Course Titles: Civic and Ethical Education

Topic: understanding international

relations and foreign policy

Group Name ID no section

1. Deressa Fufa ………… ugr/30410/15……….......35
2. Girmaye Nigusu ………..ugr/30599/15…………...36
3. Million Mengistu…….ugr/30932/15…………...….36
4. Milkessa bulti ……..ugr/30933/15……………...35
5. Abenezer Terefe ..…ugr/30081/15………….....35
6. Megersa Lamessa......ugr/30865/15............35

Submitted to: Mr.Fikiru.

 Submission date: may,11,2023

Table of Contents
Page

Introduction.............................................................................................................. 2
Chapter 5 : understanding international relations and foreign policy ....................................................3
5.1. the nature and evolution of international relation ..........................................................................3
5.2. actors of international relations and non state actors ..................................................................4
5.3. levels of analysis in the international relations……………………………………………………………… ....……………6

5.4. contending theories of international relation ………………………………………………………………………………….7

5.4.1 realism and neo-realism………………………………………………………………………………………………………7

5.4.2 idealism /liberalism…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…8

5.4.3 marxism /structuralism / neo-marxim……………………………………………………………………………10

5.4.4 critical theory…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….11

5.4.5 constructivism………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...12

5.4.6 modernism and post-modernism…………………………………………………………………………………13

5.5. national interest, foreign policy and diplomacy…………………………………………………………………………13

5.5.1 what is national interest…………………………………………………………………………………………………13

5.5.2 methods or determinant of secure national interest……………………………………………………14

5.5.3 foreign policy meaning, objectives, dimensions and instruments………………………………15

5.5.3.1 what is foreign policy………………………………………………...........................................15

5.5.3.2 common objectives of foreign policy………………………….....................................15

5.5.3.3 foreign policy behavior : patterns and trends………………………………...................17

5.5.3.4 foreing policy dimensions………………………………………………………………..................18

5.5.3.5 instruments of foreign policy……………………………………………………........................19

5.5.4 rules of effective diplomacy………………………………………………………………………….....................20

1|Page
 5.6. a survey of foreign policy and diplomacy of ethiopia: past and present………………………………………20

Introduction
International relations and foreign policy are two interconnected fields that play a crucial role in shaping the world
we live in. International relations refer to the study of the interactions between states, international organizations,
and other actors in the global system. Foreign policy, on the other hand, refers to the strategies and actions that
states take to pursue their interests and achieve their goals in the international arena.

Understanding international relations and foreign policy is essential for anyone who wants to make sense of the
complex and dynamic world we live in. It involves analyzing the political, economic, social, and cultural factors that
shape the behavior of states and other actors in the global system. It also involves understanding the different
theories and approaches that scholars and policymakers use to explain and predict international events and trends.

In this context, it is important to recognize that international relations and foreign policy are not just academic
disciplines, but also have practical implications for individuals, communities, and nations. They affect issues such as
trade, security, human rights, and the environment, and can have significant impacts on people's lives and well-
being.

Therefore, gaining a deeper understanding of international relations and foreign policy is not only intellectually
stimulating but also has real-world relevance. It can help individuals and policymakers make informed decisions,
navigate complex global challenges, and contribute to a more peaceful and prosperous worl.

2|Page
 CHAPTER FIVE
UNDERSTANDING INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AND FOREIGN
POLICY
5.1. Meaning, Nature and Evolution of International Relations

 the end of this chapter students be able to:

1. Understand what IR means, the types of relation sate could made and nature and evolution of
IR.

2. Identify the different actors of IR.

3. Analyzes the different levels of Analysis in IR.

4. Understand the contending theories of IR and their differences

5. Understand what national interest, foreign policy and diplomacy means.

6. Describes the determinants of securing national interest.

7. Analyzes the evolutions of Ethiopian foreign policy.

5.1. Meaning, Nature and Evolution of International Relations

A. What is International Relation?

 IR- Narrow sense: international relations as concerned only with formal political relations between
states. i.e. Official interaction/ interrelationships between/among the sovereign states.

 Broader sense: Extend the units of analysis beyond the state to include non-state actors and the issues
beyond the military-political to the economic, organizations, trade, financial interactions, cultural relations,
communities, peoples, etc.

 A term International Relations first used by Jeremy Bentham in 1798.

 Why IR is needed? Because:

 There is no individual, person; nation or state can in the world today that is completely self-
sufficient or isolated from others.

3|Page
  No matter how powerful in military, diplomatic or economic circles, even a giant superpower, can
directly or indirectly dependent on the other.

 What make IR difficult?

 There are legal, political and social differences between domestic and international politics.

 Domestic law: is generally obeyed, and if not, the police and courts enforce sanctions.

 International law: rests on competing legal systems, and there is no common enforcement.

 Domestically a government has a monopoly on the legitimate use of force.

 In international politics no one has a monopoly of force, and therefore international politics has
often been interpreted as the realm of self-help.

 Realists respond to the anarchic world system by assuming a "self-help" doctrine, believing they
can rely on no one but themselves for security.

B. Nature and Evolution of International Relations

 The history of International Relations based on sovereign states is begun at the Peace Treaty of
Westphalia of 1648.

 Treaty of Westphalia was signed after Thirty Years’ War, 1618–1648 religious war.

 Westphalia principles with its emphasis on the security, territorial integrity and sovereignty.

 The historical incidents/factors for the emergence of modern International Relations are:-

i. The development of the modern state system

ii. Reformation

iii. The collapse of Roman Empire

5.2. Actors of International Relations

 What are Actors in IR?

 Actor can be defined as a person or entity with the capacity of having an impact in
international relations.

 Actors of International Relation categorized into two.These are:-

 State (nations themselves, the leaders of those nations) and

 Non-State Actors:- under non-state actor there are

4|Page
  Demotic Actors &

 Transnational Actors

1. The State Actors

 The most important actors in international relations.

 Leaders (The most important individual actor within a nation is the top leader of that country, i.e.
The president/The Prime Minister).

2. Non/Sub-State Actors

 Non state actors are non-sovereign entities that exercise significant economic, political or social
power and influence at national, and in some case international level.

i. Demotic Actors

 There is no consensus on the members of this category, and some definitions include trade
unions, community organizations, religious institutions, Universities, labor unions, and cities
etc. These groups can influence a nation’s foreign policy in several ways, such as by lobbying
political leaders, donating money to political candidates or parties, or convincing public opinion
on certain issues.

ii. Transnational Actors

 Are Organizations/firms which are operating in more than one country. It include:-

A. Multinational corporations E.g. Ali baba Group, Amazon, Apple, BBC, China Mobile, The Coca-Cola
Company, Electronic data System, EPSON, Huawei etc.

B. Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs)

E.g. Greenpeace, Red cross / Red Crescent, Amnesty International, Human Right Watch. etc.

C. Intergovernmental organizations (IGOs) like; UN, EU, AU, NATO, World Bank, IMF, African
Development Bank, Asian Development Bank, etc.

 They are usually created to promote cooperation between different nations on a particular issue
or in a particular geographic region.

5.3. Levels of Analysis in International Relation

Thinking of different levels of analysis in IR means that the observer and analyst may choose to focus on
the international system as a whole, parts of the system in interaction with each other, or some of its
parts in particular.

5|Page
 A. The individual level

 Individual Decision maker`s= it may prime minister or the head of a large corporation. Personality,
perception, choice and activities considered.

B. The group level

 A group-level analysis focusing on foreign policy would look at the role of lobbying groups, special
interest groups and the way they influence national decision-making on an issue.

C. The state level

 Also known as ‘state-centrism’.

 Derived from the characteristics of the state

 Type of government= democracy or authoritarian

 Type of economic system= capitalist or socialist

D. The system level

 It is usually distributed into three main types of systems i.e.

i. Uni-polar system

ii. Bipolar system and

iii. Multipolar system.

i. Uni-polar international system is one state has with the greatest political, economic, cultural and
military power and hence the ability to totally control other states.

ii. Bipolar system, there are two dominant states (super powers) and the less powerful states join
either sides through alliance and counter alliance formations. (E.g. Cold war period).

 The problem with bipolar system is that it is vulnerable for zero-sum game politics because when
one superpower gains the other would inevitably lose.

iv. Multipolar system usually reflects various equally powerful states competing for power. In such
system, it is possible to bring change without gaining or losing power.

5.4. Contending Theories of international Relations

 Theory: Set of hypotheses postulating relationships between variables; used to describe, explain,
and predict; must be falsifiable and stand the test of time.Theories of international relations allow

6|Page
 us to understand and to make sense of the world around us through various lenses, each of
which represents a different theoretical perspective.

5.4.1. Realism and Neo-Realism

 Realism

 1. International anarchy:-

 In international relations theory, anarchy is the idea that the world lacks any supreme authority
or sovereign. In an anarchic state, there is no hierarchically superior, coercive power that can
resolve disputes, enforce law, or order the system of international politics. i.e. no dominant
power restricting the behaviour of sovereign state. Anarchy is a situation where there is absence
of/ no authority (government) be it in national or international/global level systems.

 Sovereignty is a political concept that refers ultimate power or supreme authority.

 There are internal and external sovereignty.

 The main difference between internal and external sovereignty is that internal sovereignty refers
to absolute authority within one’s own territory, whereas external sovereignty refers to the
ability of the state to act independently and autonomously in the face of external forces.

2. Reliance on Self-help:-

 Realists believe that states act only out of self-interest and their major goals is to advance their
own positions of power in the world. They claimed that there was no natural harmony of
interests among states and That it was foolish and even dangerous to hope that the struggle for
power among states could be tamed by international law, democratization, and international
commerce. Conflict hence an inevitable and continual feature of international relations.

 As a result states are engaged in a continuous power straggle, where they seek to argument their
own military capabilities, economic power and diplomacy relative to other states. They argued
that the leaders of nations use their power to advance the interests of their own nations with little
regard for morality or friendship.

 Realists believe nations should always be heavily armed and ready for war. Hence, friendships,
religions, ideologies, cultures, and economic systems matter little. Hobbes described human
beings as living in an order-less ‘state of nature’ that he perceived as ‘a war of all against all’.

3. The utility/ usefulness of Military force

4. The Importance of balance of power

5. Absence of morality and

7|Page
6. Statism Realists believe that nation states are the main actors in international politics. As such it is
a state-centric theory of international relations. The realist assumes that state act as unitary, rational
actors and the central decision makers in the state.

 The ideas of realism come from the writings of such historical figures as

 Sun Tzu of ancient China, Thucydides of ancient Greece, Italy’s Niccolò Machiaelli. Thomas
Hobbes, and Max Weber.

 Neo-Realism/Structural Realism

 Realism and Neo-realism are two different schools of thought that showed a difference between
them when it comes to their outlook on international relations. Both of them differed in their
approach to the problem of identifying the various causes of conflicts in international
relations. Developed in 1970-1980 under the influence of the ideas and writing of: Keneth Walth,
Robert Gilpin and Stephen Krasner .Where Morgenthau`s Realism concentrates on the attributes
and behavior of states within the international system, Waltz is not the set of motives which may
determine state behavior, but the imperatives of the international system and the distribution of
capabilities within it.

 The most significant difference is between realism, which places emphasis on human and
domestic factors, and neorealism, which emphasizes how the structure of the international
system determines state behavior

5.4.2. Idealism /Liberalism

 Sometimes referred to as utopianism and it is a alternative of liberal internationalism.It came to

prominence in reaction to the bloodshed of the First World War and In the early years, from 1919
to the 1930s, the discipline was dominated by what is conventionally referred to as liberal
internationalism.

 A central characteristic of idealism/Liberalism are:

 They believe in what unites human beings, than what divides them.

 They are futurists who seek a perfect world.

 They focus on the interdependence of the world’s countries and the mutual benefits they can
gain through cooperating with each other.

 The believe by the role of international organizations and International law in IR. E.g. UN &
League of Nations.

 They have faith in the idea that the permanent cessation of war is an attainable goal

8|Page
 Human nature is essentially good and capable of good deeds in international relations.

 Human welfare and advancement of civilization are the concerns of all.

 State as just one of the many actors in the fields of international relation but not the only actors.
i.e. it recognize individual and non state actors.

They believes that, it is true that a state gives emphasize on its national interests at the international
level similarly, a state does not want to pose threat to international necessities and requirements

 They agree by human civilization can move from one stage of development to another only
through national security, economic development, individual freedom and free trade, such
progress can be exemplified through elimination of war, democratization, economic
development and recognition of human rights.

 They says international peace, security, progress and justice can be ensured only through
international cooperation.

 Such cooperation, in turn can be achieved only through:-

 Recognition of certain moral values at the international level

 Observance of international law

 Collaboration among different international organizations.

 The major proponents of Idealist /Liberalist IR theory:-

 Immanuel Kant, Richard Cobden, John Hobson, Norman Angell, Alfred Zimmern, and Woodrow
Wilson) view human beings as innately good and believe peace and harmony between nations is
not only achievable, but desirable.

 Neo-Idealism/Neo-Liberalism

• Principles/main beliefs:

 Freedom of the individual

 Belief in the efficacy of competition

 Minimization of government interference in markets

 Small government

 Reduced taxes

 Privatization of state asset

9|Page
5.4.3. Marxism/Structuralism/Neo-Marxism

Marxism/ Structuralism critique of both realism and liberalism concentrated on the inequalities that
exist within the international system, inequalities of wealth between the rich ‘North/West’ or the ‘First
World’ and the poor ‘South’ or the ‘Third World’.

Origins:

• Marxism: the 19th century writings of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels.

• Neo-Marxism: 20th century writings adapting Marxism to later developments in Marxism

Principles:

• Fundamental feature of society is economic relationships

• Marxism is an ideology that argues that a capitalist society is divided into two contradictory
classes = Bourgeoisie (capitalists) who own the means of production (capital) and Proletariat
(workers) who own only their labour power.Marx wrote that the power relationships between
Bourgeoisie (capitalists) and Proletariat (workers) were inherently exploitative and would
inevitably create class conflict.Thus, Marxism is a social, political, and economic theory originated
by Karl Marx, which focuses on the struggle between capitalists and the working class.This
conflict would ultimately lead to a revolution in which the working class would overthrow the
capitalist class and seize control of the economy.Thus, for structuralists the fundamental units of
analysis are not states, but social classes and the international system of production and
exchange.

 Structuralism can be seen as a perspective on the world which prioritizes the dilemma of the poor,
the marginalized and the oppressed.

 Structuralists argue that global economic relations are structured so as to benefit certain social
classes, and that the resulting ‘world-system’ is fundamentally unjust.

 Marxist focus on dependency, exploitation and the international division of labor which
relegated the vast majority of the global population to the extremes of poverty.

 Capitalists seek to maximize profits by exploiting workers

 Accordingly the class system that pre-dominated internally within capitalist societies, producing
Centre-periphery relations that permeated every aspect of international social, economic and
political life.

 Structuralists argue that global economic relations are structured so as to benefit certain social
classes, and that the resulting ‘world-system’ is fundamentally unjust.

10 | P a g e
  Marxist focus on dependency, exploitation and the international division of labor which
relegated the vast majority of the global population to the extremes of poverty.

 Capitalists seek to maximize profits by exploiting workers

 Accordingly the class system that pre-dominated internally within capitalist societies, producing
Centre-periphery relations that permeated every aspect of international social, economic and
political life.

NOTE:

 While, liberal pluralist approaches emphasizing the profoundly interconnected nature of

international economic relations or networks of economic interdependence and the importance
of non-state actors as a basis of increasing international cooperation founded on trade and
financial interactions,

 Neo-Marxist structuralism viewed these processes as the basis of inequality, the debt burden,
violence and instability.

5.4.4. Critical theory

 The leading scholars of this theory are Jürgen Habermas, Robert Cox and Andrew Linklater.

 Critical theory refers to a set of Marxist-inspired critical analyses of international theory and
practice.

 Jürgen Habermas, emphasizes on the intimate connection between knowledge and interests.

 Accordingly, concept of truth is established by rational consensus. What is true is what is agreed
to be true, but this consensus must have specific rational features, otherwise truth loses all
meaning.For Andrew Linklater, another leading critical theorist in the field, questions of inclusion
and exclusion are central to international relations. He advocates a community of humankind and
he wants to construct new forms of inter-national political relations that are able to include all
people on equal grounds.Finally, Critical theorists also provide a voice to individuals who have
frequently been marginalized, particularly women and those from the Global South.

5.4.5. Constructivism
 Constructivism is a theory commonly viewed as a middle ground.

 Constructivism is a distinctive approach to international relations that focuses on the social

interaction of agents or actors in world politics

 They highlight the importance of values and shared interests between individuals who interact on
the global stage.

11 | P a g e
  Alexander Wendt, a prominent constructivist, described the relationship between agents
(individuals) and structures (such as the state) as one in which structures not only constrain agents
but also construct their identities and interests.

 The core of constructivism, is that the essence of international relations exists in the interactions
between people.

 After all, states do not interact; it is agents of those states, such as politicians and diplomats, who
interact.

 Constructivists insist that international relations cannot be reduced to rational action and
interaction within material constraints (as some realists claim) or within institutional constraints
at the international and national levels (as argued by some liberal internationalists).

 For constructivists, state interaction is not among fixed national interests, but must be
understood as a pattern of action that shapes and is shaped by identities over time.

 According to constructivists, international institutions have both regulative and constitutive

functions.

 Regulative norms set basic rules for standards of conduct by prescribing or proscribing certain
behaviors.

 Constitutive norms define a behavior and assign meanings to that behavior.

 Constructivists accept that anarchy is the characteristic condition of the international system, but
argue that, by itself, it mean nothing.

* For example, an anarchy of friends is quite different from an anarchy of enemies, but both are

possible.

 As a theoretical approach, constructivism is difficult to employ.

Constructivism, for example, does not predict any particular social structure to govern the behavior of
states. Rather, it requires that a given social relationship be examined, articulated and, ultimately
understood.

5.4.6. Modernism and post-Modernism

 Modernity: "a post-traditional, post-medieval historical period", in particular, one marked by

progress from agrarianism via the rise of industrialism, capitalism, secularization, the nation-
state, and its constituent forms of surveillance. Hence, to be modernized you need to “change in a
value and attitude”.According to this theory, development in developing countries would come
about and would be engineered through the diffusion of innovations, capital, technology, modern

12 | P a g e
 ideas, entrepreneurial ship, democratic institutions, and values from the developed western
societies.

 Post Modernism literally means 'after the modernist movement’.

 As the study of IR, it is emerged in the 1980s.

 It is characterized by three main themes.

1. First, postmodernists are hostile/against towards claims to universal or absolute truth.

They argue that all truth-claims are based on met narratives, or background worldviews,
according to which particular claims to truth or value are legitimated or rejected.

2. Second, postmodernists is a grand narratives of oppressive.

Particular liberations have given birth to new forms of ‘caging’. Liberalism has emancipated us
from feudalism only to deliver us to capitalism. Marxism has merely replaced capitalism with
Stalinism.

Modern science has neglected and marginalized pre modern forms of human knowledge.

3. The third theme calls for ‘respect for difference’.

5.5. National Interest, Foreign Policy and Diplomacy of Ethiopia: past and Present

5.5.1. What is National Interest?

 Hans Morgenthau defines National Interest as survival that includes “protection of physical,
political and cultural identity against encroachments by other nation states”. In general, national
interest can be defined as demands, goals, interests, and claims by a nation to protect, preserve
and defend its relations with other nation-states.It is a set of values, orientation, goals, needs,
desire and objectives a given country would like to achieve in its international relations.The
protection of the countries interests in the international arena.

 National interest is the reason of state to justify its actions and policy towards other state at
international level.National interest has been the main driving force that determines the contents
of foreign policy. Power or the ability to influence the behaviors of other states is underscored as
the primary instrument to implement national interest. Natiional interest is aspirations/
Ambition of the state/government to fulfill in its future interaction with others.

 There are four aspect of national interest which are not mutually-exclusive.

 Defense/Territory
 Economic

13 | P a g e
  World order
 Ideology /political institution/Culture

 Multiplicity of criteria used to define national interest

 Operational philosophy

 Moral and legal criteria

 Pragmatic criteria

 Ideological criteria

 Professional advancement

 Partisan criteria

 Bureaucratic-interest criteria

 Ethnic/racial criteria

 Class-status criteria and

 Foreign –dependency criteria.

5.5.2. Methods/ Determinant of Securing National Interest

 Diplomacy

 Propaganda

 Economic means

 Alliance and treaty/International Law

 Coercive measure

5.5.3. Foreign Policy: Meaning, objectives, Dimensions and Instruments

5.5.3.1. What is Foreign Policy?

Foreign policy is something that a state would like to achieve in its external relations with others.

 It is a set of principles, decisions and means, adopted and followed by a nation for securing her
goals of national interest in international relations. National interest is often considered as the
objectives of foreign policy of a state.

 Foreign Policy involves:

14 | P a g e
  General purposes, Priority of goals to be realized and achieved. Specific strategies and
instruments, economic and diplomatic tools that state used to achieve their objectives.

 These objectives, visions and goals state aspire to achieve is commonly referred as
national interest.

 All states would like to promote their national interest as their capability or power allows
them to do.

 Morgenthau suggests that the minimum goal a state would like to achieve is survival.

5.5.3.2. Common objective of foreign policy

 Every state should protect their physical, political, and cultural identities against any
encroachment by other states.

 The preservation of physical identity is equated with the maintenance of the territorial integrity of
a state.

 Preservation of political identity is equated with the preservation of existing politico-economic

systems. And

 The preservation of cultural identity is equated with ethnic, religious, and linguistic and historical
norms of the peoples residing in the state.

 Foreign policy also involves specific instruments and tactics that must be employed to realize
those objectives and goals. In diplomacy, states attempt to affect the behavior of others through
bargaining that involves less element of power as compared to other instruments. Yet states may
manipulate carrot and stick methods such as reward or threats so as to induce agreement
whenever there appears to be incompatible goals and objectives.

 Foreign Policy has three main Objectives

 State has short term, middle term and long term goals and objectives to be achieved.

 In other words these objectives are also called:

1. Core values and interests, to which states commit their very existence and that must be preserved
or extended at all time;

2. Middle range goals, which normally impose demands on several others states (commitments to
their achievement are serious and time limit is also attached to them); and

3. Universal long range goals-which seldom have definite time limits.

1. Core Interests and Values (Short Range Objectives):

15 | P a g e
  Security and survival of a state, has always been considered as the first priority, among various
foreign policy objectives, which a state aspires to achieve in the short run.

 Core interests and values, is to ensure the sovereignty and independence of the home territory
and to perpetuate a particular political, social, and economic systems based on that territory.

 A kinds of goals for which most people are willing to make ultimate sacrifices.

 It is a basic principles of foreign policy and become article of faith that society accepts without any
questioning it.

 So core interests are sacrosanct by entire peoples residing in the state.

 Core interests and values are most frequently related to the self preservation of political and
economic systems, the people and its culture, and the territorial integrity of a state. These are
short-range objectives because others goals cannot be realized if the existence of the state and
its political units are not ensured.

 Extraterritoriality is there when the national interest and claims of a country is projected beyond
the limit of its geographic boundary. i.e. Some governments place great values on controlling or
defending neighboring territories, because these area contain asset such as man power and
resources that can increase the capabilities, or because they believe that the major threat for their
territorial integrity might materialize through adjacent countries and then conquering the part or
whole of neighboring countries might be considered as the core interests of states.

 States may think that their national interest is at risk when the interests and security of citizens, or
kin ethnic or religious groups living in the neighboring states and other states are threatened. So,
liberating or protecting the interests of such individuals and groups might be considered as part of
its core national interest.

2. Middle Range Objectives :

 The middle range objective drastically varies across states. The variation is due to the difference in
the level of economic and technological progress, and the military capability of states. Yet it can be
said that the bottom point that a state would like to achieve in its medium term is to take a course
of actions that have the highest impact on the domestic economic and welfare needs and
expectation.

 This would include the attempts of government to meet

 Economic-betterment demands and needs through international action.

 Social welfare and economic development, cannot be achieved through self-help, as most states
have only limited resources, administrative services, and technical skills.

16 | P a g e
  Interdependence means that to satisfy domestic needs and aspirations, states would have to
interact with others.

 Trade, foreign aid, access to communication facilities, sources of supply, and foreign market are
for most states necessary for increasing social welfare.

 It can be argued that with the very great demands people have placed on governments to provide
them jobs, income, recreation, medical services, and general security, government increasingly
have to develop policies to satisfy expectations of face political defeat.

3. Long- Range Objectives:

 Long range goals are those plans, dreams, and visions concerning the ultimate political or
ideological organization of the international system, and rules governing relations in that system.

The difference between middle-range and long range goals relates in scope. In pressing for middle range
goals, states make particular demands against particular interest; in pursuing long range goals, states
normally make universal demands, for their purpose is no less than to reconstruct an entire international
system according to a universally applicable plan or vision.

 Often those middle powers and less developing countries, does not formulate long range
objective. Every country has its own visions and ambition proportional to its relative strength and
capabilities to be realized in the long run.

5.5.3.3. Foreign Policy Behavior: Patterns and Trends

 Foreign policy behavior refers to the actions states take towards each other.

 Arnold Wolfers, a famous specialist in the field of International Relations, suggested that all
foreign policy behavior ultimately boils down to three possible patterns:

1. self-preservation (maintaining the status quo);

2. self-extension (revising the status quo in one’s own favor);

3. self-abnegation (revising the status quo in some else’s favor).

5.5.3.4. Foreign Policy Dimensions:

 The analysis of foreign policy behavior can also be done along a number of specific dimensions,
state behavior can change over time and with different style of leaderships and circumstances.

 There are three dimensions:

1. Alignment,

17 | P a g e
 2. Scope and

3. Modus operandi.

1. Alignment

 Under alignment there are alliance, neutrality and non-alignment.

A. Alliances: are formal agreements to provide mutual military assistance. It has certain benefits as well
as risks.

 Its benefits allied countries can pool their military resources, if the state is attacked by another
state. Yet an alliance state also risks interference by allies in its domestic affairs, the possibility
being dragged.

B. Neutrality: is a stance of formal non partisanship in world affairs.

 Neutrals may avoid some of the problems associated with alliances, particularly the generating of
potential enemies and counter alliances. However if war clouds gather, there may be no one
committed to providing a protective military umbrella.

C. Nonalignment: has been the foreign policy pattern of most developing state during cold war.

 Most developing countries had a movement-Non Alignment Movement (NAM) in which they
called for a new foreign policy path/choice/ to be followed disregarding the both the West and
East bloc politics and alliances. NAM had noble agenda that called for the South-south
cooperation.

2. Scope

 It is a country’s activities and interests in international arena. Some countries have extensive, far-
reaching international contacts, while other countries have more limited activities abroad. A
country’s scope of contact can affect the outcome of disputes and crises.

 With regards to the scope of activities a state has in international relations, one can identify at
least three patterns of foreign policy behaviors. Some actors act in Global terms, others as
Regional terms, and those that follow policy of Isolationism.

3. Mode of Operation/ “Modus Opernadi’

 Some countries often rely on multilateral institutions to address different issues.

 Still others very much rely on unilateral means, to address their different issues.

Most developing countries used the multilateral approaches to address many issues of concern.

18 | P a g e
5.5.3.5. Instruments of Foreign Policy :-

A. Diplomatic bargaining policy:

 Diplomacy is one of the persuasive measures to secure national interests. Countries negotiate,
bargain, compromise and coordinate to achieve their desired ends and outcomes. It is an effective
means of conflict resolution.

 Diplomatic bargaining is used primarily to reach agreements, compromises, and settlements

where governments objectives is in conflict. Regardless of whether diplomacy is conducted openly
or secretly, multilaterally or bilaterally, tacitly or formally, by ambassadors or leader-to-leader, the
essence of diplomacy remains bargaining.

 Diplomatic Bargaining can be defined as a means of settling differences over priorities between
contestants through an exchange of proposals for mutually acceptable solutions. It involves,
whether in private meeting or publicized conferences, the attempt to change the policies, actions,
attitudes and objectives of other government and their diplomats by persuasion, offering rewards,
exchange concessions, or making threats.

B. Economic instruments of Foreign Policy: Rich and developed countries use economic aid and loans to
advance their interests in international arena. Poor countries depend on powerful countries for
technological know-how, foreign aid, industrial goods, and for selling of raw materials.

 Tariff, Quota, Boycott, Embargo, Loans, Credits and Currency Manipulations,Foreign Aid

C. Propaganda: Frankel has defined propaganda as the “systematic attempt to affect the minds,
emotions, and actions of a given group for a specific public purpose”. Propaganda involves the art of
statesmanship. It allows persuading others on the justness of their goals to secure national interest.
Proliferation of Internet has enhanced the scope of propaganda. Social websites are used to mould the
public opinion.

D. Terrorism (sabotage), and

E. Use of force (war) or Military Aid

5.5.3.6. Rules of Effective Diplomacy

 Be realistic: It is important to have goals that much your ability to achieve them.

 Be careful about what you say: The experienced diplomats plans out and weighs words carefully.

 Seek common ground: Dispute begins negotiations; finds common ground ends them
successfully.

19 | P a g e
  Understand the other side: One is to appreciate an opponent’s perspective even if you do not
agree with it.

 Be patient: Being overly anxious can lead to concessions that are unwise and may convey
weakness to an opponent.

 Leave avenues of retreat open: it is obvious that even a rat will fight if trapped in a corner. The
same is often true for countries. Call it honor, saving face, or prestige; it is important to leave
yourself and your opponent an “out”.

5.6. Overview of Foreign Policy of Ethiopia

1. Foreign Policy during Tewodros II (1855-1868)

 Although the Ethiopian state traces its history back to more than 3000 years, the modern imperial
state did not begin to emerge until the middle of 19th century.

 Throughout his reign Emperor Tewodros tried to develop a dynamic foreign policy that reached
out beyond the Horn Region.

 The emperor attempted to establish his diplomatic relations to fight his immediate enemies.

 As Keller has put it “he appealed specifically to Britain, France and Russia.

 But he was died 1868 at the battle of m Mekedela when he was fight with British solders.

2. Foreign Policy during Yohannes IV (1872-1889)

 Indeed Egypt tried to put a serious security threat having its motive was to control the source of
Blue Nile.

 However, were not successful as Egypt faced subsequent defeat both in 1875 and 1876 at the
Batle of Gundet and Gura respectively.

 In addition to Muslim threat, the emperor saw European expansionism as greater threat to the
survival of the country which has turned out to be real as Italy got a foot hold at the port of
Massawa in 1885.

 However, the emperor died fighting with the “Mahadists”.

3. Foreign Policy during Menelik II (1889-93)

 Menelik was the King of Shoa region before his coronation as the Kings of Kings of Ethiopia.

20 | P a g e
  Before the death of Yohannes Italy had good diplomatic relation with Menelik with the objective
of weakening its immediate enemy in the North, Yohannes.

 Menilik comfortably exploited the opportunity to consolidate his power, perhaps to deter
Yohannes and bolster its expansionist policy to the south which had disappointed Yohannes as
witnessed by the absence of Menelik from participation in the war against Mahadists.

Following the death of Yohannes, however, Italy continued to be the main challenge in the North other
colonial powers surrounding all four corners of the country as the scramble of Africa was heightened.
(Hold of Bogess, later named Eritrea, and Missawa).

 The emperor followed double track diplomacy to contain or reverse Italy’s expansion and maintain
the territorial integrity of his country.

1) On the one hand, he entered many treaties and agreements to solve the challenge amicably. (The
‘Wuchalle’ treaty).

2) On the other hand the emperor was preparing himself by accumulating military ammunitions to
defend the aggression from any side of colonial powers, British, French and of course Italy.

 However, the emperor’s diplomatic endeavor with Italy failed to result in peace due to Italy’s
misinterpretation of the controversial article 17 of the ‘Wuchalle’ treaty.

In 1896, the emperor declared nation-wide war against Italy in defense of the territorial integrity and
sovereignty of the century old nation.

4. Foreign Policy during Emperor Haile Selassie I (1916-1974)

• Menelik died in 1913 and it was not until 1930 that the next strong emperor Haile Selassie I,
assumed the throne.

• He was dedicated to the creation of a stronger, centralized and bureaucratic empire with
unquestioned respect by the international community.

• In 1923, when as Regent to the Crown, Teferi Mekonen, facilitated Ethiopia’s entry to the League
of Nations.

• When the Italian Fascists finally invade Ethiopia between 1936 and 1941, the Emperor fled to
London and established a government in exile.

• In the immediate post-war period, Ethiopia was extremely dependent on British military,
economic and technical aid.

• British Military Aid was withdrawn in 1952, and the King moved quickly to firm up relations with
the United States.

21 | P a g e
 • Ethiopia also played significant role in Africa in fighting for African independence and to end
colonialism and apartheid.

• In this manner, the emperor can be considered as one of the founding fathers of African
Unification.

• The emperor’s strategic alliance with outside powers helped him to stay on power for decades.

• The emperor secured the territorial integrity of the country and also secured port through Eritrea,
yet the abrogation of the UN imposed federation arrangement of Eritrea remained one of a
foreign policy challenge to the military regime who came to power through coup de’tat.

5. Foreign Policy during the Military Government (1974—1991)

• The military regime that took control of state power in 1974 adopted a foreign policy largely
oriented to socialist ideology.

• Since socialism was the guiding philosophy of the country, friendship and alliance with socialist
countries of the world was considered as a viable strategy for realizing socialism at home and
perhaps in the world.

• In this regard, the country was heavily dependent on military aid on the Soviet Union which
prevented it from securing any kind of military and technical assistance from the US and other
European countries.

• Internally Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF) launched military attack on the Ethiopian Army.

• Many external actors were involved in sponsoring the rebel group, including; Saudi Arabia, Egypt,
Sudan, Somalia and later USA itself.

• Apart from the Dergue’s near total dependence on the leaders in Moscow and their Warsaw Pact
allies for military and logistical support during the war with Somalia and in the Eritrean conflict,
several others factors have facilitated the consolidation of this new special relationship.

• Apart from socialism, Ethiopia’s strategic locations and other questions, such as; Eritrea, Somalia,
and the issue of the Nile, had also shaped the foreign policy orientation and behavior of military
government. Ethiopia being located in the Horn of Africa is at the cross roads to the oil rich middle
East region and Indian Ocean.

• In general the adoption of socialism and its subsequent impact on the foreign policy of the country
could be considered as a departure from its predecessors; however the policy objective of the
country remained unchanged.

6. The Foreign Policy of Ethiopia in the Post 1991

22 | P a g e
 • With EPRDF’s ascent to power the country adopted a new foreign policy orientation and
objectives.

• In the post 1991 period, Ethiopia’s foreign policy is driven primarily by the quest to ensure
national interest and security.

• As such, one of the goals of the foreign policy is to ensure the survival of the multi- national state.

• The primary strategy in realization of these goals is to put the focus on domestic issues like
addressing domestic political and economic problems requires forging national consensus about
the problems and exit strategies from the problem.

• At diplomatic level, economic diplomacy is adopted to strengthen the domestic efforts in fighting
poverty and backwardness and address the issues of development.

• Economic diplomacy involves attracting foreign investments, seeking markets for Ethiopian
exportable commodities, seeking aid and confessional loans too.

• Ethiopia appreciates the East Asian countries economic successes and development paths and the
country would like to learn from such successful countries such as Singapore, Malaysian and
Indonesia.

• The other foreign policy strategy is building up the military capability of the country. Peaceful
dialogues and negotiations will be employed to peacefully coexist with others.

• To this end the three regimes used a combination of both military force and diplomacy to address
both internal and external challenges depending on the circumstances.

• In this manner, while the imperial and the military regime’s foreign policy strategy is largely an
approach the current regime followed “in-side out” approach.

Reference
https://www.slideshare.net/ayeshasaifbhatti/7-foreign-policy-process-1

https://slideplayer.com/slide/14916171/

https://www.slideshare.net/dattatreyareddyperam/non-governmental-organisations-ngos

https://www.slideshare.net/anbreenali/international-relations-26281593

https://en.ppt-online.org/38669

https://www.slideshare.net/ibrahimkoncak/neoliberalism-in-ir

23 | P a g e
https://cupdf.com/document/ir-501-lecture-notes-constructivist-theories-of-ir.html)

24 | P a g e