Fundamental of Mental Health

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~ THE PEOPLE'S
UNIVERSITY MPC-051
Indira Gandhi National Open University Fundamentals 01
School of Social Sciences
Mental Health
Concept 01 Mind 1
MPC-051
Fundamentals of
Indira Gandhi
Mental Health
National Open University
School of Social Sciences
Block
1
CONCEPT OF MIND
UNIT 1
Mental Health 5
UNIT 2
Mind: Constituents of Mind 14
UNIT 3
Biological Basis of Mind 27
UNIT 4
Psychological Basis of Mind 34
Expert Committee
Prof. Vimala Veeraraghavan Dr. Rajeev Dogra Prof. M. Thirunavakkarasu
(Chairperson) Clinical Psychologist President, Indian Psychiatric
Former Emeritus Professor Dept. of Psychiatry, PGIMS Society, Prof. & Head
Discipline of Psychology Rohtak Dept. of Psychiatry
IGNOU, New Delhi Prof. Ram Ghulam SRM Medical College
Prof. T. B. Singh Head -Department of Psychiatry Hospital & Research Center,
Professor Clinical Psychology M.G.M. Medical College Indore Chennai
Institute of Behavioural Sciences M.P., Superintendent Dr. Swati Patra
Gujrat Forensic Sciences Mental Hospital Indore (Programme Coordinator)
University, Gujarat Prof. Dinesh Kataria Associate Professor
Prof. B. S. Chavan Dept. of Psychiatry Discipline of Psychology
Head, Dept. of Psychiatry Lady Hardinge Medical College IGNOU, New Delhi
Govt. Medical College New Delhi
Chandigarh Prof. R. C. Jiloha
Prof. R. K. Chadda Head, Dept. of Psychiatry
Dept. of Psychiatry, AIIMS G.B. Pant &Maulana Azad
Ansari Nagar, New Delhi Medical College, New Delhi
Programme Coordinator Course Coordinator

Dr. Swati Patra Dr. Smita Gupta
Associate Professor Assistant Professor
Discipline of Psychology Discipline of Psychology
SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi
Course Writers Block Editors

Units 1, 2, 3, &4 Prof. R. K. Chadda
Prof. M. Thirunavakkarasu Professor
Prof. & Head, Dept. of Psychiatry Dept. of Psychiatry, AIIMS
SRM Medical College Hospital & Research Center Ansari Nagar, New Delhi
Chennai
and
and
Ms. Preethi Krishnan Dr. Smita Gupta

Head and Associate Professor Assistant Professor
Department of Clinical Psychology Discipline of Psychology
SRM Medical College SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi
SRM University, Chennai
Print Production
Mr. Manjit Singh
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SOSS, IGNOU, New Delhi
July, 2015
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BLOCK 1 INTRODUCTION
In this course you will come across the basic fundamentals of mental health. The
present block deals with the definition of mental health, the concept of mind, its
structure and constituents, and also about the biological and psychological basis
of mind.
Here in Block 1 of MPC-051, we will be focusing on the concept and definition
of Mind and Mental Health.
Unit 1 deals with “Mental Health”. It discusses the various definition, concepts
and issues related to the mental health. The Unit further deals with the scientific
approaches to mental health. The first Unit of this block will help you in
understanding the basics of mental health.
Unit 2 deals with “Mind: Constituents of Mind”. This Unit discusses about the
various constituents of mind. It later focuses on the Eastern as well as Western
facets towards the explanation of the concept of mind. This Unit also hubs around
the nature, structure and the levels of mind according to Ayurveda and also
explains the concept of Manas.
Unit 3 describes the “Biological Basis of Mind”. It elucidates the significant
contribution of bodily/biological changes in the field of mental health. The role of
brain functioning with reference to consciousness and also in the regulation of
emotions, cognitions as well as the brain functions related to memory, sleep and
dream states have been explained in this Unit.
Unit 4 is “Psychological Basis of Mind”. It describes the different contributions
and viewpoints of various psychologists like Freud, Jung towards the functioning
of mind and brain. This Unit also tries to explain the humanistic psychologists and
cognitive psychologists aspects of mind.
Mental Health
UNIT 1 MENTAL HEALTH
Structure
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Objectives
1.3 Defining Mental Health
1.3.1 Model A – Mental Health as Above Normal
1.3.2 Model B – Mental Health as Maturity
1.3.3 Model C – Mental Health as Positive or Spiritual Emotions
1.3.4 Model D – Mental Health as Socio-Emotional Intelligence
1.3.5 Model E – Mental Health as Subjective Well-Being
1.3.6 Model F – Mental Health as Resilience
1.4 Let Us Sum Up

1.5 Answer to Self Asessment Questions
1.6 Unit End Questions
1.7 References
1.1 INTRODUCTION
In day to day language, the term “health” is often used to refer to the
absence or presence of disability or disease. People of different background
and cultures may have different concept of health. The concept may also
differ according to the circumstances. For example, an older person may
consider inner strength and ability to cope with life’s challenges as health. On
the other hand, a younger person would consider fitness, energy and strength
as more important, and as indicators of health. Those who live in good living
conditions tend to think of health in the context of enjoying life, while those
who do not live in so comfortable circumstances may consider essentials in
daily life as health. The World Health Organisation (WHO) has defined health
as “a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely
absence of disease or infirmity”.
A number of factors may enhance or threaten an individual’s or community’s
health status. Some of these may be under the control of an individual (e.g.,
smoking) and others may not be, such as social class, ethnicity, access to
education, gender, quality of housing, presence of supportive relationship etc.
(World Health Organization Report, 2004)
In today’s context, it is important to understand the meaning of mental health,
since in the last few decades, the employing institution is eager to know about
mental fitness of a person besides physical fitness for the job, a prospective
employee is going to a join. The mental health professional may be asked to
assess the mental health status of the prospective Candidate. The WHO
defines mental health as “a state of wellbeing, in which every individual
realises his or her own potential, can cope with the normal stresses of life,
can work productively and fruitfully, and is able to make a contribution to her
or his community Thus, the mental health refers to a broad group of activities 5
Concept of Mind directly or indirectly related to mental well-being. The activities include
promotion of wellbeing, the prevention of mental disorders, and the treatment
and rehabilitation of people affected by mental disorders (WHO, 2012).
There is no health without mental health.
The following section discusses the various concepts and issues related to the
mental health.
1.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this Unit, you will be able:
 to define mental health;
 to understand the concept of mental health; and
 to understand the six empirical approaches to mental health.
1.3 DEFINING MENTAL HEALTH

Psychiatry has been preoccupied only with mental illness for long and that
there is a lack of attention given to the study of positive mental health. Mental
health is not just the absence of negatives (psychopathology or symptoms of
illness), but the presence of positives. To further elaborate, mental health is
conceptualised as a multifaceted construct. Defining mental health is not very
easy as it includes several issues that need to be considered carefully. Mental
health may be conceptualised along the following six constructs or the models
(Vaillant, 2003; Vaillant & Vaillant, 2009):
a) Mental health is above normal
b) Mental health as maturity
c) Mental health as positive or spiritual emotions
d ) Mental health as socio-emotional intelligence
e) Mental health as subjective well-being
f) Mental health as resilience
1.3.1 Model A – Mental Health as Above Normal

According to this model, mental health is something above normal. Normality
is perceived as being on a continuum, encompassing the major portion of the
adults on the continuum, while abnormality is the remainder. Thus, the normal
refers to the reasonable, rather than optimum level of functioning. However,
mental health would be considered as above average. For example, in the
military, a jet pilot must be required to be above average in mental health for
his occupational demands.
To understand this concept, it is important to trace the historical changes,

which have occurred in this concept in the past century. What is normal in
relation to mental health has been a matter of debate for a long time.
6
According to one prevalent concept it is the absence of psychosomatic Mental Health
symptoms. This concept was practiced from 1940s to 1970s. This definition
of mental health was initially used in the United States by John Clausen and
his co- workers in 1941 to assess the young men enlisted into the United
States army. Thus, the absence of psychopathology was considered as
synonymous with normal.
Changes in the procedure of assessment of mental health were seen after the
World War II. Normal adaptive behaviour of those who served in the army
was studied and the observations were published in scientific literature. There
was a focus on the adaptation of the army veterans into civilian life.
In 1958, Marie Johoda brought in a major change in the conceptualisation of

mental health. In this model, the criteria for assessing mental health focused on
positive aspects of mental health, rather than absence of symptoms of mental
illness. The criteria for assessing mentally healthy individuals included:
 One should be in touch with his/her identity and feelings.
 One should be oriented towards the future and overtime should be

fruitfully invested in life.
 One’s psyche should be integrated and provide him/her resistance to

stress.
 One should possess autonomy and recognise what suits one’s needs.
 One should perceive reality without distortion and yet possess empathy.
 One should be master of one’s environment. One should able to work,

love and play and be efficient in problem-solving.
Other important longitudinal studies showed that mental health characteristics

were predictable and that mental health could be empirically studied.
Eventually, the importance of defining mental health has been increasingly

recognised and attempts have been made to continue to describe and define
mental health.
American Psychiatric Association’s, Diagnostic and Statistical manual of Mental

Disorders, 4thedition, 1994 (DSM-IV) used the Global Assessment of
Functioning (GAF) scale to measure “above average” mental health. The GAF
scale was a modification of the Health Sickness Scale and the Global
Assessment Scale. On the GAF Scale, a score of 91–100 equals “superior
functioning in a wide range of activities. This level also includes ability to cope
effectively with various life’s problems, which never seem to get out of hand.
The functioning level, is sought out by others because of the many positive
qualities. The person obviously does not have any symptoms.” The 5th
edition of the American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical
manual of Mental Disorders, 2013 (DSM-5) has, however, not included GAF
scale or any other specific measure of assessing the functioning status.
It is important to emphasise here that mental health should be defined broadly

and not narrowly, since it is difficult or even impossible to have uniform norms 7
Concept of Mind across the different societies or cultures. In any definition, cultural sensitivities
should be taken into consideration, and the definitions should be empirically
and longitudinally validated.
1.3.2 Model B – Mental Health as Maturity
This model conceptualises mental health as a state of maturity. The model is
based on the eight stages of human development, as described by Erik
Erikson in 1950 and the Harvard’s Study of Adult Development. The
association of mental health to maturity is probably mediated not only by
progressive brain myelinisation, as a person grows older, but also by the
evolution of emotional and social intelligence through experience. In the Indian
family system, looking to the elderly for advice in case of any crisis is an
example of looking to the mature mind (i.e. the perfectly healthy mind) for
finding a solution to the difficult situation.
This model of mental health as maturity includes 6 components: identity,
intimacy, generativity and integrity (4 concepts borrowed from Erikson), career
consolidation and keeper of the meaning (derived from the Harvard’s Study
of Adult Development). The concepts are further discussed as below:
1) Identity: Identity is a developmental task which emphasises that the
adolescents must achieve an identity which allows them to become
separate from their parents. Identity is not just a product of egocentricity,
such as running away from home or marrying to get out of a dysfunctional
family, but is the understanding of one’s own values as independently and
distinct from the values of family origin. For example, pursuing a career
of one’s choice rather than reluctantly taking up family’s choice. The
decision, if based on internalising family values as well as the values of
the society or the peer group with an independent judgement would
indicate developing a mature identity. Biological maturation also has an
important role here.
2) Intimacy: Development of an intimate relationship permits an individual
to reciprocate with the partner and not remain selfish or self centred.
There should be a commitment in the relationship. This capacity for
intimacy becomes effortless, as the relationship stabilises. Intimacy is
desirable in not just one-to one relationship but also in other interpersonal
relationships. Mastery of intimacy also depends on the cultural factors.
3) Career consolidation: Mastery of this task permits adults to find career
as valuable as one considered during earlier phases of life. This involves
being valuable not only to oneself but also to others. Contentment,
compensation, competence, and commitment play an important role in
career consolidation.
4) Generativity: Generativity refers to a demonstration of a clear capacity
to care for and guide the next generation. The phase comes sometime
during the age 35-55 and includes decline in one’s desire for one’s
achievement and an increasing inclination to serve the community in a
variety of ways.
5) Keeper of the meaning: This is one of the ultimate responsibilities
underlying maturity, which involves passing the tradition of the past to the
future. Conserving and preserving cultural values and passing it on to the
8 future generation is an indicator of mental health.
6) Integrity: Integrity refers to achieving some sense of peace and unity Mental Health
with respect to both one’s life as well as to the whole world.
These six sequential tasks are a kind of a general guidance to help clinicians
make an assessment of mental health as per the age of the person. One may
be a mature 21-year-old and healthy, or an immature 50-year-old, and
unhealthy.
Self Assessment Questions 1
State whether the statements are true or false:
1) Identity is a developmental task. ( )
2) The Global Assessment of Functioning (GAF) scale is used

to measure “below average” mental health. ( )
3) The model of mental health as maturity includes 4

components: identity, intimacy, generativity and integrity. ( )
4) Integrity refers to achieving some sense of peace and unity

with respect to both one’s life as well as to the whole world. ( )
1.3.3 Model C – Mental Health as Positive or

Spiritual Emotions
This model defines both mental and spiritual health as the amalgam of the
positive emotions that bind us to other human beings. Recent advances in
neuroscience and in the biological understanding of positive emotions have
brought out the significance of positive psychology.
This model comprises eight important positive emotions: love, hope, joy,
forgiveness, compassion, faith, awe and gratitude. They all involve human
connections and do not have anything to do just with self. All major religious
faiths emphasise the importance of these emotions.
Positive emotions have an effect on our autonomic (visceral) nervous system,
similar to the relaxation achieved with meditation. The positive emotions
reduce the basal metabolism by acting through the parasympathetic nervous
system. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (FMRI) studies on Kundalini
yoga practitioners have shown that meditation increases the activity of the
hippocampus and the right lateral amygdala, which further stimulates the
parasympathetic system, leading to a sensation of deep peacefulness.
1.3.4 Model D – Mental Health as Socio-Emotional

Intelligence
This model conceptualises mental health with socio-emotional intelligence.
Socio-emotional intelligence refers to accurate conscious perception and
monitoring of one’s emotions and ability to modify emotions so that the
expression of emotions is appropriate. This would also include an accurate
recognition of others’ emotions and an appropriate response. One should have
skills in negotiating close relationship with others and a capacity for focusing
emotions towards a desired goal.
9
Concept of Mind High socio-emotional intelligence reflects above average mental health. Emotional
intelligence lies at the heart of positive mental health. The capacity to identify
the different emotions in ourselves and in others has an important role in the
social interactions and relationships, and hence in mental health.

Fill in the blanks with suitable words:
1) Socio-emotional intelligence refers to accurate conscious perception
and .................................................................
2) Model C defines mental and spiritual health as the amalgam of the
...................................................... that bind us to other human beings.
3) Studies show that meditation increases the activity of the ..................
................................................................. and ...............................
........., which further stimulates the parasympathetic system, leading
to a sensation of deep peacefulness.
4) Positive emotions have an effect on our ..................................................
nervous system.
5) The eight important positive emotions comprises of ..............................
..............................................................................................................
1.3.5 Model E – Mental Health as Subjective Well-being

The capacity for subjective well-being is an important component of mental
health. Positive mental health is not just being a joy to others but also
experiencing subjective well-being. Subjective well-being is a complicated
concept, because mental health issues are influenced by value judgment and
illusion. What may be subjective well-being for a person may not be same for
another person. The primary function of positive emotions is to facilitate self
care. However, the primary functions of subjective negative emotions can also
be healthy, reminding one to seek environmental safety. Subjective well-being
is not just the absence of misery but the presence of positive contentment.
Earlier definitions suggested that a happy person is young, healthy, well
educated, well paid, optimistic, worry free, religious and married with high
self-esteem, holding a reasonably good job, is of good morale and has
modest aspirations. However, the later researchers have shown that this
definition is partly correct and they have suggested that the subjective well-
being could be partially inherited and is relatively not dependent on socio-
demographic variables. The maintenance of self-efficacy and autonomy make
additional environmental contributions to subjective well-being. For example
elders might decide to live on their pension money independently rather than
with relatives, an example of subjective well-being.
1.3.6 Model F – Mental Health as Resilience

Resilience is the ability to be flexible and to get back to normalcy when faced
with stressful situations. One needs to have an adaptive reactions pattern.
There are three broad classes of coping mechanisms for developing resilience:
10
 One may consciously seek social support in an appropriate manner. Mental Health
 One may employ conscious cognitive strategies (thinking patterns) to

master the stressful situations.
 One may have adaptive involuntary coping mechanisms called defense
mechanisms that distort perceptions of internal and external reality in
order to reduce subjective distress. Although it may appear that these
defense mechanisms are maladaptive patterns, these are normal coping
reactions to reduce conflict and cognitive dissonance. This helps in
maintaining internal homeostasis in mental health of an individual.
Healthy involuntary mechanisms include use of humour, altruism, sublimation,
suppression, and anticipation. These concepts are briefly discussed as follows:
 Humour makes life easier and permits discharge of emotions. It allows
one to even directly look at painful situations and deal with it.
 Altruism (getting pleasure from helping others) is used to master conflict
situations. For example, a former alcoholic wanting to help others to
overcome alcohol dependence gets mental satisfaction by being altruistic.
 Sublimation is a process of converting painful situations into triumph.
Examples include extreme sad feelings can be expressed through poetry
or music or a person with violent feelings joining the armed forces.
 Suppression minimizes and postpones facing the problem situations but
eventually deals with it. This is also a method of adaptive coping.
 Anticipation is the capacity to keep the affective response to an
unbearable future event in manageable doses in one’s mind, and use it at
the appropriate time.
The study of individuals with positive mental health is crucial in understanding
the vulnerability to mental illness. This is important from the point of developing
primary prevention, which is definitely better than treating the illness.
Currently, each mental illness is identified by a set of symptoms present or
elicited signs. This assembled set of clinical information invariably includes
variations arising from culture, language, geography, religion, country, etc. This
information is based on the view points of both the client and the psychiatrist
and therefore it varies according to each one’s perception. Sometimes there
may be variations even from the same person at different points of time and
also between people. These variations are often resolved by the process of
voting or consensus by a selected group of experts. Criteria for diagnosis of
mental illness are thereafter statistically derived, most often by some sort of
scoring system on a list of enumerated symptoms for each diagnosis. This is
an empirical approach, and may not be the ideal approach, since any illness
should be diagnosed on ascertaining the disease process. But since the exact
etiology of most psychiatric illnesses is not known, this practical approach has
got a world wide acceptance.
Mental health is then understood by the lack of these symptoms for each
diagnosis or by the principle of diagnostic exclusion. Even the so called
positive definitions of mental health seem to be constructed indirectly from
excluding what constitutes mental illness. 11
Concept of Mind
Choose the correct alternative:
1) Mental illness is identified by presence of a set of symptoms /
assumptions.
2) Suppression minimises / maximises and postpones facing the problem
situations but eventually deals with it.
3) Altruism is a process of getting pleasure from helping / hitting others.
4) The primary function of positive emotions is to facilitate self care /
care for others.
5) Resilience is the ability to be flexible / rigid and to get back to
normalcy.
1.4 LET US SUM UP

In the above discussion you should have understood that, Mental Health is an
intrinsic part of health for any individual or community. It is essential for well-
being and functioning of individuals, also it is an important resource to
individuals belonging to all levels of society. Various components of mental
health, factors affecting mental health and models of mental health have been
discussed in this chapter. Important points that can help you in summarising
the facts are as follows:
 WHO defines mental health as “a state of well-being, in which every
individual realises his or her own potential, can cope with the normal
stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully, and is able to make
a contribution to her or his community. Mental health can be conceptualised
as :
 Above normal; a mental state, that is objectively desirable;
 As maturity;
 In terms of positive psychology, implying presence of multiple human
strengths;
 As emotional intelligence;
 As subjective wellbeing, a mental state that is subjectively experienced as
happy, contented and desired; and
 As resilience – a capacity for successful “bouncing back” to normality,
i.e. a tendency to cope with stress and adversity.
1.5 ANSWER TO SELF ASESSMENT QUESTIONS

1) True
2) False
3) False
12 4) True
Self Assessment Questions 2 Mental Health
1) Monitoring of one’s emotions and ability to modify emotions so that the

expression of emotions is appropriate.
2) Positive emotions that bind us to other human beings.
3) Hippocampus and the right lateral amygdala.
4) Autonomic (visceral) nervous system.
5) Love, hope, joy, forgiveness, compassion, faith, awe and gratitude.
1) Symptoms
2) Minimizes
3) Helping
4) Care for others
5) Flexible
1.6 UNIT END QUESTIONS

1) What is the WHO definition of Mental Health?
2) Explain the factors that contribute to mental health.
3) Why is understanding and defining mental health important to the field of
psychiatry?
4) Enumerate different models of mental health.
5) What are the difficulties in the current criteria for mental illness?
1.7 REFERENCES
Vaillant GE (2003). Mental health. American Journal of psychiatry, 160:1373–
1384.
Vaillant GE, Vaillant CO (2009). Normality and mental health. In Kaplan &
Sadock’s Comprehensive textbook of psychiatry, 9th edn., Lippincott Williams
& Wilkins, NY.Pp 691-706.
World Health Organisation (2004) Promoting Mental Health: Concepts,
Emerging Evidence, Practice: Summary Report. World Health Organisation:
Geneva.
Websites: (http://www.who.int/features/factfiles/mental_health/en/accessed on
8 July 2013).
13
Concept of Mind
UNIT 2 MIND: CONSTITUENTS OF
MIND
Structure
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Objectives
2.3 Western Concepts of Mind
2.4 Eastern Concepts of Mind
2.5 The Concept of Mind in Ayurveda
2.5.1 The Nature of Mind
2.5.2 Structure of Mind
2.5.3 Five Levels of Mind
2.5.4 Tridhoshas
2.5.5 Trigunas
2.5.6 Psychological Disturbances
2.5.7 Summary
2.6 Concept of Mind and Mental Health

2.7 Utilitarian Concept of Mental Health
2.8 Let Us Sum Up
2.9 Answer to Self Assessment Questions
2.11 References
2.1 INTRODUCTION
It has been believed since millennia, that man has been intrigued by what mind
is and what are its characteristics. Scientists and philosophers have attempted
understanding it since long. The question still remains regarding the exact nature
of mind and its association with the brain. Though we might have been able
to understand the structure and function of different parts of the brain to a large
extent, exact nature of mind still remains out of bounds, though one may be
able to given different explanations for it and its functions. Historically, the
philosophers like Plato and Aristotle, and later scientists like Ryle and Freud
in the nineteenth and twentieth century made excellent attempts at resolving the
puzzle of mind. The concept of mind is understood in different ways in different
cultures and religious traditions. This unit discusses the early philosophical
concepts, medical concepts and psychological concepts of mind.
2.2 OBJECTIVES
With the help of the present Unit, you will be able to:
 Understand mind and its constituents;
 Understand the Western concepts of mind;
14
 Understand the Eastern concepts of mind; Mind: Constituents of Mind
 Know the nature, structure and the levels of mind according to Ayurveda;
and
 Understand the concept of Manas.
2.3 WESTERN CONCEPTS OF MIND

Maxwell Bennett has provided an elaborate and comprehensive account of the
historical ideologies related to mind. Nearly 6000 years ago, man began
explaining his experiences of the self, especially experiences during sleep and
dreams which intrigued him. He believed these experiences to be wandering,
shadow like entities which came to be known as spirits in Shamanism. These
wandering spirits were thought to be capable of ethereal travel, (Bennett, 2007)
Later, Homer, sometime during 8th – 5th century BC, identified this spirit as
the ‘soul’, which he believed was located in the head. Homer identified two
kinds of souls: a body soul with emotional, rational, intellectual, and mind
components, and an impersonal as well as immortal soul, capable of ethereal
travel.
Around the 4th century BC, Plato postulated about presence of only one soul
for each person, called the ‘psyche’. The psyche was constituted of three parts,
thymos for emotions, logos for reasoning and pathos referring to the bodily
appetites of food and drink. Thymos was located in chest, logos in the head
and pathos in the liver.
According to Plato, the thymos and the pathos were composed of a corporeal
or mortal substance, whereas the logos, i.e., the mind which was concerned
with reasoning, was incorporeal and immortal, existing even after the death of
the individuals. Thus mind (or logos) was a part of the soul (or psyche) that
was immortal. Since the capacity to reason was attributed to the soul, which
was considered immortal, morality became associated with the soul. Plato’s idea,
as old as 3rd – 4thcentury BC has dominated the Western thought, extending
up to this very day. This idea of dualism of the psyche, being composed of
a bodily component and an immortal component, the mind, was quite attractive
for the future Christian theology and philosophy, which argued that the bodily
mortal components of the soul, namely the emotions (thymos) and the appetites
(id) existed in all, but the capacity to reason and act (the logos) was immortal
and subject to divinity or the supernatural God.
Aristotle, a disciple of Plato, further advocated that there were three different
types of souls influencing a person –
1) A rational soul (concerned with thinking and analysing),
2) A sensitive soul (concerned with passions and desires), and
3) A nutritive soul (concerned with appetites and drives).
This classification was some what similar to the thymos-logos-pathos classification
of Plato, but according to Aristotle theory, none of these three souls were in
corporeal substances but merely provides powers or characteristics or traits of
the mortal person. The mind could not be located anywhere inside the body,
but was simply an attribute of the body.
After Aristotle, the mind-body dualism introduced by Plato, and adopted and
nourished by Christian theology regained momentum as Neo platonism. However, 15
Concept of Mind the issue, how the mortal corporeal components of the body could interact with
an immortal soul, influencing the life of a mortal man, has remained unanswered
by dualism.
In the 16th century, Rene Descartes theorized that emotional soul (or thymos)
and the nutritive soul (or the id) were functions of the body, and not of the
soul. Thus, Descartes removed thymos and the id from the soul and displaced
it to the body. Hence, the logo (or the rational or reasoning entity) was considered
the lone constituent of the soul, i.e., the psyche. Descartes maintained that this
psyche is immortal and incorporeal. He also introduced the concept of awareness
of one’s own self, i.e., consciousness to the immortal psyche.
Since the time of Descartes, there have been several remarkable advances in
science that have not been able to shake the Cartesian system of mind-body
dualism.
In the 19th century, Ivan Pavlov demonstrated that learning (which is often
regarded as a “mental” capacity) was an involuntary process, suggesting the
existence of a machinery in the brain that enables learning. Meanwhile, Charcot
demonstrated that clinical symptomatology in multiple sclerosis patients were
correlated to pathological changes in the central nervous system. Around the
same time, Alois Alzheimer showed that general paralysis of the insane (GPI),
a complication of tertiary syphilis, was associated with histological changes in
the brain, thereby confirming that what was termed “insanity” could be related
to brain pathology.
Alzheimer’s findings received serious attention, when Emil Kraepelin suggested
that mental illness has a biological basis, rooted in both environmental and genetic
factors. By doing so, Kraepelin was able to explain the biological basis of
psychiatric illness using neurosciences, while at the same time maintaining
psychiatric illness as distinct from neurological illness. Nevertheless, the Cartesian
system of dualistic approach to the mind and body is still widely prevalent among
the medical community, medical education system and the common public alike.
It is important to come to the realization that the mind-body problem and the
concomitant burden of explaining how the psyche (regardless of how it is defined)
interacts with the body (or brain) is simply an artificial by-product of the Cartesian
system of medicine, which even the contemporary society has chosen to accept
by default.

Fill in the blanks:
1) Ivan Pavlov demonstrated that learning was an .....................................
process, suggesting the existence of a machinery in the brain that enables
learning.
2) The mind-body dualism was introduced by ............................ .
3) Maxwell Bennett has provided an elaborate and comprehensive account
of the historical ideologies related to............................. .
4) According to Plato, the thymos and the pathos were composed of a
........... substance, whereas the logos was concerned with ....................
5) Homer, sometime during 8th – 5th century BC, identified spirit as the
.................... .
16
Mind: Constituents of Mind
2.4 EASTERN CONCEPTS OF MIND
The eastern world ideas of the soul are different from the western ideas although
there are some similar parallels. The soul is called the ‘atma’ in Sanskrit. There
is a school of thought that distinguished a mortal personal life soul called
‘jeevatma’ which interacts with the immortal divine the impersonal soul
‘paramatma’. This is the ideology of ‘dvaita’ (meaning two), a strict distinction
between God-the ultimate eternity also known as – ‘parmatma’ and the individual
souls which is said to be the ‘jivatma’. According to one theory, the individual
souls of beings are not created by God but depend on Him for their existence.
The Indian philosophies do not commonly regard the soul with psychological
attributes such as emotions, memory, learning etc., unlike the western systems.
The Indian system of medicine refers to abnormalities in the body as an
explanation for the underlying causes of mental illness. However, mental illness
is seen as a separate discipline which is similar to the current western concepts.
2.5 THE CONCEPT OF MIND IN AYURVEDA

The science of Ayurveda is a branch of the Indian philosophy. Its approach
is universal and hence its relevance has no geographical, cultural or religious
boundaries. It is based on the doctrine of logic, and includes physiology,
psychology, pharmacology, pathology and diagnostics.
Ayurveda, as a knowledge structure is organized into three levels of bodies,
viz. physical body, mental body and spiritual body. Ayurveda deals for the most
part with the physical body. However, while doing so it connects it also to
the mental and spiritual bodies. Thus, Ayurveda concentrates on the total well-
being of an individual in body, mind and spirit.
Ayurveda provides us a means to understand ‘prana’ (living body) on a practical
level with the three humors, or the tri-doshas. The three doshas (abnormalities
in humors) are actually three different manifestations of the cosmic prana and
recount to its diverse functions in the body. These three humors are easy to
monitor and can provide a clear understanding of the prana, functions of the
body. The ‘tri-dosha (vata, pitta, and kapha) theory is the most all-inclusive
system ever formed to comprehend functioning of our body and symptoms of
various illnesses. The uniqueness of Ayurveda is the application of the tri-dosha
theory to recognise and treat individuals.
According to Ayurveda, health is not merely freedom from disease. It is essential
that body, mind and soul are in an excellent state of balance, so that the individual
can perform his functions and fulfil his role purposefully in life, which is called
dharma in Vedic philosophy.
2.5.1 Nature of Mind

Ayurveda treats the mind as the sixth sense organ with control over the other
five sense organs, and therefore is placed above them in the brain.
The mind also functions as a motor organ and enables activities through speech
and other actions. The mind is the area where thoughts are present, whereas
the body is comprised of matter. The senses exist only when the mind exists
and directs the other sense organs.The mind acts both a sensory and as well
as a motor organ, interpreting senses and then directing actions. 17
Concept of Mind Indian tradition does not share the Cartesian dichotomy of the body and the
mind, as in the western psychological thinking. In fact, the interplay between
the mind (‘mana’), soul (‘atma’) and body (‘sharira’) in a tripod allusion is
the cornerstone of Ayruveda philosophy. However, dichotomy exists between the
‘non-self’ and the ‘self’.
Ayurveda is deeply concerned with the concept of a true balance. This balance
entails not only a correct functioning of systems and organs, psyche and spirit
but also a balanced interpersonal relationships with nature as a whole, between
family members, our climate, the civilization we live in, between our ideals and
customs, between truth and our selves, etc.
Mind is mobile, and not only a shifting point in space, but also a changing
point in time. So the true balance of mind is very important in the well-being
of an individual. At the same time mind is dualist in its analysis. It is prone
to dualistic reactions of love/hate, like/dislike and so on. All psychological
problems are nothing more than the wrong use of mind. Practicing the right
use of mind not only solves the psychological problems, but also directs us
to our higher potential of self-realization.
2.5.2 Structure of Mind
The mind is not physical matter, but of a subtle nature, ethereal and luminous.
It not only controls our thought processes but also helps us in carrying out
day-to-day activities such as respiration, circulation, digestion and elimination.
The mind and the body work in combination with one another to regulate our
physiology. It collects information from all the senses and then decides the action.
Mind thus can be presumed as a computer, which receives the data form various
senses, which is entered into the computer. Smell and taste are two important
senses that aid in the digestive process. When the mind registers that a particular
food is entering the gastrointestinal tract, it directs the body to act accordingly
by releasing various digestive enzymes. If we overindulge, the taste buds with
too much of a certain taste, such as sweet, we may find that the ability of
the mind to perceive the sweet taste is impaired; and thereby the body becomes
challenged in its ability to process sweet foods. Maintaining the clarity of our
senses is an essential part in allowing the mind and body to integrate their
functions and help in keeping us healthy and happy individuals.
Ayurveda regards the heart as the centre of consciousness. This is not the physical
heart but the core of knowing deep inside ourselves. It carries out functions
like regulating thoughts, feelings and sensations. It pervades the entire field of
perception.
In general, in Ayurveda, three types of therapies are used to correct a dosha
imbalance. These constitute internal cleansing, external cleansing and surgical
therapy.
According to Ayurveda the mind has three basic layers- inner, intermediate and
outer.
 Inner mind consists of the deep core of feeling and knowing. The inner
mind or the deeper consciousness harbours air, which confers the mind
a capacity to relate, identify itself and feel alive. It constitutes the core
or the heart of the consciousness, which is never evident at the surface.
It is the motivating force for the remaining functions of the mind. Most
18 of what goes as unconscious, subconscious and super conscious falls under
the realm of inner mind.
 Intermediate mind is our capacity to bring outer impressions to the inside Mind: Constituents of Mind
and inner tendencies to the outside. The intermediate mind serves the
function of reasoning, judgement, perceiving what is right or otherwise,
measuring and evaluating the data brought from the outer mind.
 Outer mind is the part of the mind dominated by the senses and emotions
in which we ordinarily function on a daily basis, gathering impressions and
acting in the outer world. The outer mind, which is directed to the sensory
world of the external environment, has water as its chief element. Water
is the formative aspect of the mind that enables construction of one’s reality
after gathering impressions from outside. It is with the outer mind that one
lives and transacts with the external world. This is the part of mind to
which one is familiar with and knows as the mind.

State whether the statements are true or false:
1) Inner mind is the capacity to bring outer impressions to the
inside and inner tendencies to the outside. ( )
2) The mind is not physical matter, but of a subtle nature,
ethereal and luminous. ( )
3) Ayurveda treats the mind as the seventh sense organ with
control over the other six sense organs, and therefore is
placed above them in the brain. ( )
4) The mind and the body can not work in combination
with one another to regulate our physiology. ( )
5) In Ayurveda there are three types of therapies which are
used to correct a dosha imbalance. ( )
2.5.3 Five Levels of Mind

The five levels of the mind are charged by different elements. These are as
follows:
 The higher self-ether
 Inner consciousness — air
 Intelligence or buddhi — fire
 Sense or mind — water
 Ego — earth.
Ayurveda views a person as an unique individual, made up of five primary

elements. Just as in nature, we too have these five elements in us. When any
of the five elements are present in the environment, they will in turn have an
influence on us. The food we eat and the weather are just two examples of
the presence of these elements. Ayurveda applies the five elements to the mind
layers:
19
Concept of Mind  Air exists in the inner mind as the underlying mental sensitivity or deeper
feeling nature. It is the background vibratory field of energies, habits and
tendencies that sustain the mind, by which we are continually thinking.
 Fire exists in the intermediate mind as the rational or discriminating faculty
which allows us to perceive and to judge things.
 Water exists in the outer mind as the emotional nature, our ability to connect
with the external world, which is the seeking of consciousness to take form.
 Earth exists in the mind as the ego, the sense of separate self through
which we feel ourselves to be a limited person, identified with a particular
body in time and space
 Ether exists in the mind as its underlying mind-space, the background
capacity for all mental functions, vibrations and impressions. Without space,
the mind cannot function and has no room to move.
Earth and Ether are two basic levels to the self, between which the three aspects
of consciousness function. The outer self defines itself according to the body,
our physical identity. On the other side, the inner self is our sense of pure
subjectivity, the pure “I am” beyond all bodily identity.
2.5.4 Tridoshas
While we are a composite of these five primary elements, certain elements are
seen to have an ability to combine to create various physiological functions.
Vatadosha: Ether and air combine to form this dosha. Vata governs the principle
of movement and therefore can be seen as the force which directs nerve impulses,
circulation, respiration, and elimination.
Pitta dosha Fire and water are the elements that combine to form this dosha.
The pitta dosha is the process of transformation or metabolism. The
transformation of foods into nutrients that our bodies can absorb is an example
of a pitta function. Pitta is also responsible for metabolism in the organ and
tissue systems as well as cellular metabolism.
Kaphadosha: Water and earth combine to form this dosha. Kapha is what
is responsible for growth, adding structure unit by unit. Another function of the
kaphadosha is to offer protection. Cerebral-spinal fluid protects the brain and
spinal column and is a type of kapha found in the body. Also, the mucousal
lining of the stomach is another example of the kaphadosha protecting the tissues.
We are all made up of unique proportions of vata, pitta and kapha. The ratios
of the doshas vary in each individual; and because of this, Ayurveda sees each
person as a special combination that accounts for our diversity.
2.5.5 Trigunas
Just as the body is governed by the three doshas, the mind is also governed
by three attributes (guna): sattva, rajas and tamas.A brief description of
 Sattva is responsible for righteous and kind thoughts and feelings.
 Rajas is for arrogance, desire, love and passion.
 Tamas is for sleep, stupidity, ignorance.
20
2.5.6 Psychological Disturbances Mind: Constituents of Mind
The psychological disturbances result when the elements in the mind are in a
state of disequilibrium. According to Ayurveda, the psychological problems
arise at the level of the outer mind, since happiness is sought in the physical
world of things. The nature of the mind is subtle, and unless cleared of its gross
elements especially the element of earth (ego), the disturbances cannot be got
rid of. This is not achievable by a mere balancing the mental elements, but
needs spiritualizing the mind. The lower functions of the mind are to be subdued
in favour of the higher ones. Healing of the mind consists of purifying it, and
refining the elements that compose it. Significance of the environment and the
ecosystem in health and illness has been highlighted in the Vedas, and so too
in Ayurveda.
In nature, vayu (the air) serves as an envelope of the earth and maintains the
division of seasons. In its abnormal state, it may cause storms and winds. When
activated at the microcosmic level, it produces physical and mental illnesses.
2.5.7 Summary
It should be clear to you by now that, Ayurveda recognised disease as
manifestation of a failure to fulfil “the values of life”. The body and mind are
equally involved in the causation of disease. Besides the contributory role of
the mind in disease, the system takes into account the required attitude which
can hasten the cure. This Ayurvedic tenet becomes significant in the context
of the prevailing dichotomy of body - mind view.
2.6 CONCEPT OF MIND AND MENTAL HEALTH

Defining the mind is an important and central task in the field of psychiatry.
However, the task is noted to be difficult. Historically, there is little consensus
regarding this concept among those who have attempted to define or understand
the concept.
As discussed earlier, mental illnesses in current clinical practice are generally
diagnosed by a set of signs and symptoms which are subject to variations
arising from culture, language, religion and geography. In addition, the subjective
and objective view point of the people and professionals concerned could also
influence how it is understood. Most importantly, it has been pointed out that
mental health has been understood or defined as an absence of these signs
and symptoms , rather than being positively defined. This has been stated as
a major drawback in the field of psychiatry. Therefore, an attempt has been
made to define mental health from a utilitarian concept.
According to this view, it is essential to define mental health, and subsequently
define mental illness. To do this, it is essential to define and understand what
is mind which has been described commonly as a conglomeration or an array
of a variety of psychological functions. These functions include memory, learning,
perception, consciousness, emotions, thought, reasoning, imagination and problem
solving.
The following is the conceptualisation of Dr Thirunavukarasu (2011) for the
purpose of providing a simple working concept of mind to enable understanding
of mental illness in an uniform and consistent manner. He has termed the concept
as Manas. Specifically he states that, “Manas is that part of the mind or
psyche that is of concern for study of mental illness”. 21
Concept of Mind The functional concept of Manas:
Manas is present within all individuals and has certain characteristic features.
These common characteristic features are also known as ‘functional concepts’.
The basic functional concepts of Manas which is commonly found among every
one can be listed as below:
 Each individual has only one Manas as a whole, which can not be divided
in to parts.
 Each human being has Manas which does not exist as a substance or
material. It is neither energy nor a force.
 Manas and body is an attribute or part of the self.
 Manas is an effective medical concept.
 Manas is a functional concept, i.e., manas exists as long as the self functions.
 Manas is not eternal or everlasting, its existence finishes with the end or
termination of self.
 Manas has a biological basis and so it is affected by biological processes.
 Manas is not related to supernatural powers.
 Manas and soul are two different and unrelated concepts.
 Manas is a part of self and so it can not separate or detach itself from
the self.
 Manas has a direct influence on self and so it can have an impact only
on self.
 Manas exists in a state of health as well as disease.
 Manas is that part of the self which is primarily affected in the state of
mental illness.
 Manas constitutes the healthy aspect of the mental health.
 Manas cannot be divided in to parts Even though it is a single undividable
amalgamation, it consists of three substituents namely:
o Mood
o Thought and
o Intellect
 Manas is an amalgamation of mood, thought, and intellect.
 Any change in any one of the three (mood, thought and intellect) substituent
brings about subsequent change in the other two substituents i.e. influences
the other two substituents also.
 There is a borderline in between the Manas and the self called consciousness
which is a physical function of awareness.
 Behavior or action takes place only through Manas.
 Psychiatric conditions prevail if the Manas is affected.
As discussed above, there are three substituents of Manas-mood, thought and
intellect. For smooth functioning of the Manas, it is necessary that the three
substituents of Manas should ideally work togetherly, congruently and harmoniously.
You will understand the concept of Manas, once you go though the three specific
22 constituents accordingly:
 Mood – This substituent of the Manas basically consists of sensation of Mind: Constituents of Mind
‘emotion’ or ‘feeling’. It is a reflection of the emotion that is being felt.
It may in form of joy, sorrow, grief, jealousy, pity, fear, anger, anxiety and
so on. In Psychiatric literature, it was known as ‘affect’ traditionally.
 Thought – Thought is an abstract concept and deals with ‘thinking’. It
includes beliefs, faiths, ideas, imagination, etc.
 Intellect – The substituent of intelligence consists of “analyzing” or “problem
solving.” The intellect does not merely refer to what is often called “higher
functions.” It constitutes all the higher level mental processes of the self.
It not only receives information from within self, it also helps in transformation
of the information taking place outside of the self or the environment. For
example, the thirst receptors convey the message to brain which leads to
an urge of thirst to an individual who ultimately drinks water to satisfy the
thirst receptors. So the information or an input is received to an individual
and so is the action taken by the individual with the help of intellect.
By now it might be clear to you that Manas is a part of self and is found
within all human beings. Also, Manas consists of three substituents- mood,
thought and intellect. Manas can work smoothly only if there is a balance or
congruency in between these three basic substituents, which means any change
in any one of the substituent will lead to a change in the remaining two substituents
instantly. It should also be added that none of them can exist alone. An example
can help you in understanding the concept of Manas, mood, thought and intellect
more clearly. Say for instant, you come to know about a good news (which
is a positive stimulus/ information from outside self), such as qualifying an entrance
examination of civil services, which makes you feel happy (therefore, the mood
is being influenced), which makes you think of a better future and prospective
career the moods have now influenced the thoughts and so you start imagining
yourself as an officer and then you start planning about your actions in order
to achieve your target (the substituent, intellect has also started getting influenced
simultaneously). Happy feelings beget positive thoughts and vice versa. On the
other hand, if one hears a bad news (negative stimulus) such as the death of
a loved one, one feels sad (mood), have congruent thoughts such as thoughts
of being with the loved ones and how life would be without them (thought)
and also decide how one would have to inform relatives and friends and arrange
a funeral (intellect). All three components are intimately and inseparably
intertwined and act synchronously, harmoniously, simultaneously and congruently
in a “single indivisible amalgamation” (Thirunavukarasu, 2011, p. 26).

Fill in the blanks:
1) In the concept of Manas, mood constitutes ....................., thought
constitutes........................ , and intellect constitutes......................
2) In the field of psychiatry, it is important to understand mind based
on .............................................................................. knowledge.
3) The criteria for identifying a person as mentally healthy are.................
........................................... , ............................................. ,
and.....................................................
4) Manas is a part of ................................................ and is found within
all human beings. 23
Concept of Mind
2.7 UTILITARIAN CONCEPT OF MENTAL
HEALTH
It is would be worth to mention the conclusions drawn by Thirunavusukarasu
(2011). In one of his studies, he emphasised that it is essential to concentrate
on promoting mental health rather than merely treating mental illness. Manas
is the basic object that leads to mental health. Mental health is a medical and
utilitarian concept.
 The health status of the manas is a two-dimensional spectrum
(Thirunavusukarasu, 2011):
 The first dimension is a continuum of the negative impact of the health

status of the manas on the self
 The second dimension is a continuum of the negative impact of the

health status of the manas on others
Fig: Two Dimensional Spectrum Model of Mental Health Refer http://

www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3136034/
 The entire space of the spectrum may be divided into 4 mental health
statuses, namely
 Mentally healthy
 Mentally not healthy
 Mentally unhealthy
 Mentally ill
 Mentally healthy is a health status that occupies a rather narrow space
in the spectrum, with the least negative impact on both dimensions. Mentally
healthy can be identified by the presence of all the three of the following
24 criteria:
 Awareness of one’s own self Mind: Constituents of Mind
 Ability to relate well with others

 All of one’s actions are useful or atleast not detrimental to one’s own
self and others
2.8 LET US SUM UP

It can be summed up from the above discussion that, mind was historically
attributed a biological basis and a psychological basis. It was thought to be
a wandering spirit capable of travelling into and outside the body. In the 8th
to 5th century BC, Homer identified this spirit as soul which was located in
the head. He basically identified two types of souls: the body-soul which
constituted emotions and thinking ability, and the psyche, which was impersonal,
immortal and capable of ethereal travel. Later on, Plato identified only one
soul called psyche consisting of three parts: thymos consisting of emotions
located in the chest, logos, concerned with reasoning, located in the head; and
the pathos, consisting of id which was attributed to bodily appetites of food
and drink and located in the liver. He believed that logos (mind) part of the
soul was immortal and existed even after death.
Aristotle (a student of Plato), departed from his teacher and advocated three
types of souls: a rational soul which was concerned with thinking and analysing;
a sensitive soul concerned with passions and desires; and a nutritive soul
concerned with appetites and drives. However, he emphasised that these three
souls were merely powers or characteristic or traits in a mortal person and
were not incorporeal substances.
In the 16th Century, Rene Descartes introduced a paradigm shift with regard
to mind. He theorized that the emotional soul (thymos) and the nutritive soul
(the id) were functions of the body and not of the soul. He theorized that logos
(the rational or reasoning entity) was the only constituent of the soul. Descartes
believed that the mind was purely mental—it had no physical characteristics
at all and no physical location. Descartes believed that if you destroyed the
brain, the only effect on the mind would be that it no longer received information
from the senses. Consciousness, memories, ideas, plans, etc. would continue
as before.
Modern scientists have tended to be monists and therefore those who want
to learn about the mind tend to do research on the brain. But others are dualists,
and believe that there is more to the mind than just physical events to the brain.
Therefore, the debate continues with this area of study.
In the last few decades, there have been remarkable advances in the field of
psychology, evolutionary biology, genetics, cognitive neurosciences, pharmacology
and neurosciences. With the new contributions, understanding of the mind has
also changed. Biological basis of mind will be later discussed in the Unit 3.
To define and understand mental health and mind is a complex task. However,
the critical importance of clarifying the concepts in training and education in
field of mental health has been pointed out and a working concept has been
arrived at for this purpose. Moreover, disturbances in the mind are a product
of circumstances and environment. Therefore in order to be mentally healthy 25
Concept of Mind will depend on both the environment and the state of good health of a person.
If one is physically unhealthy, mental health also gets affected. However, just
as physical health can be achieved, mental health also can be developed. It
is important to remember that everyone has a mind and there are chances to
have disturbances.
2.9 ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1) Involuntary
2) Plato
3) Corporeal or mortal; reasoning
4) Soul
1) True
2) True
3) False
4) False
5) False
1) Emotion/feeling, thinking, analyzing/problem solving
2) Scientific
3) Awareness of one’s own self, ability to relate well with others, all of one’s
actions are useful
4) Mind or psyche

1) What is Dualism? Describe the concept based on Western concept of mind.
2) Write briefly about the Eastern concept of mind.
3) Write in detail about the structure of mind in Ayurveda.
4) Describe Tridhoshas and Trigunas.
5) Briefly explain how the concept of mind evolved.
6) What is Manas?
7) What are the four dimensions of mental health?
2.11 REFERENCES
Bennett, MR (2007) ‘Development of the concept of mind’, Australian and
New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 41:12, 943-956
Thirunavukarasu, M. (2011). A utilitarian concept of manas and mental health:
Presidential Address. Indian Journal of Psychiatry, 53 (2): 99-110
Rao, AV. (2002) Mind in Ayurveda, (2002). Indian Journal of Psychiatry, 44(3);
201-211.
Rao, AV. (2002) Mind in Indian philosophy, (2002). Indian Journal of Psychiatry,
26 44(4); 315-325.
Biological Basis of Mind
UNIT 3 BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF MIND
Structure
3.1 Introduction
3.1.1 Different Views Towards Biological Basis of Body and Mind
3.2 Objectives
3.3 Findings of Neuropsychology
3.4 Consciousness and the Brain
3.5 Biological Basis of Emotions and Cognitions
3.5.1 Emotional Arousal and Emotional Regulation
3.6 Changes in The Structure of the Brain and Life Experiences

3.7 Memory
3.8 Sleep and Dream States
3.9 Let Us Sum Up
3.12 References
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The French philosopher Descartes believed in dualism which distinguishes
between mind and body. According to Descartes, the mind was located in the
brain’s pineal gland and was responsible for the body regulation through the
brain and nerves. It was considered to be non-physical and non-material unlike
the body. He believed that what made humans different from animals was that
humans possessed a soul or mind. This notion was popular until the behaviourists
asserted their views on human behaviour. If the mind and body are two different
entities then the question that arises is how are they related to one another.
3.1.1 Different Views Towards Biological Basis of

Body and Mind
The present unit will try to enlighten you in this area in further discussion. It
is interesting to know that there are three different ways of viewing it from
the dualistic point (body and mind) of view.
1) Interactionism: According to this viewpoint, there is a two-directional
causal relationship (vice-versa relationship) between body and mind. The
mind has an effect on the body functioning as well as the body or physical
changes in the body affect the mind. For example: cancer patients, who
are able to fight their disease through determination to get better; changes
in perception when hallucinogens (a kind of drugs affecting perception) are
ingested; or changes in intelligence or personality after a brain damage or
surgery. Thus there is a two way interaction between body and mind.
27
Concept of Mind 2) Epiphenomenalism: This view states that mental experiences or processes
don’t have any effect on the physical processes, while sensations, volitions
or ideas can occur due to certain physical or material causes. Mental
phenomena have no part to play in the explanation of behaviour, and various
sensations and volitions are a result of material processes.
3) Psycho-physical parallelism: Psycho-physical parallelism says that mental
and physical events occur together, but do not cause or influence each
other. For example, depression could be associated with a variety of
physical illnesses and similarly many physical states can be associated with
a variety of psychological states.
In contrast to the dualist view, the alternate view is monism. Monism can take
the following forms:
 Idealism: According to this view, physical events are reducible to mental
ones, and only the mental phenomena are real. Humanistic psychologists
were strongly influenced by this phenomenology. They stress on the
fundamental nature of experience and our knowledge of the external world
depends on how we interpret it.
 Materialism or physicalism: Materialism is opposite of idealism. According
to this principle, physical phenomena are real and the mental events are
reducible to physical ones. This view has been favoured by the behaviourists.
 Identity theory: This theory proposes another form of materialism which
states that consciousness is a brain process, meaning that consciousness
and brain process refer to the same thing (contingent identity) but they
do not have the same meaning. Mental processes like the brain processes
are capable of causally influencing behaviour.
According to the identity theory, mind functions are a kind of brain activities,
but that does not mean that mind is the brain. Monism appears to be the most
reasonable hypothesis. It has become easier to understand functioning of mind
by the monism theory. A lot of progress has been made in understanding the
concept of mind based on assumption of monism hypothesis. Studies have shown
that stimulation of any brain area provokes an experience and any external
experience evokes brain activity. Thus there cannot be a mental activity without
brain activity. Mind or mental activities are only descriptions of the brain activity.
Using the term mind to mean something that is ethereal, which is neither matter
nor energy, is not helpful in understanding the functioning of mind.
The question of whether consciousness is a result of the brain activity or what
kind of brain activity produces consciousness or alters consciousness is yet to
be answered. Consciousness is a difficult concept to define, because we can
neither observe it in ourselves nor know for sure that other people have it.
One of the easy things is to look at the difference between wakefulness and
sleep, and the mechanisms that enables us to focus at our attention. The best
way to understand things is to determine what brain activity is necessary or
sufficient for consciousness.
Early researchers attempted to find the exact location of brain structures
determining consciousness, but could not succeed since they did not have the
investigative facilities available, as they exist now.
28
From the mid-1970s onwards, there has been a rapid progress in understanding Biological Basis of Mind
cognitive neuroscience with advancements in the medical technologies available
to study the structure and function of brain. This has led to better understanding
of the functioning of mind and the brain. Mental functions are now equated
with neural processes and brain structures, instead of only the behavioural
dispositions.
It is now well accepted that the mind and consciousness have a purely physical
basis in the brain. This takes the form of various neural pathways, the intricately
interconnected networks of neurons that vary in their activity levels in accordance
with the kind of mental activity that is occurring. Functional brain imaging is,
of course, the means by which theorists and researchers have arrived at these
conclusions. The phenomenal experience of the mind, which means the subjective
and personal experience that occurs when we think about any object or problem
or engage in other conscious processes, has neural correlates in the electrochemical
processes of the brain and its many billions of neurons.
A better understanding of the brain’s complexity and adaptability will result in
a better understanding of mind. With the help of the modern technology,
neuroscientists are able to identify specialised organisation and distinctive neuronal
circuits in various parts of the brain, and their relationship with the mental
functions. But still our knowledge and understanding of these complex phenomena
is not complete.
3.2 OBJECTIVES
Further, this Unit will help you to:
 understand the interaction between brain and mind;
 understand the functions of mind based on neuropsychological findings;
 understand the role of brain functioning in consciousness;
 understand the brain functions in emotions and cognitions;
 understand the brain functions related to memory; and
 understand the brain functions related to sleep and dream states.
3.3 FINDINGS FROM NEUROPSYCHOLOGY

Studies from participants, who suffered brain trauma, have shown that damage
to specific regions of the cerebral cortex has precise and predictable effects
on human perception, memory, language, and other cognitive functions. Different
regions of the cerebral cortex process different sensory data simultaneously, just
like a large-scale parallel computer. Such correspondence between the cortical
areas and mental functions is fundamental to understanding the biological basis
of mind.

Fill in the Blanks:
1) Patients who suffered brain trauma, have shown that damage to specific
regions of ...............................................
29
Concept of Mind
2) Mental functions are now equated with .....................and ......................,
instead of only the behavioral dispositions.
3) According to the identity theory, mind functions are a kind of ..................

...........................................
4) According to .............................................viewpoint, there is a two-

directional causal relationship between body and mind.
5) Descartes believed in dualism which distinguishes between .......................

and .................................
3.4 CONSCIOUSNESS AND THE BRAIN

Many types of causal relationships between the mind and brain have been
discovered by cognitive neuroscientists, including specific correlations between
particular neural activities and mental activities in such ways that the occurrence
or cessation of the former is linked to the occurrence or cessation of the latter
or vice versa. Cognitive neuroscientists believe that consciousness is not
independent of the brain.
It has now been well established that the brain is the seat of consciousness.
A complex interaction in the neural networks that involves a range of
neurophysiological and neurochemical activities, results in the various diversities
of the mental functioning.
3.5 BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF EMOTIONS AND

COGNITIONS
Another area that enjoys the results of neuro-scientific research is the study
of the biological base of emotions and the relationship between emotion and
cognition. There is no one center in the brain for a mental function as complex
as emotion. Several regions of the brain have been identified by neuroscientists
as critical for emotion regulation or arousal, including the frontal lobes in regulating
emotions, the amygdala in activating emotions, and the hippocampus in
appreciating the context of emotional arousal. Moreover, neuro-scientific evidence
suggests that regions of the frontal cortex in different brain hemispheres play
an important role in different emotions, with the left frontal cortex relating to
positive emotions and the right frontal lobe relating to negative emotions.
3.5.1 Emotional Arousal and Emotional Regulation

The emotional brain works faster than the rational brain. The brain areas
responsible for initially activating an emotion (the amygdala) are different from
the one responsible for regulating an emotion (the prefrontal cortex). Emotional
arousal works faster than emotional regulation. Emotions tend to be activated
mainly in the amygdaloid area and interpretations from the cortical centres of
the brain are ignored, when these emotion centre are activated.
30
Biological Basis of Mind
Answer the following questions in one word:
1) Which brain works faster than rational brain?
.........................................................................................................
2) Which part of the brain is critical for emotion regulation and

arousal?
.........................................................................................................
3) Is there any relationship between neural and mental activities?
.........................................................................................................
4) Which field of research helped in finding out the relationship
between emotion and cognition?
.........................................................................................................
5) Do you feel that emotional arousal works faster than emotional
regulation?
.........................................................................................................
3.6 CHANGES IN THE STRUCTURE OF THE

BRAIN AND LIFE EXPERIENCES
Contrary to the earlier thinking that the brain structure does not change, research
done with advances in structural and functional imaging has established the
concept of neuroplasticity. Studies have shown that the frontal lobes, the
amygdala, and the hippocampus continually change as a result of life experiences.
The changes are, however, not in the gross structure, but happen at the neuronal
and receptor levels.
3.7 MEMORY
Neuroscientists have also studied the biological basis of memory and learning.
Like the association of brain regions to emotion, memory has also been found
not to be stored in any specific region but spread out through different areas
of the brain. But a few brain regions are vital to the formation of new memories,
such as the hippocampus and the thalamus. Changes in the strength of neural
connections, which may result from life experiences, affect the recording of
memory in the brain.
3.8 SLEEP AND DREAM STATES

Brain regulates the various stages of sleep and the dream state. The regular
alternation of the cycle of waking and sleeping states is controlled by the brain
stem, which alters the production of specific neurotransmitters responsible for
arousal and relaxation in a reciprocal way. In experiments with animals, 31
Concept of Mind neuroscientists have shown success in the control of altering states of wakefulness
and sleep. Although the neuroscientists can objectively measure and identify
distinctive sleep states and associated REM (rapid eye movement) sleep with
dreaming, the purpose of dreaming still remains one of the great mysteries in
the study of sleep.
State whether the following statements are true or false:
1) Body regulates the various stages of sleep and the

dream state. ( )
2) Hypothalamus and Spinal cord are vital to the formation of

new memories. ( )
3) The regular alternation of the cycle of waking and sleeping

states is controlled by the brain stem. ( )
4) Studies have shown that the frontal lobes, the amygdala,

and the hippocampus never change as a result of life
experiences. ( )
5) Changes in the strength of neural connections affect the

recording of memory in the brain. ( )
3.9 LET US SUM UP

It should be clear to you by now that the dichotomy between mind and brain
has been disputed by views which focus on the biological basis of mind. This
view has been supported by the current development in investigative methods
of the brain and its functioning. With the advent of technological development
in investigations, it has become easier to understand the complex functioning
of the brain. As a result of this, the mind and its functions have been understood
as different from the age old concepts of mind.
With the rapid development in cognitive sciences, especially the remarkable
progress in neuroscience during the past several decades, the world has observed
tremendous growth in the knowledge of mind and mental states.
3.10 ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT

QUESTIONS
1) Cerebral cortex
2) Neural processes and brain structures
3) Brain activities
4) Dualistic view point
5) Body and mind
32
Self Assessment Questions 2 Biological Basis of Mind
1) Emotional brain
2) Prefrontal cortex and Amygdala
3) Yes
4) Neuro-scientific research
5) Yes
1) False
2) False
3) True
4) False
5) True

1) Explain the role of neuropsychological studies in understanding the functions
of mind.
2) Explain the relationship between consciousness and the brain functions.
3) What are the brain functions that are related to emotions?
4) Explain the concept of monism.
3.12 REFERENCES
1) Davidson R.J. (2004). The neuroscience of emotion. In Goleman, D. (Ed.)
Destructive Emotions. New York: Batam.
2) Hobson, J. A (2009). REM sleep and dreaming: towardsa theory of
protoconsciousness. Nature Reviews: Neuroscience, 10:803-813.
3) Kalat, J. W., Biological Psychology, 10thedn., (2009), USA; Wadsworth
Cengage Learning.
4) Wallace B., Contemplative science: Where Buddhism and neuroscience
converge. (2007), New York: Columbia University Press.
33
Concept of Mind
UNIT 4 PSYCHOLOGICAL BASIS
OF MIND
Structure
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Objectives
4.3 Structuralists’ View of Mind
4.4 Gestalt School of Psychology and Mind
4.5 Mesmerism
4.6 Hypnotism
4.7 Disorders Induced in Normal Individuals
4.8 Influence of Breurer’s Work on Psychogenic Aspects of Mental Illness
4.9 Sigmund Freud and His Concept of the Mind
4.10 Jung and His Concept of Mind
4.11 Views of American Psychologists
4.11.1 Growth of Functionalism
4.12 Humanistic Psychology and Cognitive Psychology
4.13 Let Us Sum Up
4.16 References
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Psychology began as a study of mind or the ‘psyche’ and later it expanded
to a study of behaviour. As behaviour is essentially determined by the mind,
psychology was called the behavioural science. Mind has sub components of
mood, thought and intellect as described in the previous chapter, and the
behaviour depicts mood, thought and intellect. This unit will help you to
understand the fact that, if mind is to be studied and understood, it has to
be done by observing and understanding behaviour. To further simplify this, it
is the study of behaviour, the interaction of ‘self’ with the environment. This
interaction could be action or reaction of ‘self’ with ‘non-self’. Thus, study of
anything that is psychological would mean studying the interaction of the ‘self’
with the environment. This interaction would influence, alter, modify or interfere
with the ‘psyche/mind’ with the purpose of correcting the functions or the
dysfunctions of the mind. For example, by way of interaction, one can develop
a problem in the mind. The same problem or any other problem can also be
rectified by the process of corrective interaction. Psychotherapy means a more
meaningful interaction which aims to solve problems.
4.2 OBJECTIVES
The last Unit of this block helps you in:
 Understanding the structuralists’ view of mind;
 Understanding the contribution of Gestalt school of psychology in the
34 concept of mind;
 Understanding Freud’s view of mind; Psychological Basis of Mind
 Understanding Jung’s view of mind; and

 Understanding the humanistic psychologists and cognitive psychologists
aspects of mind.
4.3 STRUCTURALISTS’ VIEW OF MIND

The term ‘psychology’ has been created from the Greek term ‘psyche’ meaning
soul/mind and logos meaning study. Psychology has changed its meaning and
definitions from time to time, giving rise to different schools of psychology. In
the first decade of 20th century, psychologists came to hold different views about
nature of mind and the best ways to study it. Some of the initial schools of
thought will be discussed in the next few sections.
The first psychological laboratory was established at the University of Leipzig
by the German philosopher- psychologist Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920). Wilhelm
Wundt was the first person who tried to explain psychology as a science.
The goal of the structuralists was to find the units or elements which make
up the mind. They attempted to analyze and explain the conscious experience,
particularly feelings and sensations. The structuralists attempted to give a scientific
analysis of conscious experience by breaking it down into its specific compounds
or structures. For example, they identified four basic sensations-warmth, cold,
pain and pressure. Further, the sensation of wetness as combined experience
of cold and smoothness. Consciousness was defined as the sum total of mental
experiences. Main tool used was through introspection to determine the different
components of consciousness. This school helped establish psychology as a
separate science and contributed methods to experimental psychology. Wundt
self-observed his own sensations and verbally reported the analysis of his own
consciousness.
In summary, structural school of thought focuses on the elements of mind or
the molecules of mind. It uses the methods of introspection, observation and
experimentation. Their approach is basically towards the mental aspects of human
experience.
4.4 GESTALT SCHOOL OF PSYCHOLOGY AND

MIND
Afterwards, the Gestalt school of psychology was founded by Max Wertheimer
and his colleagues Kurt Koffka and Wolfgang Kohler in 1912 in Germany. The
German word Gestalt means form, pattern or configuration or shape. Gestalt
psychology developed as a reaction against structuralism. Gestalt psychologists
believed that human beings and other animals perceive the external world as
an organised pattern, not as individual sensations. For example, a movie consists
of thousands of individual still pictures, but we perceive what looks like smooth
continuous movement. Gestalt psychology stresses on the relationship and
interaction of the elements, when studying experience.
The Gestalt school explained that behaviour was based on basic laws formulated
on the experience of perception. For example, learning was a special problem
of perception. Problems were caused by disequilibrium in perception which
motivated the organism to solve it and restore equilibrium. Solving problems
restored perceptual equilibrium and relieved the stress of motivation. This was
called the Zeigarnik effect. Subsequently the studies on hypnotism demonstrated
35
the possibility of psychological influences on the mind.
Concept of Mind
4.5 MESMERISM
Mesmerism is a procedure that places people in a trance like mental state during
which they become extremely suggestible. It was used to treat psychological
disorders as far back as 1778, when an Austrian physician named Friedrich
Anton Mesmer (1734–1815) established a clinic in Paris. His patient’s suffered
from hysterical disorders, mysterious bodily ailments that had no apparent
physical basis. A surprising number of patients seemed to be helped by this
treatment, called mesmerism. Their pain, numbness, or paralysis disappeared.
Several scientists believed that Mesmer was inducing a trance like state in his
patients and that this state was causing their symptoms to disappear.
4.6 HYPNOTISM
It was not until years after Mesmer died that many researchers had the courage
to investigate his procedure, later called hypnotism (from hypnos, the Greek
word for “sleep”), and its effects on hysterical disorders. By the late nineteenth
century, two competing views had emerged. Because hypnosis—a technique
relying on the power of suggestion—was able to alleviate hysterical ailments,
some scientists concluded that hysterical disorders were disorders of mind.
In contrast, other scientists believed that hysterical disorders had subtle
physiological causes. For example, Jean Charcot (1825–1893), Paris’s most
eminent neurologist, argued that hysterical disorders were the result of degeneration
in portions of the brain.
4.7 DISORDERS INDUCED IN NORMAL

INDIVIDUALS
The experiments of two physicians practicing in the city of Nancy in France,
Hippolyte-Marie Bernheim (1840–1919) and Ambroise-Auguste Liébault (1823–
1904) showed that hysterical disorders could actually be induced in otherwise
normal subjects while they were under the influence of hypnosis. Thus, the
physician could make normal people experience deafness, paralysis, blindness,
or numbness by means of hypnotic suggestion—and could also remove these
artificial symptoms by the same means. Thus, it was established that a mental
process—hypnotic suggestion—could both cause and cure even a physical
dysfunction. Leading scientists, including Charcot, finally embraced the idea that
hysterical disorders were largely psychological in origin, and the psychogenic
perspective rose in popularity.

State whether the following statements are true or false:
1) Mesmerism is a procedure that places people in a trancelike
mental state during which they become extremely suggestible. ( )
2) Hypnosis is a technique which does not relies on the
power of suggestion. ( )
3) Gestalt school of psychology was founded by
William Wundt. ( )
4) The term ‘psychology’ has been created from the Greek
term ‘psyche’ meaning soul/mind and logos meaning study. ( )
5) Hypnotism demonstrated the possibility of psychological
influences on the mind. ( )
36
Psychological Basis of Mind
4.8 INFLUENCE OF BREURER’S WORK ON
PSYCHOGENIC ASPECTS OF MENTAL
ILLNESS
Among those who studied the effects of hypnotism on hysterical disorders was
Josef Breuer (1842–1925) of Vienna. Breuer discovered that his patients
sometimes awoke free of hysterical symptoms after speaking candidly under
hypnosis about the past upsetting events. During the 1890s Breuer was joined
in his work by another Viennese physician, Sigmund Freud (1856–1939).
4.9 SIGMUND FREUD AND HIS CONCEPT OF

THE MIND
Freud’s work eventually led him to develop the theory of psychoanalysis, which
is based on the principle that unconscious psychological processes are in the
background of the normal as well as abnormal psychological functioning and
behaviour. Freud also developed the technique of psychoanalysis, a form of
discussion in which clinicians help troubled people gain insight into their
unconscious psychological processes. He believed that such insight,even without
hypnotic procedures, would help the patients overcome their psychological
problems.
Although striving to use scientific methods in their investigations, these early
researchers of mental functions adopted rather subjective approaches such as
introspection, self-analysis, and self-report in their studies.
4.10 JUNG AND HIS CONCEPT OF MIND

Jung was Freud’s student but later separated out due to differences in certain
views. According to Jung, personality develops as a totality of all psychic
processes, conscious and unconscious. It includes all thoughts, feelings and
behaviours, and helps the individual to adapt to the social and physical
environment. The term psyche also includes what is called ‘soul’. The person
is a whole right from the time of birth. It is not acquired later in life through
experience or learning, but is already present at birth. The person strives
throughout life to maintain its wholeness, and prevent splitting or dissociation
into parts. It comprises of three major levels of consciousness: conscious,
personal unconscious and the collective unconscious.
4.11 VIEWS OF AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGISTS

In America, William James had also engaged in the study of consciousness by
combining the direct observation of behavior with the use of introspection to
understand the underlying mental processes. His view was called “naturalistic
functionalism”, which sees consciousness or conscious mental life as a feature
which has emerged via natural selection in creatures with a particular kind of
biological organisation (e.g., “birds of same feather, flock together). James viewed
consciousness as a function. He put forth the view that mental states are functional
states/properties resulting from a complex interaction between us and the outside
world. Therefore the mind is an emergent property of the physical brain, but
is distinct from it. In other words this theory stated that the key to understanding
the mind (intelligence) is to understand the logical operations performed by it,
meaning the function it performs. For example, in a computer the software
(mind) is, what is important. The computer does not depend on any particular 37
Concept of Mind physical (Hardware) realisation. Similarly, the brain as a structure is largely
irrelevant, and the mind is to the brain what software is to the hardware.
4.11.1 Growth of Functionalism
Functionalism formed as a reaction to the structuralism and was heavily influenced
by the work of William James and the evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin.
Functionalists sought to explain the mental processes in a more systematic and
accurate manner. Rather than focusing on the elements of consciousness,
functionalists focused on the purpose of consciousness and behaviour. Functionalism
also emphasised individual differences, which had a profound impact on
education. William James later had a good bit to say about mind and
consciousness — along with where the latter in particular came from both in
humans and other animals. Basically, his view was that consciousness enhanced
fitness. As humans, we think about the events we experience; we make decisions;
we make things; we change things — in each case enhancing our chances of
survival by allowing us to adapt. In James’s view, thus, consciousness is essential
for survival. Without it, we would instead be like plants.
This trend of using subjective methods to study consciousness and unconsciousness
was abruptly interrupted during the early twentieth century with the emergence
of an American school of psychology called behaviourism. To behaviourists, such
as John Watson and B.F. Skinner, the understanding of behaviour could be
developed through observations and experimental conditionings without reference
to such abstract concepts as consciousness. They even denied the existence
of mind and attributed belief in the very existence of consciousness to ancient
superstitions and magic (Watson, 1913). By reducing subjective mental phenomena
to objective processes that could be studied with the limited available tools of
science in the 1920s to 1950s, the behaviourist approach held back the study
and understanding of the nature of mind for several decades.

Fill in the Blanks:
1) According to ................................ the understanding of behaviour could
be developed through observations and experimental conditionings.
2) The person strives throughout life to maintain the wholeness of
...............................
3) Freud’s work eventually led him to develop the theory of
...............................
4) William James had also engaged in the study of ...............................
5) Functionalists focused on the.............................. and ...................
........... .
4.12 HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY AND

COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
Humanistic psychology and cognitive psychology replaced radical behaviourism
in the 1950s and became the main focus of interest to study the psychological
arena. The use of introspection, however, was still considered a non-mainstream
38
scientific approach. All the above approaches to study mind or psyche have Psychological Basis of Mind
been elaborated in the next unit under (Schools of Psychology).
Since the mid-1970s, with the rapid progress of cognitive neuroscience and
advancement of medical technology, investigations of the brain and mental
functions became the major focus in the study of human mind, and mental
functions were equated with neural processes and brain structures, instead of
behavioural dispositions. Many types of causal relationships between the mind
and brain have been discovered by cognitive neuroscientists. This includes
specific correlations between particular neural activities and mental activities in
such ways that the occurrence or cessation of the former is linked to the
occurrence or cessation of the latter.
4.13 LET US SUM UP

The beauty of the evolution of psychology as a science is that it began with
an assumption of having an underlying biological basis and evolved through
various stages, and finally came to a stage of understanding and showing evidence
for a biological basis currently.
To start with, psyche was thought to have a biological basis, but after the advent
of psychoanalytical views, the shift was towards the non-biological causes of
problem behaviour. Thereafter, the behavioural school also stressed strongly on
the psychological mechanisms, and little on the biological ones. After the invention
of drugs which were able to control psychotic behaviour and mood disturbances,
the trend was to understand it from point of view of a biological basis for mood
and thought. The understanding and description of the Alzheimer’s disease made
way for understanding intellect as having an organic basis. Simultaneously, the
enormous development of technology in leaps and bounds has dramatically
changed the understanding of human behaviour.
Neuroimaging techniques, especially functional imaging of the central nervous

system has made a big impact. The entity of neuroscience, which has developed
after this technology, has made it possible to study the functioning of the neurons
in the brain. Currently, science has further developed and the new entity of
cognitive neuroscience has changed the understanding of behaviour even more.
Now, there is evidence to show that psychotherapeutic process has the ability
to revert back structural pathology to normalcy. The concept of neuro
regeneration, neuroplasticity and molecular psychology, have come into existence.
All these concepts contribute towards understanding psychological processes as
having a biological basis. Importantly that biology can alter psychological process,
will include a third dimension of sociological aspects. Culture is found to play
an important role in defining normal and healthy behaviour. Therefore, the bio-
psycho-social model has come into existence. Recently another dimension of
spiritual aspects of behaviour has been introduced. Most of the psychological
processes are also understood through spiritual basis. The ethological processes,
pathology, relief and treatment are based on the bio-psychosocial and spiritual
models. Therefore, all the schools of psychology are interlinked, imminent, and
interdependent on one another. Thus, psyche, the mind or the mental functioning
is to be understood by considering all, biological, psychological, sociological
and spiritual aspects of an individual.
39
Concept of Mind
4.14 ANSWER TO SELF ASESSMENT QUESTIONS
1) True
2) False
3) False
4) True
5) True
1) Behaviourists
2) Psyche
3) Psychoanalysis
4) Consciousness
5) Purpose of consciousness and behaviour

1) Write briefly on introspective methods used to understand mind.
2) Explain the psychoanalytic view of mind.
3) Explain the humanistic view of mind.
4) Explain the view of behaviourists on mind.
5) Explain the Contribution of mesmerism in understanding the psychological
basis of mind.
6) What is hypnotism?
4.16 REFERENCES
 Gross R. D., Psychology, the Science of Mind and Behaviour, 2nd edn.,
(1993). Hodder & Stoughten, London.
 Meissner WW (2009) Classical psychoanalysis. In Editors: BJ Sadock,
VA Sadock, P. Ruiz) Kaplan & Sadock’s Comprehensive Textbook
of Psychiatry, 9th Edition. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins: New York. pp
788-838.
 Mohl PC, Brenner AM (2009). Other psychodynamic schools. In (Editors:
BJ Sadock, VA Sadock, P Ruiz) Kaplan & Sadock’s Comprehensive
Textbook of Psychiatry, 9th Edition. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins: New
York pp 848-870
 Passer, M. W., & Smith R. E., Psychology, the Science of Mind and
Behaviour, 3rd edn., (2007). Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi.
Websites:
(http://www.who.int/features/factfiles/mental_health/en/accessed on 8 July 2013).
40
MPC-OSl : FUNDAMENTALS OF MENTAL HEALTH
Block 1 : Concept of Mind

Unit I : Mental Health
Unit 2 : Mind: Constituents of Mind
Unit 3 : Biological Basis of Mind
Unit 4 : Psychological Basis of Mind
Block 2 : Schools of Psychology

Unit I : Behavioural Theories
Unit 2 : Biological Theories
Unit 3 : Humanistic and Existential Psychology
Unit 4 : Psychoanalytical and Related Theories
Block 3 ':Normality and Abnormality

Unit I : Historical Perspectives of Mental Health
Unit 2 : Definition of Normality and Abnormality: Criteria and Measurement
Unit 3 : Conative Functions-Normal and Pathological
Unit 4 : Cognitive Functions-Normal and Pathological
Block 4 : Family, Culture and Mental Health

Unit I : Developmental Theories
Unit 2 : Family and Mental Health
Unit 3 : Sociology of Mental Health
Unit 4 : Culture and Mental Health
SOSS-IGNOU/P.O. 3T/August, 2015
ISBN: 978-81-266-6715-4

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1.4 Let Us Sum Up

 to define mental health;

 to understand the concept of mental health; and

 to understand the six empirical approaches to mental health.

1.3 DEFINING MENTAL HEALTH

a) Mental health is above normal

b) Mental health as maturity

c) Mental health as positive or spiritual emotions

d ) Mental health as socio-emotional intelligence

e) Mental health as subjective well-being

f) Mental health as resilience

1.3.1 Model A – Mental Health as Above Normal

To understand this concept, it is important to trace the historical changes,

In 1958, Marie Johoda brought in a major change in the conceptualisation of

 One should be in touch with his/her identity and feelings.

 One should be oriented towards the future and overtime should be

 One’s psyche should be integrated and provide him/her resistance to

 One should be master of one’s environment. One should able to work,

Other important longitudinal studies showed that mental health characteristics

Eventually, the importance of defining mental health has been increasingly

American Psychiatric Association’s, Diagnostic and Statistical manual of Mental

It is important to emphasise here that mental health should be defined broadly

Self Assessment Questions 1

State whether the statements are true or false:

1) Identity is a developmental task. ( )

2) The Global Assessment of Functioning (GAF) scale is used

3) The model of mental health as maturity includes 4

4) Integrity refers to achieving some sense of peace and unity

1.3.3 Model C – Mental Health as Positive or

1.3.4 Model D – Mental Health as Socio-Emotional

Self Assessment Questions 2

1.3.5 Model E – Mental Health as Subjective Well-being

1.3.6 Model F – Mental Health as Resilience

 One may employ conscious cognitive strategies (thinking patterns) to

1.4 LET US SUM UP

1.5 ANSWER TO SELF ASESSMENT QUESTIONS

1) Monitoring of one’s emotions and ability to modify emotions so that the

1.6 UNIT END QUESTIONS

2.6 Concept of Mind and Mental Health

2.3 WESTERN CONCEPTS OF MIND

Self Assessment Questions 1

2.5 THE CONCEPT OF MIND IN AYURVEDA

2.5.1 Nature of Mind

Self Assessment Questions 2

2.5.3 Five Levels of Mind

 The higher self-ether

 Inner consciousness — air

 Intelligence or buddhi — fire

 Sense or mind — water

Ayurveda views a person as an unique individual, made up of five primary

2.6 CONCEPT OF MIND AND MENTAL HEALTH

Self Assessment Questions 3

 The first dimension is a continuum of the negative impact of the health

 The second dimension is a continuum of the negative impact of the

Fig: Two Dimensional Spectrum Model of Mental Health Refer http://