CONCEPCION HOLY CROSS COLLEGE

Minane, Concepcion,
CONCEPCION HOLYTarlac
CROSS COLLEGE
College of Education
Minane, Concepcion, Tarlac
First Semester 2022 – 2023
College of Education
First Semester 2022 – 2023

ENVIRONMENTAL
SCIENCE
Reviewer for Prelims
What is Energy?
Scientists define energy as the ability to do work. Modern civilization is possible because people
have learned how to change energy from one form to another and then use it to do work. People
use energy to walk and bicycle, to move cars along roads and boats through water, to cook food
on stoves, to make ice in freezers, to light our homes and offices, to manufacture products, and to
send astronauts into space.

Forms of Energy
Energy comes in six basic forms: chemical, electrical, radiant, mechanical, thermal and nuclear. In other
research, you may find additional forms mentioned such as electrochemical, sound, electromagnetic
and others. However, many additional forms are combinations of these six basic categories.

Each of these six forms can be converted, or changed, into the other forms. For example, when you have a
fire burning in your fireplace, the chemical energy in the wood changes into thermal (heat) energy and
radiant (light) energy. For something a little more complex, think about a car. The chemical energy of a
fuel (gasoline or natural gas) is converted into mechanical energy so the car can move.

Chemical energy is energy that is stored within the connections (the bonds) between tiny parts of a
substance (molecules). Some common examples of chemical energy are contained in fuels such as coal,
gasoline, natural gas and even sugar! When our bodies burn sugar during exercise, the sugar components
are “reorganized” and release the energy that was in the chemical bonds of the original substance.

Electrical energy is energy from moving electrons. All matter is made up of atoms, and atoms are made
up of smaller particles, called protons (which have positive charge), neutrons (which have neutral charge),
and electrons (which are negatively charged). Protons and neutrons are found in the center, or nucleus of
an atom. Electrons orbit around the nucleus, like the moon orbits the Earth. Some materials, particularly
metals, have electrons that are only loosely attached to their atoms. They can easily be made to move
from one atom to another if an electric or magnetic field is applied to them. When those electrons move
among the atoms of matter, a current of electricity is created.

Radiant energy is the form of energy associated with the movement of light, electromagnetic waves or
particles. Radiant energy includes visible light as well as other things that are not visible to the unaided
eye like x-rays, gamma rays and radio waves. Light, like the light from the Sun, is one type of radiant
energy. This energy is what makes life on Earth possible.

Mechanical energy is the energy possessed by an object due to its movement or position. In other words,
an object possesses mechanical energy when it has the ability to do work due to its position or motion.
Mechanical energy can take the form of either kinetic energy, which is energy due to an object's motion,
or potential energy, which is stored energy due to an object's position. More about kinetic and potential
energy a bit later.

Thermal energy is heat energy, or the energy of moving or vibrating molecules. Heat and thermal
energy are directly related to temperature. Adjacent objects that are different temperatures will
spontaneously transfer heat to try to come to the same temperature. A hot cup of coffee in a cool room
loses some of its thermal energy as heat flows from the coffee to the room. The molecules in the coffee
slow their vibrating as the coffee loses heat, and over time, the coffee cools to the same temperature as
the room.

Gravitational energy is energy associated with gravity.

As you may have guessed, gravitational energy is energy associated with gravity. It is the potential energy
stored by an object because of its higher position compared to a lower position. (e.g. if it's further away or
closer to the ground).
Two General Types of Energy
POTENTIAL AND KINETIC ENERGY
❖ Potential energy is the stored energy in any object or system by virtue of its
position or arrangement of parts. However, it isn’t affected by the environment
outside of the object or system, such as air or height.
❖ Kinetic energy is the energy of an object or a system’s particles in motion.

What is Matter?
is a substance made up of various types of particles that occupies physical space and has inertia.

According to the principles of modern physics, the various types of particles each have a specific

mass and size.

States of Matter
The word "matter" refers to everything in the universe that has mass and takes up space. All
matter is made up of atoms of elements. Sometimes, atoms bond together closely, while at other
times they are scattered widely.

States of matter are generally described on the basis of qualities that can be seen or felt. Matter
that feels hard and maintains a fixed shape is called a solid; matter that feels wet and maintains
its volume but not its shape is called a liquid. Matter that can change both shape and volume is
called a gas.

It is important to understand the particle nature of matter. The particles that make up matter are
not ‘small bits of solid’ or ‘small drops of liquid’ but atoms and molecules. The physical
characteristics of those atoms and molecules decide its state.
❖ A solid has a definite shape and volume because the molecules that make up the
solid are packed closely together and move slowly. Solids are often crystalline;
examples of crystalline solids include table salt, sugar, diamonds, and many other
minerals. Solids are sometimes formed when liquids or gases are cooled; ice is an
example of a cooled liquid which has become solid. Other examples of solids
include wood, metal, and rock at room temperature.
❖ A liquid has a definite volume but takes the shape of its container. Examples of
liquids include water and oil. Gases may liquefy when they cool, as is the case
with water vapor. This occurs as the molecules in the gas slow down and lose
energy. Solids may liquefy when they heat up; molten lava is an example of solid
rock which has liquefied as a result of intense heat.
❖ A gas has neither a definite volume nor a definite shape. Some gases can be seen
and felt, while others are intangible for human beings. Examples of gases are air,
oxygen, and helium. Earth's atmosphere is made up of gases including nitrogen,
oxygen, and carbon dioxide.
❖ Plasma has neither a definite volume nor a definite shape. Plasma often is seen in
ionized gases, but it is distinct from a gas because it possesses unique properties.
Free electrical charges (not bound to atoms or ions) cause the plasma to be
electrically conductive. The plasma may be formed by heating and ionizing a gas.
Examples of plasma include stars, lightning, fluorescent lights, and neon signs.
Everything in this universe is made up of material which is called matter. Matter is referred to as
any substance which is seen by our eyes or felt by our senses. Matter is everything having
definite shape or size and occupies volume.
What is matter made of?
Matter consists of building blocks. In chemistry, atoms and ions are the smallest units of matter
that cannot be broken down using any chemical reaction. But, nuclear reactions can break atoms
into their subunits. The basic subunits of atoms and ions are protons, neutrons, and electrons.
The number of protons in an atom identifies its element.

Protons, neutrons, and electrons are subatomic particles, but there are even smaller units of
matter. Protons and neutrons are examples of subatomic particles called baryons, which are made
of quarks. Electrons are examples of subatomic particles called leptons. So, in physics, one
definition of matter is that it consists of leptons or quarks.

Cycles
Human Life Cycle
The following are the different stages of development in the human life cycle
1) Fetus:
❖ The sperm from the adult male human and the egg from the adult female human form a
zygote inside the uterus of the female. Over time, the zygote develops and forms an
embryo. Initially, the embryo looks like a cluster of cells, but after eight weeks, the
embryo resembles the human body and is called a foetus. During this stage, the foetus is
entirely dependent on the female for breathing, eating and other kinds of resources.
2) Infancy:
❖ After around nine months, the foetus is fully developed to be born. This stage in human
development marks the period from birth to age one. Infancy is the earliest part of
childhood, where the infant grows in size and shape. During this stage, infant requires a
lot of attention as they are completely dependent on their mothers. Infants develop their
behaviour, physiology and cognition. Gradually, the infants learn to suck, swallow and
cry if they are in an uncomfortable situation. Since infants are unable to speak, crying is
their way of communicating. The mother tends to breastfeed her infant during this stage.
3) Toddler years:
❖ The term ‘to toddle’ means to walk unsteadily and the child has a clumsy walk during
this period. This stage marks the end of early childhood. During this period, the child
ages two to three years old. This stage in a child’s life is where they undergo immense
cognitive, emotional and social development.
4) Childhood:
❖ Here, a child is of age three to six years and is crawling for mobility. In this stage, the
child crawls and eventually learns to walk, talk, eat independently, and become more
aware of their surroundings. The child is more social and active during this period and
intrigued to learn new things.
5) Adolescence:
❖ Here, the child is of age from nine to thirteen years and this period marks the beginning
of adolescence. In this stage, the child grows into an adolescent, through a period called
puberty. Puberty occurs during the initial stages of their teenage years, and that’s why
adolescents are also called teenagers. In this stage, the teenager grows rapidly and
physical changes begin to appear. These changes include hair growth, structural changes
in body shape, voice cracking in adolescent males, breast growth in adolescent females
and so on.The behaviour pattern also changes, as they are more independent in
performing daily tasks.
6) Adulthood:
❖ Human beings who are between the age of 20 to 60 years are known as adults. Here,
human beings are sexually mature and capable of reproducing. The body is fully
 developed by now, and the adult gains experience and responsibility. Adults have full
mental and social development by this stage.

7) Middle age:
❖ This is the time period of adulthood between the age of 30 to 50 years.
8) Old age:
❖ When an individual reaches 60 or 65 years of age, they are called old people. This period
starts from 65 years of age, until the end of their lives. During this stage, the intestine
absorbs fewer nutrients from food sources. The physical capabilities of doing tasks are
also reduced and they again depend on external support to do things.
The behaviour of old people in this stage varies, depending on the immunity and lifestyle of the
human. The average life expectancy of human beings varies from 70 to 85 years. But this also
changes depending on their lifestyle.

Food Chain/Food Cycle

What is a Food Chain?
A food chain refers to the order of events in an ecosystem, where one living organism eats
another organism, and later that organism is consumed by another larger organism. The flow of
nutrients and energy from one organism to another at different trophic levels forms a food chain.
The food chain also explains the feeding pattern or relationship between living organisms.
Trophic level refers to the sequential stages in a food chain, starting with producers at the
bottom, followed by primary, secondary and tertiary consumers. Every level in a food chain is
known as a trophic level.
The food chain consists of four major parts, namely:

The Sun:
❖ The sun is the initial source of energy, which provides energy for everything on the
planet.
Producers:
❖ The producers in a food chain include all autotrophs such as phytoplankton,
cyanobacteria, algae, and green plants. This is the first stage in a food chain. The
producers make up the first level of a food chain. The producers utilise the energy from
the sun to make food. Producers are also known as autotrophs as they make their own
food. Producers are any plant or other organisms that produce their own nutrients through
photosynthesis.
Consumers:
❖ Consumers are all organisms that are dependent on plants or other organisms for food.
This is the largest part of a food web, as it contains almost all living organisms. It
includes herbivores which are animals that eat plants, carnivores which are animals that
eat other animals, parasites that live on other organisms by harming them and lastly the
scavengers, which are animals that eat dead animals’ carcasses.Here, herbivores are
known as primary consumers and carnivores are secondary consumers. The second
trophic level includes organisms that eat producers. Therefore, primary consumers or
herbivores are organisms in the second trophic level.
Decomposers:
❖ Decomposers are organisms that get energy from dead or waste organic material. This is
the last stage in a food chain. Decomposers are an integral part of a food chain, as they
convert organic waste materials into inorganic materials, which enriches the soil or land
with nutrients.Decomposers complete a life cycle. They help in recycling the nutrients as
they provide nutrients to soil or oceans, that can be utilised by autotrophs or producers.
Thus, starting a whole new food chain.
Cycles within the Ecosystem

❖ Water Cycles
Water is essential to life and all organisms. Water Cycle is the cycle that involves the
continuous circulation of water in the earth-atmosphere system through precipitation,
condensation, evaporation, and the transpiration of plants and animals. This is a complex
process in which the sun plays a vital part.
Key Processes in Water Cycle
• Evaporation: When the sun heats the river and oceans, water in the liquid state is
transferred to a gaseous or vapour state and it rises in the air.
• Condensation: When the water vapours reach the clouds they cool down and the
water vapours condense to form clouds.
• Transport: Winds move clouds into cooler air, water droplets merge, grow
bigger and heavier.
• Precipitation: When the clouds become too heavy and they cannot hold any more
water inside they burst in the form of rain, hail, sleet, or snow. This is also called
precipitation. This precipitation is freshwater which means it does not contain
salt.
• Surface runoff: When the precipitation occurs, some of the water evaporates
back into the air while some get into the soil and become groundwater. A lot of
water forms rivers or streams which eventually get back into the sea.
• Infiltration: When the water that has fallen as precipitation gets absorbed into the
ground can be stored in underground rocks referred to as aquifers.
• Transpiration: Plants and other living organisms also play a vital role in this
cycle. Plants take up the groundwater through the tissue which is known as the
xylem and the excess water is evaporated from the pores present on the leaves
called stomata. This process is called Transpiration.

Ecosystem, Biomes, and Species

Our planet is consist of different amazing places. This places are consist of different
ecosystems. Each one is home of many different living organisms. Each regions consists
different types of species that will surely amaze you.

I. ECOSYSTEM
A biological community of interacting organisms and their physical environment.

Types of Ecosystem
1. Terrestrial Ecosystem – is a land-based community of organisms and the interactions of
biotic and abiotic components in a given area.
2. Aquatic Ecosystem – is an ecosystem formed by surrounding a body of water, in
contrast to land-based terrestrial ecosystems.

II. BIOMES
Biomes are large regions of the world with similar plants, animals, and other living things
that are adapted to the climate and other conditions.
5 Major Types of Biomes
1. Desert – deserts are dry areas where rainfall is less than 50 centimeters (20 inches) per
year. Deserts can be either cold or hot, although most of them are found in subtropical
areas. Because of their extreme conditions, there is not as much biodiversity found in
deserts as in other biomes.

2 types of desert
• Arid - Arid regions by definition receive little precipitation—less than 10 inches
(25 centimeters) of rain per year.
• Semi-arid – receive 10 to 20 inches (25 to 50 centimeters) of rain per year

2. Grassland – are open regions that are dominated by grass and have a warm, dry climate.
There are two types of grasslands:

2 types of grassland
• Temperate – grasslands are found further away from the equator, and receive less
precipitation than savannas
• Tropical - sometimes called savannas, are found closer to the equator and can
have a few scattered trees.

3. Forest – are dominated by trees, and cover about one-third of the Earth. Forests contain
much of the world’s terrestrial biodiversity, including insects, birds, and mammals.

3 major types of forest

• Temperate – are found at higher latitudes and experience all four seasons.
• Tropical – are warm, humid, and found close to the equator.
• Boreal – also known as the taiga, are found at even higher latitudes, and have the
coldest and driest climate, where precipitation occurs primarily in the form of
snow.

4. Aquatic – found in water. This is the largest of all biomes. Aquatic biomes include both
freshwater and marine biomes.

2 categories of aquatic biomes

• Freshwater – are bodies of water surrounded by land such as ponds, rivers, and
lakes that have a salt content of less than one percent.
• Marine – include the ocean, coral reefs, and estuaries.

5. Tundra – is the coldest of all the biomes. Is a large, and treeless area, where the climate
is cold and windy, and rainfall is scant.

2 types of tundra
• Arctic – is found north of boreal forests.
• Alpine – found on mountains where the altitude is too high for trees to survive.
 III. SPECIES
Is the basic unit of classification and taxonomic rank of an organism, as well as a unit
of biodiversity.
Is often defined as the largest group of organisms in which any two individuals of the
appropriate sexes or mating types can produce fertile offspring, typically by sexual reproduction.
Is a group of organisms that may interbreed and produce offspring that is also capable of
reproducing the same kind.

8 major taxonomic ranks

• Domain(Eukarya)
• Kingdom(Animalia)
• Phylum(Chordata)
• Class(Mammalia)
• Order(Carnivora)
• Family(Canidae)
• Genus(Vulpes)
• Species(Vulpes vulpes)

Endangered species that can be found in the Philippines;

• Philippine eagle
• Tamaraw
• Philippine crocodile
• Walden’s hornbill
• Net coral
• Visayan warty pig
• Tarsier
• Philippine forest turtle
• Negros bleeding-heart

Causes of species endangerment

• The exotic pet trade
• Hunting and overfishing
• Climate change
• Pollution
• Habitat loss