ELB1502

Study Guide

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING ROBOTICS

Unit 6: Robot Applications

Diploma in Electrical Engineering

In the Department of Electrical Engineering

School of Engineering

College of Science, Engineering & Technology (CSET)

University of South Africa

Compiled by: Dr. E.M. Migabo (PhD Computer Science & DEng Electrical Engineering)

Instructors: Dr. M.E. Migabo & Mr. A.M. Dlamini

May, 2023
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Study Guide

I. Learning objectives

Learning Objectives for the Unit on Robot Applications:

1. Define the concept of robot applications and understand the significance of robotics in
various fields.
2. Identify and describe the key applications of robotics in manufacturing, healthcare, and
space exploration.
3. Understand the ethical and societal issues associated with robotics, such as safety
considerations, privacy concerns, and ethical decision making.
4. Explore the challenges and benefits of implementing robotics in different industries
and evaluate their potential impact on productivity and efficiency.
5. Examine case studies and real-world examples of successful robot applications in
different domains.
6. Discuss the role of robotics in addressing societal needs, such as healthcare
advancements and sustainable development.
7. Engage in critical thinking and ethical discussions surrounding the use of robots in
society.

II. Study Notes

II.1. Real-World Examples of Successful Robot Applications in Different Domains

Introduction:

Examining case studies and real-world examples of successful robot applications provides
valuable insights into the practical implementation and benefits of robotics across various
domains. These examples demonstrate how robots are being utilized to solve specific problems,
increase efficiency, improve safety, and enhance overall productivity. Let's explore some notable
case studies and examples from different fields:

1. Manufacturing:
• Automotive Industry: Case studies showcasing the use of industrial robots in automobile
assembly lines. These robots perform tasks such as welding, painting, and assembly with
precision and speed, leading to improved production quality and reduced costs.
• Electronics Manufacturing: Real-world examples of robots used in electronic component
assembly, PCB testing, and pick-and-place operations. These applications enhance
manufacturing accuracy, reduce errors, and increase production throughput.
2. Healthcare:
• Surgical Robotics: Case studies on surgical robots like the da Vinci Surgical System. These
robots assist surgeons in performing minimally invasive procedures with enhanced precision,
reduced invasiveness, and faster patient recovery times.
• Rehabilitation Robotics: Real-world examples of exoskeletons and robotic devices used in
physical therapy for patients with mobility impairments. These robots aid in movement
assistance, muscle strengthening, and neurorehabilitation.
3. Space Exploration:

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• Mars Rovers: Case studies on robotic rovers such as Spirit, Opportunity, and Curiosity
deployed by NASA. These robots have successfully explored the Martian surface, conducted
scientific experiments, and transmitted valuable data back to Earth.
• Space Station Robotics: Examples of robotic arms and manipulators used in space station
assembly, maintenance, and repair tasks. These robots assist astronauts in performing complex
operations outside the spacecraft.
4. Agriculture:
• Autonomous Farming: Case studies on agricultural robots used for tasks like seeding,
spraying, and harvesting crops. These robots employ advanced sensors and algorithms to
optimize crop yield, reduce labor requirements, and minimize environmental impact.
• Autonomous Harvesting:
Example:

Introduction: The development of autonomous harvesting systems for fruits has gained
significant attention in recent years. These systems utilize advanced electronics design to
create intelligent machines capable of identifying and harvesting ripe fruits with precision.
This section provides an overview of the electronics design considerations and components
involved in the development of autonomous harvesting systems.

1. Sensor Systems:
• Vision Sensors: Use computer vision techniques and cameras to identify ripe fruits based
on color, shape, and size. These sensors capture images or video data and process them to
determine fruit ripeness levels.
• Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR): Utilize laser-based sensors to measure distances
and create detailed 3D maps of the fruit tree canopy. This information helps in identifying
fruit locations and estimating their positions for efficient harvesting.
2. Robotic Arm and Gripper:
• Robotic Arm: Consists of motorized joints and linkages to provide flexibility and
maneuverability. It is controlled by servo motors or actuators, allowing precise movement
and positioning within the fruit tree canopy.
• Gripper: Designed to delicately grasp fruits without causing damage. Options include soft
grippers with compliant materials or robotic fingers with sensors to ensure proper grip and
prevent excessive force.
3. Navigation and Localization:
• Global Positioning System (GPS): Provides accurate location information to determine the
robot's position within the orchard or field. It helps in path planning and navigation to reach
fruit-bearing trees.
• Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU): Combines accelerometers, gyroscopes, and
magnetometers to measure the robot's orientation, tilt, and direction of movement. IMUs
aid in localization and compensating for external disturbances.
4. Control and Communication:
• Microcontroller or PLC: Acts as the central processing unit to coordinate various system
components, including sensors, actuators, and motor controls. It executes control algorithms
and decision-making logic.
• Wireless Communication: Enables communication between the autonomous harvesting
robot and a central control station. Wireless protocols like Wi-Fi or Bluetooth transmit data
such as fruit detection results, robot status, and commands.
5. Power and Energy Management:

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• Batteries or Power Systems: Provide the required electrical power to operate the electronics
and drive the robot's motors. Efficient power management systems ensure extended
operation time and optimal energy usage.
• Charging Systems: Incorporate charging stations or docking stations for the autonomous
harvesting robot to recharge its batteries autonomously, maximizing uptime.

Conclusion: The electronics design of autonomous harvesting systems for fruits involves
the integration of various components such as sensors, robotic arms, navigation systems,
control units, and power management systems. These components work together to enable
the identification, localization, and precise harvesting of ripe fruits. Advanced technologies
like computer vision, LiDAR, and wireless communication play crucial roles in enhancing
the system's efficiency and accuracy. By combining these electronics design elements,
autonomous harvesting systems can contribute to increased productivity, reduced labor
costs, and optimized fruit quality. Ongoing advancements in electronics design continue to
drive innovation in the field, paving the way for more efficient and autonomous fruit
harvesting operations.

5. Service Industry:
• Hospitality Robots: Real-world examples of robots employed in hotels for tasks such as
concierge services, room cleaning, and customer assistance. These robots enhance guest
experiences, streamline operations, and provide novel customer interactions.
• Retail Robots: Case studies on robots used in warehouses for inventory management, order
fulfillment, and logistics operations. These robots improve efficiency, reduce errors, and
enable faster order processing.

Conclusion: Studying case studies and real-world examples of successful robot applications
in different domains provides valuable insights into the practical benefits and advancements
in robotics. These examples demonstrate the transformative impact of robotics on various
industries, showcasing enhanced productivity, improved safety, and novel capabilities. By
analyzing these case studies, students gain a deeper understanding of how robots are being
deployed to solve complex problems, optimize processes, and address societal needs. It also
encourages critical thinking and inspires students to explore innovative ways to apply robotics
in their future careers. Additionally, studying real-world examples helps students recognize
the challenges faced during implementation and the lessons learned from successful
deployments, thereby fostering a well-rounded perspective on the potential and limitations of
robot applications.

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II.2. Key Applications of Robotics in Healthcare

Introduction: Robotics has become increasingly prevalent in the healthcare industry,

offering innovative solutions to enhance patient care, improve surgical precision, and
automate repetitive tasks. This section provides detailed study notes on the key applications
of robotics in healthcare with a specific focus on the role of electronics in enabling these
advancements.

1. Surgical Robotics:
• Minimally Invasive Procedures: Robotic surgical systems, such as the da Vinci Surgical
System, utilize advanced electronics to enable minimally invasive surgeries. Surgeons
operate using a console equipped with joysticks and foot pedals, controlling robotic arms
that hold and manipulate surgical instruments. Electronics play a crucial role in translating
the surgeon's movements into precise actions, offering improved dexterity, visualization,
and stability.
• Teleoperation: Electronic interfaces enable remote surgical procedures by providing real-
time feedback and control. Surgeons can perform surgeries from a distant location using
robotic systems, allowing access to expertise in remote or underprivileged areas.
Teleoperation requires robust electronic communication and feedback systems to ensure
seamless and secure data transmission.
2. Rehabilitation Robotics:
• Assistive Devices: Electronics play a vital role in the design and functionality of assistive
robotic devices used in rehabilitation. Exoskeletons, powered prosthetics, and robotic
orthoses incorporate electronic sensors, motors, and control systems. These components
allow for precise movement, gait analysis, and feedback to assist patients with mobility
impairments in regaining strength, coordination, and independence.
• Neural Interfaces: Electronic interfaces, such as brain-computer interfaces (BCIs) and
myoelectric sensors, enable direct communication between the human brain or muscles and
robotic systems. These interfaces allow individuals with spinal cord injuries or limb
amputations to control robotic limbs or exoskeletons using their thoughts or muscle signals.
3. Diagnostic and Monitoring Systems:
• Medical Imaging: Electronics play a crucial role in medical imaging technologies like
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), computed tomography (CT), and ultrasound. These
imaging systems rely on electronic sensors, signal processing, and image reconstruction
algorithms to provide detailed anatomical information for diagnosis and treatment planning.
• Remote Patient Monitoring: Electronic devices, including wearable sensors, implantable
devices, and home monitoring systems, allow for continuous monitoring of vital signs,
glucose levels, or other health parameters. These devices transmit data wirelessly to
healthcare providers, enabling remote patient monitoring, early detection of abnormalities,
and timely interventions.
4. Pharmaceutical Automation:
• Robotic Dispensing Systems: Automated robotic systems are used in pharmacies to
accurately dispense medications, reducing human errors and ensuring patient safety. These
systems utilize electronic control systems to identify medications, measure quantities, and
label prescriptions.
• Drug Delivery Systems: Electronic infusion pumps and implantable drug delivery devices
offer precise control over medication administration, allowing for personalized and targeted
therapy. These systems rely on electronics to regulate drug flow rates, monitor patient
responses, and provide feedback on dosage adjustments.
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Conclusion: The application of robotics in healthcare with an electronics focus has

revolutionized patient care, surgical procedures, rehabilitation, diagnostics, and
pharmaceutical automation. Electronics enable precise control, real-time feedback, data
transmission, and integration of robotic systems with human physiology. By understanding
the key applications of robotics in healthcare and the role of electronics, students gain
insights into the transformative potential of these technologies. The continued development
of electronics in healthcare robotics holds promise for improved patient outcomes, enhanced
accessibility to medical services, and advancements in personalized medicine.

II.3. Robotics in Addressing Societal Needs and Ethical Discussions

Introduction: Robotics plays a pivotal role in addressing societal needs, particularly in the
domains of healthcare advancements and sustainable development. Additionally, engaging
in critical thinking and ethical discussions surrounding the use of robots in society is crucial
to navigate the potential benefits and challenges associated with their deployment. This
section provides detailed study notes on the role of robotics in addressing societal needs and
encourages critical thinking and ethical discussions.

1. Role of Robotics in Healthcare Advancements:

• Assistive Devices: Robotics enables the development of assistive devices that enhance the
quality of life for individuals with disabilities or health conditions. Examples include robotic
exoskeletons, prosthetics, and robotic aids for daily living, which improve mobility,
independence, and overall well-being.
• Surgical Precision: Robotic surgical systems enhance surgical precision, offering benefits
such as smaller incisions, reduced blood loss, and faster recovery times. The use of robots
in surgery leads to improved patient outcomes, shorter hospital stays, and minimized risks
associated with invasive procedures.
• Remote Healthcare: Robotics facilitates remote healthcare delivery, enabling access to
medical expertise in underserved areas or during emergencies. Telemedicine robots allow
doctors to remotely diagnose, treat, and monitor patients, expanding healthcare access and
improving patient outcomes.
2. Robotics and Sustainable Development:
• Environmental Monitoring: Robots equipped with sensors and cameras contribute to
environmental monitoring efforts. They can assess air and water quality, monitor wildlife
populations, and aid in disaster response, helping to safeguard the environment and mitigate
potential risks.
• Agriculture and Food Production: Agricultural robots assist in precision farming,
optimizing crop cultivation, and reducing resource wastage. Robots can perform tasks like
seeding, spraying, and harvesting, enhancing efficiency, reducing chemical usage, and
promoting sustainable agricultural practices.
• Waste Management: Robotics plays a role in waste management systems by automating
tasks such as sorting, recycling, and waste disposal. Intelligent robots can identify and
separate recyclable materials, reducing landfill waste and promoting a more sustainable
approach to waste management.
3. Critical Thinking and Ethical Discussions:
• Job Displacement and Workforce Impact: The widespread adoption of robots raises
concerns about job displacement and its impact on the workforce. Critical thinking involves
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evaluating the potential consequences and societal implications of automation, considering

retraining programs, and exploring new job opportunities created by robotics advancements.
• Privacy and Data Security: Robots often collect and process vast amounts of personal data,
raising ethical concerns regarding privacy and data security. Critical thinking encourages
evaluating the ethical implications of data collection, storage, and usage, and developing
policies and safeguards to protect individuals' privacy rights.
• Human-Robot Interaction: Ethical discussions revolve around the design and
implementation of robots to ensure safe and ethical interactions with humans.
Considerations include transparency of robot intentions, establishing ethical guidelines for
robot behavior, and addressing potential biases or discrimination in robotic decision-
making.

Conclusion: Understanding the role of robotics in addressing societal needs, such as

healthcare advancements and sustainable development, is crucial for realizing their potential
benefits. Engaging in critical thinking and ethical discussions surrounding the use of robots
in society helps navigate the complexities and challenges associated with their deployment.
By critically analyzing the impact of robotics on job displacement, privacy, and human-
robot interaction, students develop a well-rounded perspective on the ethical implications
and societal considerations involved in integrating robots into various domains. By
addressing these aspects, society can maximize the benefits of robotics while ensuring
responsible and ethical implementation for the betterment of individuals and communities.

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II.3. Summary notes on applications of robotics to manufacturing

SECTION-I
INTRODUCTION
The field of robotics has its origins in science fiction. The term robot was derived from the
English translation of a fantasy play written in Czechoslovakia around 1920. It took another
40 years before the modern technology of industrial robotics began. Today Robots are highly
automated mechanical manipulators controlled by computers. We survey some of the science
fiction stories about robots, and we trace the historical development of robotics technology.
Let us begin our chapter by defining the term robotics and establishing its place in relation to
other types of industrial automation.
Robotics: -

Robotics is an applied engineering science that has been referred to as a combination of

machine tool technology and computer science. It includes machine design, production
theory, micro electronics, computer programming & artificial intelligence.
OR
"Robotics" is defined as the science of designing and building Robots which are suitable for
real life application in automated manufacturing and other non-manufacturing environments.

Industrial robot: -
The official definition of an industrial robot is provided by the robotics industries
association (RIA). Industrial robot is defined as an automatic, freely programmed, servo-
controlled, multi-purpose manipulator to handle various operations of an industry with
variable programmed motions.
Automation and robotics:-

Automation and robotics are two closely related technologies. In an industrial context, we
can dean automation as a technology that is concerned with the use of mechanical,
electronic, and computer-based systems in the operation and control of production Examples
of this technology include transfer lines. Mechanized assembly machines, feedback control
systems (applied to industrial processes), numerically controlled machine tools, and robots.
Accordingly, robotics is a form of industrial automation.
Ex:- Robotics, CAD/CAM, FMS, CIMS
Types of Automation:-
Automation is categorized into three types. They are,
1)Fixed Automation
2) Programmable Automation
3) Flexible Automation.

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(1) Fixed Automation:-

It is the automation in which the sequence of processing or assembly operations to be carried

out is fixed by the equipment configuration. In fixed automation, the sequence of operations
(which are simple) are integrated in a piece of equipment. Therefore, it is difficult to
automate changes in the design of the product. It is used where high volume of production is
required Production rate of fixed automation is high. In this automation, no new products are
processed for a given sequence of assembly operations.
Features:-
i) High volume of production rates,

ii) Relatively inflexible in product variety (no new products are

produced). Ex:- Automobile industries … etc.
(2) Programmable Automation:-

It is the automation in which the equipment is designed to accommodate various product

configurations in order to change the sequence of operations or assembly operations by
means of control program. Different types of programs can be loaded into the equipment to
produce products with new configurations (i.e., new products). It is employed for batch
production of low and medium volumes. For each new batch of different configured
product, a new control program corresponding to the new product is loaded into the
equipment. This automation is relatively economic for small batches of the product.
Features:-
i) High investment in general purpose,
ii) Lower production rates than fixed automation,
iii) Flexibility & Changes in products configuration,
iv) More suitable for batch production.
Ex:- Industrial robot, NC machines tools… etc.

(3) Flexible Automation:-

A computer integrated manufacturing system which is an extension of programmable

automation is referred as flexible automation. It is developed to minimize the time loss
between the changeover of the batch production from one product to another while
reloading. The program to produce new products and changing the physical setup i.e., it

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produces different products with no loss of time. This automation is more flexible in
interconnecting work stations with material handling and storage system.
Features:-
i) High investment for a custom engineering system.
ii) Medium Production rates
iii) Flexibility to deal with product design variation,

iv) Continuous production of variable mixtures

of products. Ex:- Flexible manufacturing
systems (FMS)
Advantages:-
1.High Production rates
2. Lead time decreases
3. Storing capacity decreases
4. Human errors are eliminated.
5. Labour cost is decreases.
Disadvantages:-
1.Initial cost of raw material is very high,
2. Maintenance cost is high,
3. Required high skilled Labour.
4. Indirect cost for research development & programming increases.

Reasons for implementation of automated systems in manufacture industries:-

The reasons for the implementation of automated systems in manufacturing industries are as
follows,
(i) To Increase the Productivity Rate of Labour
(ii) To Decrease the Cost of Labour
(iii) To Minimize the Effect of Shortage of Labour
(iv) To Obtain High Quality of Products
(v) A Non-automation nigh Cost is Avoided
(vi) To Decrease the Manufacturing Lead Time
(vii) To upgrade the Safety of Workers.

Need for using robotics in industries:-

Industrial robot plays a significant role in automated manufacturing to perform
different kinds of applications.

1. Robots can be built a performance capability superior to those of human beings. In terms
of strength, size, speed, accuracy…etc.

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 2. Robots are better than humans to perform simple and repetitive tasks with
better quality and consistence’s.

3. Robots do not have the limitations and negative attributes of human works .such as
fatigue, need for rest, and diversion of attention…..etc.
4. Robots are used in industries to save the time compared to human beings.
5. Robots are in value poor working conditions
6. Improved working conditions and reduced risks.

CAD/CAM & Robotics:-

CAD/CAM is a term which means computer aided design and computer aided
manufacturing. It is the technology concerned with the use of digital computers to perform
certain functions in design & production.
CAD:- CAD can be defined as the use of computer systems to assist in the creation
modification, analysis OR optimization of design.

Cam:- CAM can be defined as the use of computer system to plan, manage & control the
operation of a manufacturing plant, through either direct or in direct computer interface
with the plant’s production resources.
Specifications of robotics:-
1.Axil of motion
2. Work stations
3. Speed
4. Acceleration
5. Pay load capacity
6. Accuracy
7. Repeatability etc…

Overview of Robotics:-

"Robotics" is defined as the science of designing and building Robots which are suitable for
real life application in automated manufacturing and other non-manufacturing environments.
It has the following objectives,
1.To increase productivity
2. Reduce production life
3. Minimize labour requirement
4. Enhanced quality of the products
5. Minimize loss of man hours, on account of accidents.
6. Make reliable and high speed production.

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The robots are classified as,
Programmable/Reprogrammable purpose
robots
*Tele-operated, Man controlled robots
*Intelligent robots.
Robots are used in manufacturing and assembly units
such as,
1. Spot or arc welding

2. Parts assembly

3. Paint spraying

4. Material, handling

5. Loading and unloading

The feature and capabilities of the robots are as follows,

1. Intelligence

2. Sensor capabilities

3. Telepresence

4. Mechanical design

5. Mobility and navigation

6. Universal gripper
7. System integration and networking.

Types of drive systems:-

1.Hydraulic drive
2. Electric drive
3. Pneumatic drive

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1. Hydraulic drive:-
Hydraulic drive and electric drive arc the two main types of drives used on more
sophisticated robots.

Hydraulic drive is generally associated with larger robots, such as the Unimate 2000
series. The usual advantages of the hydraulic drive system are that it provides the robot
with greater speed and strength. The disadvantages of the hydraulic drive system are that
it typically adds to the floor space required by the robot, and that a hydraulic system is
inclined to leak on which is a nuisance.

This type of system can also be called as non-air powered cylinders. In this system, oil is
used as a working fluid instead of compressed air. Hydraulic system need pump to
generate the required pressure and flow rate. These systems are quite complex, costly and
require maintenance.

2. Electric drive:-

Electric drive systems do not generally provide as much speed or power as hydraulic
systems. However, the accuracy and repeatability of electric drive robots are usually better.
Consequently, electric robots tend to be smaller. Require less floor space, and their
applications tend toward more precise work such as assembly.
In this System, power is developed by an electric current. It required little
maintenance and the operation is noise less.

3. Pneumatic drive:-
Pneumatic drive is generally reserved for smaller robots that possess fewer degrees of
freedom (two- to four-joint motions).

In this system, air is used as a working fluid, hence it is also called air-powered cylinders.
Air is compressed in the cylinder with the aid of pump the compressed air is used to
generate the power with required amount of pressure and flow rates.

Applications of robots:-
Present Applications of Robots:-
(i) Material transfer applications
(ii) Machine loading and unloading
(iii) Processing operations like,

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 (a) Spot welding
(b) Continuous arc welding
(c) Spray coating
(d) Drilling, routing, machining operations
(e) Grinding, polishing debarring wire brushing
(g) Laser drilling and cutting etc.
(iv) Assembly tasks, assembly cell designs, parts mating.
(v) Inspection, automation.

Future Applications of Robots:-

The profile of the future robot based on the research activities will include the following,
(i) Intelligence
(ii) Sensor capabilities
(iii) Telepresence
(iv) Mechanical design
(v) Mobility and navigation (walking machines)
(vi) Universal gripper
(vii) Systems and integration and networking
(viii) FMS (Flexible Manufacturing Systems)
(Ix) Hazardous and inaccessible non-manufacturing environments

(x) Underground coal mining

(xi) Fire fighting operations
(xii) Robots in space
(xiii) Security guards
(xiv) Garbage collection and waste disposal operations
(xv) Household robots
(xvi) Medical care and hospital duties etc.

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Classification of Robots (or) Classification by co-ordinate system and control system:-
Co-ordinate systems:-
Industrial robots are available in a wide variety of sizes, shapes, and physical configurations.
The vast majority of today’s commercially available robots possess one of the basic
configurations:
I. Polar configuration
2. Cylindrical configuration
3. Cartesian coordinate configurable
4. Jointed-arm configuration

1. Polar configuration:-

The polar configuration is pictured in part (a) of Fig. It uses a telescoping arm that can be
raised or lowered about a horizontal pivot The pivot is mounted on a mta6ng base These
various joints provide the robot with the capability to move its arm within a spherical space,
and hence the name “spherical coordinate” robot is sometimes applied to this type. A
number of commercial robots possess the polar configuration.

2. Cylindrical configuration:-

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The cylindrical configurable, as shown in fig, uses a vertical column and a slide that can be
moved up or down along the column. The robot arm is attached to the slide so that it cm he
moved radially with respect to the column. By routing the column, the robot is capable of
achieving a work space that approximation a cylinder.

3. Cartesian coordinate configurable:-

The cartesian coordinate robot, illustrated in part Cc) of Fig, uses three perpendicular slides
to construct the x, y, and z axes. Other names are sometimes applied W this configuration,
including xyz robot and rectilinear robot, By moving the three slides relative to one another,
the robot is capable of operating within a rectangular work envelope.

4. Jointed-arm configuration:-

The jointed-arm robot is pictured in Fig. Its configuration is similar to that of the human
arm. It consists of two straight components. Corresponding to the human forearm and upper
arm, mounted on a vertical pedestal. These components are connected by two rotary joints
corresponding to the shoulder and elbow.

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Control systems:-
With respect to robotics, the motion control system used to control the movement of the
end-effector or tool.
1.Limited sequence robots (Non-servo)
2. Playback robots with point to point (servo)
3. Play back robots with continuous path control,
4. Intelligent robots.
Limited sequence robots (Non-servo):-

Limited sequence robots do not give servo controlled to inclined relative positions of the
joints; instead they are controlled by setting limit switches & are mechanical stops. There is
generally no feedback associated with a limited sequence robot to indicate that the desired
position, has been achieved generally thin type of robots involves simple motion as pick &
place operations.
Point to point motion:-

These type robots are capable of controlling velocity acceleration & path of
motion, from the beginning to the end of the path. It uses complex control programs,
PLC’s (programmable logic controller’s) computers to control the motion.

The point to point control motion robots are capable of performing motion cycle that
consists of a series of desired point location. The robot is tough & recorded, unit.

Continuous path motion:-

In this robots are capable of performing motion cycle in which the path
followed by the robot in controlled. The robot move through a series of closely space
point which describe the desired path.
Ex:- Spray painting, arc welding & complicate assembly operations.
Intelligent robots:-
This type of robots not only programmable motion cycle but also interact with its
environment in a way that years intelligent. It taken make logical decisions based on sensor
data receive from the operation.
There robots are usually programmed using an English like symbolic language
not like a computer programming language.
Precision of movement (or) parameters of robot:-

The preceding discussion of response speed and stability is concerned with the dynamic
performance of the robot. Another measure of performance is precision of the robot's
movement. We will define precision as a function of three features:

1.Spatial resolution
2. Accuracy
3. Repeatability

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These terms will be defined with the following assumptions.
1) The definitions will apply at the robot’s wrist end with no hand attached to the wrist.
2) The terms apply to the worst case conditions, the conditions under which the robot's
precision will be at its wont. This generally means that the robot’s arm is fully extended in
the case of a jointed arm or polar configurable.
3) Third, our definitions will he developed in the context of a point-to-point robot.
1. Spatial resolution:-

The spatial resolution of a robot is the smallest increment of movement into which
the robot can divide its work volume. Spatial resolution depends on two factors: the
system's control resolution and the robot's mechanical inaccuracies. It is easiest to
conceptualize these factors in terms of a robot with 1 degree of freedom.

2. Accuracy:-

Accuracy refers to a robot's ability to position its wrist end at a desired target point
within the work volume. The accuracy of a robot can be denned in terms of spatial resolution
because the ability to achieve a given target point depends on how closely the robot can
define the control increments for each of its joint motions.
3. Repeatability:-

Repeatability is concerned with the robot's ability to position its wrist or an end
effector attached to its wrist at a point in space is known as repeatability. Repeatability and
accuracy refer to two different aspects of the robot’s precision. Accuracy relates to the robot's
capacity to be programmed to achieve a given target point. The actual programmed point will
probably be different from the target point due to limitations of control resolution
Repeatability refers to the robot’s ability to return to the programmed point when
commanded to do so.

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 SECTION-II

ROBOT APPLICATION IN MANUFACTURING

Fig. Applications of robots in industry and manufacturing

Figure shows a diagram which depicts an overview of applications of robots in

manufacturing. The general characteristics of industrial work situations that tend to
promote the substitution of robots for human labor.

Table Characteristics of situations where robots may substitute for humans

Situation Description
Hazardous work environment for humans In situations where the work environment
is unsafe,
unhealthy, uncomfortable, or otherwise
unpleasant for
humans, robot application may be
considered.
Repetitive work cycle If the sequence of elements in the work
cycle is the
same, and the elements consist of relatively
simple
motions, robots usually perform the
work with greater consistency and
repeatability than humans.
Difficult handling for If the task requires the use of heavy or
humans difficult-to-
handle parts or tools for humans, robots
may be able to
perform the operation more efficiently.
Multi-shift operation A robot can replace two or three workers at
a time in second or third shifts, thus they
can provide a faster financial payback.

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 Infrequent changeovers Robots’ use is justified for long production
runs where there are infrequent
changeovers, as opposed to batch or job
shop production where changeovers are
more frequent.
Part position and orientation are Robots generally don’t have vision
established in the work cell capabilities, which means parts must be
precisely placed and oriented for

Material Handling Applications

Robots are mainly used in three types of applications: material handling; processing
operations; and assembly and inspection. In material handling, robots move parts between
various locations by means of a gripper type end effector. Material handling activity can be
sub divided into material transfer and machine loading and/or unloading.

Application Description
Material transfer • Main purpose is to pick up parts at one
location and place
them at a new location. Part re-
orientation may be accomplished
during the transfer. The most basic
application is a pick-and-place
procedure, by a low-technology robot
(often pneumatic), using only up to 4
joints.
• More complex is palletizing, where
robots retrieve objects from one
location, and deposit them on a pallet
in a specific area of the pallet, thus
the deposit location is slightly
different for each object transferred.
The robot must be able to compute
the correct deposit location via
powered lead- through method, or by
dimensional analysis.
• Other applications of material transfer
include de-palletizing, stacking, and
insertion operations.
Machine loading and/or unloading • Primary aim is to transfer parts into or
out-of a production
machine.
• There are three classes to consider:
o machine loading—where the robot
loads the machine
o machine unloading—where the
robot unloads the machine
o machine loading and
unloading—where the robot
performs both actions
• Used in die casting, plastic
molding, metal machining
operations, forging, press-

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 working, and heat-treating
operations.

Processing Operations
In processing operations, the robot performs some processing activities such as grinding,
milling, etc. on the workpart. The end effector is equipped with the specialized tool required
for the respective process. The tool is moved relative to the surface of the workpart. Table
outlines the examples of various processing operations that deploy robots.

Table : Robotic process operations

Process Description
Spot Welding Metal joining process in which two sheet
metal parts are fused
together at localized points of contact by
the deployment of two
electrodes that squeeze the metal
together and apply an electric current.
The electrodes constitute the spot
welding gun, which is the end effector
tool of the welding robot.
Arc Welding Metal joining process that utilizes a
continuous rather than contact
welding point process, in the same way as
above. Again, the end
effector is the electrodes used to achieve
the welding arc. The robot must use
continuous path control, and a jointed
arm robot consisting of six joints is
frequently used.
Spray Coating Spray coating directs a spray gun at the
object to be coated. Paint or
some other fluid flows through the nozzle
of the spray gun, which is
the end effector and is dispersed and
applied over the surface of the object.
Again, the robot must use continuous path
control, and is typically programmed
using manual lead-through. Jointed arm
robots seem to be the most common
anatomy for this application.
Other applications Other applications include: drilling,
routing, and other machining
processes; grinding, wire brushing, and
similar operations; waterjet
cutting; and laser cutting.

Work Cell Design and Control

Robot work cell layout

• Robot-centered work cell

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 • In-line robot work cell
• Mobile work cell

Robot-centered work cell

 Center of work cell
 High utilization of robot
 Method of work part delivery (eg: conveyor, part-feeders, pallets)
 Install for single robot servicing 1@more production machines

In-line robot work cell

 1 @ more robots located along in-line conveyor
 Work is organized so each robot performs assembly operation on each part (eg:
welding line)

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There are 3 types of work part transport system used in in-line robot work cell.
1. Intermittent Transfer
2.Continuous Transfer
3.Non-Synchronous Transfer

Intermittent Transfer
The parts are moved in a start-and-stop motion from one station to another along the line. It is
also called synchronous transfer since all parts are moved simultaneously to the next stop.
The advantage of this system is that the parts are registered in a fixed location and orientation
with respect to the robot during robot’s work cycle.

Continuous Transfer
Work parts are moved continuously along the line at constant speed. The robot(s) has to
perform the tasks as the parts are moving along.
The position and orientation of the parts with respect to any fixed location along the line are
continuously changing.
This results in a “tracking” problem, that is , the robot must maintain the relative position and
orientation of its tool with respect to the work part.
This tracking problem can be solved.
the moving baseline tracking system by moving the robot parallel to the conveyor at the same
speed. or by the stationary baseline tracking system i.e. by computing and adjusting the robot
tool to maintain the position and orientation with respect to the moving part.

The second tracking system involves considerable engineering problems:

17
• firstly, the robot must have sufficient computational and control capabilities
• secondly the robot's tracking window must be adequate
• thirdly the sensor system to identify the different parts coming into the tracking window and
also to track the moving part relative to the robot's tool

Non-synchronous Transfer System

This is a power and free system". Each work part moves independently of other parts. in a
stop-and-go manner.

When a work station has finished working on a work part, that part then proceeds to the next
work station. Hence, some parts are being processed on the line at the same time that others
are being transported or located between stations. Here. the timing varies according to the
cycle time requirements of each station.
The design and operation of this type of transfer system is more complicated than the other
two because each part must be provided with its own independently operated moving cart.

However, the problem of designing and controlling the robot system used in the power-and-
free method is less complicated than for the continuous transfer method.

Nonsynchronous Transfer System

For the irregular timing of arrivals, sensors must be provided to indicate to the robot when to
begin its work cycle.

The more complex problem of part registration with respect to the robot that must be solved
in the continuously moving conveyor systems are not encountered on either the intermittent
transfer or the non-synchronous transfer.

Mobile work cell

In this arrangement, the robot is provided with a means of transport, such as a mobile base,
within the work cell to perform various tasks at different locations.

The transport mechanism can be floor mounted tracks or overhead railing system that allows
the robot to be moved along linear paths.

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Mobile robot work cells are suitable for installations where the 1 robot must service more
than one station (production machine) that has long processing cycles, and the stations cannot
be arranged around the robot in a robot-centred cell arrangement.

One such reason could be due to the stations being geographically separated by distances
greater than the robot's reach. The type of layout allows for time-sharing tasks that will lower
the robot idle time. One of the problems in designing this work cell is to find the optimum
number of stations or machines for the robot to service.

Transport mechanism: floor mounted @ overhead railing system

Service for more than one station
Problem: to find optimum number of station to service

Some Modification in Work Cell Design

Modification to other equipment in the cell

Part position and orientation
Part identification problem
Protect of robot from its environment
Utilities
Control of work cell
Safety

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i. Modifications to other equipment in the work cell

• Modifications need to be done in order to interface robots to equipment in the cell. Special
fixtures and control devices must be devised for integrated operation.

• For example, the work holding nests. conveyor stops to position and orientate parts for
robots.

• Changes has to be done in machines to allow by robots and use of limit switches and other
devices to interface components

ii Part Position and Orientation

When parts are being delivered into the work cell, precise pick up locations along conveyors
must be established.

Parts must be in a known position and orientation for the robot to grasp accurately. As the
parts are being processed, the orientation must not be lost.

A way of achieving the above must be designed. For automated feeder systems, the design of
the way parts are being presented to the work cell must be provided for.

iii. Part Identification problem

It there are more than one type of parts, there will be a necessity to identify various parts by
automated means, suct as optical techniques. magnetic techniques or limit switches that sense
different sizes or geometry.

Electronic tagging may also be used with pallets so that the parts are identified by the
information carried by the information card.

iv. Protection of robot from its environment

In applications such as spray painting. hot metal working conditions. abrasive applications.
adhesive sealant applications, the robot has to be protected from possible adverse
environment. (e.g. use of sleeves. long grippers).

v. Utilities

Requirements for electricity. air and hydraulic pressures. gas for furnaces has to be
considered and provided for.

vi. Control of the work cell

The activities of the robot must be coordinated with those of the other equipment in the work
cell.

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vii. Safety

Human protection measures such as fences, barriers, safety interrupt system with sensors in
and around the work cell must be provided.

This must be considered even at the early stages of the design of the work cell.

Work cell control

Sequence control
Operator interface
Safety monitoring

Sequence control

Sequence control includes:

Regulate the sequence of activities
Control of simultaneous activities
Making decision to proceed/stop/delay work based on events

In a work cell, the sequence of activities are as follows:

1. Robot picks up raw work part from conveyor at a known pick up location (machine idle)
2. Robot loads part into fixture at machining centre (machine idle).
3. Machining centre begins auto machining cycle (robot idle).
4. Machine completes auto machining. Robot unloads machine and places part on the
machine on pallet (machine idle).
5. Robot moves back to pick up point (machine idle)

Here almost all activities occur sequentially. Therefore, the controller must ensure activities
occur in correct sequence and that each step is completed before the next is started.

Notice that machine idle / robot idle is significant. If we fit a double gripper, productivity can
be further improved.

The modified sequence of activities (with double gripper fitted):

1. Robot picks up raw work part using the first gripper from conveyor at a known pick up
location. Robot moves its double gripper into ready position in front of machining centre
(machine cycle in progress).

2. At completion of machine cycle, robot unloads finished part from the machine fixture with
a second gripper and loads raw part into fixture with the first gripper (machine idle).

3. Machining centre begins auto machining cycle. Robot moves finished part to pallet and
places it in programmed location on pallet.

4. Robot moves back to pick up point (machine cycle in progress).

• In the modified sequence, several activities occur simultaneously but initiated sequentially.

Sequence Control

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Therefore, controller is to ensure the various control cycles begin at the required times. a

Controller must communicate back and forth with the various equipment (machining centre.
conveyors and robot).

Signals must be sent by the controller. and other signals must be received from the
components. These signals are called interlocks.

Operator Interface

Operator to interact with robot work cell.

Operator interface is required to:
Program the robot, modify and update programs
Let human operator participate in work cycle
Do data entry by human operator
Do emergency stopping activities

Safety Monitoring

Emergency stopping requires an alert operator to be present to notice the emergency and take
action to interrupt the cycle (however, safety emergencies do not always occur at convenient
times. when the operator is present).
Therefore, a more automatic and reliable means of protecting the cell equipment and people
who might wander into the work zone. is imperative. This is safety monitoring.

Safety monitoring (or hazard monitoring) is a work cell control function where sensors are
used to monitor status and activities of the cell. to detect the unsafe or potentially unsafe
conditions.

There are various types sensors that can be used for such purpose. for example. limit switches
to detect movements has occurred correctly. temperature sensors, pressure sensitive floor
mats. light beams combined with photosensitive sensors. and machine vision.

The safety monitoring is programmed to respond to various hazard conditions in different

ways:
Complete stoppage of cell activities.

Slowing down the robot speed to a safe level when human is present.

Warning buzzers to alert maintenance personnel of a safety hazard.

Specially programmed subroutines to permit the robot to recover from a particular unsafe
event (this is called error detection and recovery).

Interlock

Interlocks provide means of preventing the work cycle sequence from continuing unless a
certain or set of conditions are satisfied.

This is a very important feature of work cell control, that regulates the sequence of activities
being carried out. Interlocks are essential for the coordination and synchronization of
activities which could not be accomplished through timing alone.

22
Interlocks allow for variations in the times taken for certain elements in the work cycles. In
the example case in section 4. interlocks would be used for the following purposes:

To ensure that a raw part was at the pick up location. before the robot tries to grasp it.

To determine when the machining cycle has been completed before robot attempts to load
part onto fixture.

To indicate that the part has been successfully loaded so that the auto machining cycle can
start.

Input interlocks.

Input interlocks make use of signals sent from the components in the cell to the controller.

They indicate that certain conditions have been met and that the programmed work sequence
can continue. For example a limit switch on work fixture can send a signal to indicate that the
part has been properly loaded.
Output interlocks.

Makes use of signals sent from the controller to other devices or machines in the work cell.

In our example an output signal is used to signal the machining centre to commence the auto
cycle. The signal is contingent upon certain conditions being met. such as, that work part has
been properly loaded and the robot gripper has been moved to a safe distance. These
conditions are usually determined by means of input interlocks.

In our example an output signal is used to signal the machining centre to commence the auto
cycle. The signal is contingent upon certain conditions being met. such as. that work part has
been properly loaded and the robot gripper has been moved to a safe distance. These
conditions are usually determined by means of input interlocks.

In designing the work cell, we must not only consider the regular sequence of events during
normal operation. but also the possible irregularities and malfunctions that might happen. In
the regular cycle, the various sequential and simultaneous activities must be identified,
together with the conditions that must be satisfied.

For the potential malfunctions, the applications engineer must determine a method of
identifying that the malfunction has occurred and what action must be taken to respond to
that malfunction. • Then for both the regular and the irregular events in the cycle. interlocks
must be provided to accomplish the required sequence control and hazard monitoring that
must occur during the work cycle.

In some cases. the interlock signals can be generated by the electronic controllers for the
machines. For example NC machines would be capable of being interfaced to work cell
controller to signal completion of auto machining cycle.

In other cases, the applications engineer must design the interlocks using sensors to generate
the required signals.

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Study Guide

III. Tutorials
1. Question: What are the key applications of robotics in the manufacturing industry?
Answer: Some key applications of robotics in manufacturing include assembly line
automation, material handling, quality control, and packaging.
2. Question: How does robotics contribute to advancements in healthcare? Answer:
Robotics in healthcare can assist in surgical procedures, rehabilitation, remote patient
monitoring, and drug dispensing, among other applications.
3. Question: What are some ethical considerations related to the use of robotics in
healthcare? Answer: Ethical considerations include patient privacy and data security,
ensuring patient consent and autonomy, and addressing potential biases or discrimination
in robotic decision-making.
4. Question: Name a specific robotic application in space exploration. Answer: The use of
robotic rovers, such as NASA's Mars rovers (e.g., Curiosity, Perseverance), for planetary
exploration.
5. Question: How does robotics contribute to sustainable development? Answer: Robotics
aids in environmental monitoring, precision agriculture, and waste management,
promoting efficient resource usage and reducing environmental impact.
6. Question: Discuss the societal impact of automation in manufacturing due to robotics.
Answer: Automation in manufacturing can lead to job displacement and changes in the
workforce, requiring reskilling and reevaluation of employment opportunities.
7. Question: What are some potential benefits of using robotics in healthcare? Answer:
Benefits include improved surgical precision, enhanced patient outcomes, increased
accessibility to medical expertise, and personalized patient care.
8. Question: Explain the concept of human-robot interaction in the context of robotics.
Answer: Human-robot interaction refers to the communication and collaboration
between humans and robots, emphasizing safe and effective interactions in various
settings.
9. Question: Describe an ethical issue related to the use of robots in manufacturing. Answer:
Ethical issues may arise in terms of worker safety, job displacement, and the ethical
responsibility of companies towards employees affected by automation.
10. Question: How can robotics contribute to the exploration of hazardous environments?
Answer: Robots can be deployed in hazardous environments, such as nuclear facilities
or disaster zones, to perform tasks that are dangerous for humans, ensuring safety and
efficiency.
11. Question: Discuss the potential privacy concerns associated with the use of robots in
healthcare. Answer: Privacy concerns may arise due to the collection and storage of
personal health data by robotic systems, requiring strict safeguards and adherence to
privacy regulations.
12. Question: What are some challenges in implementing robotics in healthcare? Answer:
Challenges include high costs, regulatory requirements, integration with existing
healthcare systems, and the need for specialized training and maintenance.
13. Question: Explain the concept of social robotics and its potential applications. Answer:
Social robotics involves the design of robots to interact and engage with humans in social
contexts, with applications in companionship, therapy, and support for the elderly or
individuals with disabilities.
14. Question: Discuss the potential ethical implications of using autonomous robots in
warfare. Answer: Ethical implications include questions of accountability, decision-

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 ELB1502
Study Guide

making authority, and adherence to humanitarian principles in the use of autonomous

robots in warfare.
15. Question: How can robotics contribute to personalized medicine in healthcare? Answer:
Robotics can assist in personalized medicine through precise drug delivery, patient-
specific treatment planning, and monitoring of individual health parameters.
16. Question: Name an example of a healthcare robot used for patient rehabilitation. Answer:
An example is a robotic exoskeleton used to assist patients with physical therapy and
rehabilitation after injuries or strokes.
17. Question: Discuss the potential impact of robotics on the workforce in the healthcare
sector. Answer: Robotics can automate certain tasks, leading to changes in job roles and
requiring healthcare professionals to adapt their skills and focus on higher-level patient
care.
18. Question: What are the key considerations for ensuring the safety of robotic systems in
healthcare
? Answer: Safety considerations include rigorous testing and certification, fail-safe
mechanisms, and adherence to safety standards to prevent harm to patients or healthcare
workers.

19. Question: Explain the concept of robot-assisted surgery and its advantages. Answer:
Robot-assisted surgery involves using robotic systems to assist surgeons in performing
minimally invasive procedures, offering benefits such as increased precision, smaller
incisions, and faster recovery times.
20. Question: Discuss the potential ethical challenges in the deployment of robots in elderly
care. Answer: Ethical challenges may include issues of privacy, autonomy, and
maintaining human connection and emotional support in the context of robot-assisted
elderly care

Exercises and problems:

1. Exercise: In the context of manufacturing robotics, explain the role of sensors and actuators in
automated assembly processes. Solution: Sensors detect and measure various parameters, such
as position, force, and temperature, providing feedback to the robot controller. Actuators, such
as motors and pneumatic cylinders, are responsible for executing physical actions based on the
controller's instructions.
2. Exercise: Discuss the electronic components used in robotic surgical systems and their
functions. Solution: Robotic surgical systems utilize electronic components such as
microcontrollers, sensors (e.g., force sensors, position sensors), actuators (e.g., motors), and
amplifiers. Microcontrollers provide control and coordination, sensors gather real-time data,
actuators execute precise movements, and amplifiers enhance signal quality.
3. Exercise: Describe the electronic circuits involved in a robotic prosthetic limb and how they
contribute to its functionality. Solution: A robotic prosthetic limb involves electronic circuits
for signal processing, motor control, and sensor integration. Signal processing circuits interpret
input from sensors (e.g., muscle activity sensors) and convert them into motor commands,
enabling the prosthetic limb to mimic natural movements.
4. Exercise: Explain how robotics is utilized in healthcare to develop electronic monitoring
systems for patient safety. Solution: Robotics is used in healthcare to develop electronic
monitoring systems that employ sensors to monitor vital signs, detect abnormalities, and alert
healthcare professionals in real-time. These systems ensure patient safety by providing
continuous monitoring and early detection of critical situations.
5. Exercise: Discuss the ethical implications of using robotics in eldercare and the importance of
privacy protection. Solution: Ethical implications in eldercare robotics include privacy
9
 ELB1502
Study Guide

concerns due to the collection and storage of personal data. It is essential to implement robust
data protection measures, secure communication protocols, and obtain informed consent to
safeguard the privacy and dignity of elderly individuals.
6. Exercise: Explore the societal impact of robotics in manufacturing, considering the potential
job displacement and the need for upskilling the workforce. Solution: The introduction of
robotics in manufacturing can lead to job displacement as automation takes over certain tasks.
This highlights the importance of providing opportunities for workforce upskilling and
retraining to adapt to new job roles created by the integration of robotics.
7. Exercise: Analyze the ethical considerations surrounding the use of robotic companions for
elderly individuals and discuss potential benefits and risks. Solution: Ethical considerations
include maintaining human connection, addressing potential emotional dependency, and
ensuring the well-being of elderly individuals when using robotic companions. Critical
analysis of benefits and risks involves examining factors such as companionship, mental
stimulation, and potential social isolation.
8. Exercise: Discuss the electronic technologies used in robotic exoskeletons for rehabilitation
purposes and explain how they assist in patient recovery. Solution: Robotic exoskeletons
utilize electronic technologies such as sensors, actuators, and control systems. Sensors provide
feedback on the user's movements, actuators assist in limb movements, and control systems
coordinate the interaction between the exoskeleton and the user, facilitating rehabilitation and
recovery.
9. Exercise: Explain the role of electronic imaging systems in robotic vision for space
exploration. Solution: Electronic imaging systems, such as cameras and sensors, capture visual
data in space exploration robots. These systems enable robots to navigate, detect obstacles,
and gather information about the planetary environment, aiding in scientific exploration and
research.
10. Exercise: Discuss the ethical considerations surrounding the use of autonomous robots in space
exploration missions. Solution: Ethical considerations include the potential impact on
extraterrestrial life, preservation of celestial bodies, and adherence to planetary protection
protocols. Critical thinking involves assessing the consequences of human intervention and the
responsible exploration of space using autonomous robots.
11. Exercise: Describe the electronic components involved in a robotic drug dispensing system for
healthcare facilities. Solution: A robotic
drug dispensing system incorporates electronic components such as microcontrollers, sensors,
actuators, and communication modules. Microcontrollers coordinate the dispensing process,
sensors detect medication inventory and patient information, actuators dispense precise doses,
and communication modules interface with the healthcare facility's information system.

12. Exercise: Explore the societal implications of using robotics in healthcare, focusing on the
potential impact on patient care and medical outcomes. Solution: The use of robotics in
healthcare can improve patient care by providing precise diagnostics, reducing human error,
and enhancing treatment accuracy. Analyzing societal implications involves evaluating factors
such as accessibility, affordability, and equity in healthcare services.
13. Exercise: Explain the role of electronic monitoring systems in ensuring patient safety in
healthcare robotics applications. Solution: Electronic monitoring systems utilize sensors to
continuously monitor patient vital signs, detect anomalies, and trigger alerts when necessary.
These systems play a crucial role in patient safety by providing early warning signals and
facilitating timely interventions by healthcare professionals.
14. Exercise: Discuss the ethical considerations related to the use of robotics in healthcare research
and experimentation. Solution: Ethical considerations include obtaining informed consent,
ensuring patient safety during experiments, and addressing the potential for bias in research
10
 ELB1502
Study Guide

outcomes. Critical thinking involves examining the balance between scientific progress and
ethical responsibility in healthcare robotics research.
15. Exercise: Analyze the impact of robotics on the workforce in the healthcare industry,
considering job roles, skill requirements, and potential job creation. Solution: Robotics in
healthcare may lead to changes in job roles, requiring healthcare professionals to adapt their
skills and focus on higher-level tasks. Critical analysis involves evaluating the potential for
job creation in fields such as robotics maintenance, programming, and patient care
coordination.

IV. References

[1] J. J. Craig, "Introduction to Robotics: Mechanics and Control," 3rd ed. Boston, MA, USA:
Pearson Education, 2005.

[2] B. Siciliano, L. Sciavicco, L. Villani, and G. Oriolo, "Robotics: Modelling, Planning, and
Control," 2nd ed. Cham, Switzerland: Springer, 2010.

[3] C. Hughes and T. Hughes, "Robot Programming: A Guide to Controlling Autonomous

Robots," San Francisco, CA, USA: Que Publishing, 2016.

[4] G. McComb, "Robot Builder's Bonanza," 4th ed. New York, NY, USA: McGraw-Hill
Education, 2011.

11