KITWE DISTRICT EDUCATION BOARD

(GRADE 10-12)

HISTORY PAMPHLET

PREPARED BY
AGNES Z BANDA-MUKUBA SECONDARY
AGNES MBEWE –NKANA SECONDARY
JANE S KAFULA- KITWE BOYS SECONDARY

2017

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10.1. GEOGRAPICAL SETTING

10.1.1. Physical and climatic features of Southern Africa

1. Describe the physical and climatic features of Southern Africa

 The Sothern African region is currently composed of five countries namely;
Swaziland, Namibia, the Republic of South Africa, Botswana and Lesotho.
 The above countries make a total of about 2,693,507 square kilometers (km²)
which includes both water and land.
 Of the five countries, Swaziland is the smallest and South Africa the largest.
 Southern Africa in terms of latitudes and longitudes lies between 10⁰ and 35⁰ S
and 10⁰ E and 40⁰ E respectively.
 It is bordered by the Indian Ocean in the East, the Atlantic Ocean in the West and
the Kalahari Desert in the Northwest.
 The area is drained by three major rivers which are Orange, Limpopo and
Zambezi Rivers. There are also some smaller rivers however, in the region.
 The region is also blessed with numerous relief features ranging from coastal
plains, plateaus, snow capped mountains and the flat plains of the Kalahari and
Namib Deserts.
 The region also has numerous mountains and highlands such as Drakensburg
Mountain and others.
 The highland plateau forms the most important dominant feature in the Southern
region which is locally known as the High Veld.
 The region has a Mediterranean type of climate.
 The rainy season occurs between November and March, of every year. However,
the Namib and Kalahari deserts receive very little or no rainfall at all throughout
the year and this greatly affects agricultural activities in these areas.

10.2 INDIGENOUS COMMUNITIES

10.2.1 Earlier inhabitants of Southern Africa

2. Discuss the socio-economic and political organisation of the Saan and Khoi-khoi
 The Saan
 They are the earliest inhabitants of Southern Africa.
 They were known by many names which include Saanor San which was given
to them by the Khoi-khoi, Obiqua, Songua; Twa by the Xhosa, Roa by the
Basuto,and Bushmen by the Dutch (Boers).
 They were short people with a yellowish brownish skin, kinky hair and spoke
with a clicking sound.

 Reasons for the migration of the Saan into Southern Africa

 Looking for wild game.
 External pressure.
 Natural calamities e.g. drought and famine.
 Outbreak of epidemics

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  Love for adventure
 Internal pressure
 Bandwagon
 Population increase

 Socio-Economic and Political organisation of the Saan (Bushmen)

Social Organisation
 They lived in temporary shelters made of grass, caves and hills.
 They led a nomadic way of life.
 They were good artists and decorated their caves with beautiful paintings such
as Schematic, Naturalistic, Engravings and Dirty white.
 They were very peaceful and hospitable people.
 They lived in groups of about twenty five to seventy people known as Bands
 They celebrated many ceremonies such initiation, marriage etc.
 Marriage was done at an early stage e.g. girls married at the age of seven to
eight whereas boys married at the age of fourteen to fifteen.
 Marriage was both monogamous and polygamous.
 The San god is known as Keggan.
 They danced to the appearance of the new full moon.

 Economic Organisation
 Hunting was the main economic activity of the San.
 They never domesticated any animals apart from dogs which they used for
hunting.
 They used bow and arrows for hunting small animals but dug pits in order to
trap big animals.
 They were also gatherers of wild fruits, roots, caterpillars and honey.
 They also did some fishing to supplement their diet.
 They never owned any property apart from ostrich eggs which they used for
storage and carrying water.
 In times of severe hunger, they killed and ate their own children.

 Political Organisation
 They never had a chief (central government) but lived in numerous isolated
settlements with an independent government.
 Each settlement was headed by an elder of respectable age who led council
meetings.
 The elders acted as overall judges, presided over traditional ceremonies and
implemented decisions from the village council.
 The youth were very important because they were responsible for the security
of each settlement since they had no standing army.

 The Khoi-khoi
 They were the second group of inhabitants of Southern Africa.
 They also belonged to the Bushmanoid family.
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  They called themselves Khoekhoen which means “men of men”.
 The Dutch settlers however, referred to them as Hottentots.
 They were taller than the San and also had a yellowish brownish skin with
kinky hair.
 They also spoke with a clicking sound.
 Socio-Economic and Political organisation of the Khoi-khoi
Social Organisation

 They never had permanent homes and led a semi-nomadic way of life.
 They lived in bigger communities of about 200-500 people though in simple
and semi-permanent houses.
 They celebrated important occasions like death, birth, puberty, and marriage.
 They married at a later age for instance, girls married at the age of thirteen
while boys between sixteen and eighteen years of age.
 They believed in polygamous marriage.
 They too celebrated the appearance of the new full moon just like the San by
dancing.
 Their god was known as Tsuigoab.
 They believed in life after death and practiced ancestral worship.
 They were generally peaceful people unless provoked just like the San.

 Economic Organisation
 They were pastoralists who kept cattle, sheep, goats, and donkeys.
 They were also hunter-gatherers and did some fishing to supplement their day
to day diet.
 They never killed their animals for home consumption except on rare
occasions like marriage and initiation ceremonies.
 Among the Khoi-khoi, cattle were used as bride price and donkeys as a means
of transport.
 There was division of labour among the Khoi-khoi e.g. men hunted and
women gathered wild foods.
 Later, the Khoi-khoi engaged in external trade with the Bantu and Europeans
to get what they could not produce.

 Political Organisation
 They had a more organized and centralized government (chief).
 The chief had powers to settles disputes and were assisted by clan leaders.
 They never had a standing army just like the San.
 The youth were responsible for the security of the camp.

3. Describe the movements of Bantu-speaking people into Southern Africa

 The term “Bantu” is used to refer to a linguistic group of people with a common
word “ntu”.
 It’s the biggest group of people in Southern Africa and Africa at large.

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  Examples of Bantu speaking people in Southern Africa include the Ndebele,
Shona, Xhosa, Herero, Tswana, Swazi, Sotho and the Ovambo.
 They originated from West Africa.
 They moved in four major groups which included the Shona, Sotho-Tswana,
Nguni-Tsonga and the Ambo-Herero.
 The first group to move was that of the Shona which moved southwards and
settled in present day Zimbabwe.
 The second group was that of the Sotho-Tswana which settled in present day
Lesotho whereas the Tswana settled in present day Botswana.
 The third group was the Nguni-Tsonga who settled in Natal, South Africa. This
group mainly comprised of the Xhosa, Mthethwa, Ngwane, Swazi, Ngoni,
Thembu, Pondo and the Ndebele.
 The last group were the Ambo-Herero who settled in Namibia.

10.2.3. Kingdoms and Nationality

4. Describe the establishment of kingdoms and nation-states in south-eastern South

Africa

 The Ngwane or Swazi Kingdom

 Was formed by people who ran away from Zulu Kingdom as a result of
Shaka’s dictatorship and cruelty.
 The Swazi or Ngwane are at times referred to as a “Defensive State in
Southern African History.
 Zwide of the Ndwandwe defeated the Ngwane Nkosi Clan in 1814 and they
fled northwards and settled between the great Usutu and Pongola Rivers in
Swaziland.
 While in this area, Sobhuza I gained control over the small Nguni and Sotho
speaking clans and founded the Swazi Kingdom also known as Kangwane in
Siswati language.

Organisation of the Swazi Kingdom

 Social Organisation

 The Swazi belonged to the Embo-Nguni Bantu speaking group.

 They spoke a language called Siswati which was a combination of the
Amazulu and Amaxhosa words.
 The people were known as Swati.
 The king (Ngwenyama) came from the Nkosi Dlamini royal clan.
 They were highly polygamous.
 The European settlers especially the Dutch became interested in this area.
They later brought in western civilisation. They introduced new religions, built
schools and hospitals, introduced new crops and as a result western culture
steadily gained ground in Swaziland.
 The Swazi took up Christianity apart from worshiping their traditional gods.
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  Political Organisation
 The Swazi Kingdom was made up of several chiefdoms.
 These chiefdoms retained their traditional authority but were answerable to the
king as their paramount chief.
 The king was referred to as Ngwenyama and had absolute powers.
 He was always advised by a small private or secret council called the Liqoqo.
 Retired chiefs (chieftains) formed a council known as the LIbandla which
helped to check on the king’s powers.
 The Swazi kingdom had age regiments though they were never organised into
a standing army.
 The young men were recruited from the regiments to serve in the royal
homesteads and served as a standing army in case of an emergency.
 The official head of state was the Queen mother Ndlovukati though she had no
absolute powers.
 She had to be consulted in all affairs of the kingdom and at times acted as a
regent in case of the death of the king.

 Economic Organisation
 They were both cultivators and cattle keepers.
 They attached considerable economic and cultural value to cattle.
 They later became horticulturalists and viticulturists.

 Swazi Kingdom under King Sobhuza I (1780-1839)

 He was king of the Ngwane kingdom.
 His father was Nduvungunye (Mavuso II) and his mother was Somnjalose
Simelane.
 His father had two wives who were sisters.
 He was born in 1780 and was given the name Somhlolo at birth which meant
wonder.
 He was given this name because of the unusual events which took place at his
birth and the striking of his father by lightning before his birth.
 Nduvungunye’s senior wife Simelane Lojiba had failed to give birth to a male
child and when her sister and co-wife gave birth to a son, she considered him
as her biological son and hence a heir to the throne.
 When his father died, Sobhuza automatically became the king of the Swazi
kingdom.
 Sobhuza managed to expand the kingdom by conquering the Tsonga, Nguni
and the Sotho chiefdoms.
 He also managed to transfer the Dlamini capital to the north.
 His kingdom was subject to Shaka’s expansionist wars during the Mfecane.
 He diplomatically handled the situation by giving hiss two beautiful daughters
to Shaka as his wives.
 He is also remembered for having introduced maize from Portugal as a staple
food to the people of Southern Africa.
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  People in Swaziland celebrate the sixth of September of every year as
Somhlolo day.
 Sobhuza adopted a policy of peace and friendship with neighbouring
kingdoms.
 For example, he made peace with his former enemy, Zwide by marrying his
daughter. He also gave out his two daughters to get married to Shaka of the
Zulu as tribute. Sobhuza never revenged even when Shaka accused his
daughters of becoming pregnant and killed them. When Digane, Shaka’s
successor attacked his territory, he simply withdrew in the interest of peace for
his people.

 Swazi Kingdom under King Mswati II (1820-1868)

 King Mswati II was a son of Sobhuza I.
 He was born in 1820 and took over the throne at an early age of16 years.
 Having become a king at an early age, his mother by the name of Lojiba
Simelane administered the kingdom on his behalf as a regent till 1840 when he
efficiently took over total control of the kingdom.
 He invited Christian missionaries to his kingdom basing on his father’s advice.
Sobhuza had urged all the people of Swazi Kingdom to always read the Bible
(umculu teachings).
 He always avoided conflicts with the Zulu.
 He signed various treaties with the Boers as a way of ensuring a good working
relationship e.g. such treaties included the Natal Volksraad, and the Ohrigstad
Volksraad.
 He assisted the Boers to defeat the Poko clan as well as convincing his
subjects to allow the Boer cattle keepers to graze their cows on their land.
 This led to increased interest of the Boers in Swaziland which later resulted
into conflicts.
 He died in July 1868, at his palace in Hhohho and was buried at Mbilaneni
 Mswati had built a very powerful nation by the time of his death which made
people from Swaziland to be named after him that is the Swati people, a name
which has continued to be used up to present.

 The Basuto or Sotho Nation

 The Basuto state was also known as the Sotho Nation.
 They were led by Moshoeshoe who ruled from 1815 to 1870.
 Today, this state is known as Lesotho.

 Socio-Economic Organisation of the Basuto-Sotho Nation

Social Organisation
 The Basuto had different cultures since they were a collection of different
people.
 They practiced polygamy generally and Moshoeshoe himself had 100 wives

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  To strengthen unity in the kingdom, marriage alliances were made. Cousins
were allowed to marry themselves.
 They too were divided into clans and age groups which served as age
regiments as well.
 They always held beer parties and drinking of alcohol was widely spread.
 During the nineteenth century, most of the Basuto people converted to
Christianity though some practised the worshiping of ancestral spirits.

 Political Organisation
 It was a centralised monarchy which operated on a union of semi-independent
chiefdoms.
 They lived in clans and the family was always taken as the basic unit of
socialisation.
 Clans were divided into parishes headed by headmen who were hereditary and
parishes were later turned into chiefdoms headed by chiefs.
 Later, chiefdoms were turned into provinces headed by closer relatives of the
paramount chief.
 The Sotho state had many refugees.
 They always held a public assembly called Pitso Council which was always
chaired by King Moshoeshoe and attended by all chiefs.
 All conflicts that existed among the chiefs were settled by the Pitso which was
open to all adult male.
 The kingdom never had a standing army bur depended on the regiments from
its chiefdoms.
 He never liked fighting and generally used peace and diplomacy as a major
fighting tool in the administration.

 Economic Organisation
 They grew crops and reared animals.
 The king had a schemecalledMafisowhich involved giving out cows to
refugees in form of loans. In case the loaned cow gave birth to a calf, it would
automatically belong to Moshesh.
 Land was communally owned though the king was always regarded as the
major custodian of all the land in the Basuto Nation.
 Tribute collected from the conquered states was used to develop other sectors
of the economy.
 They also engaged in external trade with the Dutch at the Cape.

 Factors for the rise and growth of the Basuto-Sotho

 Existence of good and able leaders.
 The small size of the state enabled easy and effective administration of the
masses.
 Marriage alliances which greatly reduced hostility against his administration.
 Geographical barriers like mountains, valleys and hills shielded the kingdom
from external invaders.
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  Assimilation of the conquered tribes into the Basuto nation reduced chances
of resistance against his administration.

 The Pitso Council also greatly promoted internal democracy and gave people
liberty to discuss issues affecting the progress of their kingdom without fear.

The Zulu Nation

 It emerged from the Bantu speaking people of South Eastern, South Africa.
 It was originally a small chiefdom headed by chief Senzangakona.
 It grew into a very big mighty nation by the 19 th Century after the merging of all the
Zulu clans under the leadership of Shaka.
 Shaka was born in 1783.
 His father was Senzangakona who was a Zulu chief and his mother was Nandi from
the Langeni tribe.
 Nandi wasn’t a Zulu by tribe so she was chased away from Zulu land to live with the
Muthetwa.
 Shaka was said not to be the rightful heir to the throne.
 Dingiswayo led the Muthetwa.
 Because of the rejection, Shaka grew up as a very courageous, determined, brave and
intelligent young man.
 He grew up to be a very bitter boy.
 Because of his unique character, he was recruited in Dingiswayo’s army where he
managed to become a commander in chief of one of the military regiments.
 He was made one of Dingiswayo’s indunas.
 Such promotions worn him a lot of recognition which later on enabled him to become
a king of the Zulu nation.
 When Shaka’s father died in 1816, he was succeeded by his half-brother Segujana.
 Shaka with the help of Dingiswayo, however, overthrew his brother from the throne
and took over control of the Zulu nation.
 Shaka successfully created a very strong Zulu nation by 1818.

Reforms made by Shaka as a Zulu King

 Shaka introduced a number of social, political and economic changes after rising to
power.

Socio-Military reforms
 Military discipline by introducing special camps to ensure that all soldiers were ever
on duty.
 No man was allowed to marry before the age of 40.
 He employed local doctors in order to treat the wounded soldiers.
 Soldiers were restricted from putting on sandals during war so as to quicken their
movements
 Female regiments were established in order to spy on the male regiments.
 Unity was promoted in the Zulu kingdom through the policy of assimilation.

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  Special scouts were enrolled to carry food, luggage for the fighter during the war.
They were also used as spies.
 He introduced new military changes such as the cow or buffalo horn method.
 He improved on the age regiment system by introducing a permanent/standing army.
 He also introduced the assegai which was a short stabbing spear.
 To compliment the assegai, he introduced a long shield to protect the impis from chin
to toes as they went into close combat with enemy.
 He also introduced surprise attacks which were mostly carried out at dawn when the
enemy was off guard.
 Shaka also used his geographical knowledge of the area as a military strategy e.g. He
used his knowledge of the annual flooding of the Mulatuzi river to defeat Zwide of
the Ndwandwe.
 He made military service compulsory among all the Zulu people.

Political reforms
The strength of the Zulu nation didn’t only depend on the success of Shaka’s military
changes but also on the political reforms such as:

 The loosely controlled Chieftainships and homesteads of the Northern Nguni were
organized into a single large centralized Kingdom.
 All authority came directly from Shaka as king. He ensured that his power was absolute
and his word was law which made him greatly feared.
 He didn’t appoint his relatives to important positions in the Kingdom but instead
appointed commoners based on merit. Those appointed were extremely loyal to him.
 He introduced the tribute system where all the conquered people were expected to pay
annual tribute to him.
 Participation in the long distance trade with the Portuguese was also an important
political aspect of the Zulu kingdom. This ensured the growth of the Zulu nation.
 Shaka had a diplomatic relationship with the Europeans at the Cape and therefore was
careful not to deliberately provoke them because he wanted to learn about the European
culture.
 He appointed Nandi as the Queen mother of the Zulu nation. She was highly respected
and at times acted as Shaka’s advisor.
 He introduced war booty where all the spoils of the war were always brought by his
soldiers to the Kingdom.

Factors of the Decline and collapse of the Zulu Nation

 External attacks from neighboring communities like Tlokwa and Fengu.
 Shaka’s cruelty that forced some of his military generals to desert him.
 The coming of the Christian missionaries also contributed to the downfall.
 The great trek which brought the Boers into the interior of South Africa who waged
various wars against the Zulu e.g. Battle of the Blood River in 1838.
 The death of Shaka’s mother.
 The discovery of minerals such as gold and diamonds in the interior of South Africa.

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 The coming of the British into South Africa also weakened their political independence.

10.2.4 The Mfecane

5. Explain the causes and results of the Mfecane

 The word Mfecane is used by the Nguni speaking people to refer to the period of
trouble.
 Among the Sotho, it was referred to as Lifaqane or Lifaqane which meant
scattering.
 The word Mfecane refers to the period of constant wars of conquest
characterised by mass movement and migration of people from South Africa.
 It is believed to have started around 1810 and reached its climax by 1830 during
the period of Shaka the Zulu and spread to different parts of Southern Africa.

Causes of the Mfecane

 The rise and expansion of strong Nguni Kingdoms like the Mthethwa, Ndwandwe and
Ngwane which conflicted with one another due to competition for natural resources in
the region.
 Rapid population growth caused by the availability of food, such as Maize.
 Geographical barriers such as the Drakensberg Mountains, Indian Ocean and the
Kalahari Desert which made it impossible for the expansion to take place to the east
or the west.
 Competition for hunting grounds in order to obtain ivory which was used as a trade
item.
 The rise of Shaka and his harsh administrative policies.
 Raids and counter-raids for livestock also resulted in the Mfecane.
 The eastern expansion of the cape whites.
 The desire by Dingiswayo to expand the Zulu Kingdom beyond its original
boundaries.
 Famine and draught.
 The introduction the long distance trade.
 The emergency of three leaders/kingdoms who were ambitious and embarked on
attacking and assimilating weaker tribes e.g. Sobhuza of the Ngwane, Zwide of the
Ndwandwe and Dingiswayo of the Muthethwa.
 The desire to defend and protect some cultural practices among African societies e.g.
circumcision.

Effects of the Mfecane

 The emergence new states and leaders
 It enabled the Boers to move deep into the interior of South Africa from the Cape
without meeting any serious resistance.
 It led into the introduction of new military tactics in South Africa e.g. Assegai.
 It led to cultural transformation which was as a result of inter-marriages and
absorption of new groups and tribes in South Africa.

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  It led to the establishment of defensive states e.g. Lesotho, Swazi and Ndebele states.
 It led to massive migration of people from South Africa most especially those who
could not bear the prevailing situation
 Heavy destruction of land and homestead properties.
 It led to severe depopulation in some areas of South Africa.
 African societies which were weakened by the crisis became more exposed to slave
raids and slavery.

10.2.5 Relationships between the Bantu and Saan and Khoi-khoi

 It caused a lot of, misery and suffering most especially on the side of the Khoisan
because they fought and overpowered by the Bantu who were militarily stronger.
 Many Khoisan lost their lives at the hands of the Bantu which led to depopulation
in some areas.
 The Khoisan who initially depended on hunting as their major economic activity
eventually became the hunted.
 The Khoisan got absorbed into the Bantu culture thus leading to the disappearance
of their original culture.
 The Bantu raided cattle and other food items from the Khoisan thus making
raiding and counter-raiding the order of the day.
 New Bantu cultures were introduced and spread among the Khoisan tribes.
 It led to the loss of political independence of the Khoisan.
 Later on it resulted into inter-marriages between the Khoisan and the Bantu.

6. Explain the conflict between the Khoi-Saan and the Bantu

 The Bantu started encroaching on the Saan hunting grounds since both needed
more land due to their economic activities.
 The Saan were made to work for the Bantu as slaves.
 The Saan used to steal cattle belonging to the Bantu.

10.3 EUROPEAN SETTLER COMMUNITIES

10.3.1. Arrival of the Dutch at Cape

7. Describe the arrival of the European settlers at the Cape

The Portuguese
 They were the first Europeans to reach the Cape of Good Hope and Natal during
the 15th Century.
 They didn’t settle there but ended up settling in Mozambique on the east coast and
in Angola on the West coast.
 Portuguese explorers such as Bartholomew Diaz and Vasco Da Gama reached the
Cape as early as 1487 and 1497 respectively.
 Among the reasons for the Portuguese exploration were to participate in the
profitable trade which existed along the Indian Ocean and wanted to get items like
ivory and gold.

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  They wanted to revenge against the Muslims who had defeated them in the Iberian
Peninsula.
 They wanted to find an alternative route to India so that they could gain control of
the spice trade which was in the hands of the Arabs and the Italians.

The Dutch
 They were the second group of Europeans to reach at the Cape from Netherlands.
 They were attracted mainly by the Portuguese control of the Indian Ocean trade
with the Far East.
 The people from Netherlands were known by different names at different times.
E.g. they were known as the Dutch on arrival at the Cape, later on as the Boers
because of their nomadic way of life and as Afrikaners after the Great Trek in the
interior of South Africa.

Why the Dutch settled at the Cape.

 It was as a result of a mechanical breakdown of their ship called The Haarlem in
1647 near Table Bay. The survivors of the wreckage looked at the cape as a very
conducive place to stay in and hence decided to remain there permanently.
 They wanted to use the cape for the establishment of the workshop that would be
used to refuel and repair their ships on their way to the Far East.
 They wanted to grow fresh vegetables and fruits as well as raring animals which
they would eventually sell to their sailing ships and other European rivals at a
reasonable profit.
 They were attracted by the cheap labour from the Khoi-khoi.
 They also wanted to establish steady and stable supply of meat to Holland since
the islands of St Hellena where they used to get meat had become so dry due to
climatic change.
 Since the Cape was half way between Europe and the Far East, they wanted to use
it as a Post Office where ships from different corners of the world could drop and
pick letters.
 They settled at the Cape because of favourable reports from about the Cape from
the survivors of the Haarlem accident like Nicholas Proot.
 The presence of good and well sheltered harbours such as Saldanha, Algoa,
Mossel bay and Agulhas.
 Due to stiff competition between European countries for colonies outside Europe.
 The formation of the Dutch East India Company (DEICo).

Problems faced by the Dutch Settlers at the Cape.

 Home sickness –the Dutch were miles away from home and always missed home
and thus felt sick.
 Lack of dependable and reliable geographical knowledge of Southern Africa-
this made them settles in areas which could not support agriculture. Besides that,
they didn’t know the type of crops to be grown and this resulted in food shortage.

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  Internal resistance from African societies- the Dutch faced a lot of resistance
from the African societies they came in contact with e.g. the Xhosa in the East
staged a serious resistance against the Dutch over encroachment on their land
(Kaffir wars). The San raided the cattle that belonged to the Dutch and this made
their life in South Africa hard and insecure.
 Lack of enough or reliable agricultural knowledge- most of the settlers was not
farmers but were Veterans (former soldiers) who knew very little about modern
agriculture methods.
 Lack of markets- the Dutch farmers lacked enough market for their products
because they were of bad quality.
 Labour shortage- the Dutch had a problem of labour shortage to work on their
farms and plantations since they were very few in number. The majority of the
local people refused to work on settler farms. This explains why the Dutch used
slave labour.
 Lack of women to marry- the Dutch male lacked women to marry since there
were more men than women and this kept the population small. This made the
Dutch male to resort to homosexuality which was very immoral to the Africans
thus making the Dutch very unpopular in South Africa.
 Poor accommodation facilities- the Dutch had problems of poor accommodation
facilities at the Cape. They slept in tents which had leaking roofs and were
constantly blown off by strong winds. The wet walls of the tents made some of
them die of excessive coldness.
 Lack of good education facilities- they lacked good education facilities for their
children because there were very few schools in South Africa. The few that were
there were too far and hence many Dutch children remained illiterate and ignorant
for some time.
 Language barrier- the Dutch were faced with a problem of language barrier
since they could not understand the local African language. A communication gap
was created between the settlers and the Africans which later resulted in conflicts
between the two groups.
 Corrupt DEICo directors- like Willem Adrian and Van der Stel who used
company money to develop their personal farms. The company refused the settlers
to grow some profitable cash crops of that time like tea and tobacco.

Solutions to the Problems faced by the Dutch Settlers

 All the corrupt DEICo officials including Governor Willem Adrian were
dismissed and all their investments in South Africa were confiscated and reposed
by the company.
 More land was brought into use by the DEICo in order to increase on agricultural
production at the Cape and solve the problem of food shortage.
 To solve the problem of lack of women, the Dutch men were allowed to marry
Africans on top of the orphaned girls imported from Holland.

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  Slaves were imported from Java, West Africa and Madagascar to solve the
problem of labour shortage. The Dutch were later encouraged to enslave Africans
in order to reduce on the costs of importation from outside South Africa.
 Large water reservoirs were constructed in order to store water which could be
used by the settlers during the dry season.
 In order to cater for the education of the Dutch children, elementary schools were
put in place and were placed under the control of the church.
 Temporary hospitals were put in place to control the outbreak of diseases such as
dysentery, malaria and smallpox.
 To protect the Dutch from internal attacks, the company constructed a large Castle
for both security and as a food store for the settlers. People from neighboring
villages were trained and given guns to protect the Dutch settlers who were in
danger.
 To solve the problem of lack of markets and accommodation facilities, more
settlements were established in the interior of South Africa e.g. Swellendam,
Reinet, Stellenbosch. The expansion also helped solve the accommodation
problem for the ever growing number of settlers.

8. Explain the conflicting political and economic interests between the British and
the Dutch
 The British were the second group of Europeans to settle at the Cape and live
together with the Dutch who had come earlier.
 The British settlement at the Cape was done in two major phases namely: The
First British occupation of the Cape 1795-1803 and the Second British occupation
of the Cape 1806-1870.

The First British Occupation

 The first British occupation of the cape was as a result of the French Revolution of
1789 which led to the overthrow of dictatorial government of King Louis XVI
 Napoleon therefore embarked on what were called The Revolutionary Wars which
intended to overthrow all dictatorial kings in Europe and spread the ideas of
liberty, equality and fraternity to all parts of the world.
 The French attacked Holland and defeated the Dutch government.
 France under Napoleon took over direct control of Holland and renamed it the
Batavian Republic.
 This became a threat to the British since they viewed it as a direct French takeover
of Dutch colonies all over the world including the Cape.
 Because of fear that the French would use the Cape as their base, to take over the
control of India, the British were forced to take effective control of the sea route to
India to block the French.
 The administration of the Cape was handed over to the British officially by the
DEICo in 1795.
 In 1802, the British signed the treaty of AMIENS on 27th March 1802 in which
they agreed to give back the cape to the Dutch.

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 The Second British occupation of the Cape 1806-1870
 Was as a result of the Napoleonic wars.
 Britain developed fear that the French might seize the Cape, because of France’s
war victories.
 In order to prevent the French from taking over, or tampering with the sea route to
India, the British decided to reoccupy the Cape. Their occupation was done the
leadership of General Baird with a fleet of 61 Warships

Reasons why the British occupied the Cape

 To safeguard the sea route to India and their colonies in Asia.
 They were threatened by the Napoleonic wars in Europe and thought that these
wars would spread to other parts of the World and destroy the British Colonial
interests overseas.
 To protect the property of King William Frederick of the Dutch who had earlier
on asked the British to do so.
 They were encouraged by the DEICo since there was an administrative vacuum
that needed to be filled up at the Cape.
 The British wanted to use the Cape as a defense post and resting place for their
traders to and from the Far East.
 The existence of good harbors at the Cape which the British saw as being ideal for
their ships to anchor.
 The desire for prestige and respect because at that time there existed a belief
among European powers that the more colonies a country had, the more it could
be respected.
 The need to create employment opportunities for the British population outside
Europe.
 The need to participate in the profitable Indian Ocean trade.
 In order to fulfill the conditions of the 1815 Vienna settlement this officially gave
the Cape colony to the British.

The British Administration at the Cape

 The Second British occupation of the Cape was accompanied by new
Administrative, Judicial/Legal and land reforms that angered the Boers and caused
them to move away from the British administration at the Cape in what was
referred to as the “Great Trek”.

Administrative Reforms
 New Currency: from 1806 the fluctuating Dutch currency was gradually replaced
by the stronger British pound. This angered the Dutch who had been using their
currency for over 50 years.
 The Proclamation of the language Act of 1822: a proclamation was made that
English would be the only official language at the cape, to be used in all sectors of
life .The Boers despised this because they saw this language Act as away by

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 which the British wanted to destroy their culture and dignity. As a result the Dutch
were forced to use black translators, which was humiliating to them.
 Education System: The education system was Anglicized by following the
British Education System and the introduction of English as the only medium of
instruction in schools. Incentives were also given to English teachers especially in
the interior. Many of the Boers encouraged their children to abscond from school
because they did not see the relevance of the education system to their way of life.
 Press freedom: The new British administration also freed the press from
censorship. This was as a result of the work of two British settlers Pringle and
Fairbairn.
 The introduction of new missionary societies: Prior to the British colonization
of the Cape, the only missionary society that was allowed to operate at the Cape
was the Dutch Reformed Church. However, the new British administration
allowed other missionary societies such as the London Missionary Society (LMS).
The new missionary societies and their leaders such Dr. John Philip opposed
slavery and preached that all men were equal before God. This undermined the
teachings of the Dutch Reformed Church which encouraged racial prejudice. As a
result, the Dutch resented the introduction of the new missionary groups at the
Cape.

JUDICIAL/LEGAL REFORMS
Judicial reforms were passed in order to improve and give non-whites some legal
rights. The passing of the judicial reforms were as a result the work of missionaries
such as Dr. John Philip of the LMS. Missionaries advocated for equality before the
law for all people. Some of the judicial reforms passed were;
 The Circuit Courts (Black Circuit Courts): these were courts introduced by the
British in 1812. The aim of these courts was to move around the districts and hear
complaints of the Khoikhoi servants against their Boer masters. The cases in these
courts were solved on the basis of equality before the law. This put the servants on
the same level with their masters. These courts became unpopular with the Boers
who named them the Black Circuit Courts because they were seen to be favoring
the blacks.
 The 1823 Lord Somerset Proclamation: By this proclamation the non-whites
were given more rights before the law. The proclamation gave the Khoikhoi
servants limited working hours in order to give them time to attend church service
and also protection against brutal masters.
 The 50th Ordinance of 1828: The missionaries of South Africa such as Dr. John
Philip of the London Missionary Society worked hard to influence the British
government at the Cape to pass a number of laws to grant individual rights to non-
whites. One of the most significant was the 50th Ordinance. This granted:
 The right of ownership to all the people of the Cape. The ordinance stated that
both blacks and Boers would own cattle, land and other forms of property.
 The freedom of choice and movement. Africans were now free to go anywhere
without a pass for permission.
 The servants were also allowed to work for wages.
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 The terms of the 50th Ordinance angered the Boers because in effect, they lost cattle
and land as well as cheap labour.
 The abolition of Slavery/the emancipation Act-1833: In 1830, the British
government passed the abolition of slavery act throughout the British Empire.
This meant that slavery was officially abolished at the Cape and all slaves were to
be released. By this Act, the Boers were denied cheap African labour on which the
Boer economy depended. Though the Boers were promised compensation for their
loss, it was difficult to claim it from London and many Boers ended up giving up
on the claims. This led to the complete destruction of the Boer economy and
further angered the Boers.

Land Reforms
 The British also introduced a new system of land ownership. Under this system,
the following was insisted.
 Legal documentation to show ownership of land.
 The land owner to pay annual tax or rent.
 All land to be sold by auction.
 All land owned by the Boers had to be fenced.
 No land was to be abandoned in search of virgin land.
 All these land policies angered the Boers who were used to owning huge tracts of
land without restrictions.
 In addition, the Boers could not produce legal documentation to prove ownership
since most of this land was stolen from the Africans.
 All these reforms that the British introduced, forced the Boers to leave the Cape in
the Great Trek.

10.3.4. The Great Trek

9. Describe the causes and course of the Great Trek
 The Great Trek was the movement of Boers from the Cape Colony and away from
the British Administration into the interior of South Africa.
 Prior to 1836, Boers had been trekking into the interior of South Africa in search
of land.
 But this was the first mass organized movement of the Boers hence it was referred
to as the Great Trek.
 The word “Trek” is derived from Afrikaner language which means to travel or a
trip.
 The Great Trek is also at times referred to as the Great Journey or the Boer
Exodus.

The aims of the trekkers

 To move away from British control.
 To establish independent Boer States in the interior based on Boer language,
culture and religion.

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 Causes of the Great Trek
 The great Trek was as a result of Administrative, Judicial and Land reforms that
were introduced by the British at the Cape after 1806.
 The Boers were angered by these reforms that gave the Blacks equal rights before
the law because the Boers considered themselves to be superior to non-whites.
(Refer to earlier notes on the British Administration at the Cape.)
 In addition to the reforms that the British introduced, there were also RUMOURS
that prevailed at the Cape and added to the Boers grievances and forced them to
trek. These were as follows:
a) All Boers land would be given to Africans especially after the Sixth Kaffir
War of 1834-1835.
b) A policy 0f inter-racial and mixed marriage was to be introduced.
c) Compulsory military service would be introduced.
d) The Dutch would be forced to abandon the Dutch Reformed Church and to
become Catholics.
 Though the rumors were groundless, they had the effect of raising social and
political tension and worsened the misunderstandings between the British and the
Boers. These finally led to the Great trek in 1835.
Other causes also included the following:-
e) The Boers moved because of increased invasions by the Xhosa. They felt that
the British had failed to effectively protect them against the kaffirs.
f) They also moved because of rumors of the presence of vast idle fertile land in
the interior of South Africa.
g) They also moved because of effective leadership of Piet, Rensburg, Celliers,
Portgieter, Trigardt and Pretorious.
h) The Boers also had great love for adventure and wanted to find out about the
unknown places in the interior of South Africa.
i) The need for land for expansion and to sustain their economic activities of
crop growing, settlement and cattle rearing was another factor that made the
Boers to trek.
j) The Boers decided to leave the Cape because they did not have any serious
investment at the Cape and so it was easy for them to carry their property, and
cattle and move on.
k) The land tenure introduced at the Cape also made them to move e.g. paying of
taxes, fencing, and title deeds.

Course/Stages of the Great Trek

 After 1835 and in the following three to five years, the Boers farmers took their
goods on ox-wagons and their animals moved northwards across the Orange
River.
 The Boers organized themselves into three major groups with group leaders with
military reputation.

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  These leaders included Louis Trigardt, Hendrix Portigieter, Piet Retief, Martiz and
Jan Van Rensburg. The trek started at the Cape from Graaff Reinet and
Swellendam.

Group 1- Louis Trigardt -1835

 In October 1835, the first group of trekkers under Louis Trigardt left the Cape for
the interior of South Africa.
 These were few in number and were ill prepared for the trek.
 The group comprised of 9 wagons, 19 men and the same number of women, about
60 children and a few San servants.
 In 1836, the party of Jan Van Renseburg joined Trigardt’s group.
 Their destination was Delagoa Bay which was under the Portuguese.
 The group crossed the Caledon River and headed for the Vaal River.
 The group settled at the Zoutapansberg Mountains for a year where they continued
with their way of life.
 However, as the group moved further into the interior and became more isolated,
they facing many problems.
 They were attacked by a local group of the Tsonga and many were killed. Many
died of fever and the group ran out of essential consumer goods such as gun
powder.
 Trigardt and many others died and only 27 people reached the Portuguese
settlement of Maputo (Lourenco Marques) with most of their property lost.

Group 2-Hendrix Portgieter and Sarrel Celliers

 The group started off from the base of Thaba Nchu in 1836.
 This was the largest group of trekkers.
 In August 1836, the group was joined by another group under Martiz.
 The group entered the area of the Transvaal where the Ndebele of Mzilikazi who
had already two groups came into conflict over land.
 Though out-numbered, the Boers formed a simple defense called Laager and
fought the Ndebeles at the Battle of Vegkop in October 1836.
 The Ndebele managed to steal most of the Boer cattle. Portigieter managed to
organize a commando unit and launched a surprise attack on the Ndebele.
 The Ndebele were defeated at the Battle of Mosega in 1837 and fled northwards
into present day Zimbabwe.
 The Boers finally established themselves in the Transvaal while others crossed the
Orange River and established the Orange Free State.

Group 3-Piet Retief

 The third group of almost 2000 people started off from the Cape in 1837 under the
leadership of Piet Retief.
 He moved eastwards over the Drakensberg Mountains into Natal.
 He wanted to negotiate with the Zulu King, Dingane the owner of Natal.
 Dingane appeared to have welcomed the Boers.
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  But the Zulus were more determined to protect their land and independence.
 They therefore saw the Boers as a threat. Dingane organized a feast in honor of
the Boers.
 At this feast and when the Boers were drunk, Dingane ordered the killing of Retief
and his men.
 When the other Boers of the Orange Free State and the Transvaal heard about it,
they organized themselves under the command of Andries Pretorius.
 They attacked the Zulu near River Ncome on 16 th December 1837 and the Zulus
were defeated. The waters of River Ncome were red with the blood of the dead.

 As such, this battle was referred to as the Battle of the Blood River. His own men
later killed Dingane.
 The Boers replaced him with a puppet King Mpande who signed a treaty with the
Boers that led to the creation of the Boer State of Natal.

The British Relationship with the Trek Boers

 The British initial reaction to the Trek Boers was to attempt to maintain control
over them without actually stopping them from leaving the Cape.
 By the Cape Punishment Act of 1836, it was declared that the Trekkers were still
under British control as far as Latitude 25 degrees south and that they were still
regarded as British subjects.
 As a result of this policy, Natal was annexed in 1843.

British annexation of Natal

 Natal had been established as an independent Boer Republic in 1839. However, in
1843, the British annexed Natal due to the following reasons:
 Boers in Natal were out-numbered to the racial of 7 to 1 (7:1) by the Africans.
This created land problems that led to the revival of wars of Dispossession
between the Boers and the Africans. The British were afraid that these frontier
wars would spill over to the British settlements. Thus Natal was annexed to
maintain law and order.
 Cape Town as a commercial Centre was also threatened by the use of Durban due
to its increasing number of traders establishing contact with the Boers in Natal.
This gave the Boers the much needed wealth to set up a stable government.
 The greatest weakness of the natal and the reason of the British annexation was
that it had an inexperienced government. Boer leaders such as Pretorius had
proved to be competent military leaders and fighters but knew nothing about
politics.
 The Natal government was also bankrupt because of poor policies especially over
land. Most of the land had been given away when Natal was created leaving non-
for-sale or rent to generate income for the Government.
 The continuing wars with the Africans ad the weak government of Natal left the
British no choice but to annex Natal.

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  The British Governor, Napier, sent Henry Cloete to negotiate with the Boers
Volksraad in Natal to accept British rule.
 The Boers were divided over the issues but in the end, most agreed.
 Some Boers remained under British control, others joined the other Boers in the
Transvaal and in August 1843, the British annexed Natal.

The Sand River Convention of 1852

 This was an agreement that was signed between the British and the Boers in the
Transvaal recognizing their independence.
 This agreement also gave the Boers of the Transvaal the freedom to deal with
Africans, as they wanted across the Vaal River.

The Bloemfontein Convention of 1854

 This was an agreement between the Boers and the British recognizing the
independence of the Boers in the Orange Free State.
 According to the terms, the British agreed to withdraw from the Orange River
Sovereignty, which had been annexed by the British in 1848.
 The Boers renamed the area as the Orange Free State.

RESULTS OF THE GREAT TREK

 The Great Trek for the Boers led to the creation of independent Boer republics in the
interior such as the Transvaal and Orange Free State, which were based on Boer
culture and religion.
 For Africans, the Great Trek had disastrous consequences as it led to the Land
Dispossession and the loss of cattle. It also led to the breakup of African culture and
traditions. E.g. Mzilikazi
 The Great Trek also led to the loss of political power for some African Chiefs e.g.
Moshesh and Dingane of the Zulu.
 The Great Trek led to the increased European interest in the interior and the
consequent discovery of minerals in South Africa.
 The Trek also increased the British desire to control the whole of South Africa in
federation Schemes.
 In the Cape, the 50th ordinance was generally accepted and led to more tolerant and
liberal attitudes.
 It led to uneven development in the interior of South Africa i.e. areas occupied by the
Boers became more developed in terms of social infrastructure like schools, railways,
hospitals and roads compared to those where Africans settled.
 It resulted into a sour relationship between the Boers and the British leading to
conflicts which resulted in the first and second Anglo-Boer wars.
 It created a big gap between the British and the Boers concerning the position and
status of Africans in South Africa.

10.3.5. Anglo-Boer War

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 10. Describe the Anglo-Boer Wars
 It took place in December 1880 and was fought between the British and Boers.
 What ignited the war was the British arrest of a small scale farmer for failing to
pay taxes to the British administration.
 The British confiscated all his household property in response.
 In order to recover the property of their colleague, the Boers mobilized themselves
into a group of about 300 members and attacked the British.
 This resulted into the first Anglo-Boer war which is also referred to as the “White
Man’s war of South Africa because it involved whites only.

Causes of the first Anglo-Boer War

 The discovery of minerals in the interior of South Africa by the Boers during the
Great Trek.
 The change of leadership in Britain i.e. the government could not favor the British
settlers in South Africa.
 The British takeover of the Boer Republic of Transvaal in 1877.
 Poor British administrative system in Transvaal.
 The British refusal to share administrative positions with the Boers after the
takeover of Transvaal.
 The Boer’s refusal to pay back the money which they borrowed from the British.
 The refusal of Gladstone to grant the Boers political independence as he earlier
promised.
 The abuse of Dutch culture by the British and the desire to replace Dutch language
with English language gave rise to Afrikaner nationalism.
 The historical misunderstanding between the Dutch and the British from the time
the British arrived at the Cape in 1795.
 The rise of British imperialism.
 The 1879 Isandlwana defeat of the British.

Effects of the first Anglo-Boer war

 It marked the final defeat of the British by the Boers at Majula Hills.
 It led to the signing of the Pretoria Convention in order to end the war.
 It led to increased scramble for new territories by the Boers in the interior of
South Africa.
 Kruger was elected as president of the Boer Republic in 1883.
 The victory of the Boers worsened the bitter relation between the Boers and the
British which forced the British to take over Bechuanaland in 1885 and Zululand
in order to check on the expansion of the Boers and also to safeguard their
strategic interests.
 The war made the Boers to become more suspicions and increased their mistrust
of the in the British than ever before.
 It promoted unity between the Boers of Transvaal and those of the Orange Free
State.
 The war enabled the Uitlanders to be recognized in South Africa.
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  It led to destruction of property and loss of lives.

The Second Anglo-Boer War

 It’s also known as the South African War or the Anglo-Boer War of Independence
or the White Man’s War or Gentle Man’s War.
 It was highly recognized as very important landmark in shaping the political,
social and economic.

Causes of the Second Anglo-Boer War

 The British desire to control the Boer Republic of Transvaal after the discovery of
gold in Witwatersrand.
 The appointment of Lord Milner as the High Commissioner for the Cape Colony.
 The desire for revenge by the Boers.
 The refusal by the Transvaal government under the Boers to grant citizenship to
the Uitlanders.
 The Boers also wanted to oppose the unrealistic terms of the 1881 Pretoria
Convention which put an end to the first Anglo-Boer War.
 The election of Paul Kruger as president of Transvaal Republic in 1898.
 Paul Kruger’s strong belief that he would get foreign support.
 The role of the press most especially British papers and Johannesburg Star also
caused the war.
 The failure of the Jameson Raid of 1895 under the command of Cecil Rhodes.
 Kaiser William’s telegram to Paul Kruger to congratulate him about the victory.
 High taxes imposed by Kruger’s government on British goods coming from the
Cape Colony which led to their low demand because of high prices greatly
offended the British.
 Refusal by Mr. Coryngham Green the British Resident Commissioner in Pretoria
to withdraw all British troops from the Transvaal border within forty-eight hours.

Effects of the Second Anglo-Boer War

 It led to loss of life and property.
 It led to the death of many innocent Boer civilians who had been put in
concentration camps.
 It led to disruption of economic activities which had been established in the Boer
Republics after the discovery of minerals.
 The loss of political independence of the Boers under the Vereeniging Treaty.
 It led to stagnation of mining in South Africa which greatly affected the economy
since most of the white labourers in the mines abandoned their jobs and joined the
war.
 It led to a decrease of exports.
 It gave chance to the Uitlanders to return back to Transvaal where they had been
chased by the Boers.
 It led to the isolation of Africans from the politics of South Africa.

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  The war later greatly boosted the economies of Natal and the Cape colony because
the British soldiers who were brought to fight the Boers came in with a lot of
money which they added in circulation and in investment.
 It led to migrations of people most especially children and women from the Boer
Republics.
 The Act of Union was called which led to the Federation of South Africa and
finally put to an end to the hostilities which existed between the Boers and the
British in South Africa.

10.3.6. The Union of South Africa

11. Describe the steps leading to the Union of South Africa

 The Union of South Africa was a federation intended to unite the whites in South
Africa.
 It was made after the 1910 Act of Union which was signed between the Boers and
the British shortly after the second Anglo-Boer War which was followed by the
signing of the Vereeniging Peace Treaty on 31st May, 1902.

The Vereeniging Peace Treaty of May 1902

 It was signed on 31st May, 1902 at Melrose House in Pretoria.

Aims of signing the Treaty

 To put an end to the Second Anglo-Boer War.
 To end the enmity attitude between the Boers and the British in South Africa.
 To make a way for the Federation or Union of South Africa.
 To solve the issues concerning citizenship and voting rights in South Africa.
 To determine the official language to be used in South Africa (Dutch or English).
 To find ways of reconstructing the economy of South Africa which had greatly
been destroyed by war.
 To resolve on how the whites would control the economy of South Africa.

Terms of the Vereeniging Peace Treaty

 Orange Free State and Transvaal were to lose their political independence and
become British territories.
 The Dutch children were to be taught in public schools of Transvaal and the
Orange River Colony on the request of their parents.
 The Boers were also to accept the hoisting of the British flag (Union Jack) in all
areas where they stayed and to hour the British Queen.
 Both English and Dutch were to be recognized as official languages in South
Africa.
 Africans were not allowed to participate in any meaningful politics in South
Africa and their voting rights would be decided later on.
 All Africans who had abandoned their work or jobs during the course of the
Second Anglo-Boer war were to be punished severely.
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  Africans were barred from keeping guns after the war.
 All Boer prisoners were to be released by the British government
 The hostility between the Boers and the British had to come to an end and the
British were to withdraw all their soldiers from areas occupied by the Boers.
 All Africans who had been put in concentration camps during the Second Anglo-
Boer War had to be kept inside as prisoners of war until further notice.
 The British were to give large sums of money to the Boer Republics as
compensation for the property destroyed during the course of the war.

Effects of the Vereeniging Peace Treaty

 It brought the Second Anglo-Boer War to an end and peace was restored again in
South Africa.
 It led to the total loss of independence of the Boer Republics.
 The Boers were given £3,000,000 as a compensation for the property lost during
the war.
 It put both the British and Boers at the same level e.g. the white minority would
determine the political future of South Africa.
 It led to the migration of some Boers who opposed British control from South
Africa to countries like Mozambique, Congo, Belgium and Argentina.
 It reconciled the two historical white rival communities (Boers and British) since
all the unsettled issues were finally resolved by the treaty.
 It led to the release of all Boers from concentration camps and prisons and were
given food, seeds, and other incentives as a resettlement package.
 It paved way to the calling of the National Convention (conference) in 1908 which
gave birth to the Act of Union in 1910.

The National Convention 1908

 It was a parliamentary convention which was called in 1908 and was attended by
both government and opposition members from each colony.
 It was held in Cape Town between 12 th October-5th November 1908 and 3rd
February, 1909.
 About thirty (30) members who had been appointed by the four colonies attended
i.e. 12 from the Cape Colony, 8 from Transvaal, 5 from Natal and the other 5 from
the Orange River Colony.
 Three non-voting members from Rhodesia also attended as observers.
 For purposes of consultation, the High Commissioner and other Governors also
attended.
 The chief justice of the Cape Colony Sir Henry de Villers chaired the convention.
 It aimed at presenting, debating and passing a new joint constitution for the United
South Africa.

Reasons for calling of the Convention

 To discuss and make a frame constitution which was to determine the political
future of South Africa.
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  To put to an end the political differences which existed between the British and
the Boers.
 It also intended to do away with bad practices like discrimination as well as
internal strife between the Boers and British.
 To discuss the nature and rights of voting in case of any election in South Africa.
 To decide on the form of unification to be adopted.
 To decide the site for the Capital in case the federation was attained.
 To discuss issues concerning customs and how to remove economic barriers in
order to enable a closer Union in the four provinces.

Effects or Results of the Convention

 Both English and Afrikaner were given equal status in South Africa and were
recognized as official languages.
 It was agreed that Orange River Colony was to be called by its former name, the
Orange Free State.
 It led to the creation of provinces of the cape Colony, Orange Free State,
Transvaal and Natal as components of the Union.
 It led to the creation of a dual Capital of the Union; Pretoria was to be the
Executive capital, Cape Town the Legislative capital and Bloemfontein the home
of the court of appeal.
 It stimulated nationalistic feelings and desires among some African leaders led by
W.P. Schreiner and J.T. Jabavu
 It gave birth to a two housed assembly mainly comprising of the Upper House
(Senate) and the Lower House (House of Assembly).
 It led to the final drafting of the constitution which was meant to govern the
Union.
 It also made a proposal for the inclusion of the native states of Swaziland,
Lesotho, Bechuanaland as well as British colonies of Rhodesia and Nyasaland at a
later stage.
 It led to the unification of the four white colonies under one government, one
parliament and one flag thus leading to the Union of South Africa and the signing
of the Act of Union.

The Act of Union 1910

 This was a union of four states, the Cape Colony; Natal; Transvaal and Orange
Free State.
 The first Governor-General was Herbert Gladstone, a member of the Liberal
Government of the day.
 General Louis Botha, a shrewd and popular politician was chosen as the Premier.
 The parliament held real power and made laws for the four colonies under this
arrangement.
 The Governor-general remained largely a figurehead.
 The four colonies would now be called provinces.

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  These provinces would in turn control hospitals, roads, municipals, and lower
education centers.

Terms of the Act of Union

 The Union parliament was to be given supreme authority over the four colonies
which in future were to be called provinces.
 The head of the Union was to be the Governor-General assisted by the Premier
and an Executive Council of Ministers.
 The Union Parliament was to consist of two houses, namely the Lower Chamber
called the House of Assembly and an Upper Chamber called the Senate.
 There were three capitals Pretoria as the Seat of Administration, Cape Town as a
Seat of Legislature (Parliament) and Bloemfontein as the Seat of the Judiciary
(Court of Appeal).
 English and Dutch were to be official languages.
 Non white voters in the Cape Colony were recognized but the Union
parliamentary membership was limited to whites only.

Effects of the Act of Union

 The British Government gave up its position to influence the affairs of the South
African community
 It ignored the interests and demands of the black population but reconciled the
two white communities.
 It was a victory for Afrikaner independence because it gave them protection and
support to Afrikaner interests and freedom from foreign influences, especially
Britain.
 It confirmed white domination in the politics of South Africa.
 South Africa became one country under one central government on May 31 st 1910
with one parliament and one flag.
 A political union of four white states was finally achieved.
 Afrikaners gained control of South African government.
 The antagonistic white groups finally buried their hatred and agreed to work for a
common future.
 It provided ground for competition between the two white communities for the
control of South Africa.
 It guaranteed the independence of the black governments in the High Commission
Territories of Lesotho, Swaziland and Botswana as well as British colonies of
Zambia, Malawi and Zimbabwe.
 English and Dutch were made official languages of the Union. To these Afrikaans
was added on May 8, 1925.
 There were also allowances made to include Rhodesia into the Union at some
future date.
 South Africa entered into partisan politics.
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 Effects of the Union on Africans
 All African provinces were automatically moulded into the Union.
 Africans lost their voting rights.
 The Union aroused political consciousness in the Africans who realized that the
Union had ignored their political rights and interests.
 The Union totally excluded black Africans from South Africa’s political system
and made no provision to include them at a later stage.
 Africans lost parliamentary representation in 1936.

Why the Union was possible

 All the four white states in South Africa were British colonies.
 Due to the hard work of Sir Alfred Milner who prepared the appropriate ground
for a political union.
 Lord Milner offered to suspend the Cape constitution to impose a political union
on the four white states in the effort to reduce rivalry between the two white
communities.
 There was need to cut down on administrative costs i.e. if the four states came
together, they develop the economy together.
 The granting of responsible government to Transvaal and Orange River Colony in
1906 and 1907 smoothed the way for union.
 With the increasing tension in Europe, Britain desired not to have a divided South
Africa with some areas anti-British.
 The impressive memorandum of Lord Selbourne the British High Commissioner,
clearly pointed out the necessity.
 The coming of J.X.Merriman into office as Prime Minister, replacing Dr.
Jameson, accelerated events more quickly towards a political union.
 The white opinion in South Africa now inclined towards a political union as a way
of burying their differences and making a fresh start on the basis of white equality
also contributed to the formation of the Union.
 The African rebellion in 1906 (Bambatha Rebellion) also contributed in that the
whites saw a union as an essential safeguard for security against a wider African
rebellion.
 There was an economic reason for accepting a political union.
 The coming of liberals into power in England paved way for union since the new
government was interested in ending strife and other sources of conflict that
divided the two white communities in South Africa.
 The Union incited the Afrikaners into political nationalism.

The Achievements of the Union

 The Act won self-government.
 South Africa was successfully united under one government.
 Dutch was given special protection and equal status as an official language as well
as English.
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  The wide differences that had for four years kept the two white communities apart
were rectified.
 White oligarchy (government by few) and supremacy was established in South
Africa (lasting until 1994).
 Party politics gained ground in the country.
 The four colonies became provinces of the Union.

Failures of the Union

 The Act of Union failed to totally remove the African franchise, especially in the
Cape Colony until 1936.
 It failed to suppress Afrikaner nationalism.
 It failed to improve the status of the rural whites.
 The provision to the High Commissioner Territories at a future date failed because
of the question on African franchise.
 The idea that African political rights and interests would be suppressed was
deceptive.

10.3 RACE RELATIONS IN SOUTHERN AFRICA

10.3.1. Relationships between indigenous Africans and the white settlers

12. Describe the socio-economic interactions between the European settlers and the
indigenous communities
 Various white groups settled in Southern Africa such as the Dutch, British,
Germans, and French for various reasons.
 A look at the relationships between these white settlers and the indigenous people
of Southern Africa reveals a mixture of peace and hostility at varied times.

Relationships in the Cape

(1) The relationship between the white settlers and the Khoikhoi
 The relationship was good in the beginning e.g. they traded with the white
settlers for Dutch beads, bracelets, cloth, tobacco and liquor.
 The DEICo had given instructions that the Khoikhoi were to be treated with
kindness.
 But such good relations began to turn sour when the Khoikhoi tribes saw the
Dutch building fortifications and extending their area of cultivation.
 To avert this, the first Khoi-Dutch War broke out and lasted for three years
until the Khoikhoi were forced to make peace.
 A second Khoi-Dutch War of 1673-77 completely changed earlier good
relationship between the two.
 The Khoi-Khoi became more unwilling to deal with the Dutch.
 Some Khoikhoi clans unwisely sold off all their cattle and suffered severe
starvation.

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  This made carry out raids for cattle from the Dutch and the Dutch counter
raided.
 What proved more destructive to the Khoikhoi than the white man’s guns were
the white man’s diseases and liquor.
 There were three major outbreaks of smallpox diseases in 1713, 1723 and
1755 which claimed up to 60% of the Khoikhoi population because they
lacked the natural immunity against it.
 The most devastating of the epidemics was that of the 1713 which made the
Khoikhoi to escape into the interior which only helped to spread it further.
 Many became servants on the White man’s farms where they adopted the
Dutch culture in terms of dress, religion, language and pastoral way of life.
 There were also inter marriages between the white men and Khoikhoi women
resulting in the production of new offspring the Korannas and Griquas, now
referred to as the Coloreds.

The relationship between White Settlers and the San

 They proved to be the most resistant to the influence of the white man at the
cape.
 They only began to feel the impact of the Dutch settlement at the beginning of
the 18th Century.
 This is when they began to lose their hunting grounds to the expanding white
colonialists.
 They were driven away to unproductive lands of the Kalahari Desert in the
interior, because they were unable t resist the superior arms of the Dutch.
 They never knew how to negotiate or use diplomacy except war to resolve
their differences.
 The Dutch called them Bushmen and thought they were barely human.
 They regarded them as a nuisance to their property.
 As a result, they remorselessly hunted them down and treated them
inhumanely.
 The san hence died in big numbers and were driven away into the inhospitable
Kalahari Desert.
 Like the Khoikhoi without natural immunity to the white man’s deadly
smallpox disease, they lost dearly to it.

3. The Relationship between the White Settlers and the Bantu

 The encounter was more hostile on the eastern frontier than on the Western
Cape.
 The Dutch colonialists met their match here and fought a series of wars lasting
nearly a century.
 Both groups being pastoralists, hunters and cultivators competed fiercely for
land and water resources.
 During droughts and famine, they raided each other for food, cattle and other
property.
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  There were raids and counter-raids, destruction of property, including farms
and homesteads causing misery.
 Despite the hostile relations, both groups learnt a lot from each other.
 For example, the Bantu adopted from the colonialists new crops like potatoes,
yams, peas, maize corn and wheat.
 They even copied the Dutch way of life while working for them.
 The British attempted to diffuse the conflicts between the Dutch and Bantu but
also found themselves involved into the conflicts.
 These later caused the famous Kaffir Wars with the whites.
 Aided by the Boers, they drove the kaffirs away from them.
 Many Kaffir wars continued even in later years.
 The British attempts in pacifying the frontier actually drew them into the
conflicts themselves.
 The intervention made them at one point or another, give favour to their white
comrades, the Boers, which caused the racial divide.

4. The Relationship between White Settlers and the Slaves.

 The slaves came in from Angola, Mozambique, Madagascar and Indonesia.
 Most of these were obtained by the DEICo.
 Most slaves were a property to white farmers, forming the main labour supply.
 Some of the slaves were owned by the Cape Town Burghers and a few by
Trek Boers.
 At first, the treatment of slaves was mild but tended to deteriorate and by the
1753 Slave Code was a stiff one.
 Many slaves tended to obtain their freedom from white masters by being set
free by kind masters; by buying it on the proceeds of their work during their
leisure time.; by meeting the legal requirements and sometimes by desertions.
(mass escapes)
 Freed slaves or escapees got absorbed among the colored people of the Cape
and the Khoikhoi groups.
 Mixed unions took place between the slave women and the white man
producing the coloured people.
 Such relationships also occurred between the slaves, coloured and Khoikhoi.
 The element of freed-slave blood in time became predominant one in the Cape
Coloured community.
 At the Cape, slaves were treated very well by world-wide standards.
 Here, more effort was devoted to educating them than in educating Dutch
children and at the same time much attention was given to their health and
morals.

Colonial Conquest and the Suppression of African Nationalism

 Upon discovery of minerals in South Africa in 1867, there was a change of mind
by the British to establish their dominance in the region over both the whites and
blacks.
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  They became determined to use force to deal with any obstacle that came their
way.
 They were interested in upholding and promoting white interests in the region
than those of black people.
 They were determined to destroy the independence and nationalism of prominent
African states or kingdoms believed to obstruct their designs. For example:
I. The Anglo-Zulu War 1876
 The British launched a war of conquest on the Zulu Kingdom under
Cetswayo on 24th January 1879.
 They regarded the Zulu Kingdom as an obstacle towards the federation
of the five white states in South Africa.

II. Chief Sekukuni and the BapediResistance

 Chief Sekukuni I never accepted white dominion from Transvaal.
 He considered Christian missionaries as a threat to the customs and
traditions of his people.
 He settled Swazi refugees to build a human shield against a possibility
of Boer invasion.
 He denied the Transvaal to construct a railway through the Pedi land to
the coast and even denied the Surveyors access to his land.
 The situation became worse with the discovery of Gold in Pilgrim’s
Rest in 1873.
 He refused passage to miners from Pilgrim’s Rest.
 He even refused to pay taxes to Transvaal regarding it as an insult.
 Based on several accusations against Sekukuni, a combined force of
Swazi and Boers was sent against him. But it wasn’t easy to defeat
him.
 The British later captured Sekukuni and with his capture, the stumbling
block to Boer and British encroachment on Pedi land and Northern
Sotho Kingdom, was removed.
 The whites agreed to guard the borders using the Pedi.

III. Xhosa Conquest.

 Another group of Africans that had several encounters with the British,
were the Xhosas.
 They ought only different occasions
 The major conflict was over the splitting of the Xhosa into halves by
Sir Smith, Governor of the Cape Colony.
 This angered the Xhosa and the Xhosa Chiefs felt that their authority
was being undermined.
 They took up arms and fought the British in 1850.

IV. The War of the Guns or The Cape Basuto War, 1880-1881

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  It broke out in September 1880 as a result of the cape Colony’s 1878
Peace Preservation Act which required Africans to surrender their
firearms, an increase in Hut Tax, a cession of part of Moroosi’s land
for white settlement; Disarmament Proclamation Act issued on May
20, 1880.
 Soon after the ninth Kaffir War, fighting broke out when cape Colony
demanded an immediate disarmament of the Basuto.
 This demand provoked outrage and resistance in the Basuto who still
needed their guns for protection.
 Refusal to disarm by Chief Moroosi sparked off the conflict. The
Basuto were Victorious in this conflict and no part of the Kingdom was
lost and the nation survived.
V. Bambata Rebellion, 1906
 This rebellion was as a result of the protest against natal Authorities’
execution of twelve rebel leaders.
 Rebels led by Bambata, a Chieftain of the Zondi people, launched in an
attack against the colonial regime in Natal.
 They attacked white farms and settlements, destroyed anything of
European origin hoping that this would drive away the whites and they
would gain their independence.
 Coupled with that, were many factors that contributed to the rebellion
such as: Increase in British Tax, Harsh laws(especially labour laws in
Natal), Loss of land, Influence of Ethiopianism (Independent
Churches), hardship of urban life, and Bambata’s character.
 It was a costly war and lasted six months to suppress.
 It almost exhausted the resources of the Natal.
 A lot of lives and property were lost and Bambata himself fell victim.

VI. Nama-Herero rising 1904-1907

 South West Africa was colonized in 1884.
 Trouble soon started between the settlers and Nama Chief, Hendrik
Witbooi.
 The Germans attacked Witbooi’s village in April 1893 and killed about
150 of his subjects.
 Chief Nama lost the war and he refused to enter into any Peace
negotiations.
 Although he lost the war, Witbooi was allowed to retain his weapons
and power.
 He became a staunch ally of the Germans.
 Conflicts however continued between the Germans and the Herero.
 In 1903, the government’s decision to resettle the Herero in a reserve
was regarded as an attempt to inherit their land.
 Already, large tracts of land had been allocated to the settlers including
the best agricultural land in the Central plateau.
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  The Herero attacked the German colonialists in January 1904, sparking
off the conflict. After several months of fighting, the Germans
destroyed the Herero and Nama independence by confiscating all their
cattle and deposing all their Chiefs.
 The natives were forbidden from owning land or cattle but to supply
their labour on white farms.
 Africans were required to carry Passes to restrict their movements too.
 All this was in a bid by the Germans to insure against any further rising
of the Africans.
 This made the Africans to hate the Germans more.

13. Explain the Reasons leading to African Resistance to white dominion

 Europeans were determined to cling to Economic, Political and Social power and
all the privileges that went along such domination to which end they resorted to all
sorts of devices.
 Africans and other non-whites were determined to have equal rights with
Europeans, which necessitated the destruction of European domination.
 The overriding reason for African resistance to white dominion was the operations
of a system that was variously called ‘’Apartheid’’, ‘’Racial Segregation’’,
‘’Separate Development’’ and ‘’Racial Discrimination’’.

The Apartheid System

 It is a word in Afrikaans which means ‘’Living Apart’’.
 It became a system of government used by the Afrikaners to segregate against
Africans and other non-whites populations.
 Its application was a key factor in African resistance to white dominion.
 It covered a number of areas such as Labour Segregation, Territorial segregation
and Social Segregation.
A. Labour Segregation
 It covered the field of labour and its aim was to relegate Africans, at a national
level, to a permanent position of ‘’hewers of wood and drawers of water’’- the
performers of unskilled and low paid heavy work.
 To prevent Africans from attaining the status of ‘’skilled labour’’, a number of
laws were passed such as:
a) The Mines and Workers Act, 1911, which forbade the employment of
Africans in the mines as skilled workers.
b) The Apprenticeship Act, 1922 which barred people who had not passed
Standard VII from entering apprenticeships.
c) The Colour Bar Act, 1925 which amended the 1911 Act. It restricted certain
aspects of mining employment to Europeans, Cape Coloureds and half breeds
from Mauritius. Industrial laws became more complex as whites and non-
whites were forbidden to belong to the same workers’ organisations.

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 d) The Industrial Conciliation Act 1937, which stated that Africans could not
belong to any registered trade union. This made them weak divided.
e) The Native Builders Act, 1951 which brought the building industry under
apartheid by prohibiting the employment of Africans as skilled workers in
urban areas.
f) The Native Labour (Settlement of Disputes) Act, 1953 which allowed
Africans to form their own trade unions, but these unions were ineffective
because they were closely controlled and regulated by the government.
B. Territorial Segregation
 After the Union of South African in 1910, the securing of interests (land) of the
whites became an early but continuing imperative.
 Consequently, the government passed a draft of registration to prevent the other
races from owning utilizing land such as:
a) The Land Act of 1913 was passed with the object of dividing the country into
two distinct racial areas, Natives and Non-natives. Africans were forbidden
from residing in areas outside their designated districts or reserves.
b) The native urban Areas Act of 1923 which was meant to control the number of
Africans allowed living in urban areas.
c) The native (Urban Areas) Amendment Act of 1935 which gave local
authorities powers to force an African to vacate a white area if their presence
was deemed a threat to peace and order.
d) The Native Trust Land Act of 1936 was passed to alleviate the hardship
created by the inadequacy of land set aside for African population. It
empowered the government to give additional acres of land to Africans.
e) The Native Laws Amendment Act of 1937 stated that all African visitors to
white areas in which they were not resident or employed could stay only for
up 72 hours without a permit, after which their stay became a criminal
offence.
f) The Group Areas Act of 1950 specified the areas where only members of one
racial group could live or own immovable property such as land. It also
classified the racial groups as Whites, Coloureds, and Natives.
g) The Population Registration Act of 1950 made it compulsory for all persons
above a certain age to possess an identity card on which among other things,
their race was written. Because of their light complexion, many coloured
people qualified as white and enjoyed a privileged position and preferential
treatment.
C. Political Restrictions
 Further legislation denying Africans political rights was passed.
a) The Representations of Natives Act of 1936 removed Africans from the Cape
Province, from the common voters’ roll and set up a separate Cape native
Voters’ roll.
b) The suppression of Communism Act, 1950 defined communism so loosely as
to include much liberal and democratic thought and practice and laid down a
penalty of ten years imprisonment for advocating communism.

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 Communism was defined as an act likely to promote racial hostility. It was an
attempt to round up all those who were opposed to the injustices and harshness
of European racial discrimination.
c) The Public Safety Act and the Criminal Law Amendment Act 1953 which
empowered the Governor-General to declare a State of Emergency for a
period of up to one year, during which time Civil liberties were automatically
suspended.

D. Social Segregation
 Legislation was passed enforcing racial segregation in social activities and
contacts such as:
i. The prohibition of mixed marriages Act 1949 which forbade marriage
between whites and non-whites.
ii. Population Registration Act of 1950 was passed to define the borderline.
All persons above a certain age were to possess an identity card and
Africans were further classified according to ethnic sections.
iii. The Native (Abolition of Passes and Co-ordination of Documents) Act
1952 required all African men and women to carry reference books at all
times. This was a measure to place further restrictions on the free
movement of Africans so as to keep them under effective control.
iv. The Bantu Education Act of 1953 which prohibited the mixing of races in
schools. It brought all schools for the Africans under the control of a
Central government department.

10.4. MAJORITY RULE

10.5.1 Liberation movements in Southern Africa

14. Describe various Liberation movements in South Africa after the formation of
the Union of South Africa.
 The Union of South Africa in 1910 strengthened the white race’s grip on both the
socio-political and economic sectors of the country.
 It heightened racialism as both the Afrikaners and English speaking whites now
viewed the country now as belonging to the white race.
 Blacks held the lowest position in the society and ere treated as second class
citizens at best and ‘’sojourners’’ in white areas at worst.
 There were several political parties and liberation movements which were formed
after the formation of the Union of South Africa such as the African National
Congress (ANC), Pan African Congress (PAC).

The African national Congress (ANC)

 Is the largest political party in modern South Africa.

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  It came to power upon the attainment of majority rule in 1994 when it formed a
government of National Unity with the National Party, and the Inkatha Freedom
Party.
 It traces its origin to 1912 when a group of black educated and urban elites led by
lawyers called a conference of blacks of diverse persuasions.
 Teachers, Clerks, Clergymen, Lawyers, and Journalists were in attendance.
 They formed the first national political party called the South African Native
National Congress (SANNC).
 It was formed on 8th January 1912 at the Waaihoek Wesleyan Church in
Bloemfontein in Cape Province.
 The famous personalities behind the formation were John Dube, Tengo Jabavu,
Pixley Ka Isaka Seme and Sol Plaatje.
 The party was founded for the purpose of creating national unity and defending
the rights and privileges of Africans.
 The objectives of the SANNC were:
 To break down ethnic differences in the black society.
 To encourage joint action hence promote national unity and mutual
understanding.
 Removal of racial prejudice in the society.
 To win the vote and civil rights for all South Africans and defend the liberties,
rights and privileges of people.
 The SANNC wanted to create an avenue through which Africans could express
their grievances, promote their basic rights and fundamental freedoms and create a
uniform law on electoral rights.
 The SANNC employed both internal and external pressure in order to achieve its
objectives.
 The people’s grievances at the time, revolved around the land question, pass laws
and Masters and Servants’ Act.
 The SANNC planned to use non-violent means to organize petitions and
delegations to achieve its objectives.
 The SANNC changed its name to ANC in 1923 and its objectives were restated as
follows:
i. Encouragement of inter-racial understanding
ii. Defending of liberties of all South Africans.
iii. Fighting for majority rule.
iv. Upholding and defending the human rights of all South Africans.
v. Fighting for fair distribution of land, and other resources to all South
Africans.
 The ANC organized a series of strikes, protests and deputations against the
government.
 The government infiltrated spies and provocateurs into the ANC.
 To strengthen its position, the government also came up with several legislations
aimed at curbing nationalist activities e.g. The Bantu Education Act, The Native
Labour Act, and Public Safety Act etc. by 1953.
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  The ANC created a council of the Congress of the people to come up with a set of
principles for the foundation of a new South Africa in 1954.
 The Congress was to bring together a galaxy of representatives from the South
African community irrespective of colour.

The Freedom Charter

 A conference was held at Kliptown on 25th and 26th June 1955.
 The ANC placed demands on the participating bodies to come up with a
Federation Charter which was adopted by delegates before the police dispersed
them.
 The police accused the delegates of committing a treasonable act.
 About 156 of its leaders were arrested in 1956 and tried for treason.
 To check similar future activities, the government came up with the Riotous
Assemblies Act of 1956.
 The charter became a great beacon for the liberation struggle in South Africa.
 The charter called for a multiracial constitution, universal suffrage, nationalization
of mines and industries and the redistribution of land.
 It captured the hopes and dreams of the people and acted as a blue print for the
liberation struggle and the future of the nation.

The Pan African Congress, (PAC) 1958

 Not all members of the ANC were in agreement of the formation of the Freedom
Charter and the party joining the Congress of the people.
 They saw inclusion of other races as a ploy to weaken the resolve of African
nationalists.
 The founders broke away from the ANC in 1958 and formed the Pan African
Congress (PAC) in 1959.
 Unlike the ANC which used diplomacy and a bon-violence approach towards the
liberation struggle of South Africa, PAC used a more violent and militaristic
approach.
 It organized riots and demonstrations against pass laws.
 A good example is the Sharpeville Massacre of March 21 1960, in which 69
protesters were killed and about 180 injured by the security forces.
 The Sharpeville Massacre attracted the wrath of the International community.
 The South African government responded by banning the ANC and PAC.
 Both ANC and PAC decided from underground.

15. Describe the process leading to the end of Apartheid and introduction of
Majority rule.
 Since the enactment of the Land Act of 1873, blacks, coloureds and Indians felt
that their interests were not well catered for by the state.
 Things were made worse by further developments in the country such as the
introduction of Apartheid policy, the establishment of a republic and the brutal
response by government to any attempts by the subjugated groups especially the
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 black South Africans, to fight for freedom and equal rights enjoyed by other racial
groups.
 A number of factors contributed to the eventual collapse of apartheid as explained
below:

i. The Rise of African Nationalism in South Africa

 Between 1913 and 1939, black political activities were not as intense as
they were to become.
 The years 1939 and 1948 saw a drastic change in the nationalists’ quest for
freedom.
 African political activity was transformed and this transformation was
brought about by the emergency of a new generation of African leaders.
 These nationalists also made apartheid an international issue through the
UN and OAU, hence got the backing of other countries.

ii. The role of the UN

 The UN General Assembly took up the issue of South Africa’s racial
policies annually beginning 1952.
 The UN placed sanctions on South Africa for not respecting human rights
on several occasions.
 The UN General Assembly by the 1980s referred apartheid a crime against
humanity.
 As a result, this led to the reflection of a growing international opposition
to apartheid.

iii. The Role of African States

 Due to the efforts of the ANC, the international community began to pay
attention to the liberation cause in South Africa.
 The OAU talked so much about apartheid and gave the South African
government a lot of pressure.
 The OAU condemned the sale of arms by the Western powers to the South
Africa.
 It got support from many countries.

iv. Shortage of skilled labour. (demand for African labour)

 The growing shortage of skilled workers ignited criticism by local
investors against the apartheid system.
 The growing demand for labour brought thousands of Africans into urban
areas.
 The continued growth of industry created demand for labour especially
skilled labour that could no longer be satisfied by the white population.
 Businessmen and industrialists led by Henry Oppenheimer (Chairman of
the huge Anglo-American Corporation) criticized the government’s refusal
to lower the colour bar in order to allow Africans to take up skilled work.

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  However, the economic pressure began to force modification in the
apartheid policy covering the industrial colour bar and the Bantustan
border industries.
 These changes loosened the apartheid grip.

v. The role of the Church

 Increased criticism from the church also contributed in the ultimate
relaxation and abandonment of apartheid.

vi. Student defiance campaigns

 Students’ protests were another challenge to the South African
government.
 These protests were made known to the international states through the
press who took pictures.
 The world was shocked about the arrests made by the forces of students,
church leaders and deans of institutions.
 Thus criticism of the apartheid system increased.

vii. Cultural and Sporting bans.

 All sport in South Africa was segregated.
 The selection of national teams was done on a racial basis as such attracted
international criticism.
 Because of such racial prejudices, South Africa was excluded from the
Olympic movement in 1970.

viii. The collapse of the Portuguese empire.

 The collapse of the Portuguese empire in 1974-75 impacted positively on
the nationalists’ cause in South Africa.
 Angola became independent so did Mozambique.
 This enabled the ANC guerillas to bring weapons into South Africa thus
making attacks possible across the country’s borders.

ix. The Soweto uprising.

 It marked a watershed in the struggle for freedom in South Africa.
 Black youths became deeply involved and they shifted the situation
drastically against the government.
 The government was forced to enact reforms which eventually worked
against its unity.

x. The Role of P.W. Botha

 Botha presented a twelve point plan where he addressed the issue of Socio-
economic changes for Africans, relations in the Southern African region and
new constitutional proposals.

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  It recognized that the Africans were a permanent element of the country’s
urban life.
 These developments added pressure for the dismantling of apartheid.

xi. The Role of the 1983 Constitution

 The amendments of the 1983 constitution made the situation worse in the
government.
 White liberals criticized it for concentrating power in the presidency.
 This also added to international criticism.

xii. Role of Frederick de Klerk

 He replaced P.W.Botha as President of South Africa.
 He favored the dismantling of apartheid.
 He introduced reforms, released Nelson Mandela and led the country to
democratic elections and the end of apartheid.

xiii. The Role of Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela.

 He was a key figure in the early anti-apartheid struggle.
 His arrest made him an international hero and symbol of South African
nationalism, which led to sustained international pressure for his release.
 The apartheid leaders viewed his release as part of their changed position to
dismantle apartheid.

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EUROPEAN HISTORY 1870TO 1945
11.1. GEOGRAPHICAL SETTING

Q1. Locate on the map of Europe the major European empires by 1870

11.2.1. Bismarck and the unification of Germany, 1870

Q2. Describe the stages leading to the unification of Germany

Background till 1871, Germany was divided into 38 independent stages, having in
common except the Germany language. All these states were members of the German
Confederation, which was weak and disunited. Between 1815 and 1848, Prince
Metternich of Austria dominated the Confederation.

After 1848, Prussia became the leading state, by uniting the confederation into the
economic union (Zollverein). Austria did not join this union, thereby, losing the
opportunity for German leadership. In 1862, Bismarck became Chancellor of Prussia and
by series of wars, unified Germany in 1871.

The first sage in the unification of Germany started in 1848 when every German state
revolved against their rulers, demanding democratic constitutions. The Frankfurt
Constituent Assembly was formed, which suggested unifying Germany as a
Constitutional monarch, with the Prussian King being crowned the Emperor Germany.
The Prussian King declined this offer as he did not wish his power to be limited by a
constitution.

The second stage/phase began under Bismarck’s leadership and his militaristic policy of
‘Blood and Iron’. He did not want Germany to be a democratic country controlled by the

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 revolutionaries. He wanted Germany, dominated by the aristocracy and army under the
leadership of the Prussian King.

The third and final stage began with series of wars (policy of ‘Blood and Iron’ against
Austria, France and Denmark, by which Austria was removed from the German
Confederation, France and Denmark defeated and King William I of Prussia was
declared emperor of the united Germany in 1871.

a) War 1- Prussia and Austria Hungary Vs Denmark

Denmark was defeated
b) War 2 – Austria- Hungary Vs Prussia-1866
Austria-Hungary was defeated
c) Prussia Vs France (The Franco-Prussian War 1870 – 1871)
France was defeated.

Q3. Explain Bismarck’s home and foreign policies

Bismarck was chancellor of Germany from 1870 to 1890. He exercised great influence in
both home and foreign policies of the empire. He worked under two Emperor William I
who died in 1855 and William II in 1888 - 1918
 Bismarck’s home policy
Aims of Bismarck’s home police:
 He wanted to consolidate power o himself
 He wanted to eliminate all opposition
 He also wanted to achieve economic development for Germany

Bismarck ruled Germany from 1871 to 1890. During this period, he faced a number of
political problems especially from the Catholics and the Socialists:

1. Resistance from the Catholics

The German Catholics did not like the command position of Prussia in the new
Empire. As such, the Catholic Church at the Vatican refuses to recognise the power of
the state over the Catholics. In 1870, the Catholic Church preached a dogma of Papal
Infallibility which demanded that all loyal Catholics should obey the official
statements of the pope without question. In 1871, a catholic central group was formed
and Bismarck was politically threatened. As a result, Bismarck launched a direct
attack on the Roman Catholic Church. As a result, Bismarck instituted the following
laws:
 In 1871, Bismarck broke off all diplomatic relation with the Vatican
 In 1871, Bismarck introduced repressive laws that were directed against the
Catholics. Priests who preached politics were arrested and charged with the
misuse of the pulpit. Church controlled schools were brought under government
control. Religious societies such as Society of Jesus (Jesuits) were expelled from
Germany while others were dissolved
 Bismarck also introduced May Laws. These brought the training appointments
and work of the priest under the government control. The catholic who disobeyed
or opposed the laws were imprisoned, dismissed from work or suffered exile.
Civil marriages were also made illegal hence reducing the authority of the church
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 over family matters. This campaign or struggle against the church was called
Kulturekampf (Struggle for Civilization).

2. Resistance from the Socialists

The socialist’s party also alarmed Bismarck. The socialists believed in the teaching of
Karl Marx who advocated for the overthrowing of the Capitalist Governments and their
replacement by Governments controlled by workers. The social democratic party
condemned militarism and demanded for the creation of a socialist state were the
government would won and control major industries on behalf of the people. After 1875,
the socialists became a threat to national security. In 1876, there were two assassination
attempts on the Kaiser. Bismarck blamed the socialists and introduced Exemptional
Laws to deal with them. Under these laws:
 All socialists meetings and publications that supported socialism were banned.
 The socialist party was also banned
 Under exceptional laws many people were imprisoned and exiled

3. Social Reforms
In order to deal further with the problem of socialism, Bismarck promoted social reforms
to benefit workers so as to prevent them from joining socialism. He introduced insurance
schemes against sickness, old age and accidents.

4. The presence of Racial Minorities

Bismarck thought that racial minorities were an obstacle to complete Germany unity.
There were a few million non German-speaking people e.g. danes, and French within the
Germany Empire. Bismarck tried to solve this problem of minority races by introducing
the policy of PRUSSIANISATION GERMANISATION. This was done to ensure unity
in Germany. Some of the features of Prussianisation were:
 Introduction f a Prussian Code of Law
 The Prussian Mark became the only currency
 The education system was based on the Prussian Mark
 Germany was introduced as the official language in order to assimilate the minority
groups.
 The government also encouraged Germans to buy up properties from non-Germans

5. Economic Problems
German industries also faced a lot of problems as a result of stiff competition from
outside’ to ensure economic and industrial development, Bismarck introduced the Triple
Law of 1879. This was done to protect the three main industries i.e. the manufacturing,
commercial and agriculture industries against outside importations by introducing high
tariffs. Bismarck wanted to make Germany less dependent on imported goods and make
Germany as self-sufficient as possible economically.

6. Nationalisation of the railway system

The railway system became state owned so that low transporting rates were introduced to
benefit the local industries. The government also subsided the shipping lines to enable

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 them compete with other countries such as Britain. These measures led to the
development of Germany industries.

 Bismarck Foreign Policies

Aims of Bismarck’ foreign policies
 To preserve the Franckfurt Treaty that led to the creation of the German
Empire
 To maintain peace in Europe by a policy of German strength and domination
militarily and economically
 To isolate France because Bismarck feared that with the help of another
country, France would attack Germany and revenge to get back the provinces
of Alsace and Lorraine
 To dominate European diplomacy with the set up of governments in Europe

To chive his aims, Bismarck created a system of alliances and held the Berlin
Conference of 1884 – 1885.

Bismarck’s Alliances
a. The three Emperor’s League or the Dreikaiserbund Treaty of 1872
In 1872, Bismarck persuaded the Emperors of Russia (Tsar Alexander) and
Austria-Hungary (Frank Joseph) to sign a treaty of friendship and
understanding with the German Emperor Kaiser William I. This alliance was
called the Three Emperors’ League or the Dreikaiserbund Treaty. The terms of
the treat were:
 All agreed to isolate France
 Agreed to crush socialism and republicanism in the three Empires
 Agreed to consult each other on international matters especially over
the Balkan states

b. The Dual Alliance of 1879

The members of the alliance were Germany and Austria. This was a secret
alliance signed between Austria – Hungary and Germany 1879. This was after
Russia and Austria-Hungary quarrel over the Balkan States. Bismarck held a
meeting in Berlin to discuss the matter. At this meeting, Bismarck sided with
Austria. This offended Russia. The terms of this alliance were:
 To isolate France
 To assist each other if one of them was attacked by two or more
countries but to remain neutral if attacked by only one.

c. In 1881 and 1884, the Dreikaiserbund was renewed under the same terms of
1872 with the same members

d. The Triple Alliance of 1882

The members of the Triple Alliance were German, Austria-Hungary and Italy.
The Alliance was signed in 1882. Italy formed this alliance with Germany and
Austria-Hungary after she was offended by the French occupation of Tunisia,
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 which Italy considered, as her territory. Bismarck had diplomatically
encouraged the French occupation of Tunisia. The terms were:
 To isolate France. This Alliance depended the isolation of France
 To assist each other if attacked by a fourth power
 Italy also pledged not to be involved in any war against British

Bismarck was still determined to prevent an Alliance between France and

Russia. He also wanted to avoid fighting on two fronts in case of an outbreak
of war. After the end of Dreikaiserbund Treaty, Bismarck stated that Russia
could easily join France to attack Germany. As a result, Bismarck secretly
approached Russia to sign the re-insurance Treaty to reinsure Germany against
an attack from France. The terms of the alliance were:

 Germany recognised the Russian influence in the Balkans

 Russia would remain neutral if France attacked Germany and Germany
would remain neutral if Russia was attacked by Austria. The two would
help each other if attacked by two or more countries
 Agreed to isolate France
 The alliance was to be renewed after three years

11.2.2. The Ottoman Empire up to 1914

Q4. Analyse the factors that led to the decline of the Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire reached its peak of power in the time between the 16 th and 17th
centuries. However, towards the beginning of the 18 th century, their power across Europe
began to sharply decline. This can be attributed to a number of various developments:
 Internal factors such as:
 The loss of power and authority of the Sultan-
 The poor state of the Ottoman economy- the economy was dwindling and she
was also weakening politically because of corruption and embezzlement, poor
collection of the poll tax, high and unnecessary government expenditure as
well as retaining of some taxes collected by vassal governors
 Lack of good political leadership-the oppression and harsh ways of the
Turkish Sutan especially towards the Orthodox Christian aroused nationalism
in the Balkan Region.
 External factors such as:
 Fear of many European nations towards Ottoman- the attitude of European
powers towards the Ottoman Empire made it appear weak and sick, hence
crowned as ‘the Sickman of Europe’.
 Decline in the Ottoman’s military strength- Turkey’s political right or power
depended on her military strength; she had conquered Asia, Africa, and even
European territories by use of force.
 The rest of western world caught up to them- the different interests of
European countries mad Turkey look sick, weak, confused and a victim of
circumstances beyond her control. The European powers controlled major

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 rivers, seas of the Empire and continued to play diplomatic games that made
Turkey not to appear the sole owner of these waters.
11.2.3. The British Splendid Isolation Policy

Q5. Assess the advantages and disadvantages of the British policy of Splendid Isolation
Splendid Isolation-
 Is enjoying the good, wonderful or beautiful state of being without much contact with
other people.
 It refers to the enjoyment of a good state of being alone,
 The British Splendid Isolation policy is therefore was the state that the British
decided to enjoy of not becoming involved in the affairs f other countries.
 The British Splendid Isolation policy started far back as 1818 during the congress of
Aix-La-Chapelle, when Castlereagh could not agree on a joint expedition to punish
the notorious Barbary pirates because of ear of Russian vessels in the Mediterranean

Why Britain followed the policy (Advantages)

British persuaded the policy of isolating herself because of a number of factors which
included;
 Geographical position; Britain separated from continental Europe by the English
Channel, she remained apparently safe; in her island kingdom hence by nature she was
isolated British had a strong and reliable navy with which she could effectively defend
herself and her colonial possessions.
 Overseas Expansion: British wanted a peace Europe so that she could continue with her
overseas expansion without interruption. During this time, British Empire comprised of ¼
of the world population. Therefore British was preoccupied with her overseas expansion
as such she needed not to take part in European quarrels so she isolated herself.
 Self sufficiency economically and militarily: Britain enjoyed her Naval, commercial
and industrial supremacy. London was the center of the world and banking. Half the
merchant shipping of the world was British. Militarily, Britain had the strongest Navy in
the world. As a result of the industrial revolution she started, she became the richest
country in Europe and she did not need any economic help from any country.
 The French Revolution: Britain also wanted to preserve her monarch after the French
Revolution of 1879, which brought any end to the monarch in France; Britain wanted to
avoid a similar revolution by isolating herself.
 Crimean War of 1854 – 1856: involved Russia and Turkey over the Balkan Region.
Britain fully supported Turkey. The bitter experiences of wars and misery caused by the
war forced the British politicians and the public to urge the British government to limit
Britain’s costly commitment abroad especially in Europe.
 Lord Salisbury’s Government (1895 -1902’s regime seemed to favour isolationists stance
her Britain maintained it under her rule.

Why the policy was abandoned (Disadvantages)

Britain and to abandon her policy of Splendid Isolation for a number of reasons:
 The system of Alliances: other European countries were busy making alliances in case of
war. This made Britain aware that she would be on her own if war broke out, Britain was

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 especially threatened when her two enemies France and Russia signed the Dual Entente in
1894.
 The provocative foreign policies of Kaiser William 2: from 1890, when Kaiser William
II became the Germany Emperor, his foreign policies provoked Britain as follows:
 He started challenging the British Naval, colonial and industrial supremacy e.g. in
1902, the British introduced an advanced battleship called the DREADNOUGHT: this
was the first of its kind in Naval history. It had heavier guns and it was faster.
However, in 1907, German started producing an imitational Dreadnought called the
U-BOAT. This was a direct provocation to Britain.
 The Germany Government also gave moral and material support to the Boers during
the 2nd Anglo-Boer War of 1899 to 1902.
 The 2nd Anglo-Boer War of 1899 to 1902; was also significant in the abandoning of
the policy of Splendid Isolation because it revealed the weakness of the British Army.
This is because the British suffered a series of defeats by the ill equipped Boer Army
and prolonged guerrilla warfare.
 Colonial Rivalries: Britain faced colonial rivalries in North Africa from France, in
south East Asia from Russia and in the Middle East from Germany because Kaiser
William wanted to build a railway station from Berlin to Baghdad, in addition,
Germany also challenged Britain as world leading colonial power at Berlin Colonial
Conference.
 The Armenian Massacre of 1895: the Armenian massacre inflicted by the Turks in
1896 also acted as an eye opener for the British. This involved the killing of about 6,
000 Armenian minorities in Turkey. This was a violation of international laws.
Gladstone, the then Prime minister led a campaign against the Turks and approached
the other countries to take action. However, other countries did not respond. As such,
the British on the disadvantages of isolation. The British also realised that it was
dangerous to be isolated. Therefore, the British decided to abandon the policy.

How the policy was abandoned

Britain abandoned the policy of splendid isolation through the signing of various alliances
with other countries which included:
 The Anglo-Japanese Alliance – 1902: was the first step that Britain too towards the
abandoning of the policy. This was a treaty that was signed by Britain and Japan. The
terms were:
 Japan agreed to protect British possession in South East Asia against German and
Russin imperialism
 Britain and Japan also promised to assist each other if two or more countries attacked
one of them
 The Anglo-French Entente Cordiale -1904: after being angered by Kaiser William
II encouragement of the Boers in the 2nd Anglo-Boer and the suspicions of increased
naval competition Germany, Britain decided to become friends with France. Britain
began to settle her differences with France in Africa over colonies. This resulted into the
signing of the Anglo-French Entente Cordial (friendly agreement) of 1904. The term
were:

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  Britain recognized the French occupation of morocco and in turn, France recognized
the British occupation of Egypt and Sudan
 Agreed to hold regular on economic and military issues
 They also agreed to assist each other against German aggression.

 The Triple Entente – 1907: in 1907, Britain abandoned the policy of Splendid
Isolation when she signed the Triple-Entente. France wanted her two allies to come close
together, therefore, Britain and Russia settled their differences over Prussia, Tibet and
Afghanistan.
 The treaty was anti-Germany, it prevented Germany from penetrating the Middle East
 It was a military alliance to support each other if attacked
 The members also pledged to work together to counteract the effects of the Triple-
Entente Alliance

Conclusion
The policy Britain used at that time can be likened to what is prevailing now in they are
calling Brexit. They have realised economically that their currency is advantaging other
currencies in the European countries henceforth their plans to withdraw from the union. Their
Splendid Isolation of 1899 –1902 was based on avoiding spending too much on procuring
ammunition and the costs involved in managing other colonies during the wars. The current
one is based on strengthening the British economy having realised that the pound is stronger.

11.2.4 Russia under Tsarist rule, 1870 – 1914

Q6. Describe Russia’s efforts at industrialization leading to the Russo-Japanese War of

1904 – 05
This was the war fought between Russia and Japan between 1904 and 1905. Though
Russia’s thirst towards Western Europe and the Balkans had reduced after the Crimean
war of 854-1856 and the Berlin Congress of 1878, she was still driven by her
expansionist policy. She decided to concentrate her expansion eastwards. In her attempt
to fulfil her desire, she collided with Japan which had similar interests in Eastern Europe
thus resulting into the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905.

Causes of the Russo-Japanese War

 Russia had overwhelming ambitions for expansion which dragged her into war with
Japan. Russia was defeated during the Crimean war but still was driven by her natural
desire for expansion, hence clashed with Japan resulting into Russo-Japanese war.
 The natural advantages and importance of Port Arthur with no doubt made Russia and
Japan go for war over the control of the port.
 The expression of similar interests over Korea and Port Arthur resulted into war.
 The need for both powers to test their Military Mighty.
 Pressure from both powers, public opinion and the need to attain foreign glory and
prestige for both countries climaxed into the Russo-Japanese war

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Q7. Assess the impact of Russia’s defeat by Japan on revolutionary activity leading to
the 1905 Revolution

Russia’s defeat by Japan on revolutionary activity leading to the 1905 revolution had
impacts which include:

 The Russo-Japanese war humiliated Russia both at home and outside. The war
was one of the most humiliating naval defeats in the history of Russia. It proved
beyond doubt that Russia had one of the weak naval fleet in Europe.
 The war showed that Russia was not yet strong enough to fight a modern war and
that she had to strengthen her military first if she was to fight any other war.
Therefore the Russo-Japanese war had helped check Russia military might and
had proved a good lesson to the Russians to strengthen their naval power.
 The war made the Tsarist regime to lose popularity at home. It exposed the total
inefficiency and corruption of the Tsarist system.
 The war sowed seeds for the outbreak of 1905 Russian Revolution. Russian
masses were greatly disappointed by Russia’s performance and had therefore lost
support of the Tsarist regime.
 The war made Father Gapori the organiser of the government approve d trade
unions led a procession in St Petersburg to petition the Tsar to grant political
freedom, improve wages, grant an eight-hour working day and to grand a
constitutional assembly on Sunday 22 January 1905. The crowd of protestors was
blocked by the royal troops and later opened fire on them killing about hundreds
o people and left so many wounded. The day came to be known as ‘Red’ or
bloody Sunday.
 The war further weakened the Russian economy since a lot of funds were
rechanneled to finance the war instead of developing other sectors of the
economy like agriculture and industry.
 The war led to growth of Marxist ideas and the formation of political parties
along Marxist principles. The workers and the intelligentsia found in Marxism the
answer to their grievances which the Tsarist regimes failed to solve, hence they
formed political parties such as Social Democratic Party (SDP) and the Social
Revolutionary Party. This was intended to mobilise and organise or the removal
of the Tsarist regime, hence, under Lenin and Marrow, the workers started
spreading propaganda against the government and their activities resulted into a
revolution in 1905.

11.2.5. France, 1870 – 1914

Q8. Explain the efforts France made to regain her lost provinces of Alsace and Lorraine
to Germany.
Despite the economic depression that hit the Franco-Prussian war and the Paris commune
revolt, important development took place in the domestic history of France which aimed
at healing the wounds of the French economy by giving aid to repair France for regaining

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 of her lost provinces of Alsace and Lorraine. In order to regain her lost provinces, the
following reforms were made:
 Political Reforms: these were established in France and there was complete freedom
of press and public meetings. Workers were given liberty to form trade unions which
would fight for workers rights.
 Education Reforms: free and compulsory elementary education was established for
all children between the age of six and thirteen. In addition, all citizens were to get
some form of education to help them in decision making. It would also make them
aware of the need to fight and gain their lost provinces of Alsace and Lorraine.
 Health Reforms: the public health act was passed in order to regulate female and
child labour. It was also to enforce safety measures in mines, factories and keep
proper sanitary dwellings for workers.
 The period 1870-1914 generally contributed to great commercial and industrial
development in France. Industries such as Silk, Iron and Coal improved
tremendously. Further, these developments, commercial loans were availed to mainly
farmers and industrialists. All these development increased the wealth of France to the
extent that she became one of the sources of loans to other countries. All these aimed
at creating a powerful French economy that would provide a strong base for creating a
strong modern and well trained army that would fight or the liberation of Alsace and
Lorraine.
 Transport and Communication Reforms: the French government developed its
infrastructure such as roads, railways, canals, harbours and steamships. This would
provide easy transportation of troops during the fight to regain the lost provinces
 Improvement of the strict new conscription laws as well as improved training of
the regular: a great and efficient army for France was created where all young men
of both rich and poor were to serve.

11.2.6. China, 1900 – 1914

Q9. Describe China’s political, economic and social development before the First World
War
 Political Developments
China is one of the countries with a very high population in the world. By 1900,
China was under the leadership of the Qing family known as the Manchu’s. During
this period, China was heavily controlled by foreign nations and this increased civil
disorder in the country.
 The Boxer Rebellion
 The Koumintang Nationalist Party
 The revolutionary military uprising –the Wuchang

 Economic development
 Trade- China generally was a prosperous country boosting of her economy both at
home and abroad. She was already producing rice and wheat which she exported
to outside countries. Through trade China received world trade crops which
include: tobacco, peanuts, and sweet potatoes. However China’s economy became
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 affected due to absence of usable land for expansion. This was attributed to the
fast growing population. In the early 1900, western powers such as USA, Britain,
German, France and Italy seriously competed for spheres of influence in China.
 Natural disasters such as drought and famine also hit China during the late 19 th
century. Floods resulting from over reclamation of wetlands, low lands and even
mountain slopes also affected the country. To worsen the situation, a series of
revolutions rocked China during 19th century for instance Boxer revolution. All
these disrupted China’s economy. Generally before the outbreak of the World War
One, China’s economic development was at a very low pace mainly because this
was a period of internal instabilities and foreign aggression.

 Social development
 Religious struggle- China was characterised by religious struggles. Buddhism
already existed in China. Other missionaries also entered China. Both Protestants
and Catholics had preached the gospel and had won some followers for Christ.
 Anti-foreign movement- The popular anti-foreign movement and the Boxer
uprising allied at Manchu Court in Beijing and ordered for killing of foreigners.
During the Boxer rebellion, both European missionaries and converts were killed.
Despite this massive killing, it was a blessing and gave the Christian Missions in
China a TRULY ‘Golden Age’ since Christianity spread at a high rate. Mission
schools gained prestige and a good number of elites converted to Christianity for
instance, the provisional president of the young Republic, Sun Yat-sen was
baptised as a Christian. The loss of lives clearly depicted the suffering of Christ
according to Hudson Taylor the founder of China Inland Mission (CIM). The
trends of events were moving towards Christianisation of China.
 Foot binding of young girls and women (limiting women mobility and
increasing subjugation to their husband- though it lasted for so long, it started
collapsing by the first half of twentieth century. In fact by 1908, the majority of
the Chinese elite had spoken out against foot binding and in 1912, the practice
was prohibited although this was not completely effected in remote areas.
 The cult of windows- dung the Qing period had gained strong hold especially in
the educated class. Childless widows even committed suicide. Young women
whose weddings had not yet taken place sometime refused to enter into another
engagement after the death of the fiancé instead moved to their fiancé home to
serve his parents as daughter in-law. In Confucian time, women held inferior
position than men. Even in the field of education, women were forbidden to attend
school or even writing Chinese even after 20th century. Formal education was
denied to most women. However, after the revolution of 1912, women in urban
areas began accessing education opportunities. Most women were employed as
nurses, clerical worker, teachers and sales women. However, despite all this, most
women were discriminated in the work force between 1900 and 1914.
 Abolishing of national and provincial assemblies- power shifted from Sun Yat-
Sen to Yuan Shikai who commanded the new army. He turned out to be a dictator
and abolished the assemblies. He further declared himself Emperor in 1915. His
subordinates were alarmed at the rate he was carrying on his imperial ambitions
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 and checked his dictatorship by fiercely opposing his harsh imperial designs. In
March 1916, he abdicated and died after sensing characteristics that would lead to
a rebellion. His death left a power vacuum in China which left China to be ruled
by shifting coalitions of competing provincial military leaders. However, due to
power struggles, this ushered in the Warlord Era in China which continued up t
the end of the war and even after.

11.2.7. Japan, 1900 – 1914

Q10. Describe Japan’s political, economic and social development before the First
World War
Japan is one of the few powers that currently determine the fate of the world. The period
`900 – 1914 was historically a period of the outbreak of World War I. During this era
Japan registered political, economic and social developments.
 Political developments
Japan was under the Merji from 1900 up to 1912. In 1901, the Merji government
appointed General Taroka Tsura as prime minister. Japan attacked Russia in 1904
resulting into the Russso-Japanese war over control of Korea, Machuria and China.
Japan destroyed Russian fleet. Japan and Russia signed the treaty of Portsmouth in
which Russia recognised Japan protectorate over Korea.
 Economic developments
By 1900, the population f Japan was very small, about 44 million and Japan was
mostly a fishing and farming society. In 1903, taxes were imposed and were
supervised by the prefectural police. This became the rich source of local income.
Further economic expansion was made by Japan in 1904 as she started exporting
cotton clothes, watches, perfume, ceramics, eye glasses, and buttons to Korea. She
also imported Korean foodstuffs and other raw materials from Korea.
 Social developments
Japan’s cardinal goal before World War One was to ensure the country was military
powerful and wealth so that her independence is not threatened. Notable social
developments took place beginning with the Merji era and these include:

 Education developments- The Japanese leaders established a new system of

education which was western based. Education was made free as it was perceived
as firts capital for self reliance and improvement. The Tokyo University was
created and other private universities such as Shigenobu Okuma’s Waseda
Fukuzawu’s Keio among others were also built and so many foreign teachers were
employed.
 Infrastructure developments- the government built new roads and renovated
those in poor state. There was also inauguration of land reform program to prepare
the country for further developments.
 Private enterprise- the government emerged as the chief promoter of private
enterprise, thus it provided economic conditions in which business would flourish
 Hair style- for men, short cut hair replaced the top knot while for women, shaving
eye brows and blackened teeth began to disappear and to look outdated.
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  Housing style- also developed. Western style like stone building concrete and
brick buildings were all built in China e.g. the Bank of Japan, Tokyo Central
Station. Gas lighting and electricity were already in Japan’s capital Tokyo to
resemble that of Britain’s London, France’s Paris or even USA’s New York
before the world war I
 Eating habits- were also imported to Japan, though did not widespread. Sugar,
soya sauce, tea, fruit and polished Rice were seriously in consumption meat along
with beer was encouraged. There was serious influx of Western fashions of all
sorts. In addition, there was increased social mobility

11.2.8. The United States of America, 1900 – 1914

Q11. Briefly explain America’s non-involvement in the alliance systems of Europe

before 1917,
America was not at any time involved in the alliance system of European power because
of the following reasons:
 She was not a European power so involving herself in the affairs of another continent
would raise many questions and she would be looked at with suspicion by other
powers in the world.
 America was one of the leading powers in trade and commerce across the world. She
therefore needed to be on good terms with all countries especially where she carried
out her trade. The fact that America traded with almost all European powers could not
ally with some of them as this would make members of the rival camp enemies and
would affect trade with the.
 America never wanted to reveal her secret to other powers especially those of Europe
which seemed good competitors.
 She also wanted t maintain her fame and prestige across the world.

11.3. Rivalry among major world Kingdoms and Nations

11.3.1 The European Alliance Systems

Q12. Describe the alliance systems that European states entered into before 1914
Britain abandoned the policy of splendid isolation through the signing of various
alliances with other countries which included:
 The Anglo-Japanese Alliance – 1902: was the first step that Britain too towards the
abandoning of the policy. This was a treaty that was signed by Britain and Japan. The
terms were:
 Japan agreed to protect British possession in South East Asia against German and
Russin imperialism
 Britain and Japan also promised to assist each other if two or more countries attacked
one of them

 The Anglo-French Entente Cordiale -1904: after being angered by Kaiser William
II encouragement of the Boers in the 2nd Anglo-Boer and the suspicions of increased
naval competition Germany, Britain decided to become friends with France. Britain
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 began to settle her differences with France in Africa over colonies. This resulted into the
signing of the Anglo-French Entente Cordial (friendly agreement) of 1904. The term
were:
 Britain recognized the French occupation of morocco and in turn, France recognised
the British occupation of Egypt and Sudan
 Agreed to hold regular on economic and military issues
 They also agreed to assist each other against German aggression.
 The Triple Entente – 1907: in 1907, Britain abandoned the policy of Splendid
Isolation when she signed the Triple-Entente. France wanted her two allies to come close
together, therefore, Britain and Russia settled their differences over Prussia, Tibet and
Afghanistan.
 The treaty was anti-Germany, it prevented Germany from penetrating the Middle East
 It was a military alliance to support each other if attacked
 The members also pledged to work together to counteract the effects of the Triple-
Entente Alliance.
 The three Emperor’s League or the Dreikaiserbund Treaty of 1872
In 1872, Bismarck persuaded the Emperors of Russia (Tsar Alexander) and Austria-
Hungary (Frank Joseph) to sign a treaty of friendship and understanding with the
German Emperor Kaiser William I. This alliance was called the Three Emperors’
League or the Dreikaiserbund Treaty. The terms of the treat were:
 All agreed to isolate France
 Agreed to crush socialism and republicanism in the three Empires
 Agreed to consult each other on international matters especially over the
Balkan states
 The Dual Alliance of 1879
The members of the alliance were Germany and Austria. This was a secret alliance
signed between Austria – Hungary and Germany 1879. This was after Russia and
Austria-Hungary quarrel over the Balkan States. Bismarck held a meeting in Berlin to
discuss the matter. At this meeting, Bismarck sided with Austria. This offended
Russia. The terms of this alliance were:
 To isolate France
 To assist each other if one of them was attacked by two or more countries but
to remain neutral if attacked by only one.
 In 1881 and 1884, the Dreikaiserbund was renewed under the same terms of 1872
with the same members.
 The Triple Alliance of 1882
The members of the Triple Alliance were German, Austria-Hungary and Italy. The
Alliance was signed in 1882. Italy formed this alliance with Germany and Austria-
Hungary after she was offended by the French occupation of Tunisia, which Italy
considered, as her territory. Bismarck had diplomatically encouraged the French
occupation of Tunisia. The terms were:
 To isolate France. This Alliance depended the isolation of France
 To assist each other if attacked by a fourth power
 Italy also pledged not to be involved in any war against British

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 Bismarck was still determined to prevent an Alliance between France and Russia. He
also wanted to avoid fighting on two fronts in case of an outbreak of war. Therefore,
after the end of Dreikaiserbund Treaty, Bismarck indicated that Russia could easily
join France to attack Germany. As a result, Bismarck secretly approached Russia to
sign the re-insurance Treaty to reinsure Germany against an attack from France. The
terms of the alliance were:

 Germany recognised the Russian influence in the Balkans

 Russia would remain neutral if France attacked Germany and Germany
would remain neutral if Russia was attacked by Austria. The two would
help each other if attacked by two or more countries
 Agreed to isolate France
 The alliance was to be renewed after three years

11.3.2 European scramble for the partition of Africa

Q13. State and analyse the reasons for the European scramble and partition of Africa
Imperialism
 This was the extension of European economic, social and political influences in
underdeveloped areas of Africa and Asia to benefit European countries. This was
usually done through the acquisition of territories by major European countries such
as Britain, France and Germany. This new Imperialism took place in the second half
of the 29th century. Imperialism started in the 16th century. However, between 1870
and 1914, European countries acquired colonies especially in Africa. This was what
was referred to as the ‘scramble for Africa’.
The Berlin Conference 1884 – 1885
To avoid war among European countries, especially not to antagonise Britain,
Bismarck organised and chaired the Berlin Conference 1884 – 1885 in Berlin. The
conference was held in order to divide the African continent among European
countries peacefully. This division of the African continent was referred to as the
‘partition of Africa’. The result of thus Berlin Conference was:
 Africa was partitioned among European countries
 Europeans countries agreed to settle all border disputes between the countries
involved
 There was to be effective occupation of the colonies acquired
 All European countries accepted the freedom of trade on all the major rivers and
water ways
 Areas already proclaimed as protectorates before 1884 were accepted and recognized
 The European countries to sign treaties with African Chiefs
 The Congo free state to be given to King Leopold of Belgium

Reasons for the Scramble for Africa

a. Economic Reasons-economically the 19th century saw the apex of industrial
revolution in Europe. The need for raw materials and the industrial revolution created
a stiff competition and made the European countries to think of an alternative of

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 rushing to Africa in order to get raw materials. In addition, the replacement of labour
with machines caused unemployment and resulted into a social crisis.
b. Political reasons- the other factor was nationalism and prestige. It is urged that
growing love for one’s country and a sense of belonging greatly contributed to the
scramble for Africa. Europe believed that the more colonies a country had the more
power it was considered to be. Besides that, the greatness of any country was to be
reflected in the economic potential of the acquisition of colonies in Africa.
c. Social reasons- the need to spread western culture; socially, the European powers
wanted to spread western culture and education.
d. Strategic reasons- according to historians such as Professor Robinson and Gallagher,
the scramble for Africa did not take place because of mere economic reasons but
because of the British occupation of Egypt in 1882. They argued that British occupied
Egypt because of her strategic location thus surrounded by the Red and Mediterranean
Sea, access to River Nile (longest river in Africa) and an opening t the Suez Canal as
short cut to India where Britain had a lot of economic interests. It was still against this
background that British wanted to occupy Uganda in order to safeguard their positions
in Egypt for fear that if hostile powers did so would divert the Nile River and make
Egypt a desert.
e. Humanitarian reasons- the spreading of Christianity in Africa was a mere disguise
for promoting European economic interests. Britain only wanted to abolish slave trade
in order to protect their commercial interests.

Reasons for the low demand of African Colonies before 1870

 Africa had no economic incentives for European countries. Most European countries
saw the acquisition o African countries as an expensive venture because they had little
knowledge about the existence of abundant resources hence had no economic interest.
 Europeans had no knowledge of the African continent; they considered it as a ‘Dark
Continent’.
 Lack of a reliable means of transport also acted as an obstacle to Europeans to come
to Africa hence prevented penetration of the African interior.
 Thick forests and bad climatic conditions also led to the low demand for African
colonies. Aras such as Niger, Congo and Zambezi were hot with jungles and thick
forests. This hindered early colonialists from acquiring colonies in Africa.
 Tropical diseases such as malaria, bilharzias, sleeping sickness prevented colonialists
from coming to Africa before medicines were discovered.
 Un-navigable rivers were also another obstacle to European acquisition of territories.
Swamps, rapids and waterfalls made most rives of African not to be navigable. This
made them believe that it is impossible to penetrate the interior using boats.
 Hostile tribes: some tribes could not welcome them while others had a reputation of
being cannibals.
 Wild beasts such as dangerous snakes, lions, biting insects such as mosquitoes in the
jungles of tropical Africa were also a threat to them.
 Geographical barriers such as mountains and deserts further hindered the colonization
of Africa before 1870

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 Factors that facilitated the Scramble for Africa after 1870
 Explores; through the works of explores such as David Livingstone explored most of
central Africa and De-Brazza who explored the Congo basin, Europe became
knowledgeable about African Continent.
 The knowledge of transport such as the Steamship was another factor that contributed
to the Scramble for AFRICA
 The discovery of medicines such as quinine to cure tropical diseases also made it
easier for Europeans to colonise Africa
 Men of enterprise such as Cecil Rhodes and his BSA company also facilitated the
Scramble for Africa
 The discovery of modern weapons such as the Maxim gun also made it easier to
colonise Africa because resistant African Chiefs could easily defeated.

Examples of Imperialism north of the Equator

 The occupation of Egypt – 1882
This caused conflict between France and Britain. The French were the first to have
interest in Egypt. The Suez Canal was designed by a Frenchman called Ferdinand De
Lesseps and the French government financed the building o the Suez Canal. It was
completed and opened in 1869. The Egyptian ruler Khedth Ishmael acquired half of
the share while the French got the other half.

In 1881, there was a national uprising under Arabia in protest against the Anglo-
French financed control of Egypt. The uprise led to attacks on foreigners resulting in
British intervention. The French government of the day was invited to help in putting
down the uprising but declined. In 1882, the British managed to put down the uprising
and established a British protectorate over Egypt. This led to friction between Britain
and France.
 The occupation of Sudan – 1885
 The occupation of Morocco – 11905 – 1906

Examples of Imperialism south of the Equator

 The First Anglo-Boer War of 1889 – 1881, this was a war for independence for the
Boers
 The second Anglo-Boer war 1899 – 1902: this was a political struggle between the
British and the Boers. The Brits were determined to create their Cape to Cairo dearth
while the Boers were equally determined to maintain their independence and their
own imperialist ambitions.

Importance/significance/consequences of the Scramble

 The scramble for Africa brought Europeans into the interior of Africa with their
traditions, economics, political and religious beliefs. Africans
 The Serbian government was also supposed to disband all secret societies that
were against Austria

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  All Serbian government officials that were anti-Austria were to be fired. Austria
refused to comply with these demands. As such, Austria declared war on Serbia
on 28th July, 1914. This marked the beginning of the 1st World War.

11.3.3 First World War

Q14. Explain the causes of the First World War

The First World War began on 28th July 1914, when Austria declared war on Serbia, and
Serbia appealed to Russia for help, setting in motion a series of events which culminated
in what became the First World War.

Causes of the First World War

The causes of World War I could be divided into two forms: the long term and short
term:
Long Term Causes include:
a. Imperialism- this is the economic control of one country by another. During the
second half of the 19th century, imperialism led to colonial rivalry among European
powers, the colonies were a symbol of power and prestige. In 1898, Britain and
France almost came to blows over Fashioda in Sudan. Later in 1905 and 1911,
German and French interests cashed over morocco. The matter was resolved in
favour of France, to the disappointment of Germany.

b. The Alliances- by 1907, the alliance system divided Europe into two armed rival
campus, namely: the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy, and the
Triple Entente of Britain, France and Russia. These and other alliances like the Dual
Alliance of Germany and Austria-Hungary committed countries to help each other in
times of war. This meant that a war between two countries from the two camps was
bound to involve the other members of the alliances.

c. The Arms Race- it began when Kaiser William II assumed power in Germany as a
naval race. It was centred on the construction of battle ships known as Dreadnoughts.
The Dreadnought were originally designed and developed by Britain. Germany
copied the dreadnought and later developed her own type of battleship known as
Long- Barrel Bertha. As the arms race between Britain and Germany intensified, the
two countries increased expenditure on armaments and expanded their armies using
conscription. Fearing for their safety and security, the other countries soon joined the
arms race. Te arm race led to suspicion and tension among European countries. The
possibility of a war increased as more and more counties became confident of
success in war. Some countries were anxious to test their weapons and arms.

d. The Balkan Conflicts- the period from1870 to 1890 was characterised by conflict of
interest o big powers, among them: Britain, Russia, Austria-Hungary, Germany and
Italy in the Balkans. During the same period, there was conflict in the Balkans which

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 resulted from the nationalism of the Balkan monarchies. The most defining of these
conflicts were:
 The 1908 Balkan Young Turk Revolution
 The 1912/1913 Balkan Crisis
 Short terms causes
Four incidents gradually led to the World War One. They were the causes of the war.
Here times the world nearly came to blows, but tempers cooled and peace survived.
On the fourth occasion the war began. The immediate causes of the First World War
and the early development of the war were:
a. The First Moroccan Crisis
The French were the major European power in Morocco, in North Africa.
However, when the Kaiser came to know of the existence of the Entente Cordiale
he felt offended because it shut Germany out of Morocco and because it created a
partnership of France and Berlin.

In 1905, German ruler, Kaiser William II visited Moroccan Port of Tangier and
declared Germany’s support for the independence of Morocco his speech and
disputed French position in Morocco. This frustrated the French for interference.

War between France and Germany was avoided by calling of an international

conference which was hed in Algeciras in Spain. Here France was supported by
Britain, Russia, Italy, Spain and the USA in condemning the Germans for
interfering in Morocco. The Germans were outvoted and only Austria supported
them. Germany went home frustrated and humiliated as the conference confirmed
France’s position in Morocco.

The humiliation and bitterness that Germany experienced increased the possibility
of war.
b. The Bosnia-Herzegovina Crisis
The Ottoman Empire of the Ottoman Turks was by the end of the 18 th century a
power in decline. As the Empire was declining, efforts to secure independence and
movements of revolts took place among the Empire’s various subject peoples. By
1900, feelings of Pan-Slavism had grown into constant trouble in the Turkey
Empire.

The part of Turkish Empire called Bosnia-Herzegovia was been administered by

Austria Hungary since 1878, though remained under the overall control of the
Turkish Sultan. The Slav people of Bosnia-Herzegovia longed for independence
while their neighbour Serbia had already gained her independence.

In 1908, a revolution known as the Yurk movement broke out of the empire. The
Young Turk movement demanded for a parliament, a modern constitution, to
strengthen Turkey s well as to allow Christian subjects equal privileges with the
Moslems. The movement managed to secure by rebellion a parliamentary system
of government from Abdul Hamid II.
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 Austria took advantage of dis-organization and confusion in Turkey during
revolution and annexed the Turkish provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908;
thus, killing all the hopes of the two province’s desire for independence.

The Russians protested angrily but could not fight back because they were still
recovering from their humiliating defeat against Japan in 1905, their ally France
would not fight either. In addition Germany supported Austria, so Russia kept
quiet as Bosnia-Herzegovia was swallowed up into Austro- Hungarian Empire.

The crisis had two unfortunate effects:

 It encouraged the war party in Vienna
 It made Russians more determined to fight next time so as to try and save
their Slav Brothers and sisters
c. The Second Moroccan Crisis (Agadir Crisis)
In 1911, Germany protested against French action when the French troops
occupied Fez, the capital of Morocco to try and put off a revolt by the Moroccans.
German was not prepared to see Morocco get swallowed by France.

Hence, German reacted by sending a gun boat called Panther and a cruiser known
as the Berlin to Agadir harbour in morocco to protect Germany interests.

This angered the French and the British got worried as they believed that Germans
wanted to establish a Navy base at Agadir close to vital British base at Gibraltar.
The British took this evidence that the German Navy intended to threaten the
British Royal Navy. Britain therefore, threatened to fight Germany.

Faced with the British threat, Emperor William withdrew and agreed to recognise
French supremacy in Morocco. Germany took this as proof that Britain did not
want her to join the other great powers in Europe.

The crisis helped to strengthen the friendship between the French and the British,
thus making it more likely that Britain would fight on one with France in any
future war.

d. The Assassination of the Archduke Franz Ferdinand

The hatred of the Slav people for their Austrian rulers reached a peak in 1914. The
Bosnia-Herzegovina crisis of 1908, when the two provinces were transferred to
Austrian rule, was the breaking point. Serbia, which was already independent,
encouraged her Bosnia-Herzegovina terrorists who were trained and given
weapons by Serbia. By 1914, the Black Hand had already carried out several
terrorist activities.

Despite this, the Austria Archduke, Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophie decided
to make visit to Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia. On 28 th June 1914 when finally
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 the Archduke visited Sarajevo, Gavilo Princip, a nineteen year old boy who was
bitterly anti-Austria, and a fanatical Bosnian dedicated to freedom for Bosnia,
assassinated the Archduke and his wife. Gavilo had come straight from the
meeting of an ant- Austrian Society in Serbia on the day he committed the
assassination.

Even long before the murder was committed, Germany had already promised to
support Austria-Hungary in case of conflict between Serbia and Austria. With the
assurance of the German support Austria had waited for an opportunity to attack
Serbia. The whole aim was to defeat and silence Serbia into submission so that
Austria can freely control Bosnia-Herzegovina without any danger. This long
awaited opportunity came with the assassination of the Archduke. Austria now
wanted to use this as an excuse to attack and silence Serbia once and for all.

However, the murder of the Archduke had a shuttering effect on Europe, because
within five weeks the world was at war, and the slaughter of about ten million
soldiers began.

11.4. The World During and After the Inter-War Era

1.4.1The end of the First World War and the Treaty of Versailles

Q15, Discuss terms of the Treaty of Versailles and their impact on defeated nations.
The treaty of Versailles dealt only with Germany. Separate treaties were made with all
the other countries which had fought on the German side. Under the terms of the Treaty
of Saint-German, and the treaty of trianon which dealt with Austria and Hungary the
old Austro-Hungarian Empire was broken up and the minority peoples now got their
chance to have their own separate stats. Thus:
 Serbia was enlarged to form Yugolavia. Here the Bosnians and Slav peoples of
Austria-Hungary were placed
 Czechoslovakia was created out of some of the former territories of Austria-
Hungary. Austria was drastically reduced as she also lost the territories of Istria,
Trieste and Tyrol to Italy.
 To deal with Turkey, a Treaty of Lausanne was signed in 1923. As a result of the
Turkish Empire also broken up.
 Turkey lost her empire in Asia as new countries were created for the various Arabs
who had helped Britain during the war. These included Syria, Iraq, Jordan and
Saudi Arabia.
 Turkey lost her land to Greece and Rumania too.
 In 1919, another treaty was signed with Bulgaria, a Germany ally in the war. This
was the treaty of Neuilly. As a result, Bulgaria lost land to Greece and Yugoslavia.
 Russian territories losses: - The Baltic states of Latvia, Estonia and Lithuana were
formed from what were once Russian territories while Finland became independent
from Russia.
 The Habsburg Empire was gone forever.

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  The balance o power in Central Europe had been completely changed. Two new
sates, Czechoslovia and Yugoslavaia had been created. An old one Poland had been
freed from foreign occupation.
 Two large dissatisfied powers, Germany and Russia, bordered on these countries.
Germany and Russian were looked at as revisionist countries. Meaning that they
would like to change the map of Europe to their own advantage.

Q16. Describe Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen Point

The peace settlement was based on Wilson’s fourteen points, although most of them
were ignored. The most important were:
 All diplomacy and negotiations between states was to be carried out openly and
frankly and in public.
 Absolute freedom of navigation on all seas was granted in period of peace and war
in territorial waters.
 All nations were to give guarantee that they will disarm to the lowest point,
consistent with safety
 Evacuation of all Russia territory and assistance be given to her of all kind that
she may desire.
 Belgium was to be completely independent
 France was to receive back Alsace and Lorraine
 Italy to receive her proper national frontiers
 Equality of trade conditions between nations and abolition of tariffs ‘so far as
possible’
 When the question of colonies was being settled, the interest of the colonised
people were to be given equal weight with who put forward claims to mandate
 Rumania , Serbia and Montinegro were to be evacuated and Serbis was to be
given access to the sea
 The people of Austria-Hungary to be given the opportunity of independent
development.
 The people of Turkish rule were to be autonomous and the Dardenelles were to be
open to the ships ad commerce of all nations
 An independent state of Polland was to be established with exclusively Polish
population
 An international organisation was to be formed to guarantee the independence of
all states both great and small.

11.4.2, The Weimar Republic 1919 – 1933

Q17. Explain the weaknesses of the Weimar Republic

This was formed after the World War I. It resulted from German defeat during World
War I. The weaknesses of the Weimar Republic were:

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  The Weimar politician did not have a common political ideology. The monarchists
for instance detested democracy and demanded for a monarchical government
under Kaiser’s lineage
 The republic suffered several coups especially in the early years. In March 1920,
Wolfgany Ilapp together with a group of professional army officers seized control
of Berlin. In 1923 Saxony made attempts to break away from the Republic but
only failed. In Bavaria nationalist and Nazi organised a coup in November 1923.
These successive coups with time weakened the republic.
 The effects of the world war I was another set back to the Weimar government.
The war crippled the German’s economy and came along with economic
hardships that affected the German population.
 Weimar Republic was internationally isolated especially after the World War I
when she was declared guilty of causing the war. She was hated and isolated by
the victorious powers which include: France, Britain and USA.
 She faced harsh terms of the Versailles treaty where she was not even invited. At
first, she was not even allowed to join the League of nations not until late when
she had paid off the indemnity
 French hostility towards German proved another serious weakness to the Weimar
Republic. Te loss of the rich mineral provinces of Alsace and Lorraine to
Germany after the Franco-Prussian War, (1871) made France to develop a
revengeful attitude as well as open hostility towards Germany.

11.4.3. The Rise of Adolf Hitler

Q18. Discuss the circumstances that led to the rise of Adolf Hitler and Nazism
The terms of the Versailles Peace Treaty contributed to the rise of Hitler and Nazism in
Germany. By the term of treaty, Germany was disarmed, had to accept the war guilty
clause among other punishments. This was a humiliating treaty that was imposed on
Germany. And it is this humiliation that inspired the formation of the National Socialist
Germany Workers Party as an expression of protest against the international position of
Germany
 Hitler based his propaganda on his unfair treaty when he claimed that Germany
had never been defeated in the war but was betrayed by the Weimar democrats who
signed the Versailles Peace Treaty. It is from that many Germans believed in him
and his leadership that promised liberation thus is rise to power.
 The world economic depression of 1929 – 1933 enabled Hitler and the Nazi party
to capture power in Germany.
 Hitler’s personality and character greatly contributed to his rise to power. He was
gifted by good oratory skills whose speeches always held the audience’s attention
during his speech. In addition, he had good leadership qualities which he employed
to organize large meetings for his Nazi party thus displayed good organizational and
mobilization skills. Hence, his character attracted him all classes and groups of
German masses which include soldiers, youths, middle class people, industrialists,
peasants and even the unemployed. This together with his chrism foresightedness
and self divines made him rise to power.
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  The weakness of the Weimar Republic also contributed to his rise and Nazism in
German. The Republican government was too weak and unpopular and failed to
control the political violence that prevailed in Germany in the 1920s.
 The Nazi propaganda also contributed to the rise of Hitler and the Nazi Party to
power. The party was well organised from the grass root to the top. It had political,
social, economic and military departments that were well coordinated by the party
leaders.
 The role of the storm troopers: this was a private army of the Nazi Party-which
was composed of students and working class used terror and intimidation to win
political power for Hitler.
 The death of the president Hindenburg contributed to the rise of Hitler to power
and the Nazi party. Hindenburg’s death left a vacuum that needed to be filled.
Beside, Hitler served as a chancellor which increased his chances of taking over
power
 Hitler’s writings also contributed to his rise to power. While in prison, Hitler
wrote the first part of his book called Mein kampf (My Struggle). With this, Hitler
was becoming more popular in Germany. With time, this contributed to his rise to
power.

Q19. Analyze Hitler’s political career, showing his role in the Second World War 1939-
1945
Having held power in Germany, Adolf Hitler embarked on consolidating his position as
a German leader through the following ways:
 He reorganized the local government by abolishing all local councils and ended
elections to these officers. All governors were answerable to him and to the central
government too.
 Hitler established strict censorship of the press and banned all newspapers and
only the Nazi newspaper and magazines were published.
 He further consolidated himself in power through education. The school
curriculum was set to conform to Nazi’s ideas. There was a lot of physical training
in schools, religious studies were banned and portraits of Hitler displayed in school
compounds as a must. Teachers have to take oaths of allegiance to Hitler and in fact
were spied by students.
 Trade union was also used by Hitler to consolidate himself in power. He banned
all trade unions and replaced them with Germany Harbour for Employers and
employees.
 Hitler banned all political parties on the opposition sale
 The use of the secret police (Gestapo) was another method employed by Hitler to
strengthen himself in power. He used police agents as spies in schools, factories,
offices and shops. By doing this Germany became a police state.
 He abolished Christianity in Germany because the principles of Christianity were
against Nazism. He changed the Catholic schools into Nazi schools and even
persecuted many clergy. He replaced religious education with the worship of Hitler.

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  Through youth organizations, Hitler consolidated himself in power. He
indoctrinated the youths in German with Nazi ideas. Girls joined the League of
German maidens-working in factories and farms while boys were taught military
skills and tactics.
 Through suppression and persecution of the Jews. He believed that the German
race, Aryan/Nordic was the greatest of all mankind and was believed to rule the
world. He hated the Jews who were a wealth class and blamed them for the
misfortune that occurred in German. He tortured many in concentrated camps while
others were murdered; hence, he weakened the opposition.
 Through the enabling law. Only Hitler enacted laws that were affected
immediately after their publication meaning German was in Hitler’s hand and only
he could decide her destiny.

11.4.4. The rise of Benito Mussolini in Italy

Q20. Discuss the circumstances that led to the rise of Benito Mussolini and Fascism in
Italy
 His brilliancy, charisma, eloquence and oratory powers attracted the attention of
Italian masses
 Also his foresightedness and self-driven made him rise to power
 The unfair terms of the Versailles Peace Treaty on the part of Italy
 The weakness of King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy
 The social economic distress in Italy especially after the war, created a situation that
was exploited by Mussolini
 The strong support of Mussolini from Italian mass
 The method Mussolini used made him rise to power, for instance, he abandoned
peaceful and constitutional methods and preferred the use of violence, dictatorship
and terror in order to attain power.
 The worsening economic situation in Italy made Italians welcome and support fascist
ideas which seemed to have the solutions to the Italians.
 The lack of serious government machinery to handle the delicate political affairs of
that time.

Q21. Analyse Mussolini’s political career, showing his role in the Second World War
1939 – 1945

Having seized power, Benito Mussolini embarked on consolidating himself in power.

He therefore, employed policies that safeguarded his position. Such policies included:

 The principle of fascism that centred on extreme nationalism and totalitarianism

between October 1922 when he rose to power to July 1943 when he fell.

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  Mussolini incorporated opposition party leaders in his newly formed government to
weaken the opposition and to eliminate them in future
 He used force and violence to keep in his position by attacking opposition newspaper
offices and forced them to close.
 Abolition of the old forms of government. In 1923, he appointed Farinaci, one of his
most violent followers as secretary general of the party. This ushered in more
intensive Fascist violence.
 Mussolini strengthens his opposition by recognizing and strengthening his military
and police forces.
 He further created a strong sound economic by providing subsidies where necessary.
 He encouraged industrialization

11.4.5. Russian Socialist Revolution

Q22. Describe conditions in Russia under the monarchy

One of the most outstanding consequences of the First World War was the Russian
Revolution of 1917. In1917, Russia citizens rose up against their ruler Czar Nicholas II
in an attempt to end the Ancient Regime and replace it with new and modern
government. The revolution occurred in two phases:

The March 1917 Russian Revolution

 Was led by Bolsheviks, Menshevik and social revolutionaries.
 The demonstration involved students, workers and the Russian masses in towns,
cities and upcoming areas.
 The Czar’s response was through sending his most reliable troops, the Cossack
regiments to suppress the demonstrators but they simply fraternised with
demonstrators.
 Other regimes joined forces to overthrow the Czardom regime in Russia.
 The Czar abdicated on March 15, 1917 and this marked the end of the Czardom in
Russia; and a provisional government was set up under the leadership of Prince
Lvov.

The November 2917 Russian Revolution

 Was led to overthrow the provisional government and to establish of the first
republic. The new Bolshevik government was headed by Vadmir Lenin wit
Trotsky in charge of defence and foreign affairs.

Q23. Discuss the role of Lenin in the 1917 socialist Revolution and thereafter
Lenin was a leader of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party formed in 1998. He
worked together with Leon Trostky and Stalin who were close to him. Together they
adopted the revolutionary theories of Karl Marx. As the party grew stronger, individual
differences began to eat up the party and eventually split it into two on an account of
the strategy to follow. Lenin and those who advocated for his rigid principles o having
active and devoted workers in the movement won a majority on the executive and so
came to be known as the ‘Bolsheviks’ meaning Majority men.

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 On the other hand, the party that wanted both active and passive members as well as
giving room for sympathisers came to be known as Mensheviks meaning Minority
men.

Lenin led the Bolsheviks revolution that promoted the idea of an immediate revolution
against the Tsarist regime.

He made and prepared people ready for the revolution. He wrote many articles in
which he drew the attention of the people to their worsening conditions and the need to
overcome them.

Lenin also advocated for socialism as the only way through which people’s struggles
would be addressed. Many Russian masses believed it and when the revolution broke
out it got massive support.

Lenin announced the formal coup d’etat by the Bolshevik in November 1917.his
Marxist propaganda resulted into various strikes that rocked Russia for instance the
1895 – 1986 in St Petersburg and cotton factories.

Hence with all these, Lenin played a pivotal role in the outbreak of the 1917 socialist
revolution.

Q24. Describe Stalin’s home and foreign policy

Home policy
 Geographical expansion of the Soviet Union, Stalin embarked on the geographical
expansion of his country and by 1953, Latvia and Lithuania had been added on the
Soviet Union which increased the land for settlement ad agriculture in Soviet
Union.
 Education sector- he struggled hard to ensure that people’s standards of living
improve for the better by establishing good medical facilities within the union
 Te five tear development plan. This was initiated to increase the manufacture of
goods within the union.
 End of Kingship (Tsarism) in Russia
 Promotion of education
 Collectivization policy
 Promotion of trade union

Foreign policy
 Sovietisation of Europe
 Defeat of Germany
 Formation of the united Nations Organization

11.4.6The Spanish Civil War, 1936 – 1939

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Q25. Explain the causes of the 1936 – 1939 Spanish Civil War and the role played by
Francisco Franco

 The presence of both the communist or leftist wing and the capitalists or Nationalist
wing with different interests
 Franco launched a military rebellion against the popular front government
 The failure of the Republican government to prevent the barbaric actions of the
extreme leftists which included riots, assassinations, strikes, arson and burning of
churches resulted into the outbreak of civil war.
 The Spanish war was as a result of economic reasons
 Te desire by both the communists and capitalist blocks to win Spain on each other’s
side.

11.4.7. China from 1919 to 1939

Q26. Discuss the political and economic developments in China from 1919 – 1939

Political developments
 World war one ended when Chang Kai Shek was temporarily in the driving seat in
China. He lost popularity when he registered many blunders in his administration
e.g. he failed to take over the Germany possession of the Far East.
 In 1919, the Versailles treaty was signed that concluded the war and handed over
Far East possessions to Japan. This was totally rejected by the Chinese and caused
wide spread demonstrations resulting into the Fourth May Movement which was
against Feudalism, Warlordism, autocracy, imperialism among others. It instead
advocated for democracy, freedom, patriotic, science, and progress among others.
The movement resulted into the formation of the Chinese Communist party under
Sun Yat-sen.
 In 1925, Sun Yat-sen died of cancer and Chang Kai-Shek seized control of the
Kuonintang Nationalist Party. He succeeded into bringing most of the south and
central China under his control through a military campaign called Northern
Expedition.
 In 1927, due to some differences Chang Kai-Shek turned against the communists
and killed them in large numbers- about 250, 000. The incidence was termed as the
White Terror.
 In 1934, the survived communists moved along a journey that covered 600miles for
385 days crossing mountains, 12 rivers and villages and established a guerrilla base
at Shensi. The movement was called Long Match. The communists reorganized
under a new leader Mao-Tse-tung or Mao Zedong.
 In 1937, the two Chinese parties nominally formed a united front to oppose the
Japanese during the Sino-Japanese War. The Japanese forces reacted by committing
numerous war atrocities against civilians in the Alls Policy of ‘Kill All, Burn All
and Loot All’ an incidence known as Nanking Massacre

Economic developments

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  The pace of economic development was slow just like it was during the pre-war era
because Western powers especially Britain and Japan imposed unequal treaties on
China’s sovereignty and dominated the international trade with their imperialist
policies. Britain also employed a military policy where armed mercenaries were
used to force its imports on China. China was flooded with British and Indian
goods.
 China’s economy was also attributed to some aspects of Chinese domestic culture
and traditions. Due to the forgoing, China’s economy was in stagnation.

11.4.8. Japan from 1919 – 1939

Q27. Describe the political and economic developments in Japan from 191 -1939
Political developments
 After the successful annexation of Korea, Makoto Saito was appointed governor of
Korea in 1919. In June 1920 about 450 Japanese civilians and 350 soldiers were
massacred on the Amur River by Partisan forces associated.
 In 1922, Japanese Community party was founded. Due to domestic opposition,
economic and human cost in October 1922, the Prime Minister Kato Tomosaburo
withdrew Japanese forces from her far territories.
 In 1925, Wakatsuki became the prime minister, the electorate increased from 3.3
million to 12.5
 In 1926, Emperor Taisho died and shown Emperor Hirohito took over. In 1927,
Tanaka Giichi became prime minister in April 20th.
 In 2 July 1929, Osachi Hamaguchi became prime minister but on the 14 th November
1930 he was wounded in an assassination attempt and died in 1931. On the 14 th
April, 1932, Wakatsuki Reijiro became prime minister. On 13th December, same
year Inukai Tsuyoshi became prime minister.
 On 29 February 1932, Henry pu yi became Emperor and in the same year Tsuyoshi
Inukai was assassinated during a coup attempt and on 5 May Saito Makoto beame
prime minister.
 On 27 March 1933, Japan left the League of Nations and took over Jeho from China
in the same year.
 On 8 July 1934 Keisuke Okada became prime minister and on 29 December Japan
withdrew from the Washington Naval Treaty
 On 9 march prince Fumimaro Konoe became prime minister replaced Senjuro
Hayashi. On July 1937, Japan captured Beijing followed by the Nanjing Massacre
on 13 December.
 In 1938, canton falls to Japanese forces on 21 October after the battle of
Taierzhuang on 24 March same year. Japan prohibited the expulsion of Jews, in
Japan, Manchuria and China basing on the spirit of racial equality.
 On 5 January 1939, Hiranuma Kiichito became prime minister followed by Abe
Mobuyuki on 30 August.

Economic developments

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  The economy of Japan continued to boom even during the interwar period despite
some notable challenges that were met. Various companies of raw materials i.e.
Sumitomo electric industries, Mitsui mining, Kobe steel among others boomed. In
fact between 1907 and 1917 Total net revenue of Japan rose from 2 million yen to 15
million yen.
 In 1918, an electric company called Panasonic was founded by Konosuke Matsushira.
Generally, there was an economic boom in Japan during the era of World War I.
 In 1920’s Japan took up developmental projects that boost education, there was
improved transport and communication, health centres and roads were constructed.
Harbours were renovated and generally sanitation greatly improved.
 In 1920 Mazda was founded. Technology was advancing and generally the industrial
sector grew rapidly.
 However, in 1923, the pace of economic development was disrupted by the great
Kanto Earthquake which strained the economy. Kanto was the major commercial,
industrial and financial centre. Therefore, the serious damage from the earthquake left
the economy greatly affected.
 Despite the effects of the earthquake, economic developments continued to take place.
Big companies such as South Seas Development Company engaged in Phosphate
mining and coconut production emerged.
 By 1925 oil, timber and coal were founded in some colonies like Karafuto, Kwantung
territory also became industrialized.
 In 1927, banks in Japan were in danger of collapsing and workers rushed to withdraw
their savings. It was worsened by the great economic depression of 1929; the
economy suffered greatly especially due to the collapse of banking system. The post
war depression hindered and greatly affected both rural and urban areas.
 Despite the economic depression that rocked Europe between 1929– 1933, Japan was
not so much affected like other European powers. In fact business continued though at
a slower pace. There was notable development especially between 1912- 1932.
During this period, the standard of living improved national income per capita
doubled and generally Tokyo transformed into modern city.
 The volume of trade and exports expanded. Merchant marine fleet doubled and heavy
industries develop to meet the increasing demand for producer capital goods which
included steel, coal, Iron and heavy machinery.
 There was increasing employment opportunities as hydro-electric-power increased.
Industries for electrical goods developed
 In 1939, Japan’s economy was at its peak. World War II had created new
opportunities for Japanese trade. This forced Britain and her allies to withdraw from
Asian markets and turned to Japan for military ammunitions. These developments
boosted Japan’s economy between 11919- 1939.
 The Japanese economy during the interwar period faced chronic crisis e.g. showa
financial crisis of 1927 and the show depression of 1930- 1931.
.
11.4.9. The Second World War

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Q28. Discuss the causes of the Second World War
The Versailles Treaty of 1919 led to the outbreak of World War II. It should be noted
that the Versailles peace treaty was too unfair to Germany. It intended to keep Germany
weak but instead sowed a seed of future trouble. The treaty humiliated Germany
politically, ruined her economy and made her a permanent enemy of the victor powers.
This made Germany to develop the need to revenge hence resulting in the Second
World War.
 The failure of the League of Nation
 Extreme Nationalistic demands by members of the Berlin-Rome-Tokyo Axis
accelerated the outbreak of the second world war
 The rearmament of the Germans and the military preparedness of Europeans largely
contributed to the outbreak of the second world war
 The rebirth of the alliances
 The imperialistic factor
 The Spanish Civil War 1936 – 1939
 The appeasement policy of the prime minister of Britain, Neville Chamberlain
 The economic depression 1929 during the inter war period accelerated the outbreak
of World War II.
 The foreign policies, personalities and beliefs of Hitler of German, Mussolini of
Italy and Tojo and Hiro Hirto of Japan with no doubt brought the second world war
 The invasion of Poland 1st September 1939
 The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbour
 Hitler aggressiveness
 Finally the economic development and military superiority

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CENTRAL AFRICAN HISTORY

12.1: GEOGRAPHY SETTING

12.1.1: Physical and Climatic Features and their influence on population distribution

1. Describe the physical features of Central African in relation to population

distribution by 1800
 The physical feature of Central Africa is influenced by relief and rainfall pattern on
the population distribution. As the sun begins to move towards the North, the
pressure belts and along with that the convergence zone starts moving northwards.
As a result, the … become more prominent and the dry whiter first appears in the
south and slowly moves northwards.
 This is also why rainfall is heaviest in the north and hence population distribution

12.2. Indigenous African Population

12.2.1 Bantu Migration into Central Africa

1. Describe the causes and causes of British Migration

 Bantu are people who speak similar language they have the same culture and
originated from the Buenu Cross in the Cameroonian highland. Bantu migration
therefore, is the movement of the Bantu people into various parts of Central and
South Africa.
Causes:
(i) The occupation of the Bantu for instance, farming, trading and fishing contributed
to their migration. Farmers moved in search of more and better land. Fishermen
moved in search of suitable rivers and lakes while traders moved in search of
trading goods.
(ii) One of the results of the improved knowledge of farming was population increase.
The immediate result of population increase was land shortage. This forced some
Bantu groups to move in search of land both for farming and settlement.
(iii) Succession disputes also contributed to the Bantu migration. That is, whenever, a
ruler died, many people, especially relatives, wanted to inherit or become
successors. Consequently, rival parties emerged, each in support of a particular
candidate. This struggle for power was so stiff and violent that only strong men
emerged victorious. Those who lost had no alternative but to flee away for fear of
being executed.
(iv) Some Bantu people moved as a result of tribal wars. Tribal wars were a typical
activity of Ancient African Chiefs. Some African Chiefdoms or kingdoms by
seizing land of the neighbouring tribes. Thus, naturally, led to wars. Such wars
were also common among the Bantu. Therefore, the defeated Bantu groups moved
south wards in search of land. In addition, those people who were convicted or

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 accused if some cases such as witchcraft, theft or adultery were expelled from
given societies. The expelled ones would move away.
(v) Some rulers developed a tendency of wishing to conquer and dominate weaker
societies or tribes with a view of getting tributes. The rulers of weaker tribes
decided to move away with their followers; to go and settle in independent areas.
So, the desire for independent led to the migration of some groups of people.
(vi) The question of adventure might also have contributed to the Bantu migration.
Some Bantu people were simply tired of living in one area for too long. They
wanted to find new places with a hope of doing better elsewhere.

Course
Course refers to the direction to which the Bantu people moved to
(i) From the fifth century, one group entered Congo. The availability of the fertile land
and mineral resources made them settle and establish the Luba-lunda Empires. In
the 16th Century, the Luba Lunda Empires started sending waves of migration into
Central Africa.
(ii) From the 15th Century, another group moved to the South-East via lake Tanganyika
and the Western side of lake Malawi. This group included the Tumbuka, Henga,
Kamanga and the Tonga who settled in the Zambezi Valley but later spread all
over Southern Province of Zambia. They used the same route which the Shona and
Katangu or the Rozwi who moved across the Zambezi River into Zimbabwe had
used. The Hingwe were also also in the same group and they settled in South
Africa.
(iii) The fore runners of the Nguni and Sotho people used the same route the Shona
used. They settled in Zimbabwe for 200 years and built great Zimbabwe. The
Shona and Karanga people settled in Zimbabwe and established Rozwi and
Mwenemutapa Empires. They started trading in gold with Arab-Swahili traders and
by the 16th Century, were also in trading contact with the Portuguese.
(iv) Early groups also moved in Malawi settled in the South Western side of Lake
Malawi. These were the Tumbula, Henga, Kamanga and the Tonga of Malawi.

2. Locate on the Map the areas of Bantu settlement after migration.

 The Tonga in Southern Zambia, Luyi and associated groups in Western Zambia,
Bemba and associated groups in Western Zambia, Bemba and associated in Northern
and Luapula Provinces, Luvale, Kaonde and other groups in North-Western
Province, Lunda-Western and Luapula Provinces.

3. Discuss the Results of the Bantu Migration

 The results of the Bantu migration can be grouped into social, political and economic
results.
(a) Social Results:
 The Bantu people lived in family holds which belonged to certain clans. They
lived in pole and daga grass thatched huts.
 Near each home, there was a cattle kraal. Sometimes the kraal was put in the
middle of homes for fear of enemies who would come to steal their animals.
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  Cattle were much respected among certain Bantu like Tonga who regarded
them as a sign of wealth and high social status. They also used cattle in special
occasions like mamoges, funerals and sometimes religious rituals.
 There was also division of labour between men and women. For instance, men
hunted and made shelters, tools and did many type of Jobs. Women cooked,
and looked after children. They also made beer out of sorghum and millet and
later out of maize; women weaved baskets and made pots.

(b) Political Results of the Bantu;

 As already mentioned above, each family belonged to a certain olan clans
joined together to form a village. Each village was under a village headman.
 Villages formed a tribe which made up a chiefdom or kingdom headed by a
chief or a king.
 Most early Bantu rulers had semi devine powers and to some extent their
authority depended on the environment.

(c) Economic Results:

 The economic activities of the Bantu are child farming, domestication of
animals such as cattle and goats, trading, fishing and hunting.
 The Bantu also did mining on a small scale. They knew how to smell mineral
ores such as iron from which they made different tools.
 They also knew how to weave baskets and make pots.

12.2.2: Decentralized Societies;

33. Identify decentralized societies of Zambia
Tonga, Lenje, Sola, Ila, Sala e.t.c

34. Describe the social, political and economic organization of decentralized societies.
Decentralized Societies:
 Decentralized societies are those societies that did not have a well defined and
complex or centralized political system of government. They are also called the
stateless political societies.
(a) Social Organization:
 Most decentralized societies were mainly matrilined societies and were mainly
organized or believed in the extended family structures and clans.
 They also practiced some form of ancestral worship, offering sacrifices to their
ancestors especially when they faced problems.

(b) Political Organisation

 Most decentralised societies did not have a system of chiefs. They were
governed by a council of elders made up of many of the elderly people in the
community.

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  In most decentralized societies in Africa, the elders held social, economic and
political power. However, some of these societies had chiefs. In these societies
the position of chief was weak and was often not hereditary.
 Chiefs were usually selected by a group of elders. In such a system, chiefs
were selected not based on their family connections, but on their reputation as
persons who contributed to the welfare of the group.

(c) Economic Organization:

 Most decentralized societies depended on farming. They grew crops such as
maize, millet, sorghum, groundnuts, beans, yams e.t.c.
 They also kept cattle because there was plenty of grazing land. They also kept
other domestic animals such as goals, sheep as well as poultry such as chicken
and ducks.
 They also supplemented their diet with food they got through hunting, fishing
and gathering of fruits and tubers.

12.2.3. Centralized Societies of Central Africa

Centralized Societies
 Centralized societies are societies with the political system that bound or closely
connected to people in a common body. The centre of the kingdom was the
palace where the chief or king resided.
a. Identify centralized societies of Central Africa
 Luba and Lunda Empires of Congo
 Kongo and Ndongo Kingdoms of Angola
 The Nguni Kingdom
 The Chewe Kingdom of Kalongo and Undi
 Mwenemutapa Kingdom
 Luyi Kingdom
 Bemba Kingdom
 Lunda kingdom of Mwata Kazembe e.t.c

35. Describe the social, political and economic organization of centralized societies.
(a) Social Organization
 Most centralized societies were matrilineal or practiced matri-lined type of
succession where mothers had power over their children than their fathers accept
the Nguni.
 They also believed in extended family. Women were highly regarded because
they were recognized as procedures of the line ages.
 They were also formed in clans which was highest social unit.

(b) Political Organization

 Most centralized societies were led by a chief or king who had absolute power
and there was no separation of power. The king, his councilors and advisors
carried out executive, legislation and judicial functions.
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  Political control was concentrated in the hands of a few people.
 The king’s power was often based on his ability to collect tributes usually
through the control of trade and to control and use of an army to defend the
kingdom of chiefdom.

(c) Economic Organization

 Centralized societies were mainly engaged in agriculture. They also kept animals
such as cattle, goats and sheep. They also supplemented their diet by fishing,
milking as well as gathering wild fruits and berries.

12.3 Exploration of Central Africa

12.3.1: Opening up of Central Africa by Europeans

36. Identify Europeans who opened up Central Africa prior to colonization

 Explorers: David Livingstone and Henry Morton Stanley.
 Traders and hunters: FC selous and George cob West beech.
 Missionaries: David Livingstone, Francis, Francoid Cuillard.
 The Portuguese in Angola and Mozambique.

37. State the results of the activities of Explorers and missionaries in Central Africa.
 Introduction of Christianity
 Introduction of slave trade by the Portuguese.
 Imposition of foreign culture on Africans (assimilation)
 Stopping of slave trade and introduction of legitimate trade by the British.
 Colonization of most African Countries.

12.4. Europeans Acquisition of Territories in Central Africa

12.4.1. Europeans Scramble for Africa and the Colonization of Central Africa

38. Describe the Scramble for and Partition of Africa?

 Scramble for Africa means the rush by European powers to acquire territories in
Africa was the division of Africa states by Europeans powers.
 There many reasons that made European powers to acquire territories in Africa among
them were:
 Imperiation which simply means conquest and controlling of foreign lands for
investments and exploitation of raw materials developed as a result of the industrial
Revolution in Europe. Industrial Revolution in Europe. Industrial Revolution brought
a need for not only raw materials but for markets and areas of investments as well.
Also areas of surplus population were needed.
 Emphasis, riches and weak resistance of Africans encouraged the scramble.
 Individual’s desire to be rich e.g John Cecil Rhodes. Due to his riches that he got from
diamond and gold mines, he wanted to see a British Empire running from cape to
Cairo. Due to his ambition, Rhodes influenced Britain to colonise Central Africa.
Another good example was Belgian King Leopold II who owned the Congo free
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 state and treated it as his personal farm. Actually, it is Leopold’s behaviour that
prompted the question of Scramble for Africa.
 The role of Bismarck – The Germany leader in the period 1871 to 1898. He made
continuous efforts to divert the attention of the European Nations and continent to
elsewhere. He did this in order to conquer and dominate Europe. This is the reason
why he convinced the Berlin Conference and encouraged king Leopold to own
Congo.
 Some Europeans Nations acquired colonies for prestige or as a sign of power and
status. Each nation fought for the position of the imperial power.
 Some major European nations such as Britain, France and Germany acquired land in
Africa for military purposes. They wanted to establish military bases to protect their
overseas possessions.
 Missionaries and explorers opened up the interior of Africa. Their reports about the
riches of Africa encouraged the Scramble.

Conclusion:
 These were major reasons that made Europeans nations to acquire territories in
Africa.

38. Discuss the steps leading to the colonization of Central Africa by British and
Portuguese.
 There were many steps that led to the colonization of Central Africa by the British
and the Portuguese. Among them were; the ware, Lawler and Lonchner concessions
in Western Zambia. Others were the military conquest of Eastern and Northern
Zambia by the British, the Rudd concession in Zimbabwe and the military conquest
of Angola and Mozambique. The British rule over the Barotseland, the area
controlled by the Litunga of the Lozi was established through the series of treaties.

(a) Ware concession of 1889

 In 1885, Lubosi was restored as Litunga of the Lozi after Tatila A Kufuna had
overthrown him. He was face threats from Ndebele raids and European
hunters and concession seekers.
 In 1889, Lubosi therefore, asked for British protection from Sidney Shippard,
the British administrator in Bechuana Land (now Botswana).
 Before the British could respond, the Litunga signed the war concession of
1889 with Henry Ware. Henry Ware sold the concession to Cecil John Rhodes
in 1890.

(b) Lawley treaty of 1898

 The Lawley Treaty was the second step leading to the colonization of Central
Africa by the British and the Portuguese. The Lawley Treaty of 1898 granted
the B.S.A Company administrative powers in areas that the Litunga claimed to
be his.
 The Litunga held on to administration and legal powers in areas settle by the
Lozi.
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 (c) Lochner treaty of 1890
 The third step leading to the colonization of Central Africa by the British and
the Portuguese was signing of lochner treaty. Cecil John Rhodes sent Frank
Lochner to the Litunga as his personal representative.
 Lochner had the support of Khama, the king of Bechuanaland, as well as the
missionary Francis coillard. This led to the Lochner treaty between Litunga
and the BSA Company.
 This treaty granted the BSA Company mineral rights in areas that were not
settled by the Lozi, but which the Litunga claimed the belonging to him.
 The treaty placed Bulozi within the British sphere of influence. However, it
took seven years before the British sent a representative, Robert Corydon to
the area.
 Corydon found it difficult to administer Bulozi as the treaty did not give the
BSA Company administrative powers. He therefore, requested Arthur Lawley,
the administrator of Matebele Land, to influence the Litunga to grant him
administrative powers.

(d) Military Conquest was also another step towards colonization of Central Africa
by the British and the Portuguese. The Eastern and Northern were conquered by
the British.

(e) The Rudd Concession of 1888:

 The Rudd concession was another step leading to the colonization of Central
Africa by the British and the Portuguese to strengthen his position in Matebele
land, Rhodes sent a group of businessman, led by Charles Rudd, to the area to
obtain a good concession from Lobengula.
 On October 1888, Lobengula signed the Rudd Concession. Lobengula
believed that it gave Rhodes and his associates a limited mining concession.
 However, the concession was actually a gold concession for the entire
Matebele Kingdom.

(f) Another step was the military conquest of Angola and Mozambique. This also
led to the colonization of Central Africa by the British and the Portuguese.

12.5. European settlers in Central Africa

12.5.1: Relationship between Indigenous Africans and white settlers

39. Describe the relationship between Africans and Europeans?

 The relationship between Africans and the Europeans brought about uprisings against
colonial rule as we are going to describe in the following sub-headings:

(a) Racial Discrimination:

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  The colonial government discriminated against Africans and did not allow
them to take on responsible positions in government. Africans were also not
allowed to elect their own African representatives in legislative council.

(b) Hut Tax:

 Africans had to pay a hut tax, which white farmers did not have to do. The
hut tax forced Africans to become labourers on white farms.

(c) Mistreatment of farm labourers:

 African labourers of white farms were treated very badly by white
supervisors. For example, on the large Bruce estate, the supervisor, W.J
Livingstone, was known for his cruel treatment of workers.
 Workers had to work for very long hours for little pay. They also had to pay
rent for settling on white farms, while also having to pay hut taxes to the
government.

(d) Insufficient schools:

 Chilembwe complained bitterly about the small number of schools available
to Africans. He blamed the missionaries who preached about equality but
who do not practiced it.

12.5.2: Colonial Administration:

40. Discuss colonial direct and indirect methods of ruling Africans.
(a) Direct Colonial Rule:
 This was mainly the involvement of colonial Administration where by the colonial
administration controls the entire area by means of using the colonial government
which have set up colonial administrative offices which was occupied by the
whites.

(b) Indirect Colonial Rule:

 This was done mainly by the colonial administration through the use of traditional
rulers to control these subjects on behalf of the colonial masters who were the
British.

12.5.3: African to European Domination

41. Distinguish between Primary and Secondary Resistance.

(a) Primary Resistance
 Primary resistance was the early resistance made by Africans towards the arrival
of Europeans in Central Africa.
(b) Secondary Resistance:
 Secondary Resistance was the later resistance made by Africans against colonial rule
in Central Africa.

42. Discuss specific incidents of early African resistance to colonialism.

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  The specific incidents of Early African resistance to colonialism were:
(a) Chilembwe Uprising:
 There was the 1915 rebellion in Nyasaland led by John Chilembwe, is an
example of how Africans hated colonial rule, and the role that independent
churches played in protests.
 Chilembwe, a Yao from Nyasaland, in 1893 came into contact with Joseph
Booth, the leader of the Zambezi Industrial Mission in Blantyre. Booth paid
for Chilembwe to study theology in America from 1899 to 1900
 On his return, Chilembwe founded the Province Industrial mission in
Chiradzulu on the shire highlands.
 By 1911, he had opened a number of schools. Chilembwe spoke out strongly
against the injustices committed against Africans by the colonialists.
 In 1915, he led a rebellion against the colonial government with the aim:
“strike a blow and die, for our blood will surely mean something at last”.

(b) (i) Ndebele Rebellion

 After the occupation of Matebele land, the BSA company gave away the
greater part of the Ndebele homeland to the white settlers.
 The white farmers soon started pressing the Ndebele to work for them,
even against their will.
 All able-bodied Ndebele were recruited by the whites even by armed force.
The conditions of work also were no better than slavery.
 This caused bitter hatred among the Ndebele towards the whites.

(ii) Shona Rebellion

 Unlike the Ndebele, the Shona at first welcomed the British rule. But, they
too gradually became angry with the whites.
 Though the settlers did not try to change the Shona society as they had
done in case of the Ndebele, their demands upon it threatened to
undermine many of its values.
 The Shona chiefs soon found that their powers were undermined. Lands,
especially those which were suitable for farming, were given away to the
white settlers without the knowledge of the chief.
 The whites also started pushing the subjects of the chiefs, again, without
any reference to them. The chiefs who were at first been friendly with the
whites, now felt hostile towards them.
 The other specific incident of the early African resistance to colonialism
was the Chewe rebellion led by Nyanga.

43. Describe important welfare associations which represented the interests of Africans
in Northern Rhodesia?
The Mwenzo Welfare Society:
 This was the first welfare Association formed 1923 Mwenzo in Northern Province led
by David Kaunda, Donald Siwale, Hezekiya Kawosa and Peter Sinkala.

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  The aim of the organization was to help in the development of the country by building
up necessary link between the government and the people. But, the people were not
yet ready for such political activities and the Association got dissolved in 1928.

44. Describe how early African church leaders resisted colonial rule?
 The early African church leaders resisted colonial rule in many ways- among them
are:
(a) The early African Church leaders openly spoke out against the white
missionaries and the colonial government preaching the gospel.
(b) Open Rebellion:
 Such one example of a rebellion was the one led by John Chilembwe in
Malawi and spoke out strongly against the injustices committed against
Africans by the colonialists.
(c) Formation of African dominated churches:
 In Central Africa, primary resistance was mainly led by Africa dominated
churches that broke away from the missionary churches. The African religious
leaders believed that the missionaries and colonial government were guilty of
social, political and economic injustices and hence, they resisted colonial rule.
 These ideas spread to other areas were individual started forming other
political parties and these parties and these parties United Africans and
therefore, fought for independence

12.5.4: The Rise of African Nationalism:

45. Explain the role of educated Africans in the struggle for independence
 The role of educated Africans in the struggle for independence was the formation of
political parties because they felt that Africans grievances going to be heard quickly.
 The other role of educated African was the desire to get rid of their foreign rulers so
that they could have a government run by people of their own nationality.
 They also felt that colonial peoples are being exploited by the Europeans have
conscientising other Africans to rebel against the whites and therefore, formed their
own political parties.
 The other role of educated Africans in the struggle for independence was to bring to
right the failures that the colonial masters bought such as poverty hence the need to
form political parties.

46. Describe the role played by labour movement in fighting colonial rule?
 The labour movement played an important role in fighting colonial rule. For instance
in the Copperbelt Province of Northen Rhodesia, Africann trade unions started to
grow in an attempt to secure better conditions for African.
 The need for African trade union was made clear by the copperbelt strikes of 1935
and 1940, and by 1945 African railway workers’ strike.

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  In 1949 Northern Rhodesia Mine Workers Union (NRAMU) was formed under
Lawrence Katilungu. This was a well organized union. It organized a strike in 1952
and gained high wages and better working conditions.
 Perhaps more important also was that union members often became members of
NRANC (changed to ANC in 1951). In this way, they were able to take part in
struggle for independence.

47. Analyse the political parties and liberation movements in Central Africa that fought
for independence.
(a) Northern Rhodesia:
 In 1948 Northern Rhodesia African National Congress was formed with G.M
Lewanika as the first president. The initial aim was to make petitions against the
proposed federation.
 In 1951, NRANC changed to African National Congress with H.M. Nkumbula as
its presidents. When the federation was imposed in 1953, the congress continued
to fight against it and demanded self government in its place.
 In 1958 Northern Rhodesia was granted Benson constitution which pleased
nobody. Africans were not given the majority in the legislative council. The
congress opposed this constitution and Nkumbula even burnt the white paper
which was a federation paper and called for two days of national prayer.
 This was because political party leaders fell that the federation of Rhodesia and
Nyasaland created protects to the Africans.
 Further in 1958, Zambia African National Congress (ZANC) was formed by
younger members who felt that ANC was working to closely with the colonial
powers therefore, the aim of the ZANC was to unite Africans and to fight for
independence. However, ZANC was banned by the colonial government and its
leaders such as Kenneth Kaunda, Simon Mwansa Kapwepwe and Munukayumba
Sipalo were arrested.
 In 1959 therefore, United National Independence Party (UNIP) was created from
the other political parties formed when the ZANC was banned and Mainza China
led the party until Kenneth Kaunda was released from prison in 1960.
 In addition, self government was granted to Nyasaland in 1960 which led to
increased demands from Kaunda for a similar constitution for Northern Rhodesia.
Kaunda wanted a non-violent campaign to continue working towards
independence, but the campaign became violent in some cases.
 However, led to civil disobedience campaign 1961 called the chachacha in
Northern, Luapula and Copperbelt Province which in turn led to roads being
blocked, bridges destroyed and government buildings and property burned down.
 Because of these reasons it led to the government revising the constitution on
condition that the violence stopped.
 When election were held in 1962, which was based in the new constitution. UNIP
got 14 seats and the United Federal Party 10 seats. Kaunda and Nkumbula formed
a coalition government.

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  In 1963 December 31, the federation formally dissolved. Because of squabbles in
the coalition government, Kaunda and Nkumbula demanded free elections in
January, 1964. UNIP was an overwhelming majority. It formed the government
with Kaunda as the Prime Minister.
 After forming the independence constitution, on 24th October, 1964, Northern
Rhodesia became an independent state under the new name Zambia with Kenneth
Kaunda as the first President.
 From the reasons above, it is the writer’s view that these political parties and
liberation movement played a role for the independence of most Central African
Countries.

(b) Nyasaland:
 In Nyasaland, it is writer’s view that the same things that was happening in
Northern Rhodesia also happened in Nyasaland because these countries were
working in collaboration and it can simply be said that indeed these political
parties and liberation movements in Central Africa truly fought for the
independence as we are going to analyse in this discussion.
 The return of Banda to Nyasaland after 40 years in Britain caused widespread
riots in the territory. ANC was becoming more militant. This compelled the
British government to appoint Devlin commission in 1958 to examine the causes
of the crisis. Therefore, the commission reported that the crisis was caused by
African growing opposition against the federation. The reported convinced many
people in Britain that federation was bound to fail.
 Settlers became worried that Britain would not grant independence to the
federation. As a result of the Devlin Commission ANC was banned but was
reborn as Malawi Congress Party in 1959. By 1960, when another commission,
the Monkton commission recommended the end of the federation. Nyasaland was
granted a new constitution which ensured African majority in the legislative
council. But people like Dr. H.K Banda wanted immediate independence.
 In 1961 elections the Malawi Congress Party won 22 seats out of 28. The
remainder went to U.F.P (United Federal Party). In 1962 Nyasaland was granted
self government after another constitution conference was held.
 Banda formed a cabinet with him as the Prime Minister and on December 31,
1963 federation was dissolved and Nyasaland became independent on 6 th July,
1964 under the name of Malawi with Dr. H.K. Banda as the first President.
 In conclusion, it can be said that because of the above reasons, the political
parties and indeed the liberation movements in Central Africa fought for
independence. On the other hand, time was just ripe for the African Countries to
attain their independence.

(c) Southern Rhodesia:

 From the discussion read upon from Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland, it can be
said that indeed the political parties and liberation movements fought for
independence in Central Africa. Furthermore, it can be also noted that because

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 Ghana was granted independence, time was also reap for most African Countries
to be granted independence as in the discussion.
 In 1969, Southern Rhodesia adopted a new constitution which made majority rule
impossible. This ZAPU and ZANU to wage a guerilla war from outside between
1967 and 1970 which from 1974 onwards was intensified.
 The fighting was led by ZIPRA of ZAPU and ZAALA of ZANU led by Nkomo
and Mugabe respectively. Nkomo operated from Zambia while Mugabe was in
Mozambique. War and economic pressure forced the settler regime to begin talks
with internal moderate Africans and later with radical movements.
 In 1979, Abel Muzorewa of ANC won the April elections and became the prime
minister of Southern Rhodesia. In the same year 1979 between September and
December, Laucaster house talks were held.
 The draft constitution of independence was produced. The Muzorewa government
was dissolved and lord Soames became the provisional Prime Minister and in
February, 1980 fresh elections were held.
 The results surprised participants and foreign observers and in April, 1980,
Zimbabwe became independent with Robert Mugabe as the prime minister until
1988 when they changed to Presidency and he became Zimbabwe’s first president.
 From this discussion above, it be concluded that indeed political parties and
liberation movements played a role for most African countries to achieve their
independence.

12.5.5: The Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland

48. Discuss the reasons for and against the formation of the federation
 The central African federation was also called the federation of Rhodesia and
Nyasaland and was formed in October, 1953.the main reasons for and against the
Central African Federation have been discussed below as follows:

a. Social Reasons
For:
 Settlers in Northern Rhodesia did not approve up the policy of the paramouncy
of Africans interest. They hoped that federation with southern Rhodesia would
end this policy.
 Africans in southern Rhodesia supported federation because they believed that
union with Northern Rhodesia would bring the policy of the paramouncy of
Africa interests to their area.

Against:
 Whites in southern Rhodesia wanted to have closer ties with apartheid in
South Africa. The policy of paramouncy of African interests therefore, met
with their opposition.

b. Political Reasons:
For-

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  Settlers in northern Rhodesia did not approve of the policy of the paramouncy
of African interests. They hope that federation would mean an end to this
policy.
 Africans in southern Rhodesia supported federation because they believed that
union with Northern Rhodesia would bring the paramouncy of the African
interests to their area.

Against-
 Africans in northern Rhodesia did not trust the idea of partnership. Robinson
Nabulyato said, ‘partnership is a ladder for European to climb on us’.
 In Britain, the labour and liberal parties objected to federation if it was going
to be imposed on Africans.

c. Economic reasons
For-
 The whites in southern Rhodesia wanted to benefit from the income from the
copper mines in northern Rhodesia while those in Northern Rhodesia wanted
to benefit from the southern gold fields.
 The conservative government in Britain believed that federation would result
in economic stability with three main products (copper, gold and tea) for
export.
 The British government also believed that federation would attract
international funding for large scale projects, such as the building of a hydro-
electric scheme and the extension of railway.
Against
 The opposition labour and liberal parties in Britain argued that the federation
should not be forced on Africans in the protectorates against their wishes.
49. Analyze the success and failures of the federation
a. The federation had some successes has the writer is going to analyze in the following:
 Most whites or colonialist in southern Rhodesian supported the federation
because it was in the best interest up all the three territories to come together
because each territory was economically dependent on a single export product-
Northern Rhodesia-cooper; Nyasaland –tea; and Southern Rhodesia-tobacco.
Furthermore, a sharp fall in the price of this one product would seriously affect
that country’s economy, so it was thought that the economy of the federation
would be strong because it would not rely on one product alone.
 On the centrally, these white settlers had interest of controlling these products and
taken them to their countries where they manufacture finished products and send
them to Central Africa where there was already market. S in short, they got these
cheaper raw materials and made finished products and hence make a lot of
profits.
 Furthermore, although Africans in the protectorates were opposed to federation,
the federal constitution gave them full security. This was because there was an
African Affairs Board which existed to block bills which discriminated against

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 Africans; Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland could continue to be protectorates
for as long as their people wanted.
 On the other hand, these colonialists did not preach what they say and in most
cases, there were the ones discriminating Africans. Africans themselves cared and
loved each other.
b. Failures
The federation had also some failures as the writer is going to analyze below:
 Some of the settlers, the Boers, who spoke African languages and originated
South Africa did not want Southern Rhodesia to have any links with protectorates.
They had been used to racial segregation and disliked the talk of ‘partnership’
between races. This too was a weaken on the part of the federation which entails
that the federation can no longer lasts for a long time.
 Further, the settlers were afraid that African Nationalism which was already
growing in Ghana would sweep from the west into central Africa. Many of these
settlers would have preferred Southern Rhodesia to have links with South Africa.
 This however, meant that hatred with these other two central African countries
will continue even if the federation was there and hence, there was need to look to
the federation to for it does not provide any solutions faced by these countries.

12.5.6: Steps leading to the Independence of the three Central African Countries

50. Analyze the steps leading to the Independence of the three Central African
territories
The steps leading to the Independence of the three Central African territories are as
follows:
a. Northern Rhodesia
 1950: Federation committee started in Ndola by a group of young such as Justine
Chimba, Simon Kapwepwe, Rueben Kamanga and Nephas Tembo to campaign
against federation.
 1951: Northern Rhodesia African National Congress changed to African National
Congress (ANC), led by Harry Nkumbula. The ANC’s aim was to prevent the
formation of the federation. In March, 1953, Nkumbula burned the British White
Paper on the proposal federation Constitution and called for two days of national
prayer.
 In October 1953: the federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland was created despite
African protest.
 1958: Zambia African Congress (ZANC) was formed by younger members, who
felt that the ANC was working too slowly with the colonial powers. However, the
ZANC was banned by the colonial government. Its leaders, such as Kenneth
Kaunda, Simon Mwansa Kapwepwe and Munu Kayumba Sipalo were arrested.
 In 1959, the United National Independence Party (UNIP) was created from other
political parties formed when the ZANC was banned; Mainza Choma led the party
until Kenneth Kaunda was released from prison I 1960.
 In 1960, self-government was granted to Nyasaland that led increased demands
from Kaunda for a similar constitution for Northern Rhodesia. Kaunda wanted a
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 non-violent campaign to continue working towards independence, but the
campaign became violent in some cases.
 In 1961, civil disobedience campaign called the Chachacah in Northern, Luapua
and Copperbelt provinces led to roads being blocked, bridges destroyed and
government buildings and property burned down. This campaign led to the
government revising the constitution on condition that the violence stopped.
 In 1962, elections were held which were based on the new constitution. UNIP got
14 seats, the ANC 7 seats and the United Federal Party 10 seats. Kaunda and
Nkumbula formed a coalition government.
 In 1963 December 31, the federation was formally dissolved. Because of the
squabbles in the coalition government, Kaunda and Nkumbula demanded fresh
elections in January 1964. UNIP won an overwhelming majority. It was formed
the government with Kanda as the prime minister.
 After framing the independence constitution, on 24th October, 1964, Northern
Rhodesia became an independent state under the name of Zambia with Kenneth
Kaunda as the first president.
 In conclusion, it can be said that indeed the steps to independence was arranged in
such a way that Northern Rhodesia attains its independence as quickly as possible
but what made it so difficult to attain its independence quickly was because
African leaders were selfish who fought as to who will be the leader amongst
themselves and also it prolonged the attainment of independence,
b. Southern Rhodesia
 At the time federation was ending and the protectorates were nearing
independence, settlers in southern Rhodesia were consolidating their position.
When federation formally ended in1963, Edger Whitehead of the United Federal
Party was the prime minister.
 But whitehead was soon accused of becoming too liberal to the Africans. This
forced Ian Smith and other settlers to break away and form the Rhodesia Front
under the leadership of Winston Field.
 In 1964, Winston Field resigned after differing over the issue of unilaterally
declaring Southern Rhodesia independent. Smith took over as prime minister of
Rhodesia Front. On 11th November, 1965, he declared Unilateral Declaration of
Independence (UDI).
 In 1969, Southern Rhodesia adopted a new constitution which made majority rue
impossible. This led ZAPU and ZANU to wage guerilla war from outside between
1967 and 1970 which from 1974 onwards was intensified.
 The fighting was led by ZIPRA of ZANU and ZANLA of ZANU led by Nkomo
and Mugabe respectively. Nkomo operated from Zambia while Mugabe was in
Mozambique.
 War and economic pressure forced the settlers’ regime to begin talks with internal
moderate Africans and later with radical movements. In 1979, Abel Muzorewa of
ANC won the elections and became the prime minister of Zimbabwe-Rhodesia.
 In the same year 1979, between September and December, Lancaster House talks
were held. The draft constitution of independence was produced. The Muzorewa

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 government was dissolved and Lord Soames became the provisional prime
minister.
 In February 1980, fresh elections were held. The results surprised participants and
foreign observers. Of the 100 seats:
 Bishop Muzorewa’s ANC won 20
 Sithole’s party won 1
 Nkomo’s ZAPU-PF won 20
 Mugabe’s ZANU-PF won 57
 Settlers-RF won 20
 In April 1980, Zimbabwe became independent with Robert Mugabe as the prime
minister until 1988 when they changed to presidency and he became Zimbabwe’s
first president.
 In conclusion, it can be therefore, concluded that despite the fact that the leaders
of Southern Africa worked hard for their countries to become independent. This
lacked leadership because of in-house fighting to who will be their president and
so it also prolonged the process of independence like what happened in Northern
Rhodesia.
c. Nyasaland
 In 1944, there was the formation of Nysaland African Congress (NAC) by leaders
such as Wellington Chirwa and Charles Matinga.
 In 1955, the young Turks, a group of younger, more radical leaders such as H.
Chipembe, Chiuma Yaleta, Dunchuza Chisiza and T. B. Banda replaced the more
moderate older leaders. Their aim was to achieve self-government and a system
of one man, one vote.
 In 1957, expansion of congress to a mass political party through an active
programme of recruiting new members.
 In march 1959, state of emergence was declared by the government Sir Robert
Armitage, after a series of violent clothes between congress members and
colonial officials. There were also strikes, riots and demonstration of which the
worst was at Nkata Bay.
 In July 1959, Malawi Congress Party (MCP), a new political party was formed
under the leadership of Ortwi Chirwa. When Dr Hastings Kamuzu Banda was
released from prison in 1960, he became the new leader of MCP. Banda declared
that the MCP would continue fighting for the total independence of Malawi.
 In 1959, Davlin commission was set up by the colonial office in London to
investigate the causes of troubles in Nyasaland in 1940.
 In its report, the commission stated that the violence resulted from widespread
opposition to the federation and the people’s desire to rule themselves. In 1960,
Mockton Commission did further investigations and determined that there was
strong opposition to the federation in Nyasaland as well as Northern Rhodesia.
 In April, 1960, more self-government and the right to vote granted to Nyasaland
by colonial Secretary Macleod.
 In August, 1961, elections under a new constitution were won by a large majority
by the Malawi Congress Party.

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  In January, 1963, responsible government status was granted to Malawi and in
July, 1964, independence state of Malawi was established, with Dr Hastings
Kamuzu Banda as the first president. Therefore, thus steps helped Nyasaland to
achieve its independence despite the fact that they faced a number of obstacles
from the colonialists

12.6: Majority Rule

12.6.1: Post-Independence Development
51. Analyse the development of post-independence economic and political systems of the
three central African territories.
 The economic developments was seen in areas of mining where a lot of mines were
opened due to smooth exploration of the mineral wealth and a lot of mines which
were shut down were opened like Chambish mine in Kalulushi dstrict.
 More and more people were employed in these mines.
 The economic developments were seen in agriculture. This boosted through the giving
of subsidies to farmers in terms of inputs. The farmers were also encouraged by the
readily available markets from the government. Government was able to buy most of
crops produced and money for the procurement of these commodities was given to
farmers in good time.
 Further in these areas of manufacturing, more and more manufacturing companies
were created and the old ones were expanded. By so doing, a lot of citizen were
employed and so, this eased the unemployment levels in the three countries.
 In addition to the developments, in Zambia and Malawi, Multi-parties were created
just after independence. Thereafter, there was a declaration of one party participatory
democracy.
 Further again, there was a rebirth of multi-party democracy which is still there in
these three countries.
 In Zimbabwe, there was a declaration of Unilateral Declaration of Independence in
1965, by Ian Smith who was prime minister for Southern Rhodesia.
 There was then the formation of Zimbabwe-Rhodesia under the new leadership of
Robert Mugabe after getting independence in 1980 and the new party ZANU-PF
which won the majority rule.
 Other political developments followed suit.
 In conclusion, it can be said that indeed these developments were splendid in
alleviating poverty in these three countries. However, after getting independence,
these leaders wanted to remain in power like Kaunda in Zambia. Further, though
intimidation of multi-party democracy, a lot of these leaders were kicked out of
offices. Also because most of the economies were ruined and also there were easily
removed from their public offices.

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