Laki

Coordinates: 64°03′53″N 18°13′34″W

Laki (Icelandic pronunciation:  ​[ˈlaːcɪ]) or Lakagígar

Laki
([ˈlaːkaˌciːɣar̥], Craters of Laki) is a volcanic fissure in
the western part of Vatnajökull National Park, Iceland,
not far from the volcanic fissure of Eldgjá and the small
village of Kirkjubæjarklaustur. The fissure is properly
referred to as Lakagígar, while Laki is a mountain that the
fissure bisects. Lakagígar is part of a volcanic system
centered on the volcano Grímsvötn and including the
volcano Þórðarhyrna.[1][2][3] It lies between the glaciers
of Mýrdalsjökull and Vatnajökull, in an area of fissures
that run in a southwest to northeast direction.

The system erupted violently over an eight-month period Highest point

between June 1783 and February 1784 from the Laki Elevation Varies: canyon to 1,725 m
fissure and the adjoining volcano Grímsvötn. It poured (5,659 ft)
out an estimated 42  billion tonnes or 14  km3
Coordinates 64°03′53″N 18°13′34″W
(18 ×109   cu  yd) of basalt lava as well as clouds of
poisonous hydrofluoric acid and sulfur dioxide Geography
compounds that contaminated the soil, leading to the
death of over 50% of Iceland's livestock population, and
the destruction of the vast majority of all crops. This led
to a famine which then killed approximately a quarter of
the island's human population.[4]

The Laki eruption and its aftermath caused a drop in

global temperatures, as 120 million tonnes of sulfur
Laki
dioxide was spewed into the Northern Hemisphere. This
caused crop failures in Europe and may have caused
droughts in North Africa and India.
Iceland
1783 eruption Geology
Mountain Fissure vents
On 8 June 1783, a 25 km-long (15.5 mi) fissure of at least
130 vents opened with phreatomagmatic explosions type
because of the groundwater interacting with the rising Last eruption 1784
basalt magma.[5] Over a few days the eruptions became
less explosive, Strombolian, and later Hawaiian in character, with 1783 eruption of Laki
high rates of lava effusion. This event is rated as 4 on the Volcanic Start date 8 June 1783
Explosivity Index,[6] but the eight-month emission of sulfuric
aerosols resulted in one of the most important climatic and socially End date 7 February 1784
significant natural events of the last millennium.[7][5]
The eruption, also known as the Skaftáreldar [ˈskaftˌauːrˌɛltar̥] Type Phreatomagmatic,
("Skaftá fires") or Síðueldur [ˈsiːðʏˌɛltʏr̥] produced an estimated Strombolian, Hawaiian
14  km3 (18 ×109   cu  yd) of basalt lava, and the total volume of
VEI 4
tephra emitted was 0.91  km3 (1.2 ×109   cu  yd).[8] Lava fountains
were estimated to have reached heights of 800 to 1,400 m (2,600
to 4,600  ft). The gases were carried by the convective eruption column to altitudes of about 15  km
(50,000 ft).[9]

The eruption continued until 7 February 1784, but most of the lava was ejected in the first five months. One
study states that the event "occurred as ten pulses of activity, each starting with a short-lived explosive
phase followed by a long-lived period of fire-fountaining".[10] Grímsvötn volcano, from which the Laki
fissure extends, also erupted at the time, from 1783 until 1785. The outpouring of gases, including an
estimated 8 million tonnes of fluorine and an estimated 120 million tonnes of sulfur dioxide, gave rise to
what has since become known as the "Laki haze" across Europe.[9]

Consequences in Iceland

The consequences for Iceland, known as the Móðuharðindin [ˈmouːðʏˌharðɪntɪn] (mist hardships), were
disastrous.[11] An estimated 20–25% of the population died in the famine after the fissure eruptions ensued.
(Some sources specify a death toll of 9,000 people.)[12] Approximately 80% of sheep, 50% of cattle and
50% of horses died because of dental fluorosis and skeletal fluorosis from the 8 million tons of fluorine that
were released.[13][14] The livestock deaths were primarily caused by eating the contaminated grass; the
subsequent famine claimed many of the human lives that were lost.[12]

The parish minister and provost of Vestur-Skaftafellssýsla, Jón Steingrímsson (1728–1791), grew famous
for the eldmessa [ˈɛltˌmɛsːa] ("fire mass") that he delivered on 20 July 1783. The church farm of
Kirkjubæjarklaustur was endangered by a branch of the lava flow that halted not far from the farm while
the Rev. Jón and his parishioners were worshipping in the church. The spot at which the lava diverted
away from the church became known thereafter as Eldmessutangi [ˈɛltˌmɛsːʏˌtʰauɲcɪ] ("Fire Mass
Point").

This past week, and the two prior to it, more poison fell from the sky than words can describe:
ash, volcanic hairs, rain full of sulfur and saltpeter, all of it mixed with sand. The snouts,
nostrils, and feet of livestock grazing or walking on the grass turned bright yellow and raw. All
water went tepid and light blue in color and gravel slides turned grey. All the earth's plants
burned, withered and turned grey, one after another, as the fire increased and neared the
settlements.[15]

Consequences in monsoon regions

There is evidence that the Laki eruption weakened African and

Indian monsoon circulations, leading to between 1 and 3
millimetres (0.04 and 0.12  in) less daily precipitation than normal
over the Sahel of Africa, resulting in, among other effects, low flow
in the River Nile.[16] The resulting famine that afflicted Egypt in
Center of the Laki fissure
1784 cost it roughly one-sixth of its population.[16][17] The eruption was also found to have affected South
Arabia and India.[17]

Consequences in East Asia

The Great Tenmei famine of 1782–1788 in Japan may have been worsened by the Laki eruption. In the
same year, Mt. Asama erupted in Japan (Tenmei eruption).[18]

Consequences in Europe

An estimated 120,000,000 tonnes of sulfur dioxide was emitted,

about three times the total annual European industrial output in
2006 (but delivered to higher altitudes, hence its persistence), and
equivalent to six times the total 1991 Mount Pinatubo
eruption.[13][9] This outpouring of sulfur dioxide during unusual
weather conditions caused a thick haze to spread across western
Europe, resulting in many thousands of deaths throughout the
remainder of 1783 and the winter of 1784. Laki in July 2012

The summer of 1783 was the hottest on record and a rare high-
pressure zone over Iceland caused the winds to blow to the south-
east.[13] The poisonous cloud drifted to Bergen in Denmark–Norway, then spread to Prague in the
Kingdom of Bohemia (now the Czech Republic) by 17 June, Berlin by 18 June, Paris by 20 June, Le
Havre by 22 June, and Great Britain by 23 June. The fog was so thick that ships stayed in port, unable to
navigate, and the sun was described as "blood coloured".[13]

Inhaling sulfur dioxide gas causes victims to choke as their internal soft tissues swell – the gas reacts with
the moisture in the lungs and produces sulfurous acid.[19] The local death rate in Chartres was up by 5%
during August and September, with more than 40 dead. In Great Britain, the east of England was most
affected. The records show that the additional deaths were among outdoor workers; the death rate in
Bedfordshire, Lincolnshire, and the east coast was perhaps two or three times the normal rate. It has been
estimated that 23,000 British people died from the poisoning.[20]

The weather became very hot, causing severe thunderstorms with large hailstones that were reported to
have killed cattle,[21] until the haze dissipated in the autumn. The winter of 1783–1784 was very severe;[22]
the naturalist Gilbert White in Selborne, Hampshire, reported 28  days of continuous frost. The extreme
winter is estimated to have caused 8,000 additional deaths in the UK. During the spring thaw, Germany
and Central Europe reported severe flood damage.[13] This is considered part of a volcanic winter.[23]

The meteorological impact of Laki continued, contributing significantly to several years of extreme weather
in Europe. In France, the sequence of extreme weather events included a failed harvest in 1785 that caused
poverty for rural workers, as well as droughts, bad winters and summers. These events contributed
significantly to an increase in poverty and famine that may have contributed to the French Revolution in
1789.[23] Laki was only one factor in a decade of climatic disruption, as Grímsvötn was erupting from
1783 to 1785, and there may have been an unusually strong El Niño effect from 1789 to 1793.[24][25]

Consequences in North America

In North America, the winter of 1784 was the longest and one of the coldest on record. It was the longest
period of below-zero temperatures in New England, with the largest accumulation of snow in New Jersey,
and the longest freezing over of Chesapeake Bay. At the time, the capital of the United States was situated
on the Chesapeake at Annapolis, Maryland; the weather delayed Congressmen who were traveling there to
vote for the Treaty of Paris, which formally ended the American Revolutionary War. A huge snowstorm hit
the South; the Mississippi River froze at New Orleans and there were reports of ice floes in the Gulf of
Mexico.[23][26]

Contemporaneous reports

Gilbert White recorded his perceptions of the event at Selborne,

Hampshire, England:

The summer of the year 1783 was an amazing and

portentous one, and full of horrible phaenomena; for
besides the alarming meteors and tremendous thunder-
storms that affrighted and distressed the different
counties of this kingdom, the peculiar haze, or smokey
fog, that prevailed for many weeks in this island, and Kirkjubaejarklaustur, an important
in every part of Europe, and even beyond its limits, church farm in South Iceland, was
was a most extraordinary appearance, unlike anything the home of the Rev. Jón
Steingrímsson (1728–1791), who left
known within the memory of man. By my journal I
contemporary eyewitness accounts
find that I had noticed this strange occurrence from
of the effects of the eruption and its
June 23 to July 20 inclusive, during which period the
aftermath. Today, Kirkjubæjarkaustur
wind varied to every quarter without making any
is a small village.
alteration in the air. The sun, at noon, looked as blank
as a clouded moon, and shed a rust-coloured
ferruginous light on the ground, and floors of rooms;
but was particularly lurid and blood-coloured at rising
and setting. All the time the heat was so intense that
butchers' meat could hardly be eaten on the day after it
was killed; and the flies swarmed so in the lanes and
hedges that they rendered the horses half frantic, and
riding irksome. The country people began to look,
with a superstitious awe, at the red, louring aspect of
the sun; ...[27]

Benjamin Franklin recorded his observations in America in a 1784 lecture:

During several of the summer months of the year 1783, when the effect of the sun's rays to
heat the earth in these northern regions should have been greater, there existed a constant fog
over all Europe, and a great part of North America. This fog was of a permanent nature; it was
dry, and the rays of the sun seemed to have little effect towards dissipating it, as they easily do
a moist fog, arising from water. They were indeed rendered so faint in passing through it, that
when collected in the focus of a burning glass they would scarce kindle brown paper. Of
course, their summer effect in heating the Earth was exceedingly diminished. Hence the
surface was early frozen. Hence the first snows remained on it unmelted, and received
continual additions. Hence the air was more chilled, and the winds more severely cold. Hence
perhaps the winter of 1783–84 was more severe than any that had happened for many years.
 The cause of this universal fog is not yet ascertained ... or whether it was the vast quantity of
smoke, long continuing, to issue during the summer from Hekla in Iceland, and that other
volcano which arose out of the sea near that island, which smoke might be spread by various
winds, over the northern part of the world, is yet uncertain.[28]

According to contemporary records, Hekla did not erupt in 1783; its previous eruption was in 1766. The
Laki fissure eruption was 70  km (45  mi) east and the Grímsvötn volcano was erupting about 120  km
(75 mi) northeast. Katla, only 50 km (31 mi) southeast, was still renowned after its spectacular eruption 28
years earlier in 1755.

Sir John Cullum of Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk, England, recorded his observations on 23 June 1783 (the
same date on which Gilbert White noted the onset of the unusual atmospheric phenomena), in a letter to Sir
Joseph Banks, then President of the Royal Society:

... about six o'clock, that morning, I observed the air very much condensed in my chamber-
window; and, upon getting up, was informed by a tenant that finding himself cold in bed,
about three o'clock in the morning, he looked out at his window, and to his great surprise saw
the ground covered with a white frost: and I was assured that two men at Barton, about three
miles (five kilometres) off, saw in some shallow tubs, ice of the thickness of a crown-piece.[29]

Sir John goes on to describe the effect of this "frost" on trees and crops:

The aristae of the barley, which was coming into ear, became brown and withered at their
extremities, as did the leaves of the oats; the rye had the appearance of being mildewed; so that
the farmers were alarmed for those crops. The wheat was not much affected. The larch,
Weymouth pine, and hardy Scotch fir, had the tips of their leaves withered.[29]

See also
Geography of Iceland
Glacial lake outburst flood
Iceland hotspot
List of glaciers of Iceland
List of volcanic eruptions by death toll
List of volcanoes in Iceland
List of waterfalls of Iceland
Plate tectonics
Timeline of volcanism on Earth
Volcanism of Iceland
List of volcanic eruptions in Iceland

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11820%2F17d8aae9-d2bf-4120-b61a-31c6966a7e24). Retrieved October 21, 2012.
10. "Laki eruption, Iceland" (https://web.archive.org/web/20200627113902/https://www.bgs.ac.u
k/research/volcanoes/Laki.html). British Geological Survey. UK Research and Innovation.
2013. Archived from the original (https://www.bgs.ac.uk/research/volcanoes/Laki.html) on
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11. "The eruption that changed Iceland forever" (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/magazine/8
624791.stm). BBC News. April 16, 2010. Retrieved 31 May 2013.
12. Rincon, Paul (25 May 2004). "Volcano 'drove up UK death toll' " (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/s
ci/tech/3745749.stm). BBC News. Retrieved 13 November 2022.
13. "Killer Cloud" (https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00794xr). BBC Timewatch. 19 January
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14. Richard Stone (November 19, 2004). "Volcanology: Iceland's Doomsday Scenario?" (http://
www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/summary/306/5700/1278). Science. Vol. 306, no. 5700.
p. 1278. doi:10.1126/science.306.5700.1278 (https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.306.5700.
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15. Steingrímsson, Jón; Kunz, Keneva (1998). Fires of the earth: the Laki eruption, 1783–1784.
University of Iceland Press. ISBN 978-9979-54-244-5.
16. Oman, Luke; Robock, Alan; Stenchikov, Georgiy L.; Thordarson, Thorvaldur (September 30,
2006). "High-latitude eruptions cast shadow over the African monsoon and the flow of the
Nile" (http://climate.envsci.rutgers.edu/pdf/OmanLakiNile2006GL027665.pdf) (PDF).
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adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006GeoRL..3318711O). CiteSeerX 10.1.1.695.8121 (https://citese
erx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.695.8121). doi:10.1029/2006GL027665 (http
s://doi.org/10.1029%2F2006GL027665). S2CID 35693664 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/C
orpusID:35693664). Retrieved June 9, 2012.
17. Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey (November 22, 2006). "Icelandic Volcano
Caused Historic Famine In Egypt, Study Shows" (https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/20
06/11/061121232204.htm). Science Daily. Retrieved June 9, 2012.
18. 江戸の飢饉に巨大噴火の影 気温低下で凶作、人災も (https://web.archive.org/web/20220505
023044/https://www.nikkei.com/article/DGXZQOCD13AD20T10C22A4000000/) [Famine in
Edo and the shadow of a huge eruption: Falling temperatures led to crop failures and man-
made disasters]. Nikkei. April 30, 2022. Archived from the original (https://www.nikkei.com/art
icle/DGXZQOCD13AD20T10C22A4000000/) on May 5, 2022.
19. "Acid Rain Effects on Buildings" (http://www.elmhurst.edu/~chm/vchembook/196buildings.ht
ml). Elmhurst College. Retrieved June 9, 2012.
20. "When a killer cloud hit Britain" (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/6276291.stm).
BBC News. January 2007. Retrieved 31 May 2013.
21. PastPresented.info =title=Volcano Seasons: Weather reports from northern Britain, 1783
http://www.pastpresented.ukart.com/weather1783.htm =title=Volcano Seasons: Weather
reports from northern Britain, 1783 (http://www.pastpresented.ukart.com/weather1783.htm).
{{cite web}}: Check |url= value (help); Missing or empty |title= (help) Quotes
reports from the Newcastle Courant and Cumberland Pacquet newspapers.
22. PastPresented.info =title=Volcano Seasons: Weather reports from northern Britain, 1784
http://www.pastpresented.ukart.com/weather1784.htm =title=Volcano Seasons: Weather
reports from northern Britain, 1784 (http://www.pastpresented.ukart.com/weather1784.htm).
{{cite web}}: Check |url= value (help); Missing or empty |title= (help) Quotes
reports from the Newcastle Courant and Cumberland Pacquet newspapers.
23. Wood, C. A. (1992). "The climatic effects of the 1783 Laki eruption". In Harrington, C. R.
(ed.). The Year Without a Summer?. Ottawa: Canadian Museum of Nature. pp. 58–77.
24. Grove, Richard H. (1998). "Global impact of the 1789–93 El Niño". Nature. 393 (6683): 318–
319. Bibcode:1998Natur.393..318G (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998Natur.393..318
G). doi:10.1038/30636 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2F30636). S2CID 205000683 (https://api.se
manticscholar.org/CorpusID:205000683).
25. D'Arrigo, Rosanne; Seager, Richard; Smerdon, Jason E.; LeGrande, Allegra N.; Cook,
Edward R. (16 March 2011). "The anomalous winter of 1783–1784: Was the Laki eruption or
an analog of the 2009–2010 winter to blame?". Geophysical Research Letters. 38 (5): n/a.
Bibcode:2011GeoRL..38.5706D (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011GeoRL..38.5706D).
doi:10.1029/2011GL046696 (https://doi.org/10.1029%2F2011GL046696). S2CID 13583569
(https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:13583569).
26. "Volcanoes from Iceland: Laki" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120305113021/http://perso.cl
ub-internet.fr/acatte/Iceland_Laki_in_english.htm). lave club-internet fr. Archived from the
original (http://perso.club-internet.fr/acatte/Iceland_Laki_in_english.htm) on March 5, 2012.
Retrieved April 22, 2020.
27. Gilbert White; Edward Jesse (1870). The natural history of Selborne: with observations on
various parts of nature and the Naturalist's calendar (https://books.google.com/books?id=7-Y
YAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA300). Bell & Daldy. p. 300.
28. Franklin, Benjamin (1785). "Meteorological imaginations and conjectures" (https://books.goo
gle.com/books?id=n1JJAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA357). Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical
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29. Hutton, C.; Shaw, G.; Pearson, R., eds. (1809). The Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
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Further reading
Brayshay, M and Grattan, J. "Environmental and social responses in Europe to the 1783
eruption of the Laki fissure volcano in Iceland: a consideration of contemporary documentary
 evidence" in Firth, C. R. and McGuire, W. J. (eds) Volcanoes in the Quaternary. Geological
Society, London, Special Publication 161, 173–187, 1999
Chris Caseldine (2005). Iceland: Modern Processes And Past Environments (https://books.g
oogle.com/books?id=kEvDhihVhbMC). Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-444-50652-8.
Grattan, John; Brayshay, Mark; Sadler, John (1998). "Modelling the distal impacts of past
volcanic gas emissions. Evidence of Europe-wide environmental impacts from gases
emitted during the eruption of Italian and Icelandic volcanoes in 1783" (https://doi.org/10.340
6%2Fquate.1998.2103). Quaternaire. 9 (1): 25–35. doi:10.3406/quate.1998.2103 (https://doi.
org/10.3406%2Fquate.1998.2103).
Grattan, D., Schütenhelm, R. and Brayshay, M. "Volcanic gases, environmental crises and
social response" in Grattan, J. and Torrence, R. (eds) Natural Disasters and Cultural
Change, Routledge, London 87–106. 2002.
Grattan, John; Brayshay, Mark (1995). "An Amazing and Portentous Summer: Environmental
and Social Responses in Britain to the 1783 Eruption of an Iceland Volcano". The
Geographical Journal. 161 (2): 125–134. doi:10.2307/3059970 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3
059970). JSTOR 3059970 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/3059970).
Jón Steingrímsson. A Very Present Help in Trouble: The Autobiography of the Fire-priest.
Translated by Michael Fell. New York: Lang, 2002.
Stothers, Richard B. (1996). "The great dry fog of 1783". Climatic Change. 32 (1): 79–89.
Bibcode:1996ClCh...32...79S (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1996ClCh...32...79S).
doi:10.1007/BF00141279 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00141279). S2CID 140551420 (htt
ps://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:140551420).
"The Summer of Acid Rain", Economist, December 19, 2007.
Thordarson, Thorvaldur (2003). "Atmospheric and environmental effects of the 1783–1784
Laki eruption: A review and reassessment" (https://www.research.ed.ac.uk/en/publications/1
7d8aae9-d2bf-4120-b61a-31c6966a7e24). Journal of Geophysical Research. 108 (D1):
4011. Bibcode:2003JGRD..108.4011T (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003JGRD..108.4
011T). doi:10.1029/2001JD002042 (https://doi.org/10.1029%2F2001JD002042).
hdl:20.500.11820/17d8aae9-d2bf-4120-b61a-31c6966a7e24 (https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.
11820%2F17d8aae9-d2bf-4120-b61a-31c6966a7e24).
Witze, Alexandra and Jeff Kanipe. Island on Fire: The Extraordinary Story of Laki, the
Volcano That Turned Eighteenth-Century Europe Dark. Profile Books, 2014.
ISBN 9781781250044.

External links
Photos and information (https://web.archive.org/web/20090926041646/http://perso.club-inter
net.fr/acatte/Iceland_Laki_in_english.htm)
Information about the volcanism at Laki (http://volcano.und.edu/vwdocs/volc_images/europe
_west_asia/laki.html)
Lakagígar (https://web.archive.org/web/20081217214437/http://www.umhverfisstofnun.is/me
dia/fraedsluefni/Lakagigar_enska.pdf)
A meditation on Jón Steingrímsson (http://morgue.anglicansonline.org/051106/) from
Anglicans Online
Dr John Grattan at International Volcanic Heath Hazard Network (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20070114001924/http://www.esc.cam.ac.uk/ivhhn/members/people/grattan.html)
A Sulphurous Stench: Illness and Death in Europe Following the Eruption of the Laki
Fissure (https://web.archive.org/web/20160328204527/https://www.agu.org/meetings/cc02b
abstracts/Grattan-p.pdf)
The Dry Fog of 1783: Environmental Impact and Human Reaction to the Lakagígar Eruption
(http://hdl.handle.net/1946/17205)
 Official Website of Vatnajökull National Park (https://www.vatnajokulsthjodgardur.is)

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