base or
CHAPTER 29: ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS vc AC Component emitter voltages
vC Instantaneous value and currents. Also
Voltage Gain to applies to
output signal voltage RMS value of AC drain, gate, and
Av = Vc
component source of FET
input signal voltage
Current Gain Collector cutoff Reverse Leakage
ICBO
output signal current current, emitter open Current
AI = Breakdown voltage, Ambient
input signal current BVCBO collector to base, temperature TA is
Power Gain emitter open 25°C
AP = AV x AI Small-signal forward
hfe current transfer ratio Same as AC β for
Resonant Frequency of the Tuned Circuit: in CE circuit CE circuit
1
fr =
2π LC ADDITIONAL LECTURE:
Stages of Multivibrators: Types of BJT:
• Off = no conduction, HIGH output voltage • NPN
• On = conduction, LOW output voltage
C
On-off conditions of the diode: B

• Anode positive. Current flows. Diode is ON
• Anode negative. No current. Diode is OFF E
• PNP
17
C Current Gain Lowest/ Moderate Highest

less than 1
B Input Lowest Moderate Highest
E
Impedance
Output Highest Moderate Lowest
Reasons for Biasing: Impedance
Phase None 180° out None
• To turn “on” the device
Inversion of phase
• To place it in operation in the region of its Applications RF Amp Universal Isolation
characteristic where the device operates most
linearly
Types of Bias Circuits of BJT:
Advantages of Transistor over Vacuum Tubes • Fixed Biased
• Smaller and light weight VCC
• Has no heater requirement or heater loss RC

• Has rugged construction VCC - VBE
RB IB =
• It is more efficient since less power is absorbed by C VO
RB
the device. IC = βIB
• It is instantly available for use; requiring no warm- VI C VCE = VCC –
up period ICRC
• Lower operating voltage is possible.
Regions of Transistor Action:
• Active region • Self Biased (Emitter Stabilized Bias)
• Saturation region
VCC
• Cut- off region RC

IB =
• Reverse Active region RB
VCC - VBE
RB + (β +1)RE
C VO
Circuit configurations of BJT:
• Common-Base Configurations
VI C IE = IB (β+1)
• Common-Emitter Configurations VCE = VCC – IC
(RC+RE)
• Common-Collector Configurations RE
Current relationship of BJT:

IE = IB + IC
Common base short circuit amplification factor: • Voltage Divider Bias

IC VCC RTH = R1//R2
α= ETH = VR1 =
IE RC
R2VCC
Common emitter forward current amplification factor: R1
IC R1 + R 2
β= C VO
IB =
IB
VI ETH - VBE
Relationship of Beta between the Alpha: C
α RTH + (β +1)RE
β= R2 RE
IE = IB (β+1)
1- α
VCE = VCC – IC
IE = IB (β+1)
(RC+RE)
Forward current gain:
IE Amplifiers according to function:
δ=
IB • Voltage amplifier
Comparison of Amplifier Configurations • Current amplifier
Common Common Common • Power amplifier
Characteristic
Base Emitter Collector
Power Gain Moderate Highest Moderate Amplifiers according to configuration
Voltage Gain Highest Moderate Lowest/ • Common-base amplifier
less than 1 • Common-collector amplifier
• Common-emitter amplifier
18
Amplifiers according to class of operation Vi

• Class A hi =
Ii
• Class B • hr – open circuit voltage gain
• Class C Vi
• Class AB hr =
Vo
Amplifiers according to frequency • hf – short circuit forward current gain
• DC Amplifier Io
hf =
• Audio Amplifier Ii
• RF Amplifier • ho – open circuit output impedance
• IF Amplifier Io
ho =
• Video Amplifier Vo
Amplifiers according to method of coupling Compound Configurations:

• Direct • Cascade configurations
• Capacitive • Cascode configurations
• Inductive • Darlington connection
• Transformer • Feedback pair
Amplifiers according to the signal being amplified

• Small signal amplifier Types of Field Effect Transistor:
• Large Signal amplifier • JFET (Junction Field Effect Transistor)
Comparisons of Amplifier Classes: D
Class Class Class

Class AB
A B C G
78.5 50% < Eff.

Efficiency 50% 100%
% <100% S
Conducti
360° 180° 180°
180<CA<3 • MOSFET ( Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET) or IGET
on Angle 60 (insulated gate FET) Depletion
Extrem
Distortion Low High Moderate
e D
Linear
Bias(base Cut- Below Above cut- G S
positio
emitter) off cut-off off
n
• MOSFET ( Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET) or IGET
(insulated gate FET) Enhancement Only
BJT Small Signal Analysis:
• Voltage gain of a transistor amplifier, Av: D
Vo -AiRL
Av = = G S
Vi Zi
• Current gain of a transistor amplifier, Ai:
Io hf Difference between BJT & FET
Ai = =
Ii 1+ hoRL • Its operation defends upon the flow of majority
• Input impedance, Zi: carriers only (unipolar device)
Vi • Simpler to fabricate and occupies less space in
Zi = = hi – hrAiRL integrated form than BJT.
Ii
• Extremely high input resistance- can take more
input signal voltage.
• Less noise than BJT.
• Output impedance, Zo:
• Exhibits no offset voltage at zero drain current
Vo Rs + hi
Zo = = o Excellent signal chopper
Io Δ h + hoR s • Relatively immune to radiation
• Greater thermal stability than BJT
H-Parameters:
• Less internal noise as an amplifier
• hi – short circuit input impedance
Disadvantages of FET:
19
• Less gain ID
• Smaller power rating VGS = VGSoff 1+
IDSS
• Switching speed is slower
When VGS = 0, gm= gm0
FET BJT
Source Collector -2IDSS
Drain Emitter gm0 =
VP
Gate Base
VGS
gm = gm0 1-
Regions of JFET action: VP
• Ohmic Region
• Pinch-off Region ADDITIONAL LECTURE: FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS AND
• Breakdown Region OSCILLATORS
DC biasing for JFET: Parts of feedback:
• Fixed • Amplifier
• Self Bias • Feedback circuit
• Source Signal
• Voltage Divider Types of feedback:
• Positive feedback (Regenerative)
• Negative Feedback (Degenerative)
Proper biasing of JFET:
VDS VGS Block Diagram of a Feedback System
N-channel + -
P-channel - + Signal Mixer Basic Sampling
Load
Source Network Amplifier Network
Proper biasing of MOSFET:

Enhancement VDS VGS
N-channel + + Feedback
Network
P-channel - -
Signal Sources:
Depletion VDS VGS • Thevenin’s source
N-channel + +/-
Rs
P-channel - +/- Vs
Small signal parameters of JFET:

• AC Drain Resistance (rd) • Norton’s source
ΔV DS
rd =
ΔI D
Is
• Transconductance (gm) Rs
ΔID
gm =
ΔVGS Basic Amplifiers:
• Amplification Factor (µ) Io Vo
ΔVDS • Ai = • Rm =
µ= Ii Ii
ΔVGS Vo Io
• DC drain resistance (RDS) • Av = • Gm =
Vi Vi
ΔVDS
RDS =
ΔID Types of Sampling:
• Voltage sampling
Input JFET formulas:
Drain Current (Shockley’s Formula):
A Load
2
VGS B
ID = IDSS 1-
VP
• Current sampling
20
A
Load A
B
B
Types of mixing:
• Series mixing • Current Shunt Feedback
A A
B B
Series impedance:
• Shunt mixing z(1+Aβ)
A Parallel impedance:
z
B
1+ Aβ
Parame Voltage Current- Voltage Current-
Effects of Negative Feedback ter - series series -shunt shunt
• Stabilize the amplifier Zif Increase Increase decreas decreas
• Increase the bandwidth of an amplifier d d ed ed
• Improve the linearity of the amplifier Zof decreas decreas decreas increase
• Improve noise performance ed ed ed d
Lower cut-off frequency:
• Improve the characteristics of an amplifier
Effects of Positive Feedback fLCO

fLCO =
• Increasing gain that may lead to oscillation 1+ βA
Upper cut-off frequency:
Sacrifice Factor:
A fUCO = fUCO(1+ βA)
S=
A'
Feedback Configurations: The Effect Negative Feedback on Bandwidth:
• Voltage Series Feedback BW = fUCO - fLCO
Requirements for Oscillation:

A
βA≥1
B Phase shift = 180°
(+feedback)
• Voltage Shunt Feedback
Barkhausen Criterion for Oscillation:
A βA = 1
Phase Shift Oscillator

• Current Series Feedback Feedback Network:
1
f=
2 πRC 6
1
β=
29
21
Phase Shift = 180°

A≥29 An Ideal Operational Amplifier would have:
• Infinite input impedance
FET Phase Shift Oscillator • Zero output impedance
Amplifier Gain:
• Infinite gain
A = gmRL
RL = RD//rd
Typical Uses of Op Amps:
1
f= • Scale changing
2 πRC 6 • Analog computer operations
• Instrumentation and control systems
Wein Bridge Oscillator • Phase shift and oscillator circuit
1 Note: Although an Op Amp is a complete amplifier,
f = 2π
R1C1R2C2 it is designed that external components can be
R3 R1 C1 connected to its terminals to change its external
= + characteristics.
R4 R2 C2
Symbol:
If R1 = R2 = R and C1 = C2 = C
1 -V Supply
f=
2 πRC
R3
=2
R4
+V Supply
Oscillator Type Reactance Element

X1 X2 X3
Colpitts C C L
Hartley L L C Op Amp Circuits:
Tuned Input LC LC - • Constant Gain Inverting Amplifier
Tuned Ouput Rf
Rin
- Vout
+
FET Colpitts Oscillator Vin
1
f=
2 π LCeq (
Vout = - Rf/R1Vin )
C1C2
Ceq = •
(C1+ C2) Non-Inverting Amplifier
Rf
FET Hartley Oscillator Rin

- Vout
+
1
f=
2 π LeqC Vin
Leq = L1+ L2 + 2M
Two Resonant Frequencies

• Series Resonant Circuit (
Vout = 1+ Rf/R1Vin )
• Parallel Resonant Circuit
• Unity-Follower
ADDITIONAL LECTURE:
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS AND DIGITAL
ELECTRONICS
22
Rf
Summing Junction
Rin
- Vout
Reference
Terminal - Vout +
Vin Rin
+
Rf’
Vin
• Comparator
• Summing Amplifier Rin

- Vout
+
Rin Rf
Vin
Rin Vref
- Vout
Vin1
Rin +
Vin2
Vin3
Op Amp Specifications:
(
Vout = - Rf/R1Vin1+ Rf/R2Vin2+ Rf/R3Vin3 ) • Input offset voltage
• Input offset current
• Integrator
• Quiescent operating voltage
Cf
• DC device dissipation
Rin • Common Mode Voltage Gain (AC)
- Vout
+
• Differential Voltage Gain Single Ended
Vin Input-Output (Ad)
• Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)
Ad
o CMRR =
1 Ac
Vout(t) = - ∫ Vi(t)dt Ad
RC o CMRRdB = 20log dB
Ac
• Single Ended Input Resistance (Rin)
Summing Integrator: ΔVin
o Rin =
1 1 1 ΔIin
Vout(t) = - ∫ V1(t)dt - ∫ V2(t)dt - ∫ V3(t)dt
R1C R2C R3C • Single Ended Output Resistance (Rout)
• Differentiator ΔVout
o Rout =
Rf
ΔIout
Cin
- Vout
• Slew Rate
+ o Vo → time
Vin
• Drift
o ΔVo → temp
• Roll-off
dVin(t) o ↓ gain →↑ freq
Vout(t) = -RC
dt
Comparator Circuit:
• Differential Amplifier
Vin < Vref → -10V
Vin > Vref → +10V
Ladder Network:
23
D0x20 + D1x21 + D2x22 + D3x23 110 14 E

Vo = 4
× Vref 1111 15 F
2
Analog to digital conversion
• Dual slope method The ASCII Code
• Interfacing circuit X6X5X4
• Timer circuit X3X2X1X0
010 011 100 101 110 111
0000 SP 0 @ P p
555 timer Pins: 0001 ! 1 A Q a q
0010 “ 2 B R b r
Pin1 Ground 0011 # 3 C S c s
Pin2 Trigger input
0100 $ 4 E T d t
Pin3 Output
0101 % 5 D U e u
Pin4 Reset
Pin5 Control voltage 0110 & 6 F V f v
Pin6 Threshold 0111 ‘ 7 G W g w
Pin7 Discharge 1000 ( 8 H X h x
Pin8 VCC 1001 ) 9 I Y i y
1010 * : J Z j z
Applications of 555 timers: 1011 + ; K k
1100 , < L L
• Astable Multivibrator or Clock Circuit 1101 - = M m
o THIGH ≈ 0.7(RA + RB)C 110 . > N n
1111 / ? O o
o TLOW ≈ 0.7RBC
o T = THIGH + TLOW Logic Gates
1
o f= Traditional Rectangular Boolean Algebra
T
• Monostable Multivibrator or One-shot Multivibrator A X A
1
X
X =Ā
o THIGH = 1.1RAC
0 &
A A
X
0
X
B B 0
AB=X
0 >=1
A A
X
0
X
B B 0
A+B=X
0 &
A A
X
0
X
B B 0
AB = X
CHAPTER 31: DIGITAL ELECTRONICS
Binary, Decimal, and Hexadecimal Numbers 0 >=1
A A
X
0
X
B B 0
A +B = X
Binary Decimal Hexadecimal
0000 0 0 Traditional Rectangular Boolean Algebra
0001 1 1 A
0 =1
A
0010 2 2 X
0
X
B B 0
A⊕B = X
0011 3 3
0100 4 4
0101 5 5 A A
0 =1
0
X
X
0110 6 6 B B 0
A⊕B = X
0111 7 7
1000 8 8
1001 9 9
1010 10 A Demorgan’s Theorem
1011 11 B
1100 12 C 1ST Theorem: A + B = A . B
1101 13 D
24
2nd Theorem: A . B = A + B
Inverter NOR gate
A X A B X
TTL Characteristics: 0 1 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 0
Level of Integration Number of Gates per 1 0 0
Chip 1 1 0
Small-scale integration
Less than 12 AND gate NAND gate
(SSI)
Medium-scale integration A B X A B X
12-99 0 0 0 0 0 1
(MSI)
Large-scale integration 0 1 0 0 1 1
100-9999 1 0 0 1 0 1
(LSI)
Very large-scale 1 1 1 1 1 0
10,000-99,999
integration (VLSI)
Ultra large-scale OR gate
100,000 or more A B X
integration (ULSI)
0 0 0
0 1 1
The 7400 Family of TTL Devices 1 0 1
1 1 1
Device Number Description
7400 Quad 2-input NAND gates
7402 Quad 2-input NOR gates Truth Table
7404 Hex Inverter
7408 Quad 2-input AND gates XOR gate
7410 Triple 3-input NAND gates A B X
7427 Triple 3-input NOR gates 0 0 1
7432 Quad 2-input OR gates 0 1 1
7486 Quad 2-input XOR gates 1 0 1
1 1 0
XNOR gate
A B X
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
Flip-Flops Half Adders
Flip-flops Definition A B Carry Sum
0 0 0 0
SET
S Q
R CLR Q
Set/reset flip-flop 0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1
S
SET
Q
1 1 1 0
clk
R CLR Q
Clocked set/reset flip-flop
Full Adders
SET
D Q
clk
D-type flip-flop A B C Carry Sum
CLR Q
0 0 0 0 0
SET
0 0 1 0 1
J Q
clk 0 1 0 0 1
K CLR Q
JK flip-flop 0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 1
1 0 1 1 0
1 1 0 1 0
Truth Table 1 1 1 1 1
25
↓ 1 1 Toggle
RS flip-flop with HIGH active inputs
R S Q Comment CHAPTER 32: INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

0 0 NC No Change
0 1 1 Set Open-loop Voltage Gain:
1 0 0 Reset
1 1 * Illegal Vout
AVOL =
Vid
RS flip-flop with LOW active inputs Where:
AVOL = open-loop voltage gain of op amp
Vout = output voltage
R S Q Comment
Vid = differential input voltage
0 0 * Illegal
0 1 0 Reset Input Bias Current:
1 0 1 Set
1 1 NC No Change
IB + + IB -
IB =
2
Clocked RS Flip-flop Input Offset Current:
Clk R S Q IOS = IB + - IB -
0 0 0 NC
0 0 1 NC
0 1 0 NC Highest Undistorted Frequency:
0 1 1 NC SR
1 0 0 NC fmax =
2 πVpk
1 0 1 1
Where:
1 1 0 0
fmax = highest undistorted frequency
1 1 1 */illegal
SR = slew rate
Vpk = peak value of output sine wave
Common Mode Rejection Ratio:
Ad
CMRR =
Acm
Edge triggered D-type Flip-flop Where:
CMRR = common mode rejection ratio
Clk D Q Ad = differential gain
0 X NC Acm = common mode gain
1 X NC
↓ X NC
0 0 Output voltage for LM317 regulator:
↑
↑ 1 1
(
Vout = R2/R1+1Vreg )
Negative Edge triggered JK Flip-flop Pulse Time:
Clk J K Q tp = 1.1RC
0 X X NC
1 X X NC Two modes of operation of 555 Timers:
↑ X X NC • Monostable (one shot)
X 0 0 NC • Astable
↓ 0 1 0
1 0 1 Frequency of the output waveform of 555 timers:
↓
26
1.44 o Op Amps
fosc = o Power
(RA + 2RB)C
o Microwave Amps
Duty Cycle:
o Voltage Comparators
o Small Signal Amplifiers
RA + RB o RF and IF Amplifiers
%duty cycle = ×100%
RA + 2RB o Multiplexer
. o Voltage Regulators
ADDITIONAL LECTURE: INTEGRATED CIRCUITS Si Wafer of 2cm diameter = 1000 IC chips
History: • Digital IC (Digital)

o Logic gates
1907- Lee de Forest invented the triode tube o Flip-flops
1948- W.H Brattain and I Bardeen invented the o Committers
transistor o Clock chips
1960- IC’s (microelectronics) o Calculator chips
o Memory chips
Advantages of IC’s Over Discrete Components: o Microprocessor
• Extremely small physical size
• Very small ________ IC Terminology:
• Reduced cost (individual transistors) • Bonding
• Extremely high reliability • Chip (Die)
o Absence of soldered components • Circuit Probing
o Need for fewer interconnection • Diffusion
o Small temperature rise due to low power • Diffusion Mask
consumption • Encapsulation
• Suitability for small signal operation • Epitaxy
• Low power consumption • Etching
• Easy replacement • Metallization
• Photoresist
Drawbacks
• Scribing
• Coils or inductors cannot be fabricated
• Wafer
• IC’s function at fairly low voltage
• Handle only limited amount of power How monolithic ICs are made?
• Quite delicate and cannot with stand rough • Wafer preparation
handling or excessive heat. • Epitaxial growth
• Oxidization
Scale of Integration:
• Photolithographic process
• Small Scale Integration (SSI)
• Isolation diffusion
• Medium Scale Integration (MSI)
• Base and emitter diffusion
• Large Scale Integration (LSI)
• Pre-ohmic Etch
• Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI)
• Metallization
• Ultra Large Scale Integration (ULSI)
• Circuit Probing
• Super Large Scale Integration (SLSI)
• Scribing and separating into chips
• Mounting and packing
Classification of IC’s by Structure: • Encapsulation
• Monolithic IC
• Thick and Thin Film IC
o Thick IC ADDITIONAL LECTURE: COMPUTERS
o Thin IC
o Hybrid IC Characteristic of Computers:
o • Electronic
• Internal Storage
Classification of IC’s by Fumction: • Stored data
• Linear IC (Analog) • Program execution modification
27
o Monitor
General Capabilities o Printer
• Performs operation at extremely fast speeds and ▪ Laser Printers
almost perfect reliability and accuracy. ▪ Inkjet Printers
• Ability to store and retrieve information. ▪ Dot matrix Printers
o Scanner
• Ability to perform mathematical and logical
operations. ▪ Flatbed
▪ Sheet Fed
• Ability to handle large volumes of repetitive tasks
▪ Hand
accurately over long periods of times.
• Can communicate with its operators and with other
• Memory:
machines.
o Read Only Memory (ROM)
• Perform decisions based on a program ▪ BIOS
• Capable of remote processing ▪ CMOS
• Capable of processing one job at a time or several ▪ Chipset
jobs almost simultaneously o Random Access Memory (RAM)
Limitations of Computers • Motherboard
• Functions only when it is provided with input • Sound Cards
information
• Power Supply
• Can detect but cannot correct
• Modems
• Subject to occasional breakdown o Internal
o External
According to Size:
• Mainframes; Number Systems:
o large scale Generalizations:
o medium scale • There is no number system with base of 1.
o small scale
• The number of symbols in any number system is the
• Minicomputer radix (base)
• Microcomputer • The highest symbol in any number system is equal
to radix 1.
According to Application:
• The highest symbol plus 1 equals 0 with carry 1.
• Scientific
• Business Complements:
Types: Binary Decimal
According to Design R’s complement 2’s 10’s
• General Purpose (r-1)’s
1’s 9’s
• Special Purpose complements
Main Parts of a Computer System: Decimal Codes:

Decimal Excess
BCD
• Software Digit 3
• Hardware 0 0000 0011
o Input Unit 1 0001 0100
o CPU 2 0010 1010
▪ Arithmetic Logic Unit 3 0011 0110
▪ Control Unit 4 0100 0111
o Output Devices 5 0101 1000
o Memory 6 0110 1011
▪ Main Memory 7 0111 1010
▪ Secondary Memory 8 1000 1011
9 1001 1100
• Input Devices:
o Keyboard Error Detection Codes:
o Mouse • Parity Bits
o Bar Code Reader • Reflected Code – Gray Code
• Alphanumeric Codes
• Output Devices
28
• ASCII (x+y)’=x’y’; (xy’)=x’+y’ x+xy=x; x(x+y)=x

• EBCDIC (Demorgan’s) (absorption)
• Logic Circuit
Minterm or Standard Product:
• Binary Logic
o Positive logic Minterm Minterm
o Negative Logic x y z
term Designation term Designation
0 0 0 x’y’z’ m0 x+y+z M0
Basic Logical Operations: 0 0 1 x’y’z m1 x+y+z’ M1
x’yz’ m2 x+y’+z M2
• AND (Intersection) x’yz m3 x+y’+z’ M3
o xy = z xy’z’ m4 x’+y+z M4
• OR (union) xy’z m5 x’+y+z’ M5
xyz’ m6 x’+y’+z M6
o x+y = z xyz m7 x’+y’+z’ M7
• NOT (Inversion)
o x’=z Characteristic of the Basic Gate:
• NOR • Fan-out
o F = (X+Y)’ o Standard Load
• NAND • Power Dissipation
o F = (XY)’ • Propagation Delay
• Exclusive OR (XOR or EOR) • Noise Margin
o F = XY’ +X’Y • Don’t care conditions
o F = x⊕y
• Equivalence or Exclusive NOR or Exclusive OR-Not Combinational Logic Circuits:
o F = XY +X’Y’ • Half Adder
o F = x⊕y • Full Adder
• Buffer • Decoder
o F=X • Encoder
• Multiplier (data selector circuit)
Boolean algebra: • Demultiplexer
Most common postulates in algebra: • Sequential Circuits
• Closure • Synchronous Sequential Circuit
o N = {1,2,3,4} • Flip Flop
o 1∈ N o RS flip-flop
• Associate Law o D flip-flop (D-latch)
o (X*Y)*Z = X*(Y*Z) o JK flip-flop
o For all X,Y, Z ∈ S Registers:
• Commutative Law • Buffer register
o X*Y = Y*X • Shift Register
o For all X,Y ∈ S • Controlled Shift Register
• Identity Element Counters:
o e*X = X*e • Controlled Counter
o For every X ∈ S • Synchronous Counters
• Inverse • Ring Counter
o X*Y = e • Modules of Counter
• Distributive • MOD 10 Counter
o X*(Y.Z) = (X*Y)(X*Z) • Down Counter
• Up Down Counter
Theorems of Boolean algebra: • Pre-settable Counter
x+0=x x.1=x
x+x’=1 x.x’=0 Semiconductor RAM:
x+x=x x.x=x • Static RAM
x+1=1 x.0=0 • Dynamic RAM
(x’)’=1 (involution) x+y=y+x; xy=yx
(commutative) • Bubble Memory
x+(y+z)=(x+y)+z; x(y+z)=xy+xz;
Major parts of microprocessors:
x(yz)=(xy)z (associative) x+yz=(x+y)(x+z)
(distributive) • Control Unit
29
• Arithmetic Logic Unit • Small and relatively inexpensive

• Register • Needs no maintenance
• Wants very little power
Programming Language:
• Machine Language Applications
• Assembly language • Lightning
• High level language • Motor
o FORTRAN • Electric Wilding
o COBOL • Electric Heating
o BASIC
o PASCAL Disadvantages of SCR:
• In between language • Temperature dependence
o C/FORTH • Inconsistent firing between SCRs of the same type.
• Disassembler
• Complier
• Worksheet Triac:
Two ways to convert source code to object code: Anode

MT1
Anode 1
• Manual assembly P
• Assembly or monitor N
P Gate
Gate
N Gate
MT2
SAP – Simple as Possible: Cathode
Anode 2
• SAP 1
• SAP 2
• SAP 3 Triac Characteristics:
• Latching Current
ADDITIONAL LECTURE: INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS • Holding Current
• Gate Trigger Current
Silicon Controlled Rectifier • Main Terminal RMS Current Rating
Anode
Anode Anode Advantages of Triac over Mechanical Switches:
P • No contact bounce
N
P Gate • No arcing across partially contracts
• Operates much faster
N
Gate
Cathode Gate Cathode
Cathode • Move precise control of element
SCR Characteristics: Diac:

Anode 1
• Forward breakover voltage
• Holding current
• Forward and reverse blocking regions
• Reverse breakover voltage Anode 2
Methods of Turning on an SCR: VBO = ±32V

• Turning ON an SCR by gate triggering
• Turning ON an SCR by exceeding the Forward Advantages of Diacs:
Breakover Voltage • Relatively temperature stable
• Turning ON an SCR leakage current • Have fairly close tolerance on break over voltage;
• Turning ON an SCR by dv/dt. +VBO and VBO- difference < 1 V
• Breakdown voltage two diacs ±32V
Methods of turning off an SCR:
• Anode Current interruption Gate Turn-Off Switch
• Forced commutation
Advantages over Rheostat and Transformers
30
A
Anode
Gate 2
A
G1
G
K
G2
K
Gate 1
LASCR: Cathode
A A
G
G Advantages of SCC Over SCR
K
K
• Reduce turn OFF time
• Increased control and triggering sensitivity more
Applications predictable firing situation.
• Optical Light controls
• Relays Disadvantages of SCC Over SCR
• Phase control • Limited to low power, current and voltage ratings
• Motor control
Applications
• Computer Application
• Counters
Unijunction Transistor (UJT): • Pulse generators
base 1 • Multivibrators
• Voltage regulators
gate
Silicon Unilateral Switch (SUS):
A
base 2
Applications:
• Timer
K
• Oscillators
• Waveform generators Silicon Bilateral Switch (SBS):
• Gate control circuit for SCR and triac A
Total internal resistance:
rBB = rB1 +rB2 K

rB1 Advantages of SBS over Diacs:
%=
rB1+ rB2 • More vigorous switching characteristics
VP = %VB2B1 + 0.6V • More temperature stable
• More symmetrical + VBO and VBO difference.
• Less batch spread than a diac < 0.1V
Programmable Unijunction Transistor (PUT):
A
G
ADDITIONAL LECTURE: INSTRUMENTATION

K
Analogy between PUT and UJT Two General Categories of DC Meters:

• Analog Meters
Cathode- Base1 • Digital Meters
Anode- Emitter
Gate- Base2 Advantages of Digital over Audio Meters
Vp- V6 + 0.6V • More accurate
• It drawn essentially in energy from circuit being
Silicon Controlled Switch (SCS): measured by quantity.
• Some are featured with auto ranges that changes
that changes the scale automatically providing the
31
correct reactant without having to change the

range manually. Where:
Im = full scale current
Advantage of Analog over Digital Meter IL = maximum current that can be measured
• It is best applicable where there is a need to by the meter
monitor rapidly changing variables of safe or Rsh = shunt resistance
normal levels of operation and to do this at a
glace. Multiplying Factor of Voltmeter:
VL Rmult
D’ Arsonval Meter consists of: mfv = = 1+
Vm Rm
• Moving coil Where:
• Spring mfv = multiplying factor of a voltmeter
• Permanent magnet VL= total line voltage that can be measured
Vm = voltage drop across the meter (Im x Rm)
Limitations of Analog Meter Rmult = series resistance with the meter to
• They are subject to errors due to: make it a voltmeter.
o bearing friction
o frequency variations Meter movements used for AC meter:
o possible loss of magnetism • Electrodynamometer Movement
• They are prone to user error as: • Iron Vane Meter Movement
o parallax error-reading from the sides • Electrostatic Meter Movement
o interpolation error-estimating • Thermocouple Meter
between graduation • D’ Arsonval Meter
o Interpretation error-reading on the
wrong side of the scale and failing to DC Bridges:
consider the multiplying factor.
• The Wheatstone Bridges
Three Basic Meter Movements used in Analog Type • The Kelvin Bridge
Meters • Murray Loop
• D’ Arsonval Meter. • Varley Loop
• Electrodynamometer
AC Wheatstone Bridge:
• Iron Vane Movements
• Similar Angle Bridge
Concept of Ideal Ammeter Z4 = Rx – jXcx
• Resistance of the ideal ammeter is zero Z1=R1 R2R3
Rx =
• Needle deflection is directly proportional to Z2=R2 R1
current. Z3 = R3 –jXc3 R1C3
Types of Ammeter Errors Cx =
R2
• Calibration Error
• Ammeter Loading Effect
• Opposite-Angle Bridge
Measures of Reliability: R2R3
• Accuracy Rx =
R1
IWM RO
o = = R1C3
IWOM RO + Rm Cx =
R2
Where:
IWM = ammeter reading • Maxwell Bridge
IWOM = actual current 1 Z4 = Rx + jXLX
Z1= R2R3
RO = circuit Thevenin’s resistance 1 Rx =
Rm = internal resistance of meter + jC1 R1
R1
Z2 =R2 Lx = R2R3C1
• Percent Loading Error Z3 = R3
o (1 – accuracy) x 100%
• Wien Bridge
Multiplying Factor of ammeter: Equivalent Parallel Equivalent Series
IL Rm Components: Components
mfa = = 1+
lm Rsh
32
R1R4 1 R2 R3 o Point-to-point
R3 = + 2 2
R4 = + o Continuous path
R2 w R4C4 2
R1 1+ w R32 C4 2
R2R4 1 R1C4 1 Three different types of wrist:
C3 = + 2 2 2
C3 = + 2 2 2
R1 1+ w R4 C4 R2 w R3 C3 • Pitch
• Yaw
• Schering Bridge • Roll
1 Z4 = Rx - jXX
Z1= R2C1 Rectangular Movement:
1 1 Rx =
+ C3 • Rectangular or Cartesian
R1 - jωXC1
C3R1 o Up and down
Z2 =R2
Cx = o Left to right
Z3 = -jXC3 R2 o Front to back
• Cylindrical
• Radio-frequency Bridge • Spherical
R3C1 If C4’ > C4 then Xx is:
Rx = - C1 • Fully articulated
C2 1
Cx =
1 1 1 wXx Modern uses of Robots:
Xx = × × If C4’ < C4 then Xx is:
w C4 C4 • Exploration
Lx = Xx • Industry
• Medicine
• Military and police
• Entertainment
ADDITIONAL LECTURE: ROBOTICS
Components of a Robot:
• Actuator
• Communicator
• Control computer
• End effector
• Manipulator
• Power supply
• Sensor
Drive Systems:
• Pneumatic
• Hydraulic
• Electric
Characteristics of Controllers by level of Technology:

• Low technology Controllers
• Medium technology Controllers
• High technology Controllers
Axes Control: Selection of Robots and measure of performance:

• Non-servo Control • Working volume • Accuracy
• Servo Control • Speed and acceleration • Economics
• Repeatability • Safety
Classifications of Robots • Resolution
• According to movement
o Fixed and variable sequence Robot Technology Levels:
o Play back robot Low
o Numerically controlled Medium High
Technolo
o Intelligent (Sensor) Technology Technology
gy
• According to program used: Robots Robots
Robots
o Positive stop
33
2–4
Axes 5 – 6 axes 6 – 9 axes
axes
3 – 13.6 68 – 150
Payload 68 – 150 kg
kg kg
Cycle
Very high Very high Very high
time
0.050 –
Accurac 0.2 – 1.3
0.025 1 – 0.4 mm
y mm
mm
Pneumatic
Actuatio , Hydraulic, Hydraulic,
n hydraulic, electric electric
electric
Hard 16-bit
Controlle Microproces
automatio microprocess
rs sor based
n systems ors
34

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BOOK REVIEW ELECTRONICS PRINCIPLE BY MALVINO

1) A rule that relates quantities. Formula

Are formulas that a researcher creates and based

It summarizes a relationship that already exists in

4) A formula that we can get other formulas. Derivation

Sometimes called the first approximation, is the

Adds one or more components to the ideal

7) Produces a load that is constant. Ideal dc Voltage Source

Produces a constant load current for different load

A current source whose internal resistance is at least

10) A statement that we can prove mathematically. Theorem

Defined as the resistance that an ohmmeter

Defined as the load current when the load resistor is

It states that for any theorem in electrical circuit

Means finding out why a circuit is not doing what is

1. the current through an

1. the voltage across a

The reason why electrons are not pulled into the

2) It controls the electrical properties of the atom. Valence Orbit

An element with electrical properties between

An example of a semiconductor and has four

Another example of semiconductor and became

An orderly pattern formed when silicon atoms

7) A bond between the opposite cores. Covalent Bond

One way to increase conductivity of a

9) A doped semiconductor. Extrinsic Semiconductor

It is added to molten silicon to increase the number

Atom with five electrons in valence orbit and also

Atom with three valence electrons and also called

Silicon that has been doped with a pentavalent

Silicon that has been doped with a trivalent

It is the border where the p-type and n-type regions

16) Another name for pn crystal. Junction Diode

The pair of positive and negative ions at the

18) Charge empty region. Depletion Region

The electric field between the ions is equivalent to

It is when the negative source terminal is

The negative battery terminal is connected to the p

The reverse current caused by the thermally

23) The temperature of the surrounding air. Ambient Temperature

The departure of the electron creates a vacancy in

25) The merging of a free electron and a hole. Recombination

The amount of time between the creation and

It means that we cannot get more minority-carrier

The temperature inside a diode, right at the pn

The nucleus of a copper atom contains how many

31) The net charge of a neutral copper atom. +1

How many valence electrons does a silicon atom

How many protons does the nucleus of a silicon

CHAPTER 3 DIODE THEORY

A device where the graph of its current versus

A device where the graph of its current versus

In the forward region, the voltage at which the

4) The knee voltage of a silicon diode. 0.7 V

5) The ohmic resistance of a semiconductor material. Bulk Resistance

The maximum power the diode can safely dissipate

A diode acts like a switch that closes when forward-

It is a region where either avalanche or zener