Regional Studies in Marine Science 28 (2019) 100560

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Regional Studies in Marine Science

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rsma

Dealing with the effects of ocean acidification on coral reefs in the

Indian Ocean and Asia
∗
Vicky W.Y. Lam a , , Suchana Chavanich b , Salpie Djoundourian c , Sam Dupont d ,
Françoise Gaill e , Guillaume Holzer f , Kirsten Isensee g , Stephen Katua h , Frank Mars i ,
Marc Metian j , Jason M. Hall-Spencer k,l
a
Nippon Foundation-UBC Nereus Program & Changing Ocean Research Unit, Institute for the Oceans and Fisheries, University of British
Columbia, 2202 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
b
Department of Marine Science, Faculty of Science, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
c
Department of Economics, Adnan Kassar School of Business, Lebanese American University, P.O. Box 36, Byblos, Lebanon
d
Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Sweden
e
CNRS INEE 3 rue Michel Ange, 75016 Paris, France
f
Coral Guardian, Limours, France
g
Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation, France
h
National Environmental Management Authority (NEMA), Kenya
i
Mars, Inc, 6885 Elm St, McLean, Va 22102, United States
j
International Atomic Energy Agency - Environment Laboratories, Radioecology Laboratory, 4a, Quai Antoine Ier, MC 98000, Principality of
Monaco, Monaco
k
School of Biological and Marine Sciences, University of Plymouth, Plymouth, PL4 8AA, UK
l
Shimoda Marine Research Center, University of Tsukuba, Japan

article info a b s t r a c t

Article history: Shallow coral reefs provide food, income, well-being and coastal protection to countries around the
Received 16 November 2018 Indian Ocean and Asia. These reefs are under threat due to many anthropogenic stressors including
Received in revised form 26 February 2019 pollution, sedimentation, overfishing, sea surface warming and habitat destruction. Ocean acidification
Accepted 28 February 2019
interacts with these factors to exacerbate stress on coral reefs. Effective solutions in tackling the impact
Available online 6 March 2019
of ocean acidification require a thorough understanding of the current adaptive capacity of each nation
to deal with the consequences. Here, we aim to help the decision-making process for policy makers
in dealing with these future challenges at the regional and national levels. We recommend that a
series of evaluations be made to understand the current status of each nation in this region in dealing
with ocean acidification impacts by assessing the climate policy, education, policy coherence, related
research activities, adaptive capacity of reef-dependent economic sectors and local management.
Indonesia and Thailand, are selected as case studies. We also highlight general recommendations on
mitigation and adaptation to ocean acidification impacts on coral reefs and propose well-designed
research program would be necessary for developing a more targeted policy agenda in this region.
© 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Background & status .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2

2. Ecological and socio-economic impacts of ocean acidification in the Indo-Pacific.................................................................................................... 4
3. Assessing adaptive capacity to the impact of ocean acidification ............................................................................................................................... 5
4. Ecological and socio-economic solutions to the impact of OA on coral reefs............................................................................................................ 7
4.1. Ecological solutions for the region ...................................................................................................................................................................... 7
4.1.1. Network of marine protected areas (MPAs) ....................................................................................................................................... 7
4.1.2. Strengthen inter- and intra- national collaborations......................................................................................................................... 7
4.1.3. Promote non-destructive use of marine resources ............................................................................................................................ 7
4.2. Socio-economic solutions for the region ............................................................................................................................................................ 8

∗ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: v.lam@oceans.ubc.ca (V.W.Y. Lam).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rsma.2019.100560
2352-4855/© 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
2 V.W.Y. Lam, S. Chavanich, S. Djoundourian et al. / Regional Studies in Marine Science 28 (2019) 100560

4.2.1. Commit to reducing carbon dioxide emissions .................................................................................................................................. 8

4.2.2. Increase public and political awareness on the value of coral reefs’ services and its risk under OA......................................... 8
4.2.3. Education................................................................................................................................................................................................. 8
5. Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 9
Acknowledgments .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 9
References ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 9

coral reefs provide an estimated US$ 22 billion annually in coastal

1. Background & status protection benefits in this region. Coral reefs are also of interest to
biotechnology companies that are now turning to reef organisms
Shallow-water coral reefs are widespread in the Indian Ocean in search of new genes and molecules for the development of
and Pacific Asia (Fig. 1) where they provide food, income and pharmaceuticals (Hunt and Vincent, 2006). The estimated present
livelihoods to the coastal communities. Coral species richness value of all the services provided by the ocean’s ecological as-
peaks in the ‘coral triangle’ of Southeast Asia and declines grad- sets approaches $1 trillion, with an estimated annual dividend
ually towards the west across the Indian Ocean (Roberts et al., value of around $300-400 million per annum accruing from the
2002; Burke et al., 2011). The coral triangle, which encompasses coral reefs (Hoegh-Guldberg, 2015; Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2017).
the waters of Malaysia, the Philippines, Indonesia and Papua New Table 1 presents gross regional data on available estimates of
Guinea, has the highest marine biodiversity in the world with an coral reef economic and social benefits for the Indian Ocean and
enormous range of reef-associated organisms (Hoeksema, 2007; the South East Asia as well as country specific data for Kenya,
Burke et al., 2011). In addition to providing many ecological Indonesia and Thailand. While these numbers are small relative
benefits including habitat for fish, high biodiversity, and shoreline to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of individual countries in
protection from erosion, the reefs also provide goods and services the region (less than 1% in most cases), the distributional effect of
for direct or indirect use in consumption and production pro- the benefits has great implications for poverty alleviation, income
cesses. Moberg and Folke (1999) identify and categorize the most distribution and social justice.
important goods and services that coral reef ecosystems provide. Coral reefs in the Indian Ocean and Asia are in steep decline
They divide goods into renewable resources and reef mining because of multiple stressors including pollution, sedimentation,
and classify ecological services into physical structure services, overfishing and habitat destruction by coral mining and destruc-
tive fishing practices (Burke et al., 2011). On top of all that are
biotic services, biogeochemical services, information services, and
the effects of carbon dioxide (CO2 ) emissions which are causing
social/cultural services.
surface waters to warm and become more acidic (Pendleton et al.,
Coral reef fisheries and coral reef related tourism are two
2016). About 25% of tropical coral reefs have already been de-
important ecosystem services in this region. According to the
stroyed worldwide due to warming since these reefs are amongst
International Coral Reef Initiative forum, the coral reefs of the
the most vulnerable of marine ecosystems as the corals are al-
South East Asia and the Indian Ocean, with a surface area of ap-
ready near their upper thermal limits (Hoegh-Guldberg et al.,
proximately 100,000 km2 , provide tangible benefits from fisheries
2009) with mass bleaching events in 2016 and 2017 around the
and tourism sectors of at least US$ 12 billion annually to the
world (Hughes et al., 2018a,b). In the Indian Ocean, coral reefs
economies of the region. Around 11,000 businesses employing
experienced large-scale bleaching and mortality because of high
at least 4.5 million people, depend directly or indirectly on coral
temperatures in 1998 and 2005 (McClanahan et al., 2007) and
reefs in this region. For the coral reef fisheries sector, there are
again in 2010 and 2015 (Kimura et al., 2014). Marine heat waves
3.35 million fishers in Southeast Asia and 1.5 million fishers in
are now causing mass coral bleaching and subsequent mortal-
the Indian Ocean (Teh et al., 2013). The annual catch from coral
ity with increasing severity and frequency in the coral triangle
reefs in Southeast Asia is about 3.7 million tonnes per year, con- (Wilkinson, 2004; Peñaflor et al., 2009).
tributing about USD$ 11 billion per year to the economy (Pauly Alongside warming, CO2 emitted into the atmosphere from
and Zeller, 2016). Shallow-water coastal systems in the Indian various anthropogenic activities is changing the carbonate chem-
Ocean (including coral reefs, seagrass beds and mangroves) have istry of surface waters in a process called ‘ocean acidification’.
an annual production of ca. 20 tonnes of fish per km2 (Souter and Ocean acidification (OA) and bioerosion are likely to block the
Linden, 2005). In Kenya, for instance, small-scale fisheries support northward colonization of coral reefs as the Pacific Ocean con-
an estimated 60,000 coastal residents, employ 10,000 people and tinues to warm (Chen et al., 2013; Agostini et al., 2018), and any
supply about 70% of the country’s total marine catch in 2014 northward movement of coral reefs in the northern Indian Ocean
(Pauly and Zeller, 2016), generating an estimated US$ 3.2 million is impossible due to the Asian landmass. Currently, ocean acidifi-
per year. While the revenues generated from fisheries may be a cation monitoring stations and coral restoration programs are be-
tiny fraction of the total Gross Domestic Product (GDP), benefits ing implemented for monitoring, mitigating and adapting to coral
of coral reef fisheries to the small-scale fishers are substantial. reef damage. The IOC Sub-Commission for the Western Pacific
Other than fisheries, coastal communities also thrive on revenues (WESTPAC) established by the Intergovernmental Oceanographic
from tourists as they pour into the area for various recreational Commission of UNESCO (UNESCO-IOC) with the support from
activities on or around the reefs (Spalding et al., 2017). Annually, its member states, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Admin-
around 36.5 million visitors pay to enjoy the beauty of the re- istration (NOAA), and the Global Ocean Acidification Observing
gion’s coral reefs. However, all coral reefs are impacted by these Network (GOA-ON) is developing a network of ocean acidifi-
various activities including fishing in particular, although some cation monitoring stations. These monitoring stations are used
are much less affected due to geographical isolation and low to understand the spatial (within-reef, cross-shelf, latitudinal)
human populations, such as those coral reefs that occur around and temporal (diel, seasonal, past historic and projected future)
Iles Eparses in the Western Indian Ocean (Quétel et al., 2016). variability of the seawater carbonate system and their function
Healthy coral reefs not only provide food, jobs and income is critical to assess the sensitivity of reef communities to future
for coastal communities, they are also important for providing changes in ocean chemistry (Fig. 2). Establishing carbonate chem-
protection from storms and coastal erosion. Property protection istry baselines and generating coupled hydrodynamic–chemical–
from erosion and flooding is a direct benefit of coral reefs. The biological models of coral triangle and Indian Ocean reefs would
 V.W.Y. Lam, S. Chavanich, S. Djoundourian et al. / Regional Studies in Marine Science 28 (2019) 100560 3

Fig. 1. Marine protected areas (blue), locations of Indo-Pacific shallow water coral reefs (orange dots) and the Coral Triangle area (green) are shown. (For interpretation
of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
Source: UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre; www.marineregions.org.

Table 1
Gross Indicators of Coral Reef Economic and Social Benefits (2017) in Southeast Asia, Indian Ocean and three countries (Kenya, Indonesia and Thailand) in this region.
Source: http://www.icriforum.org/ compiled from various documentsb .
Region/ Reef area Annual contribution of Percent contribution from Total jobs Total Total Value of coastal
Country (km2 ) fisheries and tourism to depending number of number of protection ($
GDP ($ million) on reefs visitors businesses million)
Fisheries Tourism
SE Asia 69,637 10,619 45% 55% 3,168,050 35,100,044 7860 $19,099
Indian Ocean 27 960 2,037 28% 72% 1,510,690 1,353,000 2965 3,204
Kenya 630 146 66% 34% 13 538 34,000 200
Indonesiaa 39,538 4,126 55% 45% 1,663,757 19,000,000 2000 15,654
Thailand 2,130 1,792 20% 80% 105,687 958,000 1960 620
a
The values here only include the reef area of Indonesia in Southeast Asia region (but excluding the reefs in Indian Ocean).
b
https://www.icriforum.org/icri-documents/icri-publications-reports-and-posters/regional-fact-sheets-highlighting-importance-co.

inform the understanding of changes in carbon chemistry through stressors. However, there is a lack of local data for bridging the
time and help identify areas that are most vulnerable to OA. gap between chemistry and biological impacts and understanding
Indo-Pacific coral reefs have experienced acidification since the their interactions. Although the interactions between OA and
beginning of the industrial revolution (ca. 1750), and particularly other environmental stressors are still uncertain, OA and warm-
during the past 50 years, following the post-1960s increase in ing are known to be the two critical drivers for reducing coral
anthropogenic CO2 emissions. Boron isotope measurements show resilience, reducing coral growth rates and survival (Anthony
that ocean acidification is affecting the pH of the calcification et al., 2011; Viyakarn et al., 2015). Higher temperature, which
fluid in Porites corals within the western North Pacific Subtropical leads to massive bleaching and is the predominate factor among
Gyre (Kubota et al., 2017). It is not fully understood what ocean other stressors, exacerbates and accelerate the OA-induced de-
acidification has already impacted on coral reefs in the region, clines in calcification, survival, growth and development of corals
although evidence from areas off Japan with naturally low CO2 (Anlauf et al., 2011; Pandolfi et al., 2011). The combination of
indicate that much less coastal carbonate reef habitat is formed temperature and acidification generally has catastrophic effects
as CO2 levels rise from 300–400 ppm (Agostini et al., 2018). on corals (Anlauf et al., 2011; Anthony et al., 2011; Pandolfi et al.,
The decrease in pH and associated changes in the carbonate 2011), The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development adopted
chemistry may be placing more stress on the reefs in this region by world leaders also target towards minimizing and address-
and further increasing their susceptibility to warming and other ing the impact of OA and enhancing scientific cooperation at
4 V.W.Y. Lam, S. Chavanich, S. Djoundourian et al. / Regional Studies in Marine Science 28 (2019) 100560

Fig. 2. Pilot network of ocean acidification monitoring stations in the Western Pacific region. This map aims to show the locations of the OA pilot sites. The details
of each pilot site can be found at http://www.iocwestpac.org.
Source: UNESCO-IOC/WESTPAC.

all levels (SDG 14.3) (United Nations, 2019). Thus, it is a high a decline in shellfish and fisheries species and an overall loss
priority for researchers to collaborate with local communities, in carbonate habitat structure, decreasing the ability of reefs to
non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and policy makers to reduce erosion and storm wave impacts (Agostini et al., 2018).
identify solutions to monitor, mitigate and adapt to the impact Laboratory, mesocom and CO2 seep research shows that extra
of ocean acidification on coral reefs. In this paper, we evaluate carbon availability can be a resource for microalgae and fleshy
the current adaptive capacity of society and highlight potential seaweeds which can then damage reefs (Kim et al., 2016; Agostini
solutions that may reduce the impact of OA on coral reefs from et al., 2018; Sahu et al., 2018) However, many of the countries
both ecological and socio-economic perspectives. Our aim is to which are highly dependent on coral reef ecosystems, such as
help the decision-making process for policy makers when dealing Indonesia, lack robust data on ocean acidification (Pendleton
with these challenges. et al., 2016). Future increases in extreme monsoon rainfall are
considered to be very likely in East, South, and Southeast Asia:
2. Ecological and socio-economic impacts of ocean acidifica- with all models projecting an increase in both the mean and
tion in the Indo-Pacific extreme precipitation in the Indian summer monsoon (Hijioka
et al., 2014). Coastal coral reefs around India and Southeast Asia
Reefs in the coral triangle are projected to become contin- are affected by periods of low carbonate saturation due to heavy
uously adversely impacted and become ‘‘marginal’’ within the rains which worsen the effects of ocean acidification on Asian
period 2020–2050 unless CO2 emissions are curbed (Hoegh- reefs (Zhai et al., 2015; Dong et al., 2017), as does eutrophication
Guldberg et al., 2009). A decline of the coral reefs in the coral caused by the use of fertilizers on land (Duprey et al., 2016). These
triangle is having growing impacts on a large number of reef can be coupled with acidic terrestrial soil runoff and an increase
associated species, and this is degrading ecosystem services, such in sulphate and nitrogen aerosol loadings over the northwestern
as food provisioning and coastal protection by the reefs (Pendle- Bay of Bengal (George et al., 1994; Sarma et al., 2015). Many of the
ton et al., 2016). Laboratory tests and field experiments show heavily populated harbors of the Indo-Pacific region (e.g. Mumbai,
that although many corals and other reef forming organisms Hong Kong, Tokyo) have sediments that are contaminated with
are able to calcify and grow in acidified conditions, reefs are metals. Although some studies show that a decrease in pH may
weakened and erode in waters that are periodically corrosive to not necessarily increase coral uptake of metals such as copper and
carbonates (Fabricius et al., 2011; Rodolfo-Metalpa et al., 2011; cobalt (Bielmyer-Fraser et al., 2018; Biscéré et al., 2015), other
Comeau et al., 2014; DeCarlo et al., 2017; Agostini et al., 2018). studies reveal that ocean acidification is expected to increase the
Much of what we know about the ecological effects of ocean toxicity of many metals (Millero et al., 2009; Wang et al., 2015).
acidification on coral reefs comes from volcanic seep studies Some metals are essential to corals such as magnesium but the
where clonal coral colonies can be exposed to acidified conditions interaction of the uptake of these essential metals and ocean
for hundreds of years. At such analogues for ocean acidification acidification has not yet been investigated (Biscéré et al., 2018).
off Japan (Inoue et al., 2013), Maug (Enochs et al., 2015), Indonesia Land use–coastal interactions continue to increase the degra-
and Papua New Guinea (Fabricius et al., 2014) there are consistent dation of coral reefs in the region, and reduce fisheries landings
patterns of coral reef degradation along gradients of increasing and food for local communities. These impacts are particularly
CO2 . Alongside a loss in coral diversity, fish behavior is impaired important for the communities and countries that are highly
(Munday et al., 2014; Wang et al., 2017). Acidification causes dependent on coral reef ecosystems for their food, income and
 V.W.Y. Lam, S. Chavanich, S. Djoundourian et al. / Regional Studies in Marine Science 28 (2019) 100560 5

livelihoods. Many shell-forming species are negatively affected particularly in the west, and considerable areas are under in-
by OA (Kroeker et al., 2013). Reduced production of shellfish creasing stress from human activities. About 6000 of Indonesia’s
due to OA is expected to adversely affect the economy and food islands are inhabited, and marine and coastal resources and activ-
production in shellfish producing countries such as China and ities generate 25 percent of the country’s gross domestic product
United States. Countries which have low adaptability are highly (Table 1) (Dahuri and Dutton, 2000).
dependent on molluscs for nutrition and have rapidly growing The total net economic losses of reef fisheries from reef degra-
populations are the most vulnerable to reductions in mollusc dation associated with various threats such as poison fishing,
production driven by ocean acidification (Cooley et al., 2012). blast fishing, coal mining, sedimentation and overfishing were
Regions with a rapidly increasing rate of demand for molluscs are estimated at US$ 410,000 per square km of coral reef destruc-
also in the regions with high OA (Cooley et al., 2012). At the global tion per year using productivity change method on Indonesian
level, the economic costs due to OA driven reductions in fisheries coral reefs (Cesar and Chong, 2004). The same method was used
production from coral reef habitats were estimated to be $5.4 to to estimate the total net economic losses of tourism from reef
$8.4 billion (present value) annually under high emission scenario degradation in Indonesia and it was found to be US$ 201,000
(Speers et al., 2016). Although fisheries production in coral reef to 1,592,000 per square km of coral reef degradation per year
habitats is declining due to the impact of various factors, includ- associated with poison fishing, blast fishing, coral mining and
ing OA, seafood demand in many countries is increasing. This may sedimentation (Cesar and Chong, 2004). For each activity, reef
drive fishers to fish harder and increase their effort to exploit degradation causes a decrease in potential tourism revenue. Also,
resources that are already overexploited. For example, they may the total net economic losses for indirect use of coral reef such
increase the use of destructive fishing gears, as seen in Tanza- as coastal protection was estimated to be US$ 21,000 to 453,000
nia and Sri Lanka, and shifts to previously unimpacted fishing per square km of coral reef degradation associated with blast
locations. These adaptation strategies have negative feedbacks on
fishing and coral mining using productivity change method (Cesar
coral reefs and increase conflicts among fishers, communities and
and Chong, 2004). For each activity, reef destruction reduces
different countries (Souter and Linden, 2005). Degrading coral
the protective capability of the reef. The reef’s loss of protective
reefs due to OA may also have an adverse impact on the tourism
capability is linked linearly to its protective value.
associated with those reefs and, coupled with rising sea levels
To better manage the marine and coastal resources, Indone-
and storminess, increase coastal erosion. The cost of replacing
sia designated seven marine protected areas (MPA) under the
shoreline protection services provided by coral reefs range from
authority of Ministry of Environment and Forestry (MOEF) (ICRI,
around £2M/km for a simple earth embankment with a stone
2017). To monitor the decline in coral reef health due to global
revetment to £20M/km for concrete structures (Hedges, 2018)
bleaching events, these seven MPAs aim to achieve several targets
which contribute to ‘ocean sprawl’ whereby nearshore habitats
are damaged by construction (Firth et al., 2016; Bishop et al., including capacity building for the marine park management
2017). authorities, supporting alternative livelihoods, and implement-
The Indian Ocean and Asia contributed about 90% of global ing effective management and law enforcement to increase food
marine aquaculture production in 2016 (FAO, 2018). This provides security of local people. All of these activities also support the
considerable trade, employment and food security to some of strategies for mitigating and adapting the impact of ocean acid-
the densest coastal populations of the world (Sriskanthan and ification on coral reefs. The adaptive capacity of a country is
Funge-Smith, 2011). The responses of farmed species to OA are assessed through seven dimensions including local management,
species specific with shellfish and other calcifying organisms of adaptive capacity of reef-dependent sectors, research develop-
the highest concern in an increasingly acidic ocean (Gazeau et al., ment, policy coherence, area-based management, education and
2013) whereas many macroalgae are resilient (Porzio et al., 2011). current climate policy (Table 2). Different levels of each indicator
At this stage, there is not much knowledge and information on for understanding the adaptive capacity and preparedness of
how OA will impact on regional aquaculture and more research Indonesia in coping with ocean acidification is then estimated
is required. based on this information and opinions from the Indonesian local
experts, who attended the 4th International Workshop on Ocean
3. Assessing adaptive capacity to the impact of ocean acidifi- Acidification,1 and their levels are illustrated in a radar diagram
cation as shown in Fig. 3. The level ranges from no alignment (score =
0) to very high alignment (score = 3). The education, training,
Before designing effective policy to deal with ocean acidifica- research and adaptive capacity on the impacts of OA on the coral
tion, it is important to understand the current adaptive capacity reef systems are ranked at relatively low levels in Indonesia at the
of society to the impact of ocean acidification on coral reefs by time of our assessment, however, Indonesia may probably be at
assessing different indicators including the current climate policy, the stage of drafting plans or having plans but have not yet been
management measures, education level and research intensity. implemented. Although the estimated level of each indicator was
We propose that it is necessary to develop a framework that resulted from a quick assessment, this assessment framework
should be considered when preparing for comprehensive and can act as an important tool for researchers to understand the
effective policies for the impacts of ocean acidification. Here, we adaptive capacity and further explore solutions for OA impacts.
use Indonesia and Thailand as case studies and use a conceptual The findings of this kind of assessment will be targeted to dissem-
framework to demonstrate how to assess their current efforts inate to local community members and government institutions
with respect to dealing with the effects of ocean acidification on that manage coastal and marine ecosystems to enable them to
coral reefs under the current status. Both Indonesia and Thailand implement the necessary management strategies. Also, there are
are member countries (a total of 60) of the International Coral some caveats in our preliminary assessment as we did not have
Reefs Initiative of the United Nations. any representative from the government of Indonesia in our
Indonesia workshop, so we could not get the most up-to-date information
Indonesia is the world’s largest coral reef nation, with over about the current status of these indicators in this country. As
51,000 square kilometers of reefs (almost 18 percent of the world
total), extending nearly 5000 km from east to west, and harboring 1 The 4th International Workshop on Ocean Acidification was organized
over 17,000 islands (including rocks and sandbanks) (Spalding by Monaco Scientific Centre in partnership with the IAEA’s Environment
et al., 2001). The majority of its coastal area is heavily utilized, Laboratories from 15th to 17th October 2017.
6 V.W.Y. Lam, S. Chavanich, S. Djoundourian et al. / Regional Studies in Marine Science 28 (2019) 100560

Table 2
Indicators and descriptions for each dimension for assessing the adaptive capacity and preparedness for each country on the impact of ocean acidification.
Dimension Indicator Description
Local management Stress reduction Measures to reduce the impacts on coral reefs by different stressors
Coastal management Management plans to defend against threats such as flooding, pollution and erosion on the
coastal areas.
Current adaptive capacity Adaptive capacity of • Exposure and sensitivity of the reef-dependent sectors to OA;
reef-dependent sectors
• The existing of capital and sector-specific strategies to help them to adapt to the
changes;
• Relevant technologies to help the people in the sectors to adapt to the changes;
• Social networks and organizations to assist the sectors to adapt to warming and OA.

Research development Training The existing of training programs for management authorities on OA.
Research The existing of research programs and research funding to support studies on the impact
of OA on coral reefs and reef-associated species.
Policy coherence International policies National policies are consistent with the targets set by the intergovernmental
organizations such as SDGs of UNEP.
Internal policies Policies across of different government departments in a country are coherent with the
national policies.
Science National policies are consistent with the best available knowledge from science-based
studies.
Area-based management Area-based management The existing of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) to protect critical habitats and biodiversity.
Education Education and public The existing of education program to educate the public on OA and climate change.
dialogue awareness
Climate policy Climate policy The existing of climate policies to mitigate and adapt the impact of OA and climate
change on marine ecosystem.

Fig. 3. Conceptual framework showing the current status of climate policy, local management, adaptive capacity of reef-dependent sectors, research and development,
policy coherence, area-based management and ‘education-public-dialogue-awareness’ of coral reef systems in Indonesia based on expert’s opinions present at the
4th International Workshop on OA.

such, the information of these indicators will be further validated Thailand

in the next stage of our assessment and the main idea here is to
Thailand has an area of 2,130 square kilometers of reefs
propose this assessment framework that can be used for assessing
the adaptive capacity of each country under the OA impacts. (around 0.75% of world total).
 V.W.Y. Lam, S. Chavanich, S. Djoundourian et al. / Regional Studies in Marine Science 28 (2019) 100560 7

An economic analysis of coral reefs in the Andaman Sea of different stressors, including OA, slow the recent decline in coral
Thailand (Seenprachawong, 2003; Kimura et al., 2014) estimated cover, and also increase the resilience of the marine communities
the direct use value of coral reefs in this region using Travel to the impacts of natural disasters (Makino et al., 2014; Mellin
Cost Method. The study estimated the annual benefit from the et al., 2016).
recreational services of Phi Phi Islands at US$ 205.41 million,
which is about US$ 6,243 per ha per year. 4.1.2. Strengthen inter- and intra- national collaborations
The total economic value of coral reefs in terms of utility Both coral reef restoration programmes and monitoring of
values associated with coral reef biodiversity was estimated using
ocean acidification and coral condition require the scientific co-
Contingent Valuation Method (CVM) at Phi Phi Islands (Seen-
operation at all levels. Coral reef restoration can help the recovery
prachawong, 2003). The mean willingness to pay (WTP) per visit
of deteriorated coral reefs and this has become one of major
was estimated at US$ 7.17 for domestic visitors and at US$ 7.15
tools for reef rehabilitation in Southeast Asia (Edwards, 2010;
for international visitors. The total value of Phi Phi’s coral reefs
Williams et al., 2018). Although the long-term effectiveness of
was estimated to be US$ 147,000 a year for domestic visitors and
coral restoration on the ecological, socio-cultural and economic
US$ 1.24 million a year for international visitors. The CVM study
aspects still needs to be further explored, its short-term effec-
also estimated the total value (use and non-use) of the reefs to be
tiveness on the growth and survival of coral reefs has been better
US$ 497.38 million a year, averaging US$ 15,118 per ha per year.
Although the Intended Nationally Determined Contributions studied (Hein et al., 2017). Many different coral reef restoration
(INDC) of Thailand did not obviously mention about the ma- (rehabilitation) methods have been developed at the local, na-
rine ecosystems and coral reefs, they showed interest to join tional and international levels with varying degrees of success.
an Ad Hoc committee to develop guidelines to integrate coral New scalable methods are emerging and being scientifically val-
reefs in the INDC. To address the impact of climate change and idated (Edwards, 2010; Chavanich et al., 2014; Williams et al.,
ocean acidification on coral reefs, Thailand has implemented a 2018) (Fig. 4).
series of projects to manage marine and coastal resources to cope Inter- and intra-national collaborations are important for coral
with these adverse impacts. For example, the Thailand National reef restoration to improve the conditions of various dimensions
Plan for Marine Environmental Management (20 years plan from of healthy corals reefs, such as biodiversity and resilience, while
2017–2036) has included climate change and ocean acidification considering the local and national interests, e.g. food provision
as one of the threats to marine ecosystems. The reef status maps and coastal defense. A major reef restoration programme in In-
and coral reef resilience maps were updated and used for man- donesia has shown that coral rehabilitation is achievable over
agement planning. Under these projects, a large area of marine large scales where coral reefs have been severely damaged by
and coastal resources including important marine ecosystems blast fishing and coral mining (Williams et al., 2018). A follow
is expected to be successfully managed. Thailand also focuses up 4-year restoration experiment of similar size on a nearby
on monitoring coral recovery and management of coral reefs in island hopes to scientifically answer questions related to the
and outside Marine National Parks following the coral bleach- other dimensions of coral reefs as noted above in 2021.
ing event. The project aimed to monitor the impacts of coral In accordance with the target of Sustainable Development Goal
bleaching event on coral reef ecosystem and the potential of coral (SDG) 14.3 (IOC-UNESCO, 2019), it is necessary to strengthen
recovery in and outside in marine national parks. It also enhanced inter- and intra-national collaborations to adopt science based
the capacity building of young researchers in Thailand. These best practices for monitoring ocean acidification and coral con-
projects that related to climate change and ocean acidification dition. Methodology (for SDG Indicator 14.3.1) is prepared by In-
mitigation covered the areas of integrated management, science tergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC-UNESCO) and
and monitoring, capacity building and periodic assessment (ICRI, International Oceanographic Data and Information Exchange Pro-
2016). In addition, to prepare for mitigation and adaptation of im- gramme (IODE) for providing guidance to scientists and countries
pact of OA, a monitoring program under UNESCO-IOC/WESTPAC on what, where and how to conduct ocean acidification measure-
has been established in Thailand. The program increases the ments and related parameters (GOA-ON, 2019). This methodology
knowledge and capacity building of OA not only among Thai is particularly important for Least Developed Countries (LDCs)
scientists but also among governmental sectors. and Small Island Developing States (SIDSs) as they have less
capacity in this area. It also stresses the importance of data
4. Ecological and socio-economic solutions to the impact of transparency and the importance of open accessed data which
OA on coral reefs allow the data and information to be shared within and among
nations.
4.1. Ecological solutions for the region

4.1.1. Network of marine protected areas (MPAs) 4.1.3. Promote non-destructive use of marine resources
Marine protected areas (MPAs) are one of the most widely Illegal and destructive fishing practices, such as dynamite and
used management tools in the Indian Ocean and Southeast Asia; cyanide fishing, still occur in many countries in Southeast Asia
however, they tend to be scattered and most of them do not and the east coast of Africa (McClanahan and Arthur, 2001; Allen
cover coral reefs (Figure 1, White et al., 2014). For example, and Werner, 2002; Kimura et al., 2014). The use of destructive
only 17.8% of the coral reef habitat in the coral triangle lies fishing gears can be prevalent in poor fishing communities (Cin-
within MPAs (White et al., 2014). In addition, because of failure ner, 2009). Dynamite fishing destroys coral reef habitat and the
of effective management, 69% of MPAs in Southeast Asia are rated removal of large adult fish from populations leads to reductions
as ineffective (Burke et al., 2011). Therefore, it is crucial to have a in catch biomass and diminishing economic returns in a cycle
network of effectively locally-managed MPAs for protecting coral that leads to further blast fishing on reefs. Therefore, promoting
reefs. For example, in Iles Eprases, marine park of Glorieuses non-destructive use of marine resources such as reducing Illegal
established in 2011, adjacent to that of Mayotte, help to sus- Unreported Unregulated (IUU) fishing, and banning the use of
tainably manage biodiversity and fish resources associated with dynamite and cyanide fishing is of high importance in reducing
coral reefs. Although MPAs may not be able to address all the stress to coral reefs to increase their resilience to the impact of
conservation goals, they increase the resilience of coral reefs to OA.
8 V.W.Y. Lam, S. Chavanich, S. Djoundourian et al. / Regional Studies in Marine Science 28 (2019) 100560

Fig. 4. (a) Mars Accelerated Coral Reef Rehabilitation System (MARRS) at Pulau Badi, Sulawesi, July 2015 — showing new installation on the left alongside 1 year
old rehabilitation on the right. (b) Growth and restore of coral reef area under the rehabilitation program. This picture was taken in August 2018, at Pulau Bontausa
by Professor David Smith, University of Essex during the Peer Review of the MARRS program. The restored area shown is approximately 14 months old.

4.2. Socio-economic solutions for the region 4.2.2. Increase public and political awareness on the value of coral
reefs’ services and its risk under OA
4.2.1. Commit to reducing carbon dioxide emissions It is essential to determine and promote the value of the goods
It is crucial for all the countries to commit to reducing their and services provided by coral reefs, such as their role in food
provisioning, ecotourism and coastal infrastructure protection.
carbon dioxide emissions. There are many different ways, with
Insurance companies and politicians are only just beginning to
differing costs, to curb emissions. For example, reducing de-
assess the societal and economic risk of OA to the benefits that
mand for emission-intensive goods and services and encouraging
the general public currently gains from intact and healthy coral
lower-carbon technological use of power, heat and transport. It
reefs.
is necessary for researchers to implement a proper cost benefit
analysis to make sure that the cost of proposed alternatives is 4.2.3. Education
lower than the cost of inaction. More specifically, it is important Educational courses at schools, universities and adult learning
to have economic estimates of the cost of mass extinction of fora need to incorporate up-to-date knowledge on the societal
Asian coral reefs and the adverse impacts on the livelihoods benefits of sustainable use of marine resources, for example,
they support, in order to use the price mechanism to curb the marine renewables, low carbon food production and sustainable
destruction of corals. fishing practices. Also, involving communities in the formulation
 V.W.Y. Lam, S. Chavanich, S. Djoundourian et al. / Regional Studies in Marine Science 28 (2019) 100560 9

of policy and decision making about the use of their marine Anthony, K.R., Maynard, J.A., Diaz-pulido, G., Mumby, P.J., Marshall, P.A., Cao, L.,
resources can help Indo-Pacific nations manage their coral reef Hoegh-Guldberg, O.V.E., 2011. Ocean acidification and warming will lower
coral reef resilience. Global Change Biol. 17 (5), 1798–1808.
habitats in a more sustainable way.
Bielmyer-Fraser, G.K., Patel, P., Capo, T., Grosell, M., 2018. Physiological responses
of corals to ocean acidification and copper exposure. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 133,
5. Conclusion 781–790.
Biscéré, T., Ferrier-Pagès, C., Gilbert, A., Pichler, T., Houlbrèque, F., 2018. Evidence
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Ocean acidification is projected to amplify the adverse effects
Biscéré, T., Rodolfo-Metalpa, R., Lorrain, A., Chauvaud, L., Thébault, J., Clavier, J.,
of warming on the growth, development, calcification, survival Houlbrèque, F., 2015. Responses of two scleractinian corals to cobalt
and abundance of coral reef species at 1.5 ◦ C of warming and pollution and ocean acidification. PLoS One 10 (4), e0122898.
even further at 2 ◦ C, with high confidence (IPCC, 2018). When Bishop, M.J., Mayer-Pinto, M., Airoldi, L., Firth, L.B., Morris, R.L., Loke, L.H.,
Hawkins, S.J., Naylor, L.A., Coleman, R.A., Chee, S.Y., Dafforn, K.A., 2017.
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from molluscs today imply vulnerability to ocean acidification tomorrow.
or reversing OA impacts is to sustain negative CO2 emissions
Fish Fish. 13 (2), 182–215.
in the atmosphere and/or further reduce the non-CO2 radiative Dahuri, R., Dutton, I.M., 2000. Integrated coastal and marine management enters
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reduces coral biodiversity in an urbanized seascape. Glob. Change Biol. 22
This paper is an outcome from the 4th International Workshop (11), 3550–3565.
‘‘Bridging the Gap between Ocean Acidification Impacts and Eco- Edwards, A.J. (Ed.), 2010. Reef Rehabilitation Manual. In: Coral Reef Targeted
Research & Capacity Building for Management Program, St Lucia, Australia,
nomic Valuation — From Science to Solutions: Ocean acidification p. ii + 166.
on ecosystem services, case studies on coral reefs’’ held in Monaco Enochs, I.C., Manzello, D.P., Donham, E.M., Kolodziej, G., Okano, R., Johnston, L.,
from October 15 to 17. The authors are particularly grateful to the Young, C., Iguel, J., Edwards, C.B., Fox, M.D., Valentino, L., 2015. Shift from
workshop organizers, including the Government of Monaco, the coral to macroalgae dominance on a volcanically acidified reef. Nature Clim.
Change 5 (12), 1083.
Prince Albert II Foundation, the IAEA Ocean Acidification Interna- Fabricius, K.E., De’ath, G., Noonan, S., Uthicke, S., 2014. Ecological effects of ocean
tional Coordination Center (OA-ICC), the French Ministry for the acidification and habitat complexity on reef-associated macroinvertebrate
Ecological and Solidary Transition, the Oceanographic Institute — communities. Proc. R. Soc. B 281 (1775), 20132479.
Prince Albert I of Monaco Foundation, the Monegasque Water Fabricius, K.E., Langdon, C., Uthicke, S., Humphrey, C., Noonan, S., De’ath, G.,
Okazaki, R., Muehllehner, N., Glas, M.S., Lough, J.M., 2011. Losers and winners
Company and the Monegasque Association on Ocean Acidification
in coral reefs acclimatized to elevated carbon dioxide concentrations. Nature
(AMAO) and the Centre Scientifique de Monaco (CSM). A special Clim. Change 1 (3), 165.
thanks to the constructive comments from the two anonymous FAO, 2018. - Fisheries and Aquaculture Information and Statistics Branch online
reviewers. VWYL acknowledges funding support from Nippon queries http://www.fao.org/fishery/statistics/global-aquaculture-production/
en (accessed- 14.11.18).
Foundation, Japan — UBC Nereus Program and MM is a Nippon
Firth, L.B., Knights, A.M., Bridger, D., Evans, A.J., Mieszkowska, N., Moore, P.J.,
Foundation-NEREUS program alumni. SC acknowledges funding O’Connor, N.E., Sheehan, E.V., Thompson, R.C., Hawkins, S.J., 2016. Ocean
support from the Thailand Research Fund, Thailand (TRF-RSA sprawl: challenges and opportunities for biodiversity management in a
6080087). changing world. In: Oceanography and Marine Biology. CRC Press, pp.
201–278.
Gattuso, J.P., Magnan, A.K., Bopp, L., Cheung, W.W., Duarte, C.M., Hinkel, J.,
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