FACTORS PREVENTING NIGERIAN SECONDARY SCHOOLS FROM

INTEGRATING ICT INTO TEACHING AND LEARNING PROCESSES (A

STUDY OF PUBLIC AND PRIVATE SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN
JAMA'ARE LGA)
Table of Content

Abstract

Chapter One: Introduction

1.1 Background of the Study

1.2 Statement of the Problem

1.3 Objective of the Study

1.4 Research Questions

1.5 Research Hypotheses

1.6 Significance of the Study

1.7 Scope of the Study

1.8 Limitation of the Study

1.9 Definition of Terms

1.10 Organisations of the Study

Chapter Two: Review of Literature

2.1 Conceptual Framework

2.2 Theoretical Framework

2.3 Empirical Review

Chapter Three: Research Methodology

3.1 Research Design

3.2 Population of the Study

3.3 Sample Size Determination

3.4 Sample Size Selection Technique and Procedure

3.5 Research Instrument and Administration

3.6 Method of Data Collection

3.7 Method of Data Analysis

3.8 Validity of the Study

3.9 Reliability of the Study

3.10 Ethical Consideration

Chapter Four: Data Presentation and Analysis

4.0 Data Presentation

4.1 Analysis of Data

4.2 Answering Research Questions

4.3 Test Of Hypotheses

Chapter Five: Summary, Conclusion and Recommendation

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Summary

5.3 Conclusion

5.4 Recommendation

References

APPENDIX

QUESTIONNAIRE
 ABSTRACT

This study was carried out to examine the factors preventing Nigerian secondary
schools from integrating ICT into teaching and learning processes using public and
private senior secondary schools in Jama'Are LGA, Bauchi State as a case study. The
study was specifically set to determine whether inadequate availability of finance
affects ICT integration in teaching and learning process in public and private
secondary schools in Jama'are Local Government Area of Bauchi State, determine
whether students poor exposure to technology affects ICT integration in teaching and
learning process in public and private secondary schools in Jama'are Local
Government Area of Bauchi State, determine whether teacher’s lack of technological
skills affects its integration in teaching and learning process in public and private
secondary schools in Jama'are Local Government Area of Bauchi State, and
determine whether epileptic power supply affects ICT integration in teaching and
learning process in public and private secondary schools in Jama'are Local
Government Area of Bauchi State. The survey design was adopted and the simple
random sampling techniques were employed in this study. The population size
comprise of teachers and students of selected public and private secondary school in
Jama'are Local Government Area of Bauchi State. In determining the sample size, the
researcher conveniently selected 200 respondents and 150 were validated. Self-
constructed and validated questionnaire was used for data collection. The collected
and validated questionnaires were analyzed using frequency tables and mean scores.
While the hypotheses were tested using Chi-square statistical tool. The result of the
findings reveals that the extent inadequate availability of finance affect ICT
integration in teaching and learning process in public and private secondary schools
in Jama'are Local Government Area of Bauchi State is high. Furthermore the study
also revealed that teacher’s lack of technological skills affect ICT integration in
teaching and learning process in public and private secondary schools in Jama'are
Local Government Area of Bauchi State. Therefore it is recommended that secondary
schools should source for partners, stakeholders and sponsors to finance the
acquisition of more ICT infrastructure. This will ensure the adequacy of computers in
the schools so as to improve their use in the process of teaching and learning. To
mention but a few.
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

The use of Information communication technology for classroom instruction is not

new in the world. Information Communication Technology tools were first placed in

schools in the early 1980s in the United States and will continued to be an important

part of education for generations to come (Bransford& Brown, 2000). Globally, the

number of computers in secondary education has greatly increased in the last ten

years. In United States, the computer to student ratio increased from 1:9 in 1996 to

1:4 in 2001. According to Market data Retrieval (2001), access to internet improved

from 70% in 1997 to 92% in 2001. In New Zealand, the computer to student ratio is

1:6 in secondary schools (Lari, Pratt &Trewern, 2002) while 98% of all schools have

internet connections (Mallard, 2003). Information Communication Technology is

therefore prominent as education instruction tool in the world. High rates of

achievement in education are critical for transfer of technology and adoption of

relevant changes in our society. Education attainment is one of the opportunity factors

that will promote economic growth and reinforce equal pattern of globalization

(United Nations Education, Scientific, and Cultural Organization [UNESCO], 2011).

Achievements in education can be enhanced by providing opportunities for students

to learn, operate and be exposed in the modern technology age. Information

Communication Technology in education has made significant progress in china for

the last two decades in higher education process (Finger, et al 2007). It is highly

applied for distance education based on executing agencies, target students and goals

to be achieved. The use of ICT in general has become more common during the last

two decades with the existence of the internet and world wide web , the internet
becoming the largest collection of information in the world (Parchler, 1999).

Information Communication Technology has also changed quality of education in the

world and it is clear that students are changing by using ICT tools (Finger, et al 2007).

Developments in ICT have affected all sectors of the society including the education

sector and its curricula. The integration of ICT into education can improve students’

learning by changing the way teachers teach and the structure of their pedagogies

(Shear &Knobrel, 2003). It empowers secondary school students to develop new ways

of thinking, being and acting in the world and begin learning (Khine& Fisher, 2003).

In using ICTs, students can plan and build models and use internet to bring a new

dimension to their learning. In Australia, a survey of computer skills and knowledge

of 6213 students tested four domains of activity to ICT adoption (Thomas & Wise,

1999). These activities are creativity (50%), information (70%), communication and

educational programs (43%) and games (43%). ICT has also been in the use where

instead of using ICT in education, educational technology is used. Technological

education is used to support learning, delivery, development, and effective use of

computers as an aid to problem solving, classroom management and leadership

(Watson et-al, 2003). Hence, ICT in teaching and learning can influence changes in

what and how the learners learn and reform the organization and structure of

schooling itself. In Africa, ICT is influencing every aspect of human life. It is playing

a salient role in work places, business, education and entertainment. Information

Communication Technology in Africa has the potential of increasing access and

improving relevance and quality of education. It has facilitated the acquisition and

absorption of knowledge and enhanced educational systems (Fisseha, 2011).

Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) are electronic technologies used

for information storage and retrieval. Information and communication Technology

(ICT) is seen as an important tool that will support and enhance education in recent

time. Dawes (2001) is of the view that new technologies have the potentials to support

education across the curriculum and provide opportunities for effective

communication between teachers and students in ways that have not been possible

before. The field of education has been affected by ICT’s, which have undoubtedly

affected teaching, learning and research (Yusuf 2003). ICTS have the potentials to

accelerate, enrich and deepen skills to motivate and engage students, to help relate

school experience to work practices, create economic viability for tomorrow’s

workers, as well as strengthen teaching and help schools change (Davis and Tearle

2009). Yelland (2001) argued that, traditional educational environments do not seem

to be suitable for preparing learners to function and be productive in the workplaces

of today’s society. This implies that, organization that do not incorporate the use of

new technologies in schools cannot seriously claim to prepare their students for life in

the twenty-first century. Grimus (2000), pointed out that by teaching ICT skills in

primary schools the pupils are prepared to face future developments based on proper

understanding. What is now known about learning provides important guidelines for

uses of technology that can help students and teachers develop the competences

needed for the twenty-first century (Bransford, Brown and Cocking 2001).

Preparing learners to function and be productive in the workplaces of today’s society.

This implies that, organization that do not incorporate the use of new technologies in

schools cannot seriously claim to prepare their students for life in the twenty-first

century. Grimus (2000) pointed out that by teaching ICT skills in primary schools the

pupils are prepared to face future developments based on proper understanding. What

is now known about learning provides important guidelines for uses of technology

that can help students and teachers develop the competences needed for the twenty-
first century (Bransford, Brown and Cocking 2001). Based on the aforementioned this

study seek to examine the factors preventing nigerian secondary schools from

integrating ict into teaching and learning processes (a study of public and private

senior secondary schools in Jama'Are LGA).

1.2 Statement Of The Problem

Using Information Communication Technology, teachers can enhance students

learning in every subject by engaging their thinking, decision-making, problem

solving and reasoning behaviors (Grabe, 2001). Information Communication

Technology (ICT) in education connect student and teachers to a vast array of global

stock of knowledge providing quality education, alternative sources livelihood, and

ultimately, a better way of life. It is the policy of government of Nigeria to make ICT

part of teaching and learning (NI3C, 2010 – MOE). A national ICT policy was

promulgated in 2006 in order to improve the livelihoods of Nigeria by ensuring

availability, accessibility, efficient, reliable and affordable ICT service in order to

integrate ICT in teaching and learning in secondary schools. There are not many

schools in Ogun state with computers and hence there is no standard of what

constitutes effective teaching and learning on computers. Although most secondary

schools in Nigeria have ICT facilities, the extent to which they are used for effective

instructional purposes has not been empirically established, however an explicit

research on the factors that enhance ICT integration in teaching and learning in public

secondary schools has not been done. There is need to study on the levels of ICT

integration in order to identify the factors affecting this process. Based on the

aforementioned this study seek to examine the factors preventing nigerian secondary

schools from integrating ict into teaching and learning processes (a study of public

and private senior secondary schools in Jama'Are LGA).

1.3 Objective Of The Study

The main objective of this study is to investigate the factors preventing Nigerian

secondary schools from integrating ict into teaching and learning processes (a study of

public and private senior secondary schools in Jama'Are LGA)., specifically the study

intends to:

1. Determine whether inadequate availability of finance affects ICT integration in

teaching and learning process in public and private secondary schools in Jama'are

Local Government Area of Bauchi State.

2. Determine whether students poor exposure to technology affects ICT integration

in teaching and learning process in public and private secondary schools in

Jama'are Local Government Area of Bauchi State.

3. Determine whether teacher’s lack of technological skills affects its integration in

teaching and learning process in public and private secondary schools in Jama'are

Local Government Area of Bauchi State.

4. Determine whether epileptic power supply affects ICT integration in teaching and

learning process in public and private secondary schools in Jama'are Local

Government Area of Bauchi State.

1.4 Research Questions

The following research questions was formulated to guide the research

1. To what extent does inadequate availability of finance affect ICT integration in

teaching and learning process in public and private secondary schools in Jama'are

Local Government Area of Bauchi State?

2. Does students poor exposure to technology affect ICT integration in teaching and

learning process in public and private secondary schools in Jama'are Local

Government Area of Bauchi State?

3. Does teacher’s lack of technological skills affect ICT integration in teaching and

learning process in public and private secondary schools in Jama'are Local

Government Area of Bauchi State?

4. Does epileptic power supply affect ICT integration in teaching and learning

process in public and private secondary schools in Jama'are Local Government

Area of Bauchi State?

1.5 Research Hypotheses

Ho: There are no significant factors preventing Nigerian secondary schools from

integrating ict into teaching and learning processes.

Ha: There are significant factors preventing Nigerian secondary schools from

integrating ict into teaching and learning processes.

1.6 Significance Of The Study

The study was aimed at coming up with factors that prevent the integration of ICT as

a teaching and learning tool in secondary schools in Nigeria. The findings of this

study would assist in coming up with ways to strengthen ICT integration in teaching

and learning in the county. The recommendations of the study would help other rural

and even some urban constituencies to hasten the integration of ICT in educational

institutions.

1.7 Scope Of The Study

This study focuses on factors preventing Nigerian secondary schools from integrating

ICT into teaching and learning processes. Geographically, the study will be delimited

to selected public and private secondary school in Jama'are Local Government Area

of Bauchi State.

1.8 Limitations Of The Study

The researcher encountered minor obstacles when conducting the study, as with any

human endeavor. The significant constraint was the scarcity of literature on the

subject due to the nature of the discourse, so the researcher incurred more financial

expenses and spent more time sourcing for relevant materials, literature, or

information and in the data collection process, which is why the researcher resorted to

a limited choice of sample size. Furthermore, the researcher did this investigation

alongside other academic activities. Furthermore, the sample size was limited because

only a few respondents were chosen to answer the research instrument, therefore the

results cannot be generalized to other secondary schools outside the state. Despite the

constraints encountered during the research, all elements were minimized in order to

provide the best results and make the research effective.

1.9 Definition Of Terms

Educational Technology: Systematic approach to designing, implementing and

evaluating the instructional system on the basic principle of education.

Information Communication Technology: Is the component culture that enables

people to use their power to utilize their environment for their survival. It has made

the world to be a global village.

Learning: is the process of acquiring new understanding, knowledge, behaviors,

skills, values, attitudes, and preferences. It is also the acquisition of knowledge or

skills through study, experience, or being taught.

1.10 Organization Of The Study

The study is categorized into five chapters. The first chapter presents the background

of the study, statement of the problem, objective of the study, research questions and

hypothesis, the significance of the study, scope/limitations of the study, and definition

of terms. The chapter two covers the review of literature with emphasis on
conceptual framework, theoretical framework, and empirical review. Likewise, the

chapter three which is the research methodology, specifically covers the research

design, population of the study, sample size determination, sample size, abnd

selection technique and procedure, research instrument and administration, method of

data collection, method of data analysis, validity and reliability of the study, and

ethical consideration. The second to last chapter being the chapter four presents the

data presentation and analysis, while the last chapter (chapter five) contains the

summary, conclusion and recommendation.

 CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

INTRODUCTION

Our focus in this chapter is to critically examine relevant literature that would assist in

explaining the research problem and furthermore recognize the efforts of scholars

who had previously contributed immensely to similar research. The chapter intends to

deepen the understanding of the study and close the perceived gaps.

Precisely, the chapter will be considered in three sub-headings:

 Conceptual Framework

 Theoretical Framework

 Empirical framework

2.1 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Teaching

The word "teaching" has been defined by so many scholars both in the field of

education and outside education. A layman may conceive teaching as simply what the

teacher does in the class with the learners in order to make them learn. Some

knowledgeable scholars, however, have made us know that teaching goes beyond this:

Onwuka in Izuagba, (2020) asserts that teaching is the various activities undertaken

by a more experienced and more knowledgeable person in order to enable the other

learn (learner). Onyemerenkeya, (2021) also defines teaching as an interaction

involving the teacher and learner over the subject matter. These learning activities and

interactions are obviously made easier by ICT facilities.

Principle of Teaching: According to S.U Anyanwu and et al (2018) principle of

teaching refers to those rules, laws and fundamental issues that the teacher must put

into consideration for his/her instruction to be effective .

Failure to adopt this strategy to the planning, presentation and evaluation of teaching

will greatly affect learning and the whole process of instruction.

Instruction: Instruction is not synonymous with teaching rather it is a phase in

teaching. Akudolu (2021) asserts that instruction is the hypothesis testing stage in

teaching. Instruction is taken to be the implementation stage in teaching. ICT

facilitates this.

Active Participation of the Learner

The learner is an active inquisitor and exploring individual. Teaching must stimulate

and encourage the active involvement of the learner at all stages Akudolu (2021). This

is because, children learn best by doing especially when they are actively involved in

class activities. This is the time learning will be said to have been maximized.

Students should be allowed to interact both with the teacher and the teaching

resources. This is also where ICT is crucial.

Use of Variety of Teaching Resources

From the above points, the teacher therefore, should use a variety of suitable and

appropriate teaching resources to supplement method and thus make lesson clearer

and more retainable to the learners. This is also the domain of ICT.

Proceed from Simple to Complex

Teaching, according to Onwuka (2019), should proceed from simple to complex;

known to unknown; visible and tangible illustrations makes a much stronger

impression on the learner than those that are imaginary or abstract.

The Concept Of Learning

Learning according to psychologist is a process and a product. To them learning is the

acquisition of knowledge, idea, skill, values and experiences which enable the

individual to modify his world, views or to realize his goals or perform a task which

hitherto he could not do as propounded by S. Anyanwu and et al (2018).

Onwuka (2019) further affirms that learning is the permanent acquisition and habitual

utilization of the newly acquired knowledge or experience. From these definitions,

one can say that for a change in behavior to be referred to as learning, it must be

permanent, consistent and the knowledge and experience acquired must be used in

new and different situations.

Process of Learning: Onwuka(2019) also lists the processes of learning are as follows

(i) attention (ii) processing of information (iii) retention (iv) recall.

Principle of Learning: This is also defined by him as the process of manipulating

some variables by the teacher in order to make the learner learn. These, according to

him include the following:-

(1) Active participation: The learner should be involved actively in the learning

process. This is because retardation in information processing by the learner occurs

when that learner is passive in the class during that learning process. When he is

actively involved, the learner will have enhanced information processing, retention

and recall.

(2) Immediate Feedback: it is a fact that learning is faster when the learner is given

immediate feedback about his progress in the learning process.

(3) Adjustability of Materials and Methods to suit the learner: learning is said to

be faster if materials and methods are adjusted to suit the learner.

(4) Learning is faster if what is taught is adequately sequenced. In this way a new

concept is built on already built concept.

(5) The learner learns faster if he is given the opportunity to practice what is taught.

(6) Learning is achieved if the learning environment is conducive.

Information Communications Technology

According to Anonymous (2018), I.T is defined as a generic term that covers the

acquisition, processing, storage and dissemination of information. It is the application

of computers and communication technology in the task of information handling,

information and information flow from the generation to the utilization levels.

Information Technology is defined as hardware and software products, information

system operations and management processes, IT controls frameworks, and the

human resources and skills required to develop, use and control these products and

processes to generate the required information (Greenstein-Prosch, McKee & Quick,

2018). Information technology was defined as computer software and hardware

solutions that provide support of management, operations, and strategists in

organizations (Choo & Shahryar, 2019). From the above definitions, it can be drawn

that Information technology is a wide term on its own with a range of various

definitions. But generally, it refers to any type of technology for the purpose of
communication. The definitions provide explanations on the use of electronic devices

and technology to manipulate information, noting that it is most common amongst

firms and not in personal settings. It deals with computing. On a broader scale,

Information Communication Technology (ICT), is often used an extended synonym

for IT. It is a more extensive term that stresses the role of unified communications and

the integration of telecommunications, computers, as well as necessary enterprise

software, middleware, storage, and audio-visual systems, which enable users to

access, store, transmit and manipulate information. This confirms the interrelatedness

of ICT and IT, but stressing that ICT involves a larger scope than IT.

Historical Paradigm: Egereonu,(2020) gave a historical run down of ICT globally.

Man was created to use computer initially but eventually lost the trend and is

recovering from this neglect. For instance, the origin of the methods of storage of

data, dated from time immemorial when men used finger, stones, pebbles sticks for

counting, including tallying. Herdsmen, former hunter’s device methods of counting

by using such mentioned elements above which correspond to the numbers of animals

in their stock. Later symbols and stylized pictures represented objects, numbers and

language. Such representation provided the means of storing data for subsequent uses.

This later moved to another level called abacus, a mechanical pebble counter where

beads are hanged on wives, for counting, adding and subtraction etc.

As further explained by him, the computer originated from china and Japan in the

17th century. Through globalization, such thoughts were brought together by the

usage of base 10 for data storage. WAEC used this earlier for storage through punch

cards. The system has been diversified to other complex systems such as the

computer. Today, as an electronic device, it accepts data as inputs, processes it, and

bring out such results & products called outputs, provided precise instructions
(programs) are given. It is made up of (a) (CPU) hard wares, (b) software, (c)

components (external). Other components are monitors, flipping dusks, the raw, C.D

rom. Keyboard, the mouse and printer, inter, and intra and exogenesis differences

could be comprised for meaningful inferences to produce new dynamic evaluation

and other systems to produce innovation for development and imitation.

Egereonu also reveals that the advent of internet came from initial motivation from

USA army scientists, who worked together to get a quick means of achieving a bomb-

proof communication system in the event of a nuclear attack in the dawn of the cold

war (Ectiong & Ntibi, 2018). In cognizance of the above data, bombs from Boko-

Haram in Nigeria could be heard in a sitting room in London or USA village, where

nothing is hidden.

Clarifying the ICT Concept: ICT is an accepted acronym for the word Information

Communication Technology. It is a diverse set of technological tool and resources

used to communicate and to create, disseminate, store, and manage information

(Blurtor, 2019). It can also be said that ICT helps in the storage and management of

information.

ICT can also be defined as the use of computer systems and tele-communication

equipment in the processing of information (Ayo 2021).

Scott (2020), asserts that ICT encompasses a wide range of applications,

communication and technologies which aid information retrieval and research

communication and administration. ICT has become a global phenomenon and of

great importance and concern in all aspects of human endeavours, spanning across

education, governance, business, labour, markets, shares, productivity, trade,

agriculture, commerce and a host of others.

Tinio (2021) indicated that ICTs are a potentially powerful tool for extending

educational opportunities both formal and non-formal settings.

Tinio further noted that ICT can expand access to education in so many diversified

manners. One defining feature of ICT is their ability to transcend time and space.

ICTs make possible asynchronous learning or learning characterized by a time lag

between the delivery of instruction and its reception by learners.

Online course or materials may be accessed 24 hours by the use of ICT. ICT based

educational delivery e.g. educational programme broadcast over radio or television

dispenses with need for ail learners and the instructors to be in one physical location.

Additionally, certain types of ICT such as teleconferencing technologies enable

instruction to be received simultaneously by multiple, geographically dispersed

learners (i.e. synchronous learning).

Access to remote learning resources, teachers and learners no longer have to rely

solely on printed books and other materials in physical media house, libraries and

available in limited quantities for their education needs. With the internet and the

world wide web, a wealth of learning materials in almost every subject and in a

variety of media can now be accessed from anywhere at any-time of the day and by an

unlimited number of people. This is particularly significant for many schools in

developing nations and even in some developed countries that have limited and

outdated library resources.

ICTs also facilitate access to resources persons, mentors, experts, researchers,

professionals, business leaders and peers all over the world.

Improving the quality of education and training is a critical issue, particularly at a

time of educational expansion. ICT can enhance the quality of education in several
ways by increasing learner motivation and engagement by facilitating the acquisition

of basic skills and by enhancing teacher training (Haddal and Jurich, 2020).

ICT are also transformational tools which when used appropriately can promote the

shift to a learner centered environment.

Components Of Information Technology

According to Anonymous (2018), Information technology can be broken

into;Hardware: this refers to physical, tangible and touchable components. It is the

part that can be touched and seen. They can be further classified into 4 groups, which

are:

Input devices:

these are hardware devices used to send data into the computer. Examples are light

Output devices:

these are hardware devices through which information is sent out of the computer.

They include speakers, printers and monitors.

Central Processing Unit (CPU):

this is the part of the computer that performs tasks as it comprises of the

microprocessor which is the brain of the computer.

Storage devices:

these are hardware components that store data. There are two type- Primary (stores

information temporarily) and Secondary (stores information permanently). Examples

are RAM and ROM respectively.pen, keyboard and mouse

Software:

this refers to intangible components that can only be seen. They include computer

programs and codes that control the hardware devices. A computer program is a set
of instructions written to perform a specific task. There are three categories of

software, they are:

System software;

this provides the basic functionality of the computer. It is made up of the Operating

system and Support system with Linux and Diagnostic tools as examples respectively.

Application software;

this helps the users to perform specific tasks. Examples are Web browsers and Media

development software.

Programing software;

this is used by software developers to create, debug, maintain and support other

programs and software. Examples are JAVA and BASIC.

Data:

this refers to raw fact and figures that are processed into information. They are

generally stored in the electronic devices until they are needed. An example is

NAME.

Procedures:

these are the laid down rules and regulations that govern the way information is

processed and exchanged.

Internet/Network:

the internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the

standard internet protocol suite or other network to link several billion devices

worldwide.

People:

this refers to the man-power that is involved in the steps of IT activities. They

probably determine the success or failure of information systems.

Information and Communication Technology in Education

The education system today has found the place of integrating ICT into every stage of

pedagogy in the school system. ICT when applied to education, enhances the delivery

and access to knowledge, improves the breadth and scope of the curriculum, increases

learning rates, encourages critical thinking and offers unlimited means of achieving

educational goals (Iloanusi and Osagwu, 2009). The Federal Ministry of Education

(2010) states the place of ICT in achieving the national educational goals as: “The

policy provides the needed guidance on what is expected in the entire process of ICT

integration in education to all stakeholders in education. Its’ implementation therefore

should lead to a speedy transformation of the teaching, learning and administration of

education. This in turn will foster the production of graduates in the education system

that can survive in the contemporary society, sustain national development and can

compete globally (p.3). The above policy statement poses challenges to the nations‟

education system and her stakeholders if ICT-driven instructional mode of learning

will be successfully integrated into the school system for quality service delivery.

This will help in producing the crop of graduates that will meet up the technological

advancement needed globally for national development. Education is seen as the

bedrock for any sustainable national development, therefore, it behoves that ICT is the

horse that education must ride on to meet up global transformation, especially for the

developing nations like Nigeria. The increase in the trend of use of ICT in classroom

work across the globe has been necessitated by three major factors and they are:

Electronic technological devices are being used to prepare the present generation of

young people for a future work place that will undoubtedly be characterized by

information technology (IT). Preparing students in economics for future economic

and national development of the country that can be done through the use of ICT
tools, electronic conferencing programmes, the web, spread sheets, database etc.

which when adopted will enhance students‟ critical thinking. ICT tools make schools

more efficient in the teaching-learning enterprise, classroom teachers‟ personal

professional development and academic productivity will be greatly enhanced. ICT

tools are being used to improve reform or renovate teaching and learning. Learners

are stimulated to learn actively either on an independent basis or working closely with

others (Olorundare, 2007).

In order to gain access into the school system, Tinio (2002) observed that ICTs can

expand access to education in the following ways:

-Anytime, anywhere: One defining feature of ICTs is the ability to transcend time and

space. ICTs make possible and asynchronous learning or learning characterized by a

time lag between the delivery of instruction and reception by learners. Online course

materials, for example, may be accessed 24hours a day, 7days a week. ICT-based

educational delivery (e.g. educational programing broadcast over radio or television)

also dispenses with the need for all learners and the instructor to be in one physical

location. Additionally, certain types of ICTs, such as teleconferencing technologies

enable instruction to be received simultaneously by multiple geographically dispersed

learners (i.e. synchronous learning).

-Access to remote learning resources: Teachers and learners no longer rely solely on

printed books and other materials in physical media housed in libraries and available

in limited quantities for their educational needs, due to the internet and the world wide

web, a wealth of learning materials in almost every subject and in variety of media

can now be accessed from anywhere or at any time of the day with unlimited number

of people. This is particularly significant for many schools in developing countries,

and even some in developed countries that have limited and out dated library
resources. ICTs also facilitate access to resource persons, mentors, experts,

researchers, professionals, business leaders, and peer all over the world.

-Improving the quality of education and training: This is a critical issue, particularly at

a set time of educational expansion. ICTs can enhance the quality of education in

several ways: By increasing learners‟ motivation and engagement; by facilitating

acquisition of basic skills, and by enhancing teacher training (Haddad and Jurich,

2002). ICTs are also transformational tools which when used appropriately can

promote the shift to a learner-centred environment .

-Motivating to learn: ICTs such as videos, television and multimedia computer

software that combined text, sound and colourful, moving images can be used to

provide challenging and authentic content that will engage the student in the learning

process. Interactive radio likewise makes use of sound effect, songs, dramatization,

comic skits, and other performance convention to compel the student to listen and

become involved in the lessons delivered. More so that any type of ICT networked

computers with internet connectivity can increase learner motivation as it combines

the media richness and interactivity of other ICTs with the opportunity to connect

with real people and to participate in real world event.

-Enhancing teacher training: ICTs have also been used to improve access to and

quality of teacher training. For example in China, large scale radio and television

based teacher education for many years have been conducted by the China Central

Radio and Television University, the Shanghai radio and TV University in the country

(Carnoy, 2002 in Tinio, 2002). With the above advantages, it could be said that the

place of ICT becomes imperative to current trends in the teaching-learning process in

the school system because it offers divers ways for people to access quality education

conveniently towards achieving national educational objectives.

The concept of ICT integration

The term Information Communication Technology (ICT) has had a long history in its

evolution process. According to Pelgrum and Law (2003), towards the end of 1980’s,

the term ‘computers’ was replaced by IT (Information Communication Technology).

This signified as shift of focus from computing technology to the computer’s enhance

capability to store and retrieve information. This was followed by the introduction of

the term ‘ICT’ around 1992, when e-mail started to become available to the general

public. The concept of Information Communication Technology consists of three

words. The term ‘Information’ refers to any communication or representation of

knowledge such as facts, data or opinion in any medium. ‘Communication’ is an

integral part of human existence. It refers to the process of transferring information

from a sender to a receiver with the use of a medium in which the Communication

Information is understood by both. ‘Technology’ is the practical form of scientific

knowledge or the science of application of knowledge.

Therefore, Information Communication Technology (ICTs) are commonly defined in

education as ‘a diverse set of technological tools and resources used to communicate,

create, disseminate, store and manage information’ Blurton, (2000). These

technologies include computers, the internet, broadcasting technologies (Radio and

Television), and (Mobile) telephony. Basically, ICT is a tool. It can be hardware (such

as Computers, Digital cameras), software (such excel, discussion forum) or both.

Integrating ICT in to teaching and learning is not a new concept. It may be as old as

other technologies such as radios or televisions. However, with the rapid development

of emerging technologies, such as web technology, ICT integration has increasingly

attracted the attention of educators. Technology should be used not because it is

available or it has been shown effective in some cases. It should be used to enable the
process and enhance learning because inappropriate use of technology can lead to

negative impacts Russel, (1999).

Integration has a sense of completeness or wholeness (Earle, 2002), by which all

essentials elements of a system are seamlessly combined together to make a whole. In

education, simply handing out to students a collection of websites or CD-ROM

programmes, taking your students to the computer lab once a week or using an

electronic worksheet is not necessarily ICT integration. In a properly prepared ICT

integrated lesson, ICT and other crucial educational components such as content and

pedagogy are molded into one entity. As a result, the objective of the lesson may be

achieved: but if the ingredients were taken away from the ICT integrated lesson, the

quality of the lesson would be somehow be diminished William, (2003).

Instead, technology is integrated when it is used in a seamless manner to support and

extend curriculum objectives and to engage students in a meaningful learning. It is not

something one does separately; it is part of the daily activities taking place in the

classroom. Based on the above, within the education sector in Nigeria. ICT is defined

as the seamless incorporation of technology to support and enhance students’

engagement in meaningful learning and for attainment of curriculum adjectives.

ICT integration is more of a process rather than a product. The computer should be

fitted into the curriculum not the curriculum into the computer Earle, (2002).

Therefore, effective ICT integration should focus on pedagogy design by justifying

how the technology is used in such a way and why. Effective ICT integration into

learning process has the potential to engage learners. Additionally, ICT can support

various types of interactions in the learning environment: learner – content, learner-

learner, learner-teacher and learner-interface. These types of interactions make the

learning process more interactive and learners more active and engaged Wong et al,

(2006).

Types of ICT’s Used in Education

ICTs stand for information and communication technologies and are defined, for the

purposes of this primer, as a diverse set of technological tools and resources used to

communicate, and to create, disseminate, store, and manage information. “These

technologies include computers, the Internet, broadcasting technologies (radio and

television), and telephony”. In recent years there has been a groundswell of interest in

how computers and the Internet can best be harnessed to improve the efficiency and

effectiveness of education at all levels and in both formal and non-formal settings.

“But ICTs are more than just these technologies; older technologies such as the

telephone, radio and television, although now given less attention, have a longer and

richer history as instructional tools”. For instance, radio and television have for over

forty years been used for open and distance learning, although print remains the

cheapest, most accessible and therefore most dominant delivery mechanism in both

developed and developing countries. “The use of computers and the Internet is still in

its infancy in developing countries, if these are used at all, due to limited

infrastructure and the attendant high costs of access” (Aribamikan, 2007).

E-learning: Although most commonly associated with higher education and

corporate training, e-learning encompasses learning at all levels, both formal and non-

formal, that uses an information network—the Internet, an intranet (LAN) or extranet

(WAN)—whether wholly or in part, for course delivery, interaction, evaluation and/or

facilitation. “Others prefer the term online learning. Web-based learning is a subset of

e-learning and refers to learning using an Internet mainly using a browser (such as
Chrome or Firefox or Internet Explorer)”. It can also be viewed as learning through

the use of electronic devices.

Blended Learning: Another term that is gaining currency is blended learning. “This

refers to learning models that combine traditional classroom practice with e-learning

solutions”. For example, students in a traditional class can be assigned both print-

based and online materials, have online mentoring sessions with their teacher through

chat, and are subscribed to a class email list. “Or a Web-based training course can be

enhanced by periodic face-toface instruction”. Blending was prompted by the

recognition that not all learning is best achieved in an electronically-mediated

environment, particularly one that dispenses with a live instructor altogether. “Instead,

consideration must be given to the subject matter, the learning objectives and

outcomes, the characteristics of the learners, and the learning context in order to

arrive at the optimum mix of instructional and delivery methods” (Asiabeka, 2010).

Open and Distance Learning: “Open and distance learning is defined by the

Commonwealth of Learning as a way of providing learning opportunities that is

characterized by the separation of teacher and learner in time or place, or both time

and place; learning that is certified in some way by an institution or agency; the use of

a variety of media, including print and electronic; two-way communications that

allow learners and tutors to interact; the possibility of occasional face-to-face

meetings; and a specialized division of labor in the production and delivery of

courses”.

Advantages of ICT

Information and Communication Technologies have recently gained groundswell of

interest. It is a significant research area for many scholars around the globe. “Their

nature has highly changed the face of education over the last few decades. For most
European countries, the use of ICT in education and training has become a priority

during the last decade”. “However, very few have achieved progress. Indeed, a small

percentage of schools in some countries achieved high levels of effective use of ICT

to support and change the teaching and learning process in many subject areas”.

Others are still in the early phase of Information and Communication Technologies

adoption.

Many teachers use ICT to support traditional learning methods, for example,

information retrieval in which students are ‘passive learners of knowledge instead of

‘active producers able to take part in the learning process. “In a document entitled

teaching and learning with ICT, Galea (2002) explains how ICT can promote teaching

and learning. According to her there are two main reasons behind increasing the use

of ICT in education in UK”. Firstly, ICT can change the lessons’ pace: she stated that

children in modern society need to develop sufficient potentials and skills that enable

them to take full advantage from the new opportunities that ICT offer. “Second, there

are groundswells of interest of academic researchers in UK in how technological tools

can enhance the quality of teaching and learning in schools, and so help learners to

achieve better outcomes”. Furthermore, it has been proved that new technologies have

lots of benefits on the students (Lawsent & Vincent, 1995).

Benefits of ICT in Teaching and Learning

Research has shown that the appropriate use of ICT can catalyze the paradigmatic

shift in both content and pedagogy which is the heart of education reform in the 21st

century (Branford 2019). It is also true that ICT supports education and promotes the

acquisitions of the knowledge and skills that will empower students for lifelong

learning if properly designed and implemented. The following are some of the

benefits derived from the use of ICT in teaching and learning in tertiary institutions.
Active Learning: ICT enhanced learning mobilize tools for examination, calculation

and analysis of information thus providing platform for students enquiry, analysis and

construction of new information. Learners therefore learn as they do where

appropriate work on real life problems, making learning less abstract and more

relevant to learner’s life situation. In this way and in contrast to memorization-based

or role learning, ICT enhanced learning promotes or increases learners encouragement

towards learning. ICT also enables the student to choose what to learn and when they

need to learn it.

Collaborative Learning

ICT supported learning encourage interaction and cooperation among students,

teachers and experts regardless of where they are. ICT- supported learning provides

learners the opportunity to work with people from different cultures thereby helping

to enhance learning and communicative skills as well as their global awareness.

ICTs allow learners to explore and discover rather than merely listen and remember.

Teaching through ICT

For effective integration of ICT in instructional process, it can be inferred that the

factors that teachers’ attitudes, ICT competence, computer self-efficacy, professional

development, teaching experience, education level, technical support, accessibility,

leadership support, pressure to use technology, government policy regarding ICT

education and technological characteristics positively affect teachers’ and

administrators’ use of ICT in education (Ali, Haolader & Muhammad, 2018). Andoh

(2018) conducted a study to review literature regarding factors influencing integration

of ICT and found three levels of factors: (a) teacher-level, (b) school-level, and (c)

system-level barriers. Teacher level hindrances comprise teachers’ incompetency of

ICT use, lack of teacher self-confidence, lack of teacher professional and pedagogical
training and lack of differentiated training programs. School-level hindrances include

lack of specially designed infrastructure for ICT use, old or ineffectively maintenance

of equipment, absence of appropriate instructive programming and software; poor

accessibility to ICT, poor project related understanding, and lack of ICT

mainstreaming into school’s policy. System level hindrances embrace unbending

structure of conventional education systems, traditional appraisal, obstructive

curricula and limited organizational structure. Knowing the degree to which these

hindrances influence people and organizations may help in deciding how to handle

them (Andoh, 2018).

Availability of ICT resources and effective teaching/learning

The use of technology in teaching has become an indispensable tool in the

contemporary world as a powerful means for communication and education (Obidike,

Anyikwa and Enemou, 2021). ICTs have demonstrated potential to increase the

options, access, participation, and achievement for all students. The availability of

ICT resources can enhance learning by making education less dependent on differing

teacher quality and by making education available at home throughout the day

(Mbwesa, 2018). Further, Idoko and Ademu (2019), both found out that ICT

availability often been one of the most important obstacles to technology adoption and

integration in learning. Technology has significantly revolutionized literacy

instruction and education both in theory and practice over the years. Thus, children of

information age also use technology skills for communicating, investigating,

computing, accessing and using. In accordance to Akinola and Aremu, (2019)

instructional technologies incorporate the tools and making present support to

reinforce teaching and learning on preschools pupils. According to Ezeoba (2018)

investigation of ICT availability in schools in Onitsha on 100 nursery school teachers,

research findings revealed that media availability average was less than 20% over

50%. It also found out that the degree of utilization in instructional delivery was that

teachers used mostly books and over 60% did not use ICT resources at all. It is

evident that not only the availability of ICT resources that will contribute to effective

learning but also technological training needs of primary school teachers should be

identified so that primary school teachers have the necessary skills required to use

ICT. Kremer and Holla, (2018), posited that it is necessary to integrate ICT tools into

the curriculum and tailoring pedagogy according to the social environment in order to

achieve qualitative improvements in learning. Additionally, ICT materials should be

properly integrated into school’s curriculum in order to meet the need/target of the

country especially that reform in education is taking place. A study by Manchin et al

examining the relationship between ICT investment and changes in educational

outcomes found a positive causal impact of ICT investment on educational

performance in primary schools primarily in English and to a lesser extent in science.

Thus, a change in the rules governing ICT funding led to changes in ICT investment

and subsequently changed educational outcomes. Additionally, Davis (2000) asserted

that increased availability of ICT is especially useful for students who suffer from

learning disabilities since ICT use allows teachers to prepare suitable tasks for

individual needs and each individual more effectively A study conducted by the

International Institute for Communication and Development (IICD) indicated that 80

percent of its participants felt more aware and empowered by their exposure to ICT in

education, and 60 percent stated that the process of teaching as well as learning were

directly and positively affected by the availability of ICT. Conclusively, ICT provide

a positive impact on learning and student performance when it becomes an integrated

element in the classroom and teaching.

Accessibility of ICT resources and effective teaching/learning

The level of accessibility of ICT resources depends on their availability. The

accessibility of ICT resources enables learners to acquire desirable quality and

technical competence on their academic achievements. A report by UNESCO (2020)

suggested that having ICT as a primary educational skill, is now recognized as part of

basic learning, together with reading, writing and numeracy. In the developing world,

ICTs are used largely to increase access to and improve the relevance and quality of

education. However, ICT is not accessible to the marginalized and vulnerable groups.

A study by Ezeoba, 20218 and Fakeye, 2019 found that ICT resources were not

available in primary and secondary schools hence pupils could not access ICT

materials leading to low exposures to technology among the learners. Further,

Banerjee et al’s (2020) evaluation of computer assisted learning and remedial

education programme to improve the quality of education in Vadodara showed that

computers were used effectively only in very few schools in 2002. Accessibility and

use of ICT allows students to investigate more thoroughly the real world (Reginald

Grégoire inc., Bracewell & Laferriére, 2019; Riel, 2018).Through ICT accessibility,

students will have access to ICT whenever or wherever it is most appropriate for

learning. Further, students experience benefits of engagement with information and

communication technology. On the side of the teacher, there will be extra flexibility

in terms of setting work and increased motivation of the students. Awareness skills

only may not be sufficient enough but rather continuous accessibility to ICT resources

would do much better. Continuous access to computers helps teachers feel more

secure in their ICT use during lessons and gives them the courage to experiment more

and thus helps them integrate ICT into lessons effectively.

User-ability of ICT Resources and effective teaching/learning

While teaching is a rich and rewarding profession, there are unique challenges

involved since knowledge is expanding rapidly and much of it is available to students

as well as teachers at the same time. The rapidly changing technology has provided

new possibilities to teaching professions, but at the same time have placed more

demands on teachers and students to use these new technologies in the teaching and

learning process (Jung, 2019). Owing to the above, there is widespread change across

the world to infuse ICT into education. Using computers throughout education can be

more efficient, providing a chance of better learning results and is very adaptive to the

individual learner. Furthermore skills like collaboration, critical evaluation, receiving

feedback, planning and organization can be learned quite easily. According to

Harrison et al, (2020), in the year 2000, UK had a total spending of 34 million pounds

to push ICT in education over a four year period involving 28 schools as part of ICT

test bed project; furthermore in 2004 a sum of 700 million pounds was invested into

ICT in primary schools. In developed countries, teachers are fully using ICT in all

aspects of their professional life to improve their own learning and the learning of

their students (Davis, 2000). They use ICT to assist students assess their own learning

in completing specific personal projects. Therefore, it is the skill and attitude of the

students and teachers that determines the effectiveness of technology integration into

the curriculum (Bitner & Bitner, 2020). ICT helps students learn and teachers to teach

and makes significant contribution to learning and achievement. Other than teacher

leadership skills, teachers must also have access to relevant timely and on- going

professional development in ICT. There is therefore need for both teachers and

students to partner in the learning process, altering traditional paradigms of the

teacher providing wisdom and the student absorbing knowledge. Newhouse (2021)
and Loveless (2002) note that ICT if used positively enhances learning processes and

outcomes. Whilst these studies identifies the userability outcome and benefits, the

relationship between the form of technology (ICT) and user skills and state of ICT

resources in fostering learning were not fully explored.

Impact of ICT’s on Learning & Achievement

1. “There is widespread belief that ICTs can and will empower teachers and learners,

transforming teaching and learning processes from being highly teacher-dominated to

student-centered, and that this transformation will result in increased learning gains

for students, creating and allowing for opportunities for learners to develop their

creativity, problem-solving abilities, informational reasoning skills, communication

skills, and other higher-order thinking skills”. However, there are currently very

limited, unequivocally compelling data to support this belief.

2. ICTs are very rarely seen as central to the overall learning process. “Even in the

most advanced schools in OECD countries, ICTs are generally not considered central

to the teaching and learning process”. Many ICT in education initiatives in LDCs seek

(at least in their rhetoric) to place ICTs as central to teaching and learning.

3. An enduring problem: putting technology before education. “One of the enduring

difficulties of technology use in education is that educational planners and technology

advocates think of the technology first and then investigate the educational

applications of this technology only later”.

The Impacts of ICT’s on Students’ Performance

The purpose of the present paper is to examine the relationship between the use of

information and communication technologies (ICT) and student performance in

higher education. “So far, economic research has failed to provide a clear consensus

on the effect of ICT investments on student’s achievement”. Our paper aims to

summarize the main endings of the literature and to give two complementary

explanations. “The 1st explanation focuses on the indirect effects of ICT on standard

explanatory factors. Since a student’s performance is mainly explained by a student’s

characteristics, educational environment and teachers’ characteristics, ICT may have

an impact on these determinants and consequently the outcome of education”. The

differences observed in students’ performance are thus more related to the

differentiated impact of ICT on standard explanatory factors. “While ICT equipment

and use rates are growing very fast in the European Union, the adoption of

complementary organizational designs is very slow and differs from one institution to

another”. This may explain the observed differences in students’ achievement.

Barriers To ICTS Integration In Nigerian Educational Institutions

The world, outside the school system has been able to achieve much in the area of

ICT integration in their daily routine. The digital divide between Africa and the

developed world is well established in literature. Nigeria ranks 15th, even in Africa in

Internet host at 1998 (Hall, 2018), and deprivation in ICT use persists in Nigeria when

compared with global standard (FME, 2004). Globally, ICTs implementation in

schools has not been smooth sailing. Researchers have been concerned about the

barriers that have militated against effective integration of ICTs in education.

Organizations in Africa have been concerned with the problem of poor

implementation of ICT in African school. For instance, the Association of African

University (AAU, 2000) examined the problem and major obstacles affecting the use

of ICT in African universities, and thus defined the problems to be technical, non-

technical, human and organizational and financial. Technical obstacles identified

include the poor telecommunication infrastructure, absence of national information

communication infrastructure lack of university coherent plan for ICT, problems of

connectivity, lack of or limited bandwidth for ICT for learning, teaching, and

research, non-reliability of public electricity supply, thus necessitating extra cost for

standby generators. The non-technical deals with lack of professional development for

faculty, human and organizational aspect relates to inadequate planning for ICT

integration in regular activities of universities, and inadequate human resource base,

while financial relates to inadequate funding of ICT infrastructure, maintenance of

available facilities, and staff development. Research findings on barriers to ICT

application in other levels of education have provided similar results. Some of the

findings of these studies are enumerated as follow. First, is the lack of teacher’s

confidence and teacher’s computer anxiety (BECTA, 2004) . Second, lack of

teacher’s competency due to lack of time for training, lack of pedagogical training,

lack of skills training, and lack of ICTs focus in initial teacher training (BECTA, 2004

; Yusuf 2005b) . Third, there is lack of access to resources due to lack of hardware,

poor organization of resources, poor quality hardware, inappropriate software, and

lack of personal access for teachers. Fourth, is lack of time to use ICTs as a result of

school time table (BECTA 2004). Fifth, there are technical problems which

encompass lack of technical support, fear of things going wrong, lack of

telecommunication and other infrastructure, and unreliability of electricity (BECTA,

2004) . Others include lack of or ineffective technological leadership in schools, lack

of clear vision, lack of incentives for teachers, lack of teachers’ participation in

planning for ICT integration (Spodark, 2003) . Since these barriers are known it is

important to device strategies that will provide enabling environment for ICTs use in

Nigerian Schools.

2.2 Theoretical framework

Rogers Innovation Diffusion Theory (IDT)

Quaddus and Hofmeyer (2006) explained that studies on organizational

innovation adoption found that adoption occurs in two stages. The

first stage is defined as the initiation stage, which is followed by

the implementation phase. In the initiation stage, the organization

develops an awareness of the innovation, forms an attitude towards it

and evaluates the innovation. The actual adoption decision was found

to occur between the initiation and the implementation phases.

According to London (2006), this transition from knowledge of the

innovation to its implementation is measured as a sequential process

which encompasses the innovations rate of adoption. The adoption

process may be affected by the type of innovation decision being

made, which maybe collective/organizational and

authoritarian/hierarchical. On the other hand diffusion is the

process by which an innovation is communicated through certain

channels over time among the members of a social system (El-hadary,

2001). Quaddus and Hofmeyer (2006), defined Rogers (1995) innovation

theory as an idea or practice that is perceived as new by the

adopting organization. Braun (2004) argued that Rogers Innovation

Diffusion Theory (IDT) analyzed the process of diffusion, and mapped

the impact of a combination of social, economic, and technical forces

on that process.

There is a general agreement among researchers that IDT is a suitable

and valid theory for examining the process of adoption. In a research

conducted by Jeyaraj, Rottman and Lacity (2006) on adoption of

information technology by individuals and organizations, IDT was

recognized as the only theory which has been used to evaluate

adoption on the individual and organizational level. Looi (2004)

stated that Rogers’ theory is considered valuable because it

attempts to explain the factors which influence the adoption of an

innovation and the manner in which new innovations are disseminated

through social systems over time. El-hadary (2001) emphasized that

one of the major contributions of IDT was the innovation decision

process, which starts with one's knowledge about the existence of the

innovation and ends with the confirmation of the adoption/rejection

decision. Aghaunor and Fotoh (2006) outlined the following as

components of IDT:

Relative Advantage: The degree to which an innovation is perceived as

being superior to its predecessor in terms of economic profitability,

low initial cost, a decrease in discomfort, savings in time and

effort, and the immediacy of the reward. Gemino, mackay and Reich

(2006) highlighted that relative advantage is expressed by perceived

benefits. Aghaunor and Fotoh (2006) elaborated that the perceived

benefits for managers could be direct, such as cost savings or income

generation, or indirect, such as potential opportunities in new

markets, marketing, or publicity. Gemino (2006) conveyed that

research has found that relative advantage is the primary reason for

encouraging ICT growth and a positive relationship has been

identified between perceived advantages and adoption.

Compatibility: The degree to which an innovation is perceived as

being compatible with existing beliefs, experience and needs of

potential adopters. A faster rate of adoption occurs when an adopter

perceives an innovation as meeting the needs of the client. Alam,

Khatibi, Ahmad and Ismail (2007) stated that an innovation is more

likely to be adopted if it is compatible with individual job

responsibility and value system. Alam et al (2007) affirmed that

organizations should determine the needs of their customers and then

recommend innovations that fulfill those needs. It is therefore

anticipated that as needs are met the adoption will occur.

Complexity: the degree to which an innovation is perceived as being

relatively difficult to understand and use. The perceived complexity

of an innovation is negatively related to its rate of adoption. Alam

et al (2007) reported that previous studies on the adoption of

innovations indicated that the adoption of complex technologies

require organizational personnel to possess sufficient technical

competencies.

Trial ability: The degree to which an innovation can be used on a

trial basis before confirmation of the adoption must occur. Rogers’

(1995) studies found that “the trial ability of an innovation, as

perceived by members of a social system, is positively related to its

rate of adoption. Alam et al (2007) suggested that trial ability has

become an important feature of innovation because it provides a means

for prospective adopters to reduce their uncertainties regarding

unfamiliar technologies or products.

Observability: The degree to which the potential adopter perceives

that the results of an innovation are visible to others. Displaying

an innovation’s superiority in a tangible form will increase the

adoption rate.

The Sensory Stimulation Theory

This study will infer the sensory stimulation theory (SST) of learning, which has its

basic premise on the fact that effective learning occurs when the senses are

stimulated. According to Laird (1985) in Savic (2012), the SST theory states that by

stimulating the senses, especially the visual sense, learning can be enhanced.

However, this theory states that if multi-senses are stimulated, greater learning takes

place. Stimulation through the senses is achieved through a greater variety of colours,

volume levels, strong statements, facts presented visually, use of a variety of

techniques and media. This theory has relevance to some extent with the present

study, which seeks to investigate the “effects of ICT on the performance of SS2

students in Economics". ICT instructional aids such as: Television, Video Machines,

Computers disc, Projectors, etc., help to stimulate senses by attracting the attention of

the students in the classroom teaching-learning process to learn. However, this theory

will not be best appropriate to the study due to the fact that it has much relevance to

enhancing learning situation on the part of the students more than on the part of both

teachers and students involved in teaching-learning process. The effective

use/utilization of electronic media and other instructional materials in the classroom

by the teachers is also a major factor contributing towards achieving the stated lesson

objective, hence simulation theory might not be too appropriate to be considered since

the study has to do with effect of ICT on early childhood education delivery.

The Technological Pedagogical and Content Knowledge Theory

This study shall therefore, be based on the theory of “Technological Pedagogical and

Content Knowledge” (TPACK) developed by Mishra and Koehler (2006). The

TPACK framework strives to capture some of the essential qualities of knowledge

required by teachers for technology integration in their teaching, while addressing the

complex multifaceted and situated nature of teacher’s knowledge (Mishra and

Koehler, 2006). Researchers argued that computers alone do not make the difference

in teaching, rather, the difference is made by the pedagogical methods the teachers

use when instructing with computer technologies (Clark, 2001). Therefore, TPACK

provides a better feedback for integrating technology in classroom teaching and

learning process than the Sensory Stimulation Theory (SST) which has some

limitations as stated above.

Technological Pedagogical and Content Knowledge (TPACK) emerged from

understanding the interaction of content, pedagogy and technology knowledge,

underlying true meaningful and deeply skilled teaching with technology. TPACK is

the basis of effective teaching with technology and requires an understanding of the

representation of concepts using technologies, pedagogical techniques that use

technology in constructive ways to teach content; knowledge of what makes concepts

difficult or easy to learn and how technology can help redress some of the problems

that students face, such as students‟ prior knowledge (Koehler and Mishra, 2006).

In line with this study, the TPACK theory will be adopted because of its systematic

approach to joining technical expertise in teaching with pedagogical content

knowledge. Hence, it‟s an emergent model resulting from the intersection of

technology, pedagogy and content. Schmidt (2009) is an advocate of TPACK theory

who sees it as the knowledge required by the teacher for integrating technology into

their teaching subject area. The theory can be used to solve the problem of ineffective

use of ICT in teaching and learning process, especially in situation whereby teachers

lack adequate content knowledge of teaching strategies. The technological aspects are
systematically considered in the following ways: 1. Technology Knowledge (TK):

understanding technology in a specific subject or discipline; 2. Technological

Pedagogical Knowledge (TPK): understanding how technology can shape the ways of

teaching: 3. Technological Pedagogical And Content Knowledge (TPACK). This

theory further emphasizes on not only the usage of ICT facilities in teaching and

learning but also on teachers employing the adequate pedagogical strategies when

using the computer. The TPACK theory identifies with teachers acquiring the content

knowledge of the technology employed in teaching and hence, using ICT in teaching

and learning subjects like Economics that have broad contents as observed in the

WAEC examiners‟ report. This was advanced as the reason for the failure in

Economics examination. Teachers are not able to cover the required syllabus

adequately before presenting candidates for final examinations. Furthermore, the

effectiveness of teachers in the use of Computer Assisted mode of Instruction

according to the TPACK theory will depend on the content knowledge of the

technology the teacher wants to use in teaching which will reflect in the student‟s

ability to understand the lesson vis–a-viz their academic performance. Therefore, the

theory postulates on the effective teaching and learning process through using

technology as supporting aids. Harris (2008), another advocate of TPACK theory

supported the view that TPACKrelated professional development for teachers would

promote both autonomous and collaborative instructional strategy that is required for

each topic decision-making while simultaneously encouraging open-mindedness and

active involvement of the learners considering the instructional methods, tools, and

resources. This becomes important to the study that seeks to find out how ICT will

enhance individual learning amongst students.

2.3 EMPIRICAL REVIEW

Safdar, Yousuf, Parveen and Behlol (2019) conducted an experimental study to

identify the effectiveness of ICT in teaching mathematics at secondary level and they

found that information and communication technology is very effective in teaching

mathematics as compared to traditional teaching method. Ziden, Ismail, Spian, and

Kumutha, (2018) carried out an experimental study and concluded that ICT has a

positive affect on the academic accomplishment of students in science subjects. This

study additionally endeavored to decide the distinctions of accomplishment between

the female and male participants. The study found that male students showed better

performance as compared to female students. Carrillo, Onofa and Ponce (2020)

carried out an experimental study on information technology and students’

achievement and they found that ICT has a positive effect on the achievement scores

in mathematics test, but failed to increase achievement scores in language test.

Badeleh and Sheela (2021) inferred that generally to study chemistry, component

based achievement, retention of learning and comprehension, ICT was more

successful than the laboratory training model of teaching. Avinash and Shailja (2013)

discovered that the ICT program is more compelling and effective than the

conventional teaching approach in terms of students’ achievement scores in

chemistry.

Qaiser Suleman et al (2019) carried out a research study to explore the effectiveness

of educational technology in strengthening students’ academic achievement in

English at secondary school level. All the students at secondary school level in Kohat

Division constituted the population of the study. The study was delimited to the

students of Govt. High School Khurram (Karak). The study was further delimited to

the students of 9th class. Forty students of 9th class were selected as sample. Sample

students were divided into two groups i.e. control group and experimental group on
the basis of pre-test. Each group was comprised of 20 students. The study was

experimental in nature therefore pre-test and post-test research design was used as

research instrument. Statistical tools i.e. the mean, standard deviation and differences

of means were computed for each group. Significance of difference between the mean

scores of both the experimental and control groups on the variable of pre-test and post

test scores was tested at 0.05 level by applying t-test. After statistical analysis of the

data, it was concluded that educational technology plays a vital role in strengthening

students’ academic achievement in English at secondary level. Educational

technologies were found to be more effective and successful in teaching of English.

The students of experimental group showed unexpected and excellent performance as

compared to the students of control group. Based on findings, it was strongly

recommended that availability of educational technologies should be ensured and

utilized at secondary school level.

A study by Egemen, Hanımoğlu (2018) on the impact technology has had on high

school education over the Years” Technology in secondary school is of great

importance to students and teachers. School management teams focus on ensuring that

learners have access to computers during the high school years. The existence of the

internet has led to an increase in the drive to promote the availability of computers to

all high school scholars. For instance, wiring the institutions and classrooms is a

measure adopted to improve access to quality education facilitated by internet use.

Through technology, various concepts related to learning can be shared easily.

Integration of IT in learning process requires practical skills and access to

technological tools for teachers. Therefore, many academic institutions have

significantly invested in the purchase of equipment. The current study analyses

various literature focusing on the roles that technology has played on high school
education over the years. The critical area to focus on includes technology and

interaction of teachers, students, benefits of the technology, as well as possible

drawbacks. Accordingly, integrating online learning and teaching activities plays a

crucial role in accommodating student's diverse learning styles. In addition, such

strategies can assist leaners to work before or after school, unlike in conditions where

only classroom learning occurs.

Adeshina E A (2018) investigated “effects of information and communication

technology on secondary schools students’ economics performance in Kaduna State,

Nigeria”. The objectives of this study amongst others sought to investigate the

performance of SS2 Economics students taught with the use of CAI and those taught

with the conventional method of teaching. Six research questions and hypotheses

were drawn from the objectives of the study. The theoretical framework of the study

was based on the “Technological Pedagogical and Content Knowledge” (TPACK)

theory which strives to capture some essential qualities of knowledge required by

teachers for technology integration in their teaching. It also provides better feedback

on student academic performance. TPACK emerges from understanding the

intersection of content, pedagogy and technology knowledge underlying meaningful

and deeply skilled teaching with the use of technology. Areas related to the study such

as impact of CAI on students‟ academic performance, independent learning skill

acquisition, gender and location, were reviewed. Some empirical studies were also

reviewed. Research design used was the two by two pre-test post-test quasi

experimental control group design. The targeted population was twenty-three

thousand, four hundred and sixty Public Senior Secondary two (SS2) school students

in twelve educational zones of Kaduna State. A stratified random sampling technique

was adopted to draw two hundred SS2 Economics students from the rural and urban
centres of two educational zones of the state. Economics Achievement Test (EAT)

made up of forty items of multiple choice objectives and ten fill in the blank questions

from two topics in Economics were developed and validated as test instrument for

data collection. The six research questions were answered using statistical techniques

such as: mean and standard deviation while the hypotheses were tested using co-

variance and two sample t-test at 0.05 level of significance. The results amongst

others revealed that students taught with the use of CAI performed significantly better

than those taught without CAI. The result also shows that the use of CAI in teaching

Economics is not significantly affected by school location. Three hypotheses were

accepted while three were rejected. Based on the findings, it was concluded that

school location does not affect the performance of Economics students with the use of

CAI. It was therefore recommended amongst others that CAI programme be

encouraged as an effective tool for teaching and learning of Economics in schools.

Deborah Scruggs Miller (2018) carried out a study to determine whether educational

technology variables differentiate between "effective" and "ineffective" elementary

schools. It was hypothesized that "effective schools" use educational media in

instruction more frequently than "ineffective schools". It was also expected that

"effective schools" use educational media in qualitatively superior ways to

"ineffective schools". In addition, it was predicted that "effective schools" would have

better prepared teachers in educational media and teachers with more years of

teaching experience than "ineffective schools". The sample consisted of fourteen

elementary schools located in 12 school districts throughout Louisiana. Each school

was determined to be either an "effective school" or an "ineffective school" by the

level scored above or below predicted achievement test score on the Louisiana Basic

Skills Test, and were paired on racial composition and location. The 3 'R's Test of
reading, language, and mathematics achievement was administered to all third grade

students in each school. A questionnaire on the use of educational technology in the

schools was administered to all of the teachers in the sample schools. An instrument

was used to record the quality of use of educational media in the viii classroom, and

approximately 36 hours of observational data was collected in each school. The data

were analyzed at the school level using paired t-tests, and results indicated that

"effective schools" used transparencies more frequently than "ineffective schools". It

was found that teacher and adult-lead interactive teaching with books was greater in

"effective schools" than "ineffective schools". Off-task behavior was observed more

frequently in "ineffective schools". Additionally, teachers who had taken an

undergraduate course in educational media were more likely to be on the faculty of

"effective schools". A discriminant function analysis using predictor variables

identified from a stepwise regression was computed and correctly classified the

schools as effective or ineffective. The predictor variables entered into the model

were the same as the significant variables identified from the paired t-tests.
 CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

In this chapter, we described the research procedure for this study. A research

methodology is a research process adopted or employed to systematically and

scientifically present the results of a study to the research audience viz. a vis, the

study beneficiaries.

3.1 Research Design

Research designs are perceived to be an overall strategy adopted by the researcher

whereby different components of the study are integrated in a logical manner to

effectively address a research problem. In this study, the researcher employed the

survey research design. This is due to the nature of the study whereby the opinion and

views of people are sampled. According to Singleton & Straits, (2009), Survey

research can use quantitative research strategies (e.g., using questionnaires with

numerically rated items), qualitative research strategies (e.g., using open-ended

questions), or both strategies (i.e. mixed methods). As it is often used to describe and

explore human behaviour, surveys are therefore frequently used in social and

psychological research.

3.2 Population of the Study

According to Udoyen (2019), a study population is a group of elements or individuals,

as the case may be, who share similar characteristics. These similar features can

include location, gender, age, sex or specific interest. The emphasis on study

population is that it constitutes individuals or elements that are homogeneous in

description.
This study was carried out to examine the factors preventing Nigerian secondary

schools from integrating ICT into teaching and learning processes using public and

private senior secondary schools in Jama'Are LGA, Bauchi State as a study. Hence,

the population of this study comprises of teachers and students of selected public and

private secondary school in Jama'are Local Government Area of Bauchi State.

3.3 Sample Size Determination

A study sample is simply a systematic selected part of a population that infers its

result on the population. In essence, it is that part of a whole that represents the whole

and its members share characteristics in like similitude (Udoyen, 2019). In this study,

the researcher adopted the convenient sampling method to determine the sample size.

3.4 Sample Size Selection Technique And Procedure

According to Nwana (2005), sampling techniques are procedures adopted to

systematically select the chosen sample in a specified away under controls. This

research work adopted the convenience sampling technique in selecting the

respondents from the total population.

In this study, the researcher adopted the convenient sampling method to determine the

sample size. Out of the entire teachers and students of selected public and private

secondary school in Jama'are Local Government Area of Bauchi State. According to

Torty (2021), a sample of convenience is the terminology used to describe a sample in

which elements have been selected from the target population on the basis of their

accessibility or convenience to the researcher.

3.5 Research Instrument and Administration

The research instrument used in this study is the questionnaire. A survey containing

series of questions were administered to the enrolled participants. The questionnaire

was divided into two sections, the first section enquired about the responses
demographic or personal data while the second sections were in line with the study

objectives, aimed at providing answers to the research questions. Participants were

required to respond by placing a tick at the appropriate column. The questionnaire

was personally administered by the researcher.

3.6 Method of Data Collection

Two methods of data collection which are primary source and secondary source were

used to collect data. The primary sources was the use of questionnaires, while the

secondary sources include textbooks, internet, journals, published and unpublished

articles and government publications.

3.7 Method of Data Analysis

The responses were analyzed using frequency tables, which provided answers to the

research questions. While the hypotheses will be tested using Pearson correlation

statistical tool, SPSS v23.

3.8 Validity of the Study

Validity referred here is the degree or extent to which an instrument actually measures

what is intended to measure. An instrument is valid to the extent that is tailored to

achieve the research objectives. The researcher constructed the questionnaire for the

study and submitted to the project supervisor who used his intellectual knowledge to

critically, analytically and logically examine the instruments relevance of the contents

and statements and then made the instrument valid for the study.

3.9 Reliability of the Study

The reliability of the research instrument was determined. The Pearson Correlation

Coefficient was used to determine the reliability of the instrument. A co-efficient

value of 0.68 indicated that the research instrument was relatively reliable. According

to (Taber, 2017) the range of a reasonable reliability is between 0.67 and 0.87.
3.10 Ethical Consideration

The study was approved by the Project Committee of the Department. Informed

consent was obtained from all study participants before they were enrolled in the

study. Permission was sought from the relevant authorities to carry out the study. Date

to visit the place of study for questionnaire distribution was put in place in advance.
 CHAPTER FOUR

DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS

4. INTRODUCTION

This chapter presents the analysis of data derived through the questionnaire and key

informant interview administered on the respondents in the study area. The analysis

and interpretation were derived from the findings of the study. The data analysis

depicts the simple frequency and percentage of the respondents as well as

interpretation of the information gathered. A total of two hundred (200)

questionnaires were administered to respondents of which one hundred and fifty (150)

were returned and all were validated. For this study a total of 150 was validated for

the analysis.

4.2 DATA PRESENTATION

The table below shows the summary of the survey. A sample of 200 was calculated

for this study. A total of 150 responses were received and validated. For this study a

total of 150 was used for the analysis.

Table 4.1: Distribution of Questionnaire

Questionnaire Frequency Percentage

Sample size 200 100

Received 150 75

Validated 150 75

Source: Field Survey, 2023

4.1 DATA PRESENTATION

Table 4.2: Demographic data of respondents

 Demographic Frequency percent

information

Gender

Male 78 52%

Female 72 48%

Age

9-13 68 46%

14-18 52 35%

19-30 5 3%

31+ 20 13%

Position

Student 125 86%

Teacher 25 14%

Source: Field Survey, 2023

4.3 ANSWERING RESEARCH QUESTIONS

Question 1: To what extent does inadequate availability of finance affect ICT

integration in teaching and learning process in public and private secondary schools in

Jama'are Local Government Area of Bauchi State?

Table 4.3: Respondent on question 1

Options Frequency Percentages

High extent 74 49

Low extent 36 24

Undecided 40 27

Total 150 100

Source: Field Survey, 2023

From table 4.3 above, 49% of the respondents said high extent, 24% of the

respondents said low extent, while the remaining 27% of the respondents were

undecided.

Question 2: Does students poor exposure to technology affect ICT integration in

teaching and learning process in public and private secondary schools in Jama'are

Local Government Area of Bauchi State?

Table 4.4: Respondent on question 2

Options Frequency Percentage

Yes 89 59.33

No 21 14

Undecided 40 26.67

Total 150 100

Field Survey, 2023

From the responses obtained as expressed in the table above, 59.33% of the

respondents said yes, followed by 14% of the respondents who said no, while the

remaining 26.67% were undecided.

Question 3: Does teacher’s lack of technological skills affect ICT integration in

teaching and learning process in public and private secondary schools in Jama'are

Local Government Area of Bauchi State?

Table 4.5: Respondent on question 3

Options Frequency Percentage

Yes 100 66.67
No 13 8.67
Undecided 37 24.66
Total 150 100
Field Survey, 2023
From the responses obtained as expressed in the table above, 66.67% of the

respondents said yes, followed by 8.67% of the respondents who said no, while the

remaining 24.66% were undecided.

Question 4: Does epileptic power supply affect ICT integration in teaching and

learning process in public and private secondary schools in Jama'are Local

Government Area of Bauchi State?

Table 4.6: Respondent on question 4

Options Frequency Percentage

Yes 129 86

No 0 0

Undecided 21 14

Total 150 100

Field Survey, 2023

From the responses obtained as expressed in the table above, 86% of the respondents

said yes, while the remaining 14% were undecided. There was no record for “no”.

TEST OF HYPOTHESES

Ho: There are no significant factors preventing Nigerian secondary schools from

integrating ICT into teaching and learning processes.

Table 4.7: There are no significant factors preventing Nigerian secondary

schools from integrating ICT into teaching and learning processes.

Options Fo Fe Fo - Fe (Fo - Fe)2 (Fo˗-Fe)2/Fe

Yes 71 50 21 441 8.8

No 29 50 -21 441 8.8

Undecided 50 50 0 0 0

Total 150 150 17.6

Source: Extract from Contingency Table

Degree of freedom = (r-1) (c-1)

(3-1) (2-1)

(2) (1)

=2

At 0.05 significant level and at a calculated degree of freedom, the critical table value

is 5.991.

Findings

The calculated X2 = 17.6 and is greater than the table value of X2 at 0.05 significant

level which is 5.991.

Decision

Since the X2 calculated value is greater than the critical table value that is 17.6 is

greater than 5.991, the Null hypothesis is rejected and the alternative hypothesis

which states that there are significant factors preventing Nigerian secondary schools

from integrating ICT into teaching and learning processes is accepted.

 CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS:

5.1 Introduction

This chapter summarizes the findings on the factors preventing Nigerian secondary

schools from integrating ICT into teaching and learning processes using public and

private senior secondary schools in Jama'Are LGA, Bauchi State as a case study. The

chapter consists of summary of the study, conclusions, and recommendations.

5.2 Summary of the Study

In this study, our focus was to examine the factors preventing Nigerian secondary

schools from integrating ICT into teaching and learning processes using public and

private senior secondary schools in Jama'Are LGA, Bauchi State as a case study. The

study was specifically set to determine whether inadequate availability of finance

affects ICT integration in teaching and learning process in public and private

secondary schools in Jama'are Local Government Area of Bauchi State, determine

whether students poor exposure to technology affects ICT integration in teaching and

learning process in public and private secondary schools in Jama'are Local

Government Area of Bauchi State, determine whether teacher’s lack of technological

skills affects its integration in teaching and learning process in public and private

secondary schools in Jama'are Local Government Area of Bauchi State, and

determine whether epileptic power supply affects ICT integration in teaching and

learning process in public and private secondary schools in Jama'are Local

Government Area of Bauchi State.

The study adopted the survey research design and randomly enrolled participants in

the study. A total of 150 responses were validated from the enrolled participants
where all respondent are teachers and students of selected public and private

secondary school in Jama'are Local Government Area of Bauchi State.

5.3 Conclusions

Based on the findings of this study, the researcher made the following conclusion.

 The extent inadequate availability of finance affect ICT integration in teaching

and learning process in public and private secondary schools in Jama'are Local

Government Area of Bauchi State is high.

 Students poor exposure to technology affect ICT integration in teaching and

learning process in public and private secondary schools in Jama'are Local

Government Area of Bauchi State.

 Teacher’s lack of technological skills affect ICT integration in teaching and

learning process in public and private secondary schools in Jama'are Local

Government Area of Bauchi State.

 Epileptic power supply affect ICT integration in teaching and learning process in

public and private secondary schools in Jama'are Local Government Area of

Bauchi State.

5.4 Recommendation

Based on the responses obtained, the researcher proffers the following

recommendations:

 Secondary schools should develop strategies to identify strengths and weakness

of various technological resources with a view to adopting ICT in the process of

teaching and learning.

 Secondary schools should source for partners, stakeholders and sponsors to

finance the acquisition of more ICT infrastructure. This will ensure the adequacy
 of computers in the schools so as to improve their use in the process of teaching

and learning.

 Schools should lessen the workload of teachers so as to enable them find time to

learn and integrate ICT in the process of teaching and learning. Adoption of ICT

in the process of teaching and learning would also go a long way in ensuring that

the workload of teachers is lessened.

 Secondary schools in Bauchi state should provide teachers with regular trainings

and seminars on how to adopt ICT in the teaching and learning process. The

schools should ensure that they undergo refresher training on regular basis.

 Secondary schools should adopt policies that guide structured integration of ICT

in the process of teaching and learning. One of the policies that can be adopted is

adoption of appraisal practices that reward teachers who endeavour to use ICT in

the teaching and learning process in addition to outlining ICT competency

standards for the teacher trainers.

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APPENDIXE

QUESTIONNAIRE

PLEASE TICK [√] YOUR MOST PREFERRED CHOICE(S) ON A

QUESTION.

SECTION A

PERSONAL INFORMATION

Gender

Male [ ]

Female [ ]

Age

9-13 [ ]

14-15 [ ]

16-18 [ ]

20+ [ ]

Class

Student [ ]

Teachers [ ]

SECTION B

Please tick [√] your most preferred choice and avoid ticking twice on a question.

Question 1: To what extent does inadequate availability of finance affect ICT

integration in teaching and learning process in public and private secondary schools in

Jama'are Local Government Area of Bauchi State?

Options Please Tick

High extent

Low extent
Undecided

Question 2: Does students poor exposure to technology affect ICT integration in

teaching and learning process in public and private secondary schools in Jama'are

Local Government Area of Bauchi State?

Options Please Tick

Yes

No

Undecided

Question 3: Does teacher’s lack of technological skills affect ICT integration in

teaching and learning process in public and private secondary schools in Jama'are

Local Government Area of Bauchi State?

Options Please Tick

Yes

No

Undecided

Question 4: Does epileptic power supply affect ICT integration in teaching and

learning process in public and private secondary schools in Jama'are Local

Government Area of Bauchi State?

Options Please Tick

Yes
No
Undecided