.

In Pragmar1cs, the study of meaning derived from conteict. Jean

Stilwell Peccei offers a practica! introduaion to this core area of
lingu1stics.

• enccurages ,he reader to look at different levels of meaning

within sentences
• provides a bas1c unaerstand1ng ar key pragmatic concepts such
as sentence and ut:erance, entailment, presupposition,
implicacure ana airect and indirect speech acts
• introduces two highly influential approaches to pragmatics: the
co-operative principie and speech act theory
• encourages the reader to apply basic analytical tools to real
daca, e.g. ddvertising :anguage. ch1ldren's convers,mons
• prov1des a range ar act1v1t1e,. discuss1on quesr,ons, sample
answers and further reading

lean Stilwell Peccei is Senior Researcn Fellow and Visiting lecturer

at che Roehampton lnrutute Lcndcn. She is che author of Child
t..anguage (2nd edn 1999) and co-author of Language, Society and
Power(1999).

Series Editor: Richard- Hudsofl

IN THE SAME SERIES
Editor: Richard Hudson
PRAGMATICS
Rich�rd Coates Word Smxture
Jean Stilwell Peccei Child Language (2nd ednJ
Richard Hudson Eng/ish Grammar
Laurie Bauer Vocabulary
Edward Carney English Spelling
Jonathan Cuipepper History of English
Patricia Ashby Speech Sounds
Richard Hudson Word Meaning
John Haynes Style
Raphael Salkie Texr and Discourse Analysis
Peter Trudg1II Dialects
R.L. Trask Language Change Jean Stilwell Peccei
Nigel Fabb Senrence Structure

o'm't .)
:::
.
A

�.
.
::'
L.S,0C
,
tT'!
...

,J�
.
....,. t-- Fnft'>,..
"'
u

London and New York

 CONTENTS
First published 1999
by Routledge
11 New Fetter Lane, London ECJP 4EE

Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada

by Routledge
29 West 35th Street, New York. NY 10001

Rourledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group

'O 1999 Jean Sttlwell Pecce,

7 y/Jt:.);c¡ ;1i Timt� T¿;, b; -:l;c F:\ji\:ii'ü G,-vuµ.

Stooaleigh, Oevon

Pnnted and bound in Great Brnain by

TJ lnternauonal l:d. Padstow, Cornwall

Ali nghts reserved. No part of lhis book may be reprinted or reproduced o,

u111ized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now
�nown or hereaíter invented, including photocopving and recording, or ,n
any informat1on storage or retneval systcm, without permission in writing Usmg this book vii
from the publishers. Acknowledgements ix
Bricish Library Cataloguing in Publicarion Data 1 What is pragmatics?
A C3talogue record fo, this book is available frorn the 8nt1sh L1brary
2 Entailment 9
Libr;1ry of Ccngress CiJraloging ,n Public:,tion Data
Peccei, Je.in Stih,ve!!. ' 3 Presupposition 17
Pragmatics / Jean Stilwell Peccei. 4 The co-operative principie and implicaÍure 25
p. cm. - (language workbooks)
lnc!udes bibliographical references and index. ' 5 More on implicatures 33
l. Pra gmatics. l. Title. 11. Series. ' 6 Speech acts
?99. -t.P72P43 1999
42
306. .l.l--dc21 99-10322 7 More about speech acts 50
CIP
8 Politeness 60
ISBN 0-115-20523-9 9 Making sense 71
10 Exploring pragmatics: projects 80
Answers to further exercises 84
Bibliography 92
lndex 94

j
�
!l

j
 USING THIS BOOK

For Patch rh,� wt1rkb0uk has l>ccn '.Vnth:n for .111 1h,is.: who :m: cmbarxin:,; 0n
1hc.: s:m1v uf prJgmJllcs rm lhc.: rirn umc.: and havc linle orno prior
t-ackground 111 h111;u1,11c:;. Bccaus.: 01 this. 1cchmc:il tcnmnology has
heen kcp1 10 J m1111mum. Whc.:rc ,p ectalist 1erms havc bt:cn 111lro­
Juccd. lh..:v Jrc.: cxpla111c.:d 111 the lc.:xt. You will rind them highlightcd
.1, ,Ev wn11u,. As you w1II iec 111 Unit l. pr:igmatics 1s pnmarily l<ey word
c.:nncc.:mc.:d w11h whal speaker.; mean ralher lhan what words or scn­
lc.:ncc� mc.:an. For thc.: ,akc.: ni bn:v11y. thc.: ust: oí wcuku 111 thc.:se u011.:,
Jlso mc!udc, .vnr.:r .111J :he u.-.c 1>( h,mr.:r Jlso includes ret1der
Yllu �hould n,11 nccd to Ju .my ,upplem.:nt:try rcading wtulc you
.irc wor�mg your ·v:i�• thmugh this bcnk. How:.:vc.:r. thc Furtbcr
Rc:uliui: ,cc.:tmn .. l lhc cm! nf -:ach un1t w1ll prov1<.!t: you w11h �ug­
gc-icd h:1.:kl!mund rc.1uit1>,_! .md the ,ourcc, ior rhc r.:.;carch .ind d:,ra
wh1cl1 we w1II he dbcu!iSing 111 the un11s.
Lni1 l .:xpiorcs the relauunsh,p bi:twe�n ,em:11111cs .1nd pragmatics.
lhe 1wo br:inches 01 linl!u1s11cs that look Jl mc:1mnl!. Uniis 2-9 cover
sume ul lhc has,c tcc111111.iues Jn<l key cnnci;pL� in;olvcJ in study111g
.111d analysin !:l pr:igmauc mcamng. A,, you work 1hrough thcsc unii,;
ynu w,11 linJ .t numbcr of cxerci.�c.:\. E:ich Excrcl,,c i:. follnwcd by a
Cmnmcnl sccrum w11h a solu!!lm 10 the prohlcm poscd by 1hc tiara
Jntl a further <liscussmn <lÍ thc tnpic undcr cnnsidcr:111011. Th1s work­
bnuk l:lkcs J ·hands un· :ipproach lo ,1udymg lunguagc. ,tnd you w1II
.;et mudt more out ,u thc u1111� :i you .:ompictc each .!Xerc1,,.; bcrorc
mliv111g ,m tu the Commcnt ,cc11on. Al the entl oí Uniu 1-8 you will
tint.l Furthcr E:<erch� which w11l g1vc you tite chance to pracusc and
consolitfale vour ,kills ..-\nswcr.; tu lhesc c:xcrc1scs Jppcar al the cnd
,,t thc workhouk. All tite uniL� also havc Supplcmcnciry Exercist.>s
mu Di�cus.�ion Qucstions wi11ch Ji11>w for more indcpcndcnl work.
íhc�c .::xcn.:1scs Jn<l quc.st1on, Ju nut h.ivc moJc! Jnswers .. 111<1 f1 you
.1rc no1 u."ng tlus buok ,t:. pan of J tJuglH cours..:. y,iu may rinJ 11
hcipful tu d1scu.ss yuur Jn:,wcr; w11h <Ontl!tlne dS<!.

VIÍ
 I
VIII USING THIS BOOK

By thc time you finish the lirst nine units. 1 hope 1ba1 you will wanc
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
to take your newly acquired skills into the real world. Unil 10 pro­
vides you with ideas and guidance for carrying out severaJ short 1
n:scarch projcctS involving pragmati<: analysis.
1
'
(

l •Jwc many lhanks to my studencs at Roehampron lastituté who wer.:

thc guinea pigs formany of the excrcises uscd in the unics. :ind to thc
scric.:s editor. Profossor Richard Hudson. for his advicc on wriring for
'beginncrs' in linguis1ics. His commcnL�, as always. have bccn invalu­
able. ancl any rcmaining mistakes and shortcomings are .:ntircly mini:.
And last bue not lt::ist. ( would like 10 th:ink my editor.; at Rout(ec.lg.:.
LOL::�a S:::n!y::::. Miranda Filbet: anJ Diana Railton for thei, uufaii­
ing suppun :md paocncc while I was writing this workbook.

ix
 WHAT IS PRAGMATICS?
1

V.'.: cxplor.: rhe diffc:cent mc:uúngs oc m...-a,wrir and the-kinds ot

LS:llll!S wñich are cfoa.lt with. by scm:mcíc.� amL pr�tics.

\vh,11 Jt1 lhcw cnlldr.:n ,1111 nc::d 1<1 lcarn about using languag::'

\ lictlc i>ov comes 111 !he: front Joor.

'vto1hcr Wipe your feet. please.
He rcmovcs his muddy ,hrn:� and sock� JnJ .:arcru lly w1pc:,; 111,
dcan rccl un thc Jnurmal.

\ ·aihcr 1s 1rvmg lt1 �cr hb j-ycar-olJ Jaui;htcr 1<l ,1t)p lt111111_¡

up her Jrc" lll Jispl:.ty her 11cw unt.lcrwc:ar lo tlu.: asscrnblt!t.l
JUCSlS.
Fathcr We don't 00 that.
Daugh1cr: 1 KNOW. Oaddy. You don't WEAA dresses.

J"hc ch1ldre11·,¡ knowlt.:t.lgc ,,r vm:ahulary ant.l grarnrnar Joc, nol

Jppcar to he thc pmblcnt. Whcn thc linlc hoy\ rnmhcr :1skct.l him
to ,vtpc h1s tcct. that 1s c:cactly what he did. ·11ic littlc girl cxplmnct..1
why her lathcr wa, ntll paruc1pa1111g in lhc um.lcnvear ,how w11h
pcrrccl !!r.1111mar 111J quite 1mpe<:cahlc log1c. Thc prl)hlcm i� 111:11
!he d11ldrc11 1ppcar lt.l havc unJcr\tuo..J wn:11 thc .v,1rds mcant hui
n111 .vh,ll 1hc1r parcnb mcam . .-\s ..ioult,. wc usually 1mvc at lhc
,pcaKcr� rncamng ,;o dfunh:s�ly th:n wc ,cnt.l 10 bc unawarc llf
thc .:ons1dc:-;1blt: ..1mnu111 ,1f ,k;II jlH.! knt1wlcdl!t: 1ha1 wc ll,ct..l ltl
1t:�omplish •his.
°')..:1nant11.:� 1nd ,.,,·.1�nia1ti.:'i Jr� 'he l¼-t ;n.un ,re� ,>I 1in!!u1�11c
,1uJ, 1hal l111Jk ji !he i(n,1wlct..l!!<.: vi: JSt: both , �llt:ic: 'llc:lntrl�
wncn ve hc;ir ,ir r..:ad. md '.<l .:unvt:y mcamng whcn ve.: ,peak ,>r
wrilt:. Wi1l1111 lll!!U1,11-., isc.:11. thc d1vidin!! linc lit:l\\t:<:11 1hc,,: w,1
 2 WHAT IS PRAGMAT1cs? WHAT IS PRACMATICS7 3

Ji,,óplincs is ,¡¡¡JI unJc.:r considerabl.: debate. Howevcr. gcncrllly � EXERCISE

Semantic, spe:iking. ,e:s.1A;,,rro-s concencr:itcs on mcaning that comes frorn
1.3 What docs C,us Jr111k creum mc:111:
Pragmatics purdy linguisuc kno,�h!Jgc. whik P�AG.�1.�ncs c�m:c�tr a1cs oa !hose
_
JSoc::1s l)f mcaninc that c:innoc bc prcd1c1cd by hngu1s11c know!.:dgc
al�nc Jnd 1akcs in�o account kn<Jwler.lgc abuuc thc physical anJ social
world. As vou work chroueh the .:xc rciscs in chis unit. you should
Thís was 1 b,t more cornplicJtcd. but scill prctry managcablc. Wh,;n Comment
'ic :ib!c cu ·till ,Jut 1hcsc pr�liminary dclinitions a bit more and gcc
a,k�d wh:it a s..:111..:ncc me:ms. peoplc usually providc lnotl1er
.1 rcd for whac pragmacic .in:ily�•s involvcs.
,cnccnc� 1hat ha� 'lirtually thc ,amc mc:imng, a PARAPIIR.-\SE. Thenl Paraphrase
tí v(JU ,\.:re countill!!. you will havc noticed that th.: words mt!an
.m: .1 varícly oi way� thac you could par:iphr:isc C111s drmk creum.
and ,�,:u11111g h:ivc .1pp�;trcJ l l times �o far :ind w11h scvcral difforcnt .(
':'0!.! .:;):.!!� ..'.�:1�;:.: {�!} !ntli\ idu;d ·.-..·orl.!s (b) lh� scnlt:nt.:e structurc .
mc:tntnl!� ¡ 1::). Wc: w11l ,t:in 0ur s1udy vi pra�m:iucs by .:xpfonng
or (.:) both th.: individual u.ords anJ 1he scnccact: structure. Ht!rc
che m.::�ninc ( 13!) of m,11111in!! ( l.!'.).
;1rc ,omc po;51blc paraphrasc� for our �entcncc:
0,1111t1,1ic: t�!ines c:u1,s11111c 1/ic liq111cl Ji11 v[ mdk.
EXERCISE Cre:,m Lf dr:i11k bv C!ll\º.
1. 1 Fir;¡ wmc duwn vour own Jdinicion oí meu11111g ::ind undcr­ Thc lictuid ¡u1 ,,j ;111/k is dnmk ÍJ1• dom.:suc fdincs.
line what vuu fc!t wcrc thc kcv wun.ls in yuur deciniuon. Thcn look
In cl11s c:xcrci�..: ynu werc ..::1rryi11g out tbé kintl of analysrs chac is
up che ,lt!rinHwn givcn for mc�mng in a good diccionary.
the 1oc1L� ,11 sc..:-r�,,.,, -i;·"""' ncs. To providc a parJphr:isc you uscd Sentonca semantics
vour knowlcd�e ol thc mc:min!.!s of ch.: individu:il words bue you
:tl�o uscd you; knowlcdgc uf E;glish grnmmar. for ,::rnmplc. word
urdcr is vcry rmportanr ior cscablishing scnrcncc me;ming in English.
Comment DiJ vou ;(el vcry far? Was che dict,unary .iny hc:lp whc n il providcd
n,e ,cntcnccs Ctm· c:hase ,mee: :rnd .Wice dumt c:a1s cont:iin the sarnc
you ;vith Purpusr!, 'í1g1ujicnncl!. -.·1!Jn1fic111u,,1. urrention :1nd st1nse'! Ler ·s
_ words bue have cn1ircly diffen:nl mcanings.
•ri• to lwt:ik thc task down into more manageable �hunks. Wc w1ll
,1;1r1 wich .in imp<>rtant kínd nf knowlc:dgc for succcssfully intc:r­
prc11ng lan�uage - wor.J rncaning. .:;,, EXERCISE
1.4 \,(ik.:. Annic and ,\.lik.:'s cae. Fc!ix. are 111 �like"s kitchcn. Whac
EXERCISE ¿
diJ A11111c mc:rn '
1.2 (,t) What Jocs cm mean·: (bJ What docs .:reum mean? (e) What \,likc: What happened to that bowl or cream?
Jocs to ,/r111k mean! \nníc· Ca1s drink cream.

'Comment Y,iu prohably lound this fairly easy. My answcrs �ere: (a) car a
Nuw thing.s have bccumc cunsidcrably more complit..-atcd. Wt! are Comment
Jomcscic f�Unc: (b) i:rt.':1111 chc !i4uid f:ic of milk: (e) drmk to consume
no longcr t:ilking simply abnu1 what words or senccnces mean. but
li4u1ú.
what a pcr.mn mc��s ::� 1·.'::!!. We h:.11·c ..:ntcr::d lhc rcalm o:' p,:ig­
By pmv1()1ng ,1<:1imuons for 1nd1vuJu:il words. you wcre analys1�g
matics .ind vec Jn<>lher mcaninl! uf m.:1111i11,;. ft scems 10 me lhat in
Lcucic:al semt1ntics thc lm1d ,JI' meaninl! rha1 is 1he tocus ol 1.E.xw,,L sr,..\IA:-O TI<:s. D1d
:idditinn 10 ;:rying chal crcam is drunk by c:Jts. Annic is afso accusing
vou nuckz how vo�-had to r.:sort to the me:mings of ochcr words
F,;lix o( thc c,imc. l would imagine that you came up with a similar
in thc la11gu,1gc ·111 r>rcJer to .:onstruc1 your ddinicions'! ?f cou�sc.
Jn�wcr. We c:111 makc thesc laycrs ot 111c:u1ing cxplicic by provi<ling
pmv,Jing wurd 111ca111ngs is nut .1lways an easy lask. nor 1s teadung
scparacc p,1raphr.iscs fur 1hc �em:111t1c mcaning (a sem,mtic para­
thcm ·for thac mallcr. An .\mcric:in high �chool teacher askl!d- her
phrasc or SP) ami thc pragmalic mc:anmg (:1 pr.1gma1íc paraphr:isc
s1udc:11s whac d111;m1111c mcanr and rcccivcd the following answcr. rl
or PPJ:
111ud1111e pmvcrcd b_v Jo¡:s.
.1 Caes drink cream
'iP· D•>mt!,1ic fclíncs consume thc liqu1d fat oi milk.
PP: Fclix probably dr:ink che crcam.
4 WH.>.T IS PR.>.CMAncs? Wt+AT IS PRACMATICS? 5

Diú :ou nu1icc thJl whcn wc .m: wlkin!! Jbout wh:11 a particular Her.: 1> ene possib1hty: Comment
,pe:iker me:ins. our paraphrases can be -r:11her difforenl frorn thc \(1k.: aml .\nn1t: 3rc m th.: gre.:nhous.:. �likc wondc� "'hY hi:.
literal mcanin!! of the semcnce th:11 wa, uuc:rcd� 0n:l11J, hav.:n t bloom.:ú. :\nníc rcphcs: lt's cold in here.
S•ntence lm1Zu1srs oit.:n makc thc distinction bc:twec:n a \F'-.rc-.rE :ind :10
Unoranco L 1·,i::;,, ,1 E. Thb dis1im:t1on can be u5.:ful for two rcasons. Fim. · lt's cold ,n here
pragmat:�-s anJly5cs languagc: in use Jnd rnany oí thc: ullt!ranc.:, "'e SP· Th..: !<!mp.:ratu,.: m tlm place •� ing,J.
usc úu nnt .:un,1,i ni iull ,cnt.:nc::s yct Jrc cnurdy undcrst:indablc PP· Thc urch1ó Jrcn·, hluom,n1! bcL-:iusc thc !:\r..-cnhuu,..: 1s too
m comcxt: .:olo.

JJne: Coffee? .\s MU .:an ,ce. tw,i or mor.: uttcrances 1111g!H hJw 1hc ,ame
j¡�..-4.;· Su,�: ,ou.. l.;1 · __ ,.,g. .. -.=uh.:n...:..: J� tn�1r ��npt �u, tni.:..., i.:an nJv(.! i..¡unc t.hrf..:r�n,
fon.:: Wh1re? inrerpr.:1;111011, 111 .:ontcxl By n,1w you w,11 havc noticctl 1hat inter­
')t..:,c. Black. pr..:tll\1! vh.11 1 ,pcak..:r, uneranc..: mc�ns n,ol,cs .i fan .im,iunt ur
mt<:ll1�cn1 !UC"'">rk lor th.: hcar.:r. JnJ .:uns1Jcrabí, mor..: kn0,,1
'i..:.:ond '-'ílll..: wc .:an ¡;¡Jk Jhout th..: t"'o ,cntc:1.:c, C,1/J Jr111k .:r.tam ;;Jgc �a,m :,,me, trom ,1mply °-"''"111;! tht! mc;in111g� ,,1 mJiviJual
.1ml t·,11.1 ,ir•nk .:r.:.1111 J, hc1ng .:�ai:tly :he ,;¡mc. wc cann,>l rt:ally ,,ords .111J h,Jw rhey ..:omb111c to fonn s..:ntcm:�s. In thc following
,;1v '.h1s .1b01u1 uucr;i11cc, bei::rnsc c:ich u11.:rancc ,� a un,que .:venl units. •.,..: w,11 o.: lo,1kml! m mur..: J1.t.nl .ll \\hat tlu, ,ort ,,i intdli•
.:rcJtcú Jl .1 ¡iamc�lar ¡,rnnt ,n time for J parucul:ir purpo�..:. Th..: gcnt µ.uc.:�swork m1!.!hl lfl\lc>ivi:.
ni::<t twu .::u:rcm:, .-111 illu.,1ra1c 1h1s.

• L111\!Ua!!c mc;inin!! c:m bc .lll,11) ;..:LI JI ,..:veral lc•,cb. SUMMARY

EXERCISE • .:..
• Scmanuc, .:um:entr:H..:s 1111 1hc ;nc;1n1ng that .:urn.:s trom
1.5 Pmvi,J.: J -..:manuc me:imm: rSP) JnJ J pr:igmauc m.:anmg l111gu1st1c knu,.J..:1.h:.:. whilc pr:igm:111�-,, .:om:c:mra1cs 011 úw,e
r PP) wr lt's cold in here 1n tw� Jitfcn:nt con1c:xts. (J l mJ (b) .1socc1:- ,,f mc:tmn•� rhat i:ann,,1 he prcc.Jic!cd hy 1in�u1�tic
bdow· \;nowlc,J\!C .lionc JnJ iak.:, 1111,1 11:c:>unt ou1' k11uwlcdgt!
fal \Ji!-.: Jnd Annit: Jrc m ,hc hvmg room. \,hki: ask., Anmc Jbout thc phy�1cal md ,1ic1al "'urlu.
whc1hcr ,hi:"J likc to .:at Jinncr 1n •h..: Ji,mi,t room ,1r 1he • n,c '.o.:u, ,)1 prJl,!lll;H1c analy," i, on the me:.inm!! 01 ,Pl!:.ikcrs·
knchcn . .'\nnic rcpli.:s: lt's cold in here. u1tcra11cc, r:.ithcr thJII un che '.llcan111g ol -.�orch. ur ,..:m..:nc..:s.
, r,1 rhc (Juccn JllJ her outh:r. James .•1r.: m •he Jrawmt? • l ltctan.:.:, ,1c.:u mH con,1,1 ,ir �umplctc ,cnt..:ncc:-;. Each
mum. Thc wmJl,w 1s op.:n. lñc Qu.:cn ,.ivs: lt's colo ,n uncranc.: ., .1 un,uuc ph�..ai:al .:vem .:rc,llcd at J oamcul.ir
nere. 11,11111 111 111nc f<-r 1 ¡i,ir11cul:11 c,,mmunic:.i11vc purp�.:

::.' FURTHER
1. 7 Hcluw .1re ,.:•,eral cunv..:rs:1111mal ..:xtrJct, whcrc the partici­ EXERCISES
Comment Here .ire ,;imple Jn:ilyses. pants .irc Jiscu:,sing mi:;1ning. Fur eai:h c:<tract Jcc1dc if thc mc:ming
(a I lt's cold 1n here typc u11d..:r discuss1011 would h..: primanly thc .:onccm ,cmantics ,,r
S?· 'ii1.: 1cmpcr:11urc in 1h1, pia.:c is r"ng1d. or pral\m:ui�.
PP· L..:t·, cat 111 1hc kitchcn (aJ :-..Jike· Tha1•� an rnteresring har.
1 b I lt's cold in here \nn,c 'Nhat do ¡ou mean by tha17
SP· Thc tcrnp,:r:.itur.: m th1s place is lnl!1ú. 1 h 1 ')t..:ve· L1s1en to th1s. No animal b1rd or rcpnle shall
PP- James. ,;hui thc winduw. be kepr ,n the Fiar or any other part of the
builoing without the onor written consenr 01
the Lessor which !if givenl shall be deemed

1t
EXERCISE :o be by way of icence revocable at will.
1.6 'iu" pr,,,11!<: 1 1hm.J co111..:x1 tur lt's cold n here wh1ch '.\ollulJ fanc -har ¡us, means renants can t have pe1s
v1.:!J I thmJ and Ji1f..:r..:rn pragmat1c mcanini?. w1rhou1 the landlord's wrtten perm,ssion and
that even ií he aoes g,ve perm1ss1on, he can
:ake ir bac� anv •,me he Nams ,o.
6 WHAT IS P�GM.>TICS7
WHAT IS PR-'GM.>ncs? 7
(el Paren 1: Where are your shoes, young man7 '
1.10 Provide thrc" difkrcn1 cont.:�ts 111 which thc uueranc:: J'm
ChilJ: Under my bed. .!!.!ll.
"ould have 1hrc:c diffen::nt pragmauc me:inings evcn chough �
Plr.::nc: When I asked where your shoes were, 1 un derlyini,: �cmantic mcanrng would remain che s:ime. (Follow llle
wanted you to put them on ! í.irma1 "e use,J 111 E.icrcisc 1.6.)
(d) Ed: Lugubrious?
Fayc: You know, sort of mournful, noc very
cheerful. 1.11 l-krc is nn examplc oi J co111cx1 wh.:r.: thrce diffc!rcnl uttcr­ ✓
IC:l Da�<:. What did Macbeth mean when he said that Jnccs .:oul<l potcn1tall:, hJ,·C! similar pragma1ic meanings. even
life was a tale told by an idioc? chough cach oí lhcm has a Jiffcn:nc scmantic mc:ming. A mothcr
S,1r:1hi ! guess he thought chat life didn't make any ,v-Jlks in1,, J vcry me,sv room and Jddn:s.,;.:� 1cenal!C mhabi1an1:
sinse.
This room is a pig srv' How many times have I told you
abouc this room? Clean this room up.
1.8 Pmv11k JI lc:i,t ,,nc pu,s1blc ;.;manuc pnraphra�c tSP) for
,entcnc.:, IJHJ) t,d,>" For (.i)-íe) bclow. prov1Jc thrcc .ilternativc� t'or 1he undcrhned
Examplc flirt pt1rtv ,., go111� 1u b11:¡111 afto:r lrrt leuvl.'f. uucr:11tct:. E:tch Jltcm:itivc �hnuld p•Jtc.:niially havc J -,imilar prag­
ma1ic mt:an,nt!, cvcn th,>Ugh 1hc ,cm:1111ic meamnl!. woulu he
SP· Toe pnrty wrll .:ommcm:e Jflcr he ,kpam. '
Jirfcrcnl.
,\nal�sc vour par:iphrJ:.<:S in 1crms of whc:ther you eh:mgcJ indi­ (:i) \(a11: Do you want sorne cake?
vidual worJs. 1hc s.:n1enci; s1ruc1urc. or bo1h. Chns: l'm on a diet.
(b) F<l: How was the party'
(J) ff.:r mutl:a is unhuppv
Faye: Don't ask1
(b) H.v frumd lot11hes .ttrtni; h.:uru.
(e) 'vf::111: lend me a oen
(e) /'// luuk ¡i,r 1hu1 book ri¡;/11 now.
Chris: Here. But it's runnino out of ink.
íJ) S1i,vrt hm!¡;éd Ju11e.

SUPPLEMEN­
-, DISCUSSION
TARY 1.9 \\ords .:an havc mure lhiln onc �cmamic mcanin¡; anJ con.-;c 1.12 Bclow Jrc.: four J�rinition, nf pmc;mmu.s. Wha1 clcmcnts do QUESTIONS
EXERCISES '"·· .¡uently ,o .:an thc ,.:nlcnce, 111 "'hid1 chq Jppear. For c:<amplt!. lVrt 1hc, hav.: 111 .:omm,m· .• Dt> you nu1ic� 3ny diffc:rcnccs !11 cmphas1s·!
/ikrtl 1/ll' l1t1 ll enulJ have 1wo di1krcn1 seman1ie m.:anim;s:
(.1) Pra!lmaucs stu<lic., lhc lacmr., 1h:11 ;;ovcm our choice 01
SPI \Ve: lik.:J :he ,phcr1:. l.111,;u,11!c 111 �I m1cr;1c11011 Jllu lhc :.lit,:cL� 1>1 our ..:horce
SP:· W.: hk.:d thc J:mec. ,m ,11nc.:rs.
Wc oi1cn havc to use ,iur l:nmvledg.: uf thc con1e:<l to predice which ¡Crvstal. 191:!í. p. l'.:.0)
one ,s on1endeJ by 1hc ,pcal..cr. and ,ome11mcs wc havc ru ·bad,-
1rack' 1 saw chis ,rgn m 1he w111dow 01 a scafoo<l rcs1aur;1111 m tl1e
(bl Pragmatics c;in b,; u,cfullv ,ktineu as 1hc SIUÚ!' oí how
uucr:mccs h,1vc_mc.:animt�
. in -,i1ua1ions.
--
CSA. - ' - (Lc:t!Ch, 1')83. p. x) V
'Ne �cr✓c shrimps .::id ::rabs (e} !'r:igr.::::1:::: L� :h.: s:u<ly of how •ilv,c ¡;ces eu1111nunic:11c<.1.
And tall people· and, nice people too. 1han_is ,aid. - - • ' ·<
Pmv,<l.: thrc" diCTcrcnl ,cmanlt, mc:111111gs (5P�) for thc tira lmc of /Yule, 19116. p. 3)
lhe! fü\11 Jnd chmN! thc une 1hu1 was intendcd g1vcn Ull! ,;ccond lim:.
\<l} TI1crc" ,1 Ji\11nc1ton bc1wccn .1 hcarcrs
Whkh ol 1he! chrce was your tir..t prcdiction .is you wcrc rcadini; llu: knowleJge ut he!r
lan�u11ge .md her loi�lcdgc oí 1hc world. In 1J11s sccuon.
�1gn ! C.m y,iu tl11 nk uf Jny rcasons why 1ha1 was your 1irs1 predic­
1 �hall arguc lhal rt is th1s <l1s11nction thal underlics the
uon'! 01 d Jny of 1hem mvolve your c:xpcct:11ions aboul 1hc worl<l
Ji,11nc11011 hc1wcen semanucs JnJ pr:i�matics.
Jl!<l the way pcoplc he!h:tvc·!
( Bl::ikemorc. l lJlJ'.!. p. 39)

.¡
:¡
8 WHAT IS PRAGM,HICS?

2
1. 13 Growmg up 1:, harJ 10 Jo! An:il�sc thc ,cm,1111,c JnJ,or prag­
ma11c úiilkullu.:s thesc young pcopl.! havc gol 1hcm,dvc, 1nto.
(E)(amplo:, (.:He) Jre (rom .-\menc:in high �chool ,1ullo:nls ,vhll wc:rc:
ENTAILMENT
.l)kcd w dclinc a "orJ anú u,c: 11 m a se111cncc.)
(J) ¡\ pup,1 wa, a,kcJ to cornmcnt on th.: lrnc Thtt dul,I is
,Ji.· r.i1h11r ro tire: 11:,111 .im.1 Jmwcretl: This was wr,nen by
Sh�kespeare. He often made this kand of mistake.
(bl Ch1lú: Mommy, 1 want more mtlk.
Pan:nt Is that the wav to ask?
C hrlJ· Please.
Paren! Please what?
t·h,IJ Please gImme milk.
,�, 11 ,J,·.i .)·1i.1k1tr , ,1,·_:urr:;on ,·:11,fr11t ., "·:rtc::a:.:
,_\'t/tll.! ·Jurinl!· íl1.: nsqu.: litt1': ,-iu1rr.:I
wJ:,n·1 .llr:11J ui rhc Jo.:.
ldl l\ mi fo11h·nr , d••fi11111011 Stud,:111·, \&!Jrft!rltc!
11uicú,11'.(tlhlt' ·1,rdl!'-' !"he HJ1l,mccn ;¡Jth! ln·rhe firsl unit wc saw lhatlnto:rprcñn2:�nec.1nc� fnvolvcs :1 con­
lci1 ...:,crJI .:ars 111Jc -;idc:r:tblc .imount oi io1.:lligc11L gucsswor!c: where che h<!arer draws
foil!! 1hh: infcrcnccs from tlll:· spcaket's words co .i.rrívc at tbc speakcr·s
11!.) \V,,r,J Stru/,:nt • ,· ,1t•túuuo,: Sfl1t.lf!llt \ \t'lllt:IIL , m=in� ín this unit wc h:ik ar .:nr:rilment_a rel:!cilll!Ship.bcLwem
\ptlTitJIU •i.\..:anng. .,pur� [he .:U\\bl)\' ,trnJc ,tnlcn,"t!s that forms thc basis for wme of thcs.: L!!!_i:n:na:s.
�t>11nou1lv thrnu?!h 1hc
JÚlltlflfü! .:rnwd.

Exam t)u.:,llllrt. Dril\\ int..:r..:n.:�, r,1m thc !Jet lh.at ,-nen wcitcr
FURTHER h>r ,hort. hc!!1nncr-lc•.cl ,,,crvu.:w, ,,1 th.: tvpc, ,,1 4uc.,11ü11, th.11 frcc�c�. 1 p1p,: hura,
REAOING pr:t�maucs J.;ul, wllh JnJ he rcl:1111>n,h1p 1,.:twccn -..:manucs .,mJ Stut.J.:m·, An,wcr: 1 havc ncvcr ,ccn m 1111crcn.:..: ,o I c:Inn,,1
pr,1:;m:11,,.:,, ...!r�\A. dnc.
üy,1.11. l �ix- r,p. 2\l-.:2.
Yute .• IJ"ti. pp. j�-!
F< >r more 1dvanc�tl lrcatnu:111 u1 lhc,c b,uc, .<-1 EXERCISE
Blakcmurc. l'-0�. po. 3° -53. 2. 1 Luok .11 thc lolluwrn!! ·,lip,· Irom ra<Ji,, mJ tdc�"'º"
L.:l!ch. 1 �183. op. l- L.'I. .1nn,1un.:::rs. \'vha1 ·, wrong hcn: '
fhc .:xamplc.:, ,ll \mcnc:in hi�h ,ctwnl ,luJ.:ni, wrcsthnl! wuh l:il lt's been an amazing year 'or Crvsral Palace over the
,llcahul:1rv uuc.. uon, �"me 1rnm: pas, 12 months.
h The 'Obber, Nas ,:cmm11ted ov a oair Jr oer.m;a1
tw1ns, both -1re sa,d 10 be about .ige 20.
(.:1 Seno ,n your compernIon answers w,th your name,
age, and how old you are.
.ti S,> you·re a '1ousew1fe and a mocher Do •¡ou 'lave
;in,¡ ch1ldren 7
 1Q E NTAILMENT
ENTAILII.IENT 11
Comment \Ve núrm,,11� do n\ll .:xpcct pcoplé l\l tdl us mmcthmg ",: alrcady
.::f> EXERCISE
kno". EmbcdJeJ in cvcry 1111.:rancc is a .:onsidcrablc amounl of
2.3 Assumc that scntcncc (a) in cach pair is synthetically Lruc.
·undcrstooJ· informauon "'hich comcs irom our knowlcdgc of lhc
Then ln�,k al scntt:ncc (b) and Jccide if you can assume that il is
l:inguag.: it,df. Th.: ·shps m this cxcrc1s.: g1vc or ask ior n:dundant
au1oma11c:11ly tru.: givcn thc 1ru1h of (al.
informa11on. mformation wh,ch can be .1urnma11cally inicrrcd frorn
:hc m..:.ining-s l,f ,�M<ls thc ,p..:akcr has alrc:idy us.:J. li you know 1/:1) A11111t' i:auglt1 a 1mu1.
1he me.inmg oí v.ttJr. n,111.). <l;/<' and mv1irer. th..:n you also know that: l(b) .-\nme cauglrt a Ji.>11.
a ycar 1� !� ntumhs long: 1wms Jrc 1he ,ame .igc: your Jg.: 1s how
�(a) Anlllf" IS 1hi11.
old ,ou .irc.:: J mothér ha.-; J h:a:,l ,¡ne .:h1IJ.
�(bl ,lnme :s 110t ,ri11.
.:1 J 1 .-111111<' .�llk,t,1 ¡¡ ,·Jkr!.
EXERCISE 3/bl .•\11111<' bakr!d ;mnet/1111,:.
2.2 Prc1.:nJ 1hat vou nave 11Lsl .irr·,e:J trom Jnotht:r plan.:1. You
ha•.: l.:Jm.:d 1h.: "1.::-1hular/ ;1nJ ,¡rammM ,,. English. but you have
n.:,er v"11cd E.ir:h hdorc. nor ha,..: you ..:ver mct or ,p,ik..:n to
.mothcr EJrthling. A, i� thc ..:ustom JO vour ¡,lancl. you m1crpre1 l"hc Jns11,cr is ·ve,· in :111 chrcc cases. Onc..: wi: cswblish th.: truth Comment
c"l!rythllll! vou he:1r !1tcr:illy. Your ¡ob ,� tu J,:c:Jc wh..:lhcr .:ach ,>i 111 ,..:n1cn<.-c la). ,cn1cncc lb) bccom..::; autom:uicallv 1rut: becausc of
my tollowing st.llcmcots 1s true or fabt: Jnd why. 1hc mc:mmg rclalÍ1>11�h1p,; betwet:n tmullfüh. t/11nift1�. and cakelsomc:-
1/t n�. lo cach c:.ise. wc c:in �ay that ,cntcn..:c (b) is Jn E!'-TAJt.."'""',- Entailment
,al My morher is ¡¡ woman.
<
!
n,, My mother is a doctor.
01 �emcnc-: IJ).•\11 s.:n1enc.:s hJvc J numbcr 01 cnt.ailmcms. Tbat
1s. •><her �C'l!.I..W;l;> wh1ch are autom:.1ti=!_lly true if thc orii!inal
(e) The 1iger is unnappy. _
tJ} The 1iger is an animal. '---;¡¡;n¡,;nc c 1s �rur; Thc thing abou1 cntailmcn1 is lhat th1s kind 01 mfcr­
_
c�cc 1s ·tor lre.:' ll rc4uir..:s only J knowlcdgc of tht: scm:intic wstcm
1.:1 My mother is a boy.
•ll thc lang•Jag,; IJcmg U!icJ ..-\t th1s p:>i r.1. ycu rr:ay be ,,.-oncÍc.ing
({) The riger is a repule.
,�hcthcr .1 r \l{.\1'111< ,sF 1, 1he s:ime thing as ao cn1:iilmcr11. In ;cm:in­ Paraphrase
u':s. J paraphra.,i: is a spec1al kind oi en1a1lmenc. Thc ncxt cxcrcisc
w1II sh,iw you wh:.tt I mc:tn.
Commem Wilh11u1 knuwini,; J11y1hinl! about 'l1Y muthcr ,,r 1hc ugt:r m 4 ucs1iun.
,ou .::m 4ull.: ..:as,ly an,w.:r ·:ruc· tn 1:11 .inJ tJ) hccausc u1 your -
:Y EXERCISE
know1cJl!e u1 Engti,h. n1c,..: ,cntcm:t:s Jrc ncc::."anly true bc:::iusc -
2.4 For cach pa1r. Jc.:iJe whi:Lhcr you .::1n a.�sume that ,¡i:ntcnce
,ir thc m..::111111� rcb11unsl11p bctw.:cn thc w,,rds nwtlwr Jlld ""'"'"" _
(h¡ 1s JUlom.iticallv tru..: i;ivcn lhc syntht:tic Lruth oí senccncc (a)
,md bclwcen w;a ,mJ 1111111111/. lñcsc lYO<!> uf ,cntcnccs are mmc•
fhcn reverse thc prm:t::.s. lf sentcncc (b) 1s ;yn1h.:11c::1lly true. can
AnaJY1ic sentancos 11mcs rcfcrrctl 111 ·"' .. ,,,,LYTH sL'-11,:--• t:!>. Similarly. givcn lhal you
you 1ssumc thal scmcncc (a) is automatically trui:!
1n1.:rpre1 cvt:rytlung li1crally. you ,:m e:is1ly answcr ·talse· to (c} anJ
( O. Tht: mc:rnmg� oí 11101/i,•r anJ lw_v JnJ 11�u JnJ re¡m/c makc such ll J) Cvldiloi:ks w11v " bear.
Contradictions ..enicn..:::s nccc�arily lab.:. or ,·oNTR,,nwnoNS. How.:vcr. (b) Jnd l(b> Cvltlilocks suw ,in 1111im11/•
tC> prcscnl y,,u \VÍlh J prohlcm. Thcy m;.:; .;; m::y :,ot b:: 1n:::. Yuu
:c.11 Tlus pormzg,:. L� roo coltl.
c:mnot vcrity the lrulh ur falsity 11f chn.-;c ,t:Jlcmenls by !01>kmg in
�( b l Tl1L, porntl ,;11 ts rwt w,, ltot.
,,,ur Jicuonary Y,,u woukl m:cJ nthcr. nnn-lingu1s11c_. mrurmauon
• 1hou1 my mnchcr and th..: par11c u lar Lig..:r 1 .un rdcrring to. lñt:sc 3( .1 l B,wv IJl!11r cnctl .
Synthatic sontencos are ,umcumc� rcfcrrctl lO as �v-.. nu,m ,1-:...n:-.n,.s. lf i1 1ums ouL J(b) Bubv 8,mr ivept.
1hat my mulh t: C. .1..:111ally 1s .1 tluecor nr 1ha1 the 11gcr IS unhappy. wc
-l(a) J/11111u Bttur L\ 111 fro111 o/ Papu 811ur.
Synthetlcnllv true woulll ,ay lhal thcse �1a1cmcn1s .irt: ,v.,.111r-T1< \LLY nu l.l. Th:11 is.
-l(b) Ptlpll Bear IS bl'/11111/ \11111111 Br:ur.
l thc1r truth ,s has..:J ,m wh:11 1s happcmng 111 th.: worlll. no1 on what
" happ,.:ning III Lhc langua!!<:. Sinularly. 1f my mothcr is Jn ::ngim:t:r
ra1hcr than .1 doctor .mJ th.: ugcr IS ou11e h:1ppy. wc woulJ say thal
Synthetlcnllv false th<.-sc �1accmcn1s Jrc ,v..,nu,ric·,\IJ.Y F ,w.L.
12 ENTAILMENT E\¡TA1l"1E'ff 13
Comment ,\, you can scc. thing, get J bit m,m: comphca1cd when wc loo k to thc cook1.:,. lhen hc .1bo JI<: fümc of thcm lln hi:; way to <:ating all
5cc: if 1hc: c.:n1.1ilmcn t worlu both WJ\\. In sc.:n 1c.:ncc pair!! l ami :?. ,>f 11:cm. (Th.: mea n i n,i rebtion b..:1wccn ,i/1/sumot is simil:Jr 11) th:ll
1hc e n 1a1lmcn1 \\ Ork, in onh onc.: ú1rc;110 11. li Golúilocks saw .1 bl!ur. bé t\\cc n troutl.fislo in E-.:crdsc 2.3 n nd botar'unim,tl in E.tcrcisc 2A.)
,hcn ,he: ncc::�sJ rilv saw a1; 111111,wl. Bu1 1f ,he.: ,aw <111 .1111mal. ,he lt Stc:>c h.1ú c:,11.:11 ail 1iJc cookics. from a ,cman tíc pumt ot v1ew he
cou fd hase s.:cn :i bc:J r bu1 not ncccs,Jnlv. l t cuuld hu�e bccn a b1g was not lyin�. From J pragmatic pom1 oí view. wcll. what do vuu
baú \hlli. 1or <!xnmpk. lt ,omc1hing i, luo �o/,/. b� Jc1ini11on i 1 cannoc thinl,. ' Wc " ill be r..:1urnin!! to thc�..: :s,uc� in L'nirs -l and 5.
b.: too hv!. Bue (i ch<: p,,rriJ;,ic i> nut t•l<) hnt. ,, tt nccc,>Jnly too - r.1k" thc ,cntcnc-:. ni,. pmmerr brokot tite: windo n . This \<!ntc:nc.:
.:o !J'! :-.o. Likc 8.ihy Bc::ir , p,irridg..:. it �nu!J oc j u, t nght. Whcn hJs many .: 11 t.1 ifmcnt:, Hi:r.: .1rc ,omc ,·cry basic (one-way) cmail­
thcrt..! i.!t \)ni\: "''E·\' , y t., ¡ , , , ''í: "• ;-. lhc "c nh:nt:t:� drr! out truc.: p.J r.:.1- m.:ru,.
ohrJ':il.!!- ,Jf ..:at..:h o t hc.:r Scntcnc:: o..11r..; 3 JO(J -l hc.:ha•n.: -;omcwh:.u
L::1t.l lj1 tl..:;il Sumcoth.: nnJKt: thl! 1.\. HhJO\\
Jicfc.:rcnllv Bt..!t:au�<.: • H thc iTh:!:tnm� rdat1t)nsh10 bctwccn ._·rh!tllwcpt
En1.11lr111m1 ·Thi: ¡,ain ccr, Jiú ,,Jm..:ching to thc window.'
Two•way ontailment �líld 11: �r,�)I!! ,ribc:!un..i. \\.t.,• havc .l ;; ,u,Jlh}n lJi :....\lf 1-\\. \ \ ,,r •.11 Tt \ 1
E iHJllmcn, 1 · 1.: r,im!c:, hr,1k-: ,oa:.:thmg.·
Mutual entailment �" ' \i L,,c, r bct1<.:cn thc: ,c:ncc:nc::!, 1n c:acil patr rhc,c ,c:ntc nccs ·
.H i.; ��rJohr:t!'-1.!� ,>! -.!:.u.:h 1Hhcr T'1c :l!rn1 ;,ararn r;L<;\.! -� u�cJ in )CfllJíl· '.v!ica Ullcr:n:! t!11, ,cnk n,..: ín ;un tc�t. .1 ,oc:ak . .: r 1�íll i1J1·c u11<: uf
uc, 1, h.::1 !h.:r-: i, J rd,lllunsh1p \lf mutual �lltJ1hni.:r1t l'c t"c"n t,,., 1h1:,.., ..:nt.1 1im�nt:, 111 m111J J> lhi: m:11 n :·o.:us. !hc m,,,t 1mpor:.1n 1 ,>n.: ·
,.:nrcnccs. Gc::1.:ra lly ,pca k,ng. · ..,n 1.11imcn t '. •rnaf,uc ,.:mcm:e· JnJ ror 1nh.::-prl.!tmg thc m���J�� Onc w�y t>t &..:ommunk::iung thl!, to t h�
·co11 tr:1diction · .irc cuns1dcr..,d lo be purdy S<!mantic conc�pcs. havin,; - h..:arcr. ur Hlf< t , '""' '-Dr:-, J 1:Jrttcular cnt:ulmc:nt. 1s bv puumu �- Foregrounding
h> Jo with "i..::i tcn-.:c mcJn1ng. ;-Jthcr fhJn -;pcnk�r 1ncanmg.. H,Jwcvcr. 11.: a, y 'itr�"')�J nc ,>f t hc '"'l)í"1;\ in Jn uucranc::. For cx�1mplc. bv "iavin�
thcS<! lSSllCS .;;:i n h.: 4uitc rcl<!v:1 111 (O che ,tutly ,>! pr:igmat i,;,¡ JS th.: The PAINTERS broke the wí ndow. 1hc ,pcJkcr forc:g ru�nd�
ncxt '"º -:,c.:rc:sc, will 11fustr:11c:. Ent:iilmcnt l. Thc ,..:ntcn..:.. Ut!c:rcJ in th1s pamcul�r wa� gcncrJlly
..:om munic:ircs che mc,s..tl!c · ·'t au .111J 1 .1rc takinc 1l for "í:Jlllcd th:it
<1l111c,m.: brok..: thc winJ�>11 l 'm 1clling vou wh¿- JiJ ic.':
E X E R C I S E '.,
In .::ich ni thc loiluw1111! Ji� iol!u<:�. ,out thc múmnauon .vhich
m:ars n:JunJant or contr:i�ktt>rv- imm ·J ,cmanuc pl)ln ! nf vrcw. ....•. EX E R C I S E
1i1�n Jcc1Jc 111 pragmat11: tcnns wl;,11 chis ><Jrl ,,f 1 11format1011 m1gh1 2 . 6 Her-: .ir.: t h rec Jítfcr-:nt >trc,, paltcrn, kJr . !mue rt1111<!d t/z,:
be ·tc!ling · thc hearcr 1w,·ut1.r Tr;, malc.:hmg -:a.:h u 1 t .;r;111,._, ,v 1 1h th .: cn!J1l 111i:nl w h 1 ch í,
h<:tn:! lo'íl!c!íllunúc.:d. Wh 1 k 1nu ,m: J11i ,1g ! 111,. rh 1 11k how t h.: mcssagc
(.1¡ fum: Whar s your .steomcther like 7
-..uhllv �:t:UH.!t..!S wuh c:t&..:h ..:n.u,�c uf ,trc��-
B,:h: Well. she's a woman ano she married my forher.
t tcraru.:� { 1 ). ,i.
, nnit1 R U I N E D the swea ter.
, h ¡ Dave: There's you r Unc!e George.
t h: ranc..: / h ¡­ A n n i e ruined the SWEATER.
Lucv: Thac man's a snake.
ltcr:mc.:c f c 1 : ANNIE ru ined the sweater.
1c1 Jane: You ace all the cookies! Ema1lment 1 'Sümcnnc rmncd t hc ,we:itcr.'
Slcv.:: f ate sorne of the cookies. E.1t:11lmc:i1 · .\ n n1c Jiú ,omc thm:¡ i., lhc ,wcJt.:r.
En1ai lmc111 j; · .\nn1.: ru1 11eJ ,,im.:ti1 1ng ·

Comment In , J I 13,>h 1 ppc.,r, to he prov1úing n:uuntlan t informauon ,incc h,�

,t..:omoth..:r is n.:cl!.-,sanlv J woman whu ma rnctJ hi, tat h<:r. �,ven the h vour 111ah•..,1\ ,11nJ br tu mine·• Comment
mc:m111!! ,11 11c¡1111,,1fo.:r But .� th1s �mc..1 •>I 111i11rma 11on .ilway, L t rcrancc 1 :1 1 'i.1� ror.::¡r,iun<l..:J E111:1ihnc111 1. \lc:,sagc; You J nl.l
u,.:!.:s,·• D,J vcJu S!Cl thc 1111ort:�•1on lhat Bob m1µh1 111>1 be partic 1 .1rc taktnt! rt fur iramc.:u t h a t . \11111c Jid " "nctl, 111g 10 1h .: sweater
ularly f,mu ,,j h,s ---acpmoth�r ,,r that p..:rhap, he ha, aot mc.:1 her 1· n lcl1111!! vou wh:11 .\11111c diJ . '
v.:1·• In I h 1 1 ucv 1) nrnv1c..lin!! ,111 inhcr.: n t comraJicuon. 'icmannc;;tllv. I.Jt1cr:111cc l b ) ha� lorc,!rounú.:LI Entailmc111 J . :Vl <:'iloage: · Ynu .ind
1 man ,, .l\.; .i �nak.:. Ho\\�ver lr•>m ,1 pragmauc ¡l< lml ,i( v1ew. h�r , f irc.: ,1kmt! a for t!rJntcú :h:u \ n n ic-'rumcd ,omcthin�. - rm ,c:llinl!-
HJM\'Cr :nak�, 1 In, t}f -.;cn:-i:c \V� ��tn ¡nfor that ,he: Joc�n·r fik� her v,,u >hat \11111c ruinc:.J
'J lldc. D1.1fot!U<.. ,,;1 , · ndn D1ú vou .i>sumc 1 h:1t S,cvc h.iJ 0111 I L trerancc l <: J has f1 1r.:'..!r,1un,!c1J E n1:1il111cnr 1 \-lc"a�.:: · Y,,l! inJ
..::>ten .111 thc-�•'•>k1c, ' DtlJ h.:,pc�t tk:t íly ,ay 1h:1t lle haJ n,H �aten l i re t:iking ,t h>r ..4ran tc:ú · hat ,,imcnnc rui net.l thc ,,.c::1 1cr rm
ul the �ook1c, • Fro rn I pnn:lv 1 ,)!!H:ai ,1uint ,u \tll'!W. ,r S,cvl..'. ate ,1II 1clhnl! ,,,u •. h:11 .·\m11c Jiu 11.
14 ENTAll)\,tENT
ENTAILMENT 15
Each •>l 1hcs..: Jiifercnl messa,a.:s illu,;1r:ll<!S how more: c:.on be: ev.:n J,111c is" ivomun. (J.1nc could b<! ..i baby. or a pe1 hams1cr or
communicalcd 1han s1mply ·whal �s said". Toe importancc given 10 a man wtth :in un�ual namc. You need morc than purdy linguis1ic
om: .:n1ailmen1 ovt:r anotht:r by a speakc:r has importan! consc­ knowkdge to say that ·shc" is a woman.)
quem:::s for che p ra�matic :inulysis oí that unerancc.

-----
(.1) 1/.v 1ista-i11-/m, r:row\ roses.
(bJ Stn<' u jurious.
SUMMARY • AII sentcnct:s havc a number or c:n1a1lmen1s - ,Hher (e) Tom wld a .:0111¡m1er ru \,/ark.
,1::ntcncc:. whoch Jrc Juh.lmJtically true ii 1h..: unl!inal (d) Wy brorhcr repu,rd mv car
,¿nh.:.n..:c ls lruc:.
•
-
En1J1hnc:11.� Jr..: m1¡;¡;:111:es 1ha1 .:an ne d�n s,�ly from SUPPLE­
0

.!.'

>u� l:nowh:Jl!c .1hou1 ihc ,.:man111: rda110.1�h1p, in a :?.� '.'. i"Üt. i.!111.!c! •.u1Ji _:, (1\. ..,l.!lllt:00::)� c:.g. \-1y 111()(/l�r l.S u \1,'()/nllJL. MENTARY
!UJl!.!Uclt!�. Fvr ..:ach s.:ntcn.:e. thmk of J con1.:x1 whcrc thc uueran.:c of 1hat EXERCISES
• fh,; knowh:Jgc alln", u, :,> .:nmmum.:alc mud1 nuuc ::tppar.:ntly ·u11111form:11ivc· ,..:ntt:nc� "-OUIJ be t¡Ullc miormativc tu
rh,111 we Jctuallv ·,av· 1hc hc:ir..:r

FURTHER 2.1 O Wnt.: 1lm:c scn1cnct:� wh1ch Jre contraJicuons. c.¡;. My

EXERCISES 2. 7 Wluch ,,t thc l l )IIOWlnt! 'iC!ll<!llCt:S .::mnnl b.: dt.�l!,!flUt.:J J.S mmftcr L'i u huv. For .:ach �cmcncc. think o( .i con1ex1 where tlu:
·1ruc· ,>r ·talsc· unks, yuu havc extr:1 nnn-linl!uis111: 1nform.111on·• u11cr:11u:c 01 that .1ppan::11.lv ·nonscnsicar �cntcncc would suU makc
scnsc to thc hc::tn:r
(.1) Hy hum,rer u "mummul.
lb) \,(v i:u11.rn1 is" .,:1rf.
(cJ w·v ,wer lt u i¡1rl. 2.11 Thc followint! are from How/i,rs hy Russcll Ash (1985) and
(J) Wv ,1:,t�r i:, ¡�mal,•. Tlrt! 77n St11pidcs1 Thin�s Ever SaiJ hv Ros.� :inJ K:i1hrvn Pctras
(e) 1 smv u jemule rock. 1 l'J lJ4J. Whcrc has thc communicauon �onc wrong} Or h;, i1'!
( f) / WIIV 11 ;�11111/� torlOl�t!.
(.1) Ali creatures are imperfecr beasts. Man alone is the
( ;;) H v .:ar likcs i<:tt•Crt'um.
(h) 11� 11<:k ,:ur IS ti/JI w,://. perfect beast.
(h) The brain cía woman ,s almost as heavy as a human
brain.
2.8 F,ir �ac:1 ,c:itcncc Ca)-(d) pr,>v1,lt: IWll ..:nta1lm..::i1s. ()ne shnuld (c) A coroner's dury is to decide whether a person died
b..: ,1 ,,nc-Wa} e111:11imcnt .lS 111 thesc e�:unplcs: a Íiltalifeath.
(d) We do not have censorship. What we have is a limi­
EJ .:1111,¡/11 " 1mu1 - E,/ .:uu,:ht u Ji:.lt tation on what newspapers can report.
Orit!Ínal �enlence Enwilmeot (e) Snakes are cwo sexes, poisonous and non-poisonous.
The- blimp wus ,wer 1/11: huuse - Somc1/11n,: wu:,· ovi:r thc l1CJtl.\•' (f) 1 have reiterated over and over again what I have said
Ongmal ,cntencc Eni.11lmcnl before.
,rnJ ,in,: sliou:J :,.. .1 tw,,-way (mmu.1I) cntailmcnl as m t!?'.!SC ..:"Camp les ·
Ed ,::m,¡/11 J !mUI +- EJ .:uplltrt!d <t trol//
✓ DISCUSSION
2.12 Louk JI thc�c pa1r.¡ ol un..:ranct:s. Thc �cnt..:ncl!.� being QUESTIONS
Onl!111al ,c111c,11cc Entailmcnl uttcrcd in cadt pair Jrc urguably scmanuc par:iphra!>CS uf c:tch 01hcr
Tire-blimp .vu.t ,,v.-r thc l101rse ,_ Tl:c lw11sc ,va,· 11ndi:r the blimp (in .1 rc!a1wnship 01 mu1ual cntatlmcnt). Do you lhmk 1hcy commu­
Ongmal scmcncc E111:11lmcnt n,catc thc �ame informa1io11!
Use - 10 $how onc-wav cntailment .ind ...., 10 �how two-wuy cntail­ l(:i) That food was delic1ous.
ment. Evcrv ,cmem:.: h;_, many ptlss1hlc cma1lmcn1s. but rcmembt!r. l(hJ That grub was yummy.
111 ,emanti.;,, ,111 cnt:iihncnt musl be automa1ically true sol.:ly by
vir1ue ol m.:anm¡¡ rclattonslups m the l::tnguagc. 001 by virtut: of whal 1(aJ She designs clothes for adult male humans.
usually happens in thc world. For .:xamplc. lun11 is m1cllig�111 e�t:11ls 2(b) She dcsigns clothes for men.
Jane is ,r,}( m1p11l h111 Jocs nut en1:.ul Ju,111 Joes wdl u1 11m11ers11v or
 3
16 ENT.>ILMENT
3(a) That guy's a bachelor.
J(b) That guy neyer got marr1ed. PRESUPPOSITION
2. 13 In faerd:,e .!.6 w.: noticcJ :h.11 hcavy ,tre,;s un a word can
be uscll tu torc!!rounJ a panicular cnt:ulmcnc. Cc:rtain kind, oi
,cnic:ncc •muctÜ;c ,::in alsu Jo thi, .im.l Jrc panicular!� usdul in
wri11cn lang.ua1¡t:: whcre ,tr.::,, 1, not .iva1labk Thc ,ccund scntencc
Clef1 sontence hcre ¡,, c:ilkJ .1 ,-u,r-T ,e, rt,cr-:

1 a, liu: ?AiNíEñ3 U1 uiu: thc wu ,dúw , "10u�.:ü,

(hl lt was the painters who broke :he wmdow. hvrit:cn)
Whcn thc dctl con:,trucuon 1, US<!U in ,!'1>k.:n lancu::i;¡.: .:omhm<!tl
wtlh hc:Jvy ,tr..:::,.s. ,;omc mtc:rt.:!,l!n� m\.·anm� u11fcrc,;nc.:.!:,,. ..::.in .:mt:r�c.: .
(\imp;m:
{c) lt wasn't ME wno burnt the toast.
tu) lt WASN'T me who burnt the toas,.
\V� look :it prc:supposioon•. anotJ1cr kfod ol'. infeTI:uce wlücre
- is
vcry ctosely !in.leed' to th� 'working' of the utter-.ui=
2. 14 1hc en1:11lmcnts ,ll .i ,cntcncc ,:in hc rc��rtlcJ a, thos.:
pro�111ons that c:111 tic míerrcu from it jn rnvynnh:lt' (my unucr•
timng, S1mp,on. I<l<l3: l:!2). What problcm.,. 11 any. an: p,,scJ tor
1h"" Jclinition hy .1 ,cntcnce lik.: lj.:or�e saiv " 11111' 1 cdcbr.1te mvsclf .intl >llll! mvsdt.
,\nJ "hat I J!>.,umc. vou ,;hall· JSSumc.
1 Walt \Vh11111.in¡
In thc l Sr\ Jn Jccu�c:tl 'lluggcr r:ithcr tooli,hly �hose to Jcicntl
FURTHER For mure .1bou1 1hc role oí e11ta1lrncnt in pral!ma11c Jnalys1,: h1mS<!lt ,11 thc tn:1I. !'be followtnl! 1s on.: 01 1hc 4uc,11ons he put 10
REAOING h1s v1c111n:
Yult:. ¡1111t,, Chaptcr J
Snnpson. i <l93. Chapt.:r 5. Did you get a good look at my foce when I took your
For 1m,r.: Jlmut Jitforcnt 111c:1mng rc!a11nn,l11p, betwccn wortls ,111d purse?
Jiff.:rcnt cypc, ,>í c111a1imcn1· l'h1, �ocs ,ome way 10 .:�pl:11111ng why he was -;cntcnceu 10 IO ycar;
Hurfurd .mu Hc:.tslcy. 1\JH:l. L,1111s 9-11. m pnson. hut 11 .ilso h11;1hligh1s .rnothcr typc 01111(.:rcnce thac we ntakl!
when mtcrpreting u11erances. In thc prev,ous unit we .:�pcnmcnu:d
w11b J.,s1gning ·true· ,u •fabc' to ,cntcnc-.::,. For ,orne ,;cntcnces. likt:
\/y 111111h11r ,s 1/ IVO/lltlll. Wt: i:ou!J .issign J rRL nl•VALL.ll basc u llll
wna1 wa., happt:n1ng 111 thc lancuagc. For others. likc J/v mmher is
� Jocwr. wc .:oulu ,1111 assu¡n a truth-v:ilue. hut II hall lo be hascu
,in what was happcmn:.? :n the work!.

.::.� EXERCISE
3.1 Dca1.lt: if il 1s p,1,,s1hlc to .1,;i,1cn cuhcr ·true or false· 10 cai:b
,,¡ thc followmg �t:ntence:,. t Rcmcmbcr. · true· Jntl ·faJs.:· tre not
4u1t1.! thc ,.1mc .1s ves· Jntl ·no·., .\re thcrt: .111v ,e:itcnc::s wh.:rc
tlu, was ,ut 4u111: p�s.,1blc rcgardlc,s .,¡ h,1w mu�h k.nowlc<.lge you
hatl Jlmut lhc pcuple. places JnJ cvcnt> involvcu or 1hc rnc:ininu - of
Enulísh word, •

17
 PRESUPPOSITION 19
18 PAESUPPOSITION

Ahraltw11 Lmcoltt is th.: c11rrent pr�s1de111 vf the USA. �, EXERCISE

(a)
(b) Th<1 Eiffd Tower is· in Paris. -, 3.2 For cach oí thc following uttcrances decid.: whctht:r thc
( e)A car is a11 ·auwmobik scnccncc bcing uttc:r.:d is dccbra1ivc. imp.:rativ.: or inccrrogative and
-(d) f!ave u cookir:. whethcr che Jc�ompanying inicrenct: sei:ms valid.
{,!)B.: c:1r�f11/ of ,he a11mbs.
tn) Where has Faye looked ·Fayt: has lookt:d for thc
ro Wlt11re WtlS Abraham Lincoln bum? for the keys 7 lccys.·
(g) lfow i,wch dtd rite car cvx:? lb) Did you buy this awful 'Th,s winc: is awfuJ:
wine?
Id Don·t sir on Annie's sota. '. .\nniehas a ,of:1.'
•d) Stop bein� t�z�,
Comment 'l'ou cot..h.l Jn,w.:r ·i.ils.:· iu f,11 JnJ 'Lruc· to (t1) bas..:(J on your �now1-
1e¡ Lucy knows that George ·Georg.: is a crook'
.;:d!!c ahou1 the w1Jrld. Y�,u could automatic:illy Jnswcr "Lruc· to le)
1s a crook.
bascJ on vour kno-,,lctl!!<:: oi wha1 o:ur and auromobzl.: m.:an. Thc�c
1hrt:c �c:ll�:ic�, h,1vc J p;rncular kmd ur grammancal structur..:. They
Ooclorotive .irc oi.cL..\lt, n-.F ,i,,rt,nc.!i. Dcdarativ,: ,.:ntcm:cs typ,cally func­
$entences t1on JS ·,1.1tcm.:nc, Comment
l'l1csc inf.:r..:m:l!s ..111 scc:m ..iu1tc obviou, oncs to makc. Thcv lu0k
Y,J11 run IJJVUY ,uspirn1usly hkt: cm:11l111enc,,', yct only che ;e'ntt:ncc uucrcd ,d (t:) is
Jt:dar:HJvc. S.:n1cnccs (:1) and (b\ are ontcrrogatives. and sentenet:s
I<:) Jnd tJ) .1rc i111p.:r:i1ives. Th.:s.: sores uf mfcrc:nccs ar.: snmeúmc:s
Suhiecl V..:rh .:alkd •"U'" ""'"ITlº"s. Sincc not ali uncr:rnc:.-:; consist uf ful! Jccla.r­ P·resuppositions
Problcms in a.,summ!! ·1rul!' or 'ialsc:' occur in scntcm:l!s (d) to(�) uuvc ,cntcncc:,. prcsupposition can he a uscful conccpt whcn
Th.:sc senccnc::s d� noc have J d.:clarauvc strucwre. Sentenccs (d) analysing spcak.:r mcaning. Howcvcr. iC has provcd vcry diflicult far
fmc,erative am.l (e) .irc 1MPE11., t1\.E ,E,TEM Es. In imp.:rative -;cntenccs. which author.; 111 thc arca 1n :igrce on a dc1ini1ion for it. 111is J,!finition
sentances typically iuncuon as ·comm;mds·. 1hcrc is no subJcct prescnc a.ltnougn problcm os panly a reflcction 'ni che fu1.zy boundary b.:twt:t:n prag­
ll IS ·undcr,to,l<l' ,IS W)II ma1i1:s Jnd scmamics. Som.: dcrinm,>ns of prcsupposiuon are v.:ry
hroad ,md ,pc;1l.cr oncnted: anything thc �peakcr .1ssum.:s 10 be true
R1111 wvuy! bdon: makmg thc uttcr:.mcc. Others ,ire much more narrow anJ
,entcllt:t: ,>ncntt!d: :i nccessarv prL-com..lition iur thc s.:nt.:ncc to be
V,:rh iruc. In 1hcsc units wc will h.:· m:!lling presupposmons as infcrcnces
11':uut what IS .1wct1 to lJ,.: lr\JI! in lhc uttcr.1ncc rathc:r than Jirectly
Scntcm:c� (f) ..111J (!l) Jn.: 1:-.11-11.11.,x;,, fl\,[• ,,." rt",-r,...,. ln1crrogat1v.:
lntorrogative .1sscncd to he true:
,entonces ,cntcnccs 1yp1cally r�nc:iun ..IS ·qucsuons·. Somc ín1crrogat1v,;s bcgin
with wonls like wlw. w/1111. wlum ,whcre. wlty. lww. cte. Sincc thc Faye has looked fer the keys dircl."tlv
• asscns ·fav�
· has lookcd
majori1y of 1hcse words bc:gin wi1h w/1-. they are all usually c:1lh:d for thc: kcys·
Wh-words Wlt-WORl>"i, Where has Faye looked fer the keys? presuppos,;s ·Faye has
you -r,1.11 awny? lookcd fnr thc kcys'
W/11• diJ you nui away? Dzd
Annie has a sofa dlrcctly �scrts ·Ann1c basa sof:i'
üon·t sic on Annie's sofa prt.'supposc.� · Annie has a sofa ·
Vcrb Subjccl Vcrb V.:rb Suhjcc_t V.:rb
Prcsuppo,itions .irc onfcrcnces that are verv dosclv linked to th c:
Y,1u w1il rc�all from Cnir :! that 1he cntailm.:nts uf a scntcnc:: are words .ind urammatic:il ,tructurt:s Jctuallv usc·d m th� uttcrance but
0!11cr �cntcnccs which are auwmauc:1lly 1ruc if thc original s.:nccncc thcy -."omc- fmm our knnwlcdgc .1boué thc way languagc �rs
is true. Howevcr. as we have scen. only dcdara1iv.: ,cncenccs can �'Uoveotionully iot.,rpn:t thcsc word� and structures. Bec-..iu:;c of this.
be ·true· nr ·false·. Does this 1111.::m whar wc c-.innot draw sorne vcry presuppositions <:an be qunc ·�neaky' as !he nc:<t exercise will
strong mi.:rcnccs from u11cranc:.:s has-,d on imperativ.: and inu:r­ dt:monstr:irc.
rogauvc ,cntenc.:s''
1
·¡
·'
20 PRESUPPOSITlON i'RESUPPOSITICN 21

EXERCISE • 1-kr,;. r am Jir.:c,¡� ·"•..:rring th:it ·You will wunt ir' bu1 111�idc: thc
Jcrinit..: noun phrJs..: 111_1 r(v1J/11111111,1ry cure ¡�,r b alcl11t!YS lurk severa!
3.3 In Excrci�c 3.2 changc /111.; to hw,11 ·1 in (.1): did 10 dit ln't in
,¡uitc Jubi,ius prnposiuons whid1 are simply ,1ssumcd to be true:
\ b ): do IV don ·1 in I e): ,tup lo don ·1 wop in ( d ): and knowr tO do.-sn '¡
know ,n (e) Do che: micrc:ncts still hol<l'! ·Th<!ré 1s ¡¡ .:un: for balJn.:ss. ·
·Toe .:ur..: is rcvoluoon,1ry ·
· J :1�vc thís �url.!.

You c:111 probably ,,:.: that pr.:supposioon ha, .J 11rc.n deal oi

Comment Y,,u '.'111 ia,c hJunc that ..:,11.:h of 1h.:s..: m1c:r.:m:o:,. ,,r pr.:supposi­
m¡·nr· Jnc� ·n Pcr,u.1,,vc; lan':lu.ig.:. partio.:ularl� in :he .:�urtroom JnJ
Nogocion tíons. rl.!m:im, :un'\tJnt unJ�r ,u.;., nu, úl lhL: matn .;..!ntcnc::
tl1 J\.ht.·n:srng..\1..hl.!rt1::i..::s .u� no( �1IIU\'ft.:t.i �o ...!irl.!ctl v \t:,Sl.!rt daim�
, l. nfonunat..:1� :or 0ur rnu�gcr ll thc hc:gmmng ,,i th.: unit. th..: 1nil! r­
ir,>uC 11lc1r ;,r1J.Juc:s ,,r 1h.:1r ,;omoetltors· for ,.,h 1 ch thcv hav,: n,,
;;11ce thJt :1c :"',k th.: pur•.: •.-,,ulc.l ,1111 holJ wh.:thcr ..ir nut his victim
,:vu.lt:nc::. Ho"cvcr. tney .::111 �enc�:illv .!l!I :iw:iv w11h m�kín1t inú1-
-�td ,hi: �•'l 1 ,:outf !Pnk al hi, fac:;.) J'l1b is ,orn..:umcs u,eJ l!i a
.-... ..:: .J\:-,�f:hins vlJ. prc"'ll��f"thlll:)11. (n 1h� :ourtr,,� m . \Vhc.!rl.! lht! ..�1,tk t!S
·1�,r l,>r a orcsupro,rnlln .. mJ u h1uhlighl> 110" .1 pre,upposiuon
1r:: Inut.:h tugnc.:r !hon lll J<lvc:-us1nl.!, l:twvcrs c:i:anuni n!! \\·itncssl!�
,3n c.1k.: ·n :he 1rpe:1r:mc.: ,if ·.:,r.11,ltsh.:J trurh · In ch<! n.:xt thrcl!
ir.: •>Úcn nm Jllmw,1 lt> makc Jn ,nJir.:.::· .is,.:mun ,1:1 prcsup¡:os1-
.:xc:,:s.:,. "" ,�,H lul'i,: :n .1 "ll mor.: J.:::111 .it ,0me ,H 1hc k1mh ui
111>n. un!.:,� ll h:is be.::i .:s1.ihh,hcJ hy pr<!�1uus c·,iJcncc:.
worJ_., Jnd •Hruc:uri..:, that �c.::t:n1 t1.> •tri gg cr' prc�upposilhHlS.

-�' EXERCISE
EXERCISE
3.5 Fnr ..:ach of 1hc !llllow111g un<.:rancc�. J.:ci<l c wh 1 ch 0ncs
3.4 E:ich 0f che tullo"'in1t un.:ranccs :ncnuuns dwco/111.: .:ukc.
.:u111:i111 th<: prcsuppusitton that ·:Vlik.: ,;mashcú thc 1.:lt:v1s1on·. In
Dcc:Jc whi..:n 0m:s .:onta1n thc prc:suppusiuon 1ha1 u th<: time! tht:
1llher W,Hlls. which ,me, 111Jic:uc that th.: spcak<!r h.is a:.sumetl th:it
un..:ranc:: was maJc 'Thcrc was a chocolate c:1k,.:'. Wh:11 Jo tho:,c
1h1> propos111on ,s true hui has no1 Jir<::;tly .1sscr1c:tl ir. \\lhat do thosc
uucr:rnt.::.!� h:n-c m cun1n1on .'
uu,.:rar. 1.:-.:s h:P:� m ..:cm11:...�:f
1

l(.11 Mike might find the chocolate c:ike in the kitchen.'

, ., , D1d Mike smash tbe 1eIev1sion?
l<bl Mike m1ght find a chocolate c:ike in the kitchen.
..¡!,¡ When did Mike smash tbe television?
2(.11 Is Mike giving Annie that chocolate cake? (t:1 1 was eating popcorn when Mike smashed the tele-
2/hl Is Mike giving Annie a chocolate cake? ,11sion.
-fd) Why did Mike smash the tele•,ision?
3(,1) Oíd Mike hide a chocolate cake? /
n.:) l don't understand wny M1ke smashed the television.
JibJ D1d Mike b1de Annie's cnocofate cake?
rt¡ 1 wonder if Mike smashed the television.
�c!J I wonder how ,\llike smashed the televis1on.
/

Comment ílh:: (.1) uttcrancc 111 ,::ich puir lc:iJ, u, tu prc�uppúSC lh:u 1h..: choco­
la1c cake hcin¡; mc1111011ccl .ictually <.:XiSt<!tl. Whal W<.: nOllC<.: is lhat
1 krc (bJ, tel. (tl). (.:l. a11J :¡;¡ :,c:;m t,i prcsuppl>sc that Mikc smasht: tl Comment
111 cach ,)1 1husc uncram:::s the nnun cake 1s p:m t1f a largcr noun
thc 1<.:lcvi,ion, whtlc /.1) tnJ (1) lcavc it u� J� ·é:;:�:i ,,:.ic�tica·. Wh­
phr:1St!. fhc worc.fa :l1t:. ;.',;;:, :.':� ·. :!u.:,j·,:. :hvs..,.... �J .�J.���¡·ví,::i li� --­
worJs lik.: w/r('11, vln•. lww . .:ce . .::m trl!!gcr ,upposiuuns bolh wh<!n
Dnfinite noun . 1 ''"'L' ,. 111v t•,,,,r l.!tt.:. makc 11 J C>t:H,1T1:. ,,.,, , t11R,,.;,r_ JOJ lnu.��r
lhev ir.: usc<l 10 .1sk .1 -iuc,11<111 J> in (b) .ind (J) .iml whcn th<.: v
phrnse llus vcry ha:;11; k10'1 lll prc,uppo,1111,n. Noucc 1ha1 po"5cs�iv�-s 1:au 111r,,uucc ., ,, 1h, .. u,, ,11 , , ,1 �• 1s in fe). ( ..:1 ••m<l (g¡: wlr,uvw/,�/ Subordinate cJau!lt)
tu a par111:ularly ,1rone prcsuppusmon ahuut rhc cx1s1cnct: nf the
,row 111kt' ,·1111L1·/wcl th,· 1cle1•is11m.
dlllt:ulal..: .:ak..:. Jn<l 111 .Júcliuon le.ad 10 the pn:supposíuon thar
·.\11111,: has a chrn.:ulat.: .:akc!·. Th1s ha:,tc t'lpe of presupposi11011 is
Exinontial iclmc1imcs .:all.:ll .111 -x1s,1;!'-n" "l<Lsu•1•0,1i-10". Look at how cx1s­ "'" EXERClSE
presupposition :.,n1i:11 pr..:,upno�111on .:nulú wurk 1 1 w:intctl to ,.:11 you iOlllC ha,r
3.6 !n this cxcrc1sc ve lo,ik 11 som..: ulhcr k:nds <>f worJs and
,ouon.
.:onstnicuon, 11ta1 �:m 'call to ¡m:suppusiuons. In ca..:h .:a.se writé
You'!I wanLDomeBeGone, my revolutionary cure far bala- ,1u1 .1 prs.:supr,os1!!on �nnt:11n.:o.J in 1he uu..:r.mc.: JniJ tl.:dl!c what hus
ness. --- ------ ...
.. tnggt!rctJ Jt.
 i
l
22 PAESUPPOSITION
.1 PAESUPPOSITION 23

(a) Steve regrets buying a dog. 1' d' FURTHER

(b) Meridyth pretends she's a rock star. ! 3. 7 In .:.1ch case assume rhat the judg.: has sustaincd an objec1ion EXERCISES
(e) Ed should stop earing raw oysters. 1
to thc qut:s1ion. What prc:�upposi1ion(s) m1ght have bt:t:n obje�ted
to'!
"1) How did you know that the defendant had boughc a
(
Comment \fin" ""r.:: (;1) ·S1.:,i.: bou2ht ;¡ dot . {b> ·:-.f.:riJvth is n01 .i rock kniíe'
,t;.ir·. (e¡ •Eú .::11> raw 0ys�.:rs fni�rcslln!_!I�. wh�n hcarer, 4lll:l.Y 0 (bl How long have you been selling cocaine?
pr.:suppo�iuons. thé)I oit.:n .:xplic1tly qu"ry th.: wording that léa<ls (el When was your bracelet stolen?
tu thcm J, wdl· (d) Oid •¡ou sce the murdered woman beíore she left the
uffc"t::7
Steve could hardly � it since he didn"t buy rhe dog
te:) How fase was che c:ir going when the driver ran the
after all.
red light?
Pnuend? 1 thoughc Meridyth WAS a rock star. 1 t) At what time oíd you telephone your lover'
What do •¡ou mean ·wg'7 Ed's never eaten a raw oyster
tg) Have you stopped being an acuve gang member?
in his lite•
(hl Why did you leave the scene of the crime?
Thc us.: ui r,•,r,:r in 1.11 lri�g..:rs tn..: prc�uppo.,111un th:11 ·Nh.tt follll\Vs
i, ºl;.i.:t". Oth.:r v..:rh� th.it .:an b.!havc.: lik..: tlus .irc.: luww. rr:11/i:,-.
discow:r .md _rind ow JS wcll as construc1iun, likc /'m aware rh,u ... 3.8 In c:i.:h of thc iollowing advcr1isement r:xtract..�. what claim or
and /i'r ,rra11g,. rlw1 On the 01h.:r hand. thc: use oí pre1,m,J ,n (b) d:11rns .,re bcing m.11k by prcsupposiuon rathcr t.h:in dircctly
.
trigger� th.: pr.:suppo,111,>n that ..,hal follo"'' ,s •ricuon·. Othcr vcrb, .isscrt.:tl? ITh..: names havc bccn changcd to prolccL !he innoa:nr.)
1ha1 .::in bchavc likc 1l11s an: imu�1m: and .tr�mn :ind .:ons1ruc11ons
(a) The secret to Blasee's effectiveness is Calming Fluid.
lik.: !( f w..-rc . as in lf I wa,. dtc Pr,mc .\/muter. l'd /J,m pre.mp­
(b) Look out for the dist1ncuve packs in your local Bippo
{JOllllfJ/ts. Thc use: ui ,wv in le) tri!!;;.:rs the ¡m:�uppos111on 1ha1 the
s1ockis1s and choose che one tna(s just right ror you.
.1c11011 was going ,,n bc:10rt:. Olhc� vcrb, 1ha1 .:an bchavc lik.: lhis
(cJ Watch all the puffiness and wrinkfes disappear!
.m: ,:mrnnue .inú k,:ep. On Lhc ,Hhc.:r hand. st,m anJ ber;111 cm presup­
(J) lncreased protectíon agamst water spots.
pusc.: t.hat 1hc J.:uun was nol .,tuing 0n hcúm:.
(.:) Now you can get a really crisp professional finish.
In Litis u1111 wc.: havc.: bc.:en looking JL ullcranc.:s in isolauon. as 1f
(O lt combines three potent skiñ perfecting discoveries
wc h,1J ¡u�t p:i,st:d bv Jn "PCII Joor JnJ ovcrhcarJ .1 su-angcr talkmg
in one gentle formula.
Prc.,uppo,iuo"' ,ecm IO be infcrcnccs th:11 .::.111 bc madc with vcry
liule knmvlcdl!c of 1hc .:ontcxt. In 1hc ncxt uni1 wc w1II ,t:m loukmg
-� SUPPLE­
at tnlcrcn.:es that rc4u1r.: .:onsull:r:1hly mllrc .:1rntcx1ual '<nowlctl1!I!
3.9 rry vour hanJ .11 bc1ng a uicky l:1wycr. Wntc -;orne qu.:s1ions MENTARY
.inJ pu,s1hly mor.: work for 1hc hc:m:r .1, well.
lhat allcmpt to snc:ik in !he following ·foL"tS' v1a presupposllion. EXERCISES
H..:rc·5 .i samph: qu.:stion íor 171c dcfcnJanl drovc his car into a
5hop window·: Oíd you brake befare you drove your car into
SUMMARY • Wc havc Jc.:scribcú prc:suppo�111ons as mfcrenccs :1bou1
the shop window? Noucc how 1( the dcientl:mr ·ju�t answers the
what LS Js,umed in :m u11cr.111cc rat.her than dircclly
ques1ion· . .:ithcr Yes or No. he :icccpts 1h1: trudr oí 1hc pr�U(l!)O­
<
Jsscrtcd.
sition und admits that he úruvc his ..:ar into th.: shop wind�w.
• Prcsupposiuuns Jrc doscly linkcd to thc wnrds and ciram­
m:11101 strucrurcs that are .ictually uscJ u, !he uncrancc (a) The ddcndant had a light with bt) broth1:r-1n-law. -:
r
Jnti our knowlcggi: .1hou1 thc way lan!luagc.: uscrs .:onvcn- {b) Thc dcfcndanl has thrce prev1ous convicllons.
11011ally inLcrprcL 1hcrn. (e) Thc dcfcnda111 bclon!JS Lo a rcrronst urgamzauon.
• Prcsuppositiuns en he Jrawn t:vcn whcn thcrc 1s little or (J) 17,e dcfend:1111 was spccding_
no surrounding con1cx1.

3.10 Try yuur hand al bcing a trie� .itlveniscr. Bc:low are com­
ple1ely unsubs1antia1cd claims abou1 various products. For l!ach one.
wm.: .1 linc 1.>I Jdvcrrisfmc:nt lhat S.!!E:'i tn lhc claim viu presupposition.
For thc purposcs oí this excrcisc use full 5c111t.:nccs. Your �nl.:nces
, \ 24

4
1 PRESUPPOSITION

\,/ ',vi,, I
can he declarau,c.-s. m1crroga11,cs or impcrJll•o.:s. In fact. you wtll rind
m1erroga11vcs :md imp,:r:iti,cs particubrly usctul m sorne ca:.c,. THE CO-OPERATIVE
...__/
(a )
(b)
ZONKO .:urcs insomnra.
HappyHa,ens lnn has beauttful ,icws . PRINCIPLE ANO
(e) KISSGOOD chmm:11es bad brcarh.
(dJ
(e)
:--iO-A:-:T 1:ill� .i.nis.
CrJok & S0ns Ud cmploy skillcJ workcrs.
IMPLICATURE
(O BLASTEX is not poL�onous.
(g) SI-IINO nounshcs wooJ.
,.hl J)n,,, J,w..- V� PPY "•''! f<.,,-wj
(il Dc�tists U!><! GRIN tll�lhpJstc.

OISCUSSION
QUESTIONS 3.11 Sin.:.: .1,c ha·. .; ,,11J th.11 pr.:,upp,1st1hms Jnsc :rom .:onvcn­
llonal mtcrpr<!tJth)ns, ,oulJ "'e cx1cnJ 1h,s m .i111t.' Hcrc are ,o,nc
u11cranc:!s :o play .vuh:
/J) lt was hot and ver-¡ hum,d.
lb) Ed ate the raw oysters and felt quite ill.
fc1 Ed goc dressed and went to the office.

3.12 WoulJ you con,,1dcr u unusu.il ior J hcarer tu ..¡ucr, an

cnt11lmem! Dun·1 <JUOtc wnJI he say�. :),1y wha1 he means!
(Scnmor Barry Goldwatcr',; c1mpaign Jrde 10 rcportcrs)

3.13 Do JII oi thcsc ucr.:r:mccs prcsuppos<! Thc bo,lcr blcw up"'!

� EXERCISE
1 a) John got to saíecy before the boiler lÍlew up.
(b1 John got ro the safety valve befare the booler blew 4.1 What m1gh1 ll1c sccond speaker ·m..:ao· m each of lhc iollowmg
uo. Ji.1lo!lu-=�-' Wri1c J pr:igmJII<: par.,phr= m c:ich <::JSé ••md 1l11nk
(C) John got to safery after the boiler blew up. ;11Juu1 how you ,nforrcu Llus rnean,ng.
1d) John got to the safecy valve after the boiler blew up. ta) Virg1ma: Do you like my new hat?
vlar1: lt's pink!
(b) Magg1c: Coffee7
FURTHER For Jn mtcrc:stmg J1scu.•1s1011 oí now pn:supposiuun lits into scman- J:um:s: lt would keep me awake all nigm.
READING 11.-.: �nd pragma1ics: \.�, LmJa: nave you fin,shed the student evaluarían
Simpson. 1993. Chaptcr �- fo �ms and the reading lists?
J.::in: 1"ve done the reading lists.
For more ahou1 1hc .:a�c ,>t the c:tploJin!l bo1lcr:
Id ) Ph,I: Are you going to Steve's barbecue?
Yulc. l'>'Jó. pp. <)'J-lllO. l".:rry: W�II. Steve's got those dogs now.
For J rcv1cw 01 1he problems in Jctinmg prcsupposaio11: le) Anmc: Was the dessert any good?
L�..:ch. 191!I. Chap1..:r l-'. vlik.:: Annie, cherry pie is cherry pie.

25
26 THE CO•OPERATIV� PAINCIPlE ANO IMPllCATUPE THE CO·OPEl!ATIVE PRINCIPU: ANO IMPLICATUAE 27
Comment Her.: Jre some pussibk par:iphrases: r\s you can ,ce:. thc: contcxr provi<lcd by thc.: previuus ucccrance can
(a) ·J don·t like your har: kad lo quite a diff_:re�t �S!!_ure in each case.
(b} ·[ won'l Llave sorne com:e.'
(c) ·[ haven ·t done the .:valuation iorms.'
;:::, EXERCISE
(d) ·¡ don·1 think l"m guin,; m Stcvc's barbecue."
(e) ·:-;o, the dcsscrl was preny boring.' 4.3 :-low we recuro to thc original dialogues. (a). (b). and (e) in
E.�crrue -1.1.How do �ou think lhe 1irst spcakcr would in'cerprec the
There .ippear m be many ways oi saying ·:,¡o·. Yct no or nor did second speaker·� response if you haJ thc following extra inionnation'.'
out .ippear 10 :rny oé thc original'respons.:s. You may have alsu found
that vou Jrcw a ,omcwhat differen( inf.!rcnct: for -;omc of th1!$t: • Pink is .\l[ary's favourite colour and Virgm1a knows this.
�=t�r�tt�:::$. fur i.:;;:;:-nplc, :..;: �·.rcryu�� 1::i�:'!: :!;:):. :�.; sy�:!b!r i.� {:::.) • James ha.� lO stay up .ill night to scu,Jy for an exam and
Joc:s not likc thc h:ll or th:it the spc:.1k.:r in (t:} was not vcry keeo .\llaggic knuws chi�.
Conversutional un the dcsscrt. fh«:se k1m.ls or'inrerences or n>1WER!i,\Ttor-.,L IMPLI• • :-.tikc lov.:s ch.:rry pie . .-\s far as hc·s con.::!me:l . no onc
impfic.atures ·, n llF�, [O u� thcír 1ccim1cal tenn. scem to bl: lt:!>S ·straightfor­ can ruin .i .;herry pie. and Anme knows cJ1is.
ward' chan tho�c hascd un .:ntJilmenr ur pr.:supposition.

EXERCISE ·., Most pcopfe would now tntcrprc.:t thc responses in (a). (b) and (e) Comment
to mi:an ·yes·..·\.-i you i:an sc.:c. drawmg thc appropnatc 1mplic:nure
4.2 L.:t\ look .it Mary's. farm:s"s. J�n•s. Tcrry's and �like's
can rcquirc .1 cons1dcrablc amounl nf ,harc.:d- know!ed� betwccn the
responses in E.1,m.;sc -tl - tbis time. wich .1 diffcrc:nc uueram:e from
spcakcr and tltc.: hea.rer.
thc first spc:ikcr. Thc .:ontent of thc.: �cconc.J spc.::1ker's uner:rnce
ry Jusi how wc achicve chis lc.!vcl ol' mcaning was .in issuc tacklcd
rcmains the �amc.:. bu< Jocs thc mcaning remain the same Wrice a
by tllc.: philosopher. P:iul Grice. Gricc proposcd 1Jm1 ali spcakers.
pragm:itic paraphr:isc for the �ccond spcakcr·s response in each
rcgard!.:ss of thcir cultural bnckgroun<l. adhcre to .i bnsic principie
dialogue.
�,,vem1ng cc,nvcrsilt͕)!! which he: t�rm\!d TH� C!�.:,PeR..,:-1"1:: !'"':t:!",.. Tt-4 co-,peTn!.ive
(aJ Virginia; Try the roast pork. ,:rPlE. That is. wc assumi: that in a conversation the participants will principie
Mary: lt's pink! .:o-.ipcratc: with c:ach uthc:r whc:n makin!l thc:ir ,:ontnbutions. Grice
then brokc this principie down imo four basic \IAXJMS which go
We went to see The Ornen last night but it
Mawims
(b) �faggic:
rowards making a $peakcr's conrribucion to the eonvcr.1a1ion ·co­
wasn't very scary.
opcracivc·.
James: lt would keep me awake ali night.
MCLEV ,,-.,T • .\llak,: surc.: lhal whnti:vcr you ,ay 1s rclcvant Rerevance
(e) L.nda: You look verv pleased w,th yourself.
to 1hc convc.:r�:rnon JI hand.
Je:111: l've done the reading lists.
2 1J1 "1.1 r-v: Do noc s:iy what you bc!icv,: to b.: false.Do not Quallty
�ay cJ1al for which you lack adequate cvi<lcncc.
(d} Phil: His garden looks awful. J 1J1.A.-T1rr: Mak,: your contribution sufficicncly informative Ou■ntity
Terry: Well, Steve's gor those dogs now.
for the cuFrt:nt purposes of thc convcrsation. Do not makc
(e) Annic: 1 thoughr the pie would cheer you up. yuur cuntnbulinn more informacivc than 1s nc:cessary.
�..!�!:z: .Annie. che!'!",' �!e is cher"\' p!e. CI••\IUTY: o,, no• 111nk•· y,,ur i:oncribu1in'I nl,scurc .
ambiguous or di[licull 10 undcrstand.
Gricc puintcd out that thcs.: 111a:d1ru. Jrc not J!ways .ibscl"'lcd. but
he make., a disunction hctwec:n ·quiclly' vr,JLA TJNG .i ma."<im Jnd Vlolating
Comment Sorne: typica! pr:igmatic paraphr:iscs are:
opcn!y fl.UFT"lNli J maxim. Violations are ·quic:t' in che scnsc thac Aoutlng
(a) Ton not having thc roasc purk." it is ntll ubv1ous JI thc time oí lhe uucrance 1ha1 the speaker has
(h) ·J chink Tloe Omen is sc:iry.' deliher:11ery !icd. supplied ,nsufficicnt infonnation. or beco
(e) ·1 :im plt::isc,J with mysclf. bccausc !"ve done the re:11.Jing ambiguous. irrclcvant or hard to umkrstand. ln Gricc's :malysis.
liscs." thc.:sc vi<>!a<1ons m1gh1 hampc:r commumc:uion but they do not lcad
(d) ·Sti:ve·; dogs have wreckcd thc garden.' to implic:iturcs. What !c:ad� to implit:aturc5 is a situation whcre thc­
(e) ·[1 takcs more thañí:liwy pie to cheer me up.' spc:ixi:r lloucs ,1 max1m. That is. ic is obvious to the hcarc:r ar
thc: ume ,,f thc uncr:mce that thc speaker has Jclibc:r:ucly and quite
28 THE CO-QPERATIVE PRINClP�E _.NO MPI.ICATURE THE CO-OPE!IATI•,e PRINCIPlE _.NO IMPllCATURE 29
op.:nly failcd 10 ob,cr"c une or mor.: max,ms. To sec hu-. Gncc·s ..\, yuu can s..:c:. this son of infcrem:mg uccurs in stages. In thc:: rir.;t
JnJl)'SIS m:ghl work in prac:ia:. 1ry thc nc:xt cxcrcisc. slag.:. thc he,1rcr recognizes thc JppJrcnt im:levancy. madc::quacy.
IJck of cbrity. .:te. This m turn trigg.:r.. tht: impli.:ature.
EXERCISE �
4.4 Supposc )'UU wcrc .:onsiJ.:�ing X fur J ¡ob that n.:cd.:d good � EXERCISE
wnun!.! ·il,;ilb. You hav.: wrincn hJ h1s Ern!iish lc:ach.:r Jskmg hc:r to 4. 5 Spc;:ech th.:rapis1: So you like ice-crearn.
ass.:ss-his pt!rfunnam:c m 1h1s Jrca. You r�ccivc lh<.: fol!owing rcply: Whal are your favourite
·x has regularly and punctually attended ali rny classes. flavours?
Ali his assionrnents were handed in nn timP ;rnrl vPí'f Ch1l<l "'irh ,, !"r·, 0 n1:uw di�ordc.:r· µamb•J!"ge!" ... f:�h Jnd
neatly presented. 1 grearly en¡oyed havin g X in rny class.' chips
(.·\daprci.J irum Bishop. l9'r'. p. l:l:i)
p 1 \Vh.11 mJx1m Juc, 1hc.: tca.:hcr ,ccm lv llout'!
1 bl '.\ !tal ,molica1urc woufJ •:nu Jr:l\, .1hout X\ wm1ng ,k1lb"' Wh1ch max,m h,t> th.: ch1ld ta1kJ to 1)h,cr,c1 \\.ouid �ou cons1ucr
1.:1 \\ihy Jo ·yuu ,hink 1h.: 1.:,11.:hcr phra,cd h.:r rcspon,c ú11s ,h1, a case of llou11ng i.lr v1<1lat11>n ui th:11 max1m !
w;,1y'
Comment

Thc chilJ. who ha.� 1101 r.:al11c.:d thar 111,011nt<! Jfovuurs should b.:
Comment (a J l'hc tca.:hcr's n:spun�c ,1ppt!ars lU llou1 lh.: max1m u1 4uan111y 111tcrprctcd as ·favounte rlavour; oi ice crcam· rath.:r !han •favouritc -
Toen: is insuffic:cn1 m1urma1ion at--uut x·s wnung ,k,lb. y.:1 w.: rlavours m 2cncr;ir. has 1;11kd 1<> observe: th.: rna.·'<lm vi rc!evanco.:.
woulJ J,._,umc th:11 a,. h1s Enclisil lcachc.:r. ,he ·,muid havc 1h1> mfor• He ,:cncrai(v has d1tliculty te1ki11g thc con1cx1 mh) account whcn
ma11on. (b ) \.hl'l ;,copie infcr 1ha1 X'; wncin g ,k,lls are not very makmg hrs cnnlnbu11on 111 a convcrsauon. Bccause bis irrclc:vancc
�ood .:ven lhllu gh .11 nu poinl is 1his cxplii.:ill)I ,1a1cd TIJ,< L, ,1 dass1c 1s nc>t c!clihcrat.:. wc w•JulJ vicw this .is .1 •1:claliun rathcr th:.n J
_
ex.implo.: 01 ·Jamning wuh foin1 pra1sc. (el Gm::: obscrvcd tha1 m tloutmg vi lhc m.1x1m. HaJ I only labellcd tho.: spcakers •A' Jnd ·s·.
Closh ;un,,c:nauons. wc: ,1n: •;om.:umc:, ia.:cd wi1h J ,·1.As1t bc:twt.-cn would you havc 1111crprcted s·�
u11crancc as a jokc'! Humour has�
ma:oms. Hc::n: thc 1c::1chcr knows lhat shc shoulu JIVC Jn 111furma11v,: un t:ik1n,: libcrt1c:s w1th thc co-opcr:111vc: pnnc1plc Ís a frc4ucn1
J11Swcr to the 4ucst1un (4u3n111y). She abo know� tha1 ,he should �turc in com1c wriling. íhc:: :'vlan Brorhers. for exampíe. are
only -;ay what L� 1r111hJi1l (4unlity). TI1.: tc3cher docs not wan1 to statc: ramou.s ror thcir Jnarch1c approach to .::>nvc:rsauon.
baluly th:ll 1hc ,tu..11.:nl', pc;:rtormancc was nm very gooJ. (For (Thc siup·s capt:im 1s lonkmg fnr ,wwaways. nne ,if whom is
c.�amplc. shc m1gh1 th111k th,11 X wil! ,el! me rdcr.:ncc lcucr.J At Grouchu.)
tho.: ,amo.: lime ,h.: uu.:s 11ut ,vant lll lic. S,l. ,hc makcs hér response Groucho: Yeah? What do they look like?
111 ,ud1 a wav that thl! rcaucr .::in mfc:r 1J11s withuu1 her havmg to Ca pram: One goes around w11h a black rnustache.
s1atc i1 \c,:urdin� 10 Gn.:�. thc 1mplic:1111rc 1s mat.le poss1hle hy Uh! Gmucho: Well. you couldn't expect a rnustache to go
lact th:11 wc normally .1ssurnc 1h,ll ,pcak.:r.; uo nol ro.:ally ahandon around b y itself. Don't you think a mustache
thc co-operativc principie:. ever gets lonely, Caotarn?
Followmg Gri,:e·s rc:l!ioning. thc mfcrence is workcd nur likc this: (.\nobi!::. !97'.!. ¡:;. 57}
Sincc I havc good rca�on to bl!lievc thar ,he has miorrna• ( Groud10 hus JUSt bc::comc thc ncw hc:id oi Huxl.:y CoUege.)
1100 aboul x·, •.vnung ,k1lls. the ,pe:ikcr has uo.:liber-,ucly Profo.:ssrw My dear Professor, l'rn sure rhe students
ra1ict.1 lO ob�crvc tllouted) rhc ma:um Be ,nforma11vc:· would appreciate ¡¡ bnef outline of your plans
; Bu1 1 havc: nu rcason 10 hc:fü:vc 1ha1 shc has rcally optcd for the future.
nut ,Jf tito.: .:n-opc:r.mvc pnni:iplc. Su. shc 1s only bcmg Gmucho: What?
appurcntly u111nformativ.:. Pmfcssor: 1 said the students would apprec1ate a brief
lf f Jraw thc infcrence that X hasn·1 got v.:ry ¡:uud wnting outline of your plans fer che future.
,k1lls. then tho.: ,pc:akcr is bcm g co.. ,pcrauvc:. Sh.: know-; t,rnu..:hu You just said 1hat. Thac's rhe trouble around
that I am opahlc: 1>f worktng lh1s out. here. Talk, talk, talk! Oh sometirnes I think 1
J Th.:n:forc. ,he has implkd (ur 'implic:11.:d· 10 use Gncc·s_ must go rnad. Where will it ali end?
1.:m1) 1ha1 thc ,tudcnt's wncing sk1l!s .ue not very good. IAnoh1le. 1972. o. 101 l
 THE CO-OPERAnv1: PfllNCIPLE ANO IMPLIC..\TUflE I· THE CO-OPERATIVE PRINCIPLE ANO IMPLICATURE 31
i
30

1
SUMMARY • Linlike presuppositions ant.l entailments. implicaturcs are (e) Annic: 1 really liked that dinner.
mFerences that c-.innot be made from isol3tc:d utterancc:s. �likc: l'm a vegetarían.
They are Jepend.:nt on thc contcxt of thc utterancc and (t.l) Teachcr: What time is it? [towards tht! t!nd of a
shared knowledge �tween the speaker and the hearcr. lccture]
• Grice has proposed a way of :maly�ing implicatures based Student: lt's 10:44 and 35.6 seconds.
on thc .:o-operativc princípk and it.s maxims oi rckvancc.
qualiiy. quantiry and c!arity. (e) Stut.lcnc A: How are you?
• [n Gricc·s Jnalysis. thc speak,:r·s rlouting of a m:L1im Student 8: l'm dead.
combincd w11h the hcarcr·s assumption that the speaker

-
(f) Host: Would you like a cocktail? lt's my own
has not really abant.loned the co-,lpt!r:uivt! principie leads inventinn.
to an implicaturc. Well, mmm uh it's not that we don't not
drink.
FURTHER
.�? SUPPLE­
EXERCISES � In each of thc following d,:cide whcther the inft:renct! in
4.6 4.8 Return lo F.:xcrcisc -U. and decide which ma.xim was Huuted MENTARY
brackcL� is a prcsuppositinn nr an implic.1ture dcrivc:J from the by tht! sccond sp.:akc:r in each t.lialoguc. EXERCISES
undt:rlint:d unt:ram:e.
(a) .-\: My boyfriend lives in Luton
B: My boyfriend lives in París. (1 havc :i boyfrit!nd) 4.9 Hcrc are Ll1rce implicatures: ·f don't likc it": ·Stcvc haces c:it.s·:
·Ed is lazy·. For t::ieh oí thcse implic:1rures writc two differcnt
(b) A: What? Jialogucs which �ould lead to that implic:iture.Each dialogue should
8: Why are you laughjng ar me' (You are laughing involvc thc tlouting uf a diffcrcnt ma.xim. Hcrc are two examples
at me) for 1he implic:Hurc Tm no1 goiag·:
(e) .-\. Why is she eating those? 1 A: Wc'rc gomg to thc mov1cs.
B. Her father didn't qive her any supper. (Sht: t.lidn"t B· rvc got an cxam tornorrnw.
havc any suppt!r)
Rclcvam.-c: thc �pcakcr·s cxum in not apparenlly rclcvam to :i discus­
(d) A. Is Mike engaged? �ion Jbout go111g to thc movics.
8: He's bought a ring. (Mike is cngagcd)
!. r\. /\re ynu guing to Stcve·s barbccuc·.•
(e¡ :\: You look pleased. 8: A barbccuc 1s Jn outdoor party.
8: 1 managed to pas s the exam. (1 trict.l (O pa:,s lhc
cx:im) Quuotity: stating thal a burbccue is an outdoor party is appan:ntly
botli too infonnativc (since peoplc know that a harbccuc is un
(1) A: Oíd you finish that report? uutdour pany) Jnd not informauvc enough �incc 8 has not dircctly
8: 1 staaed it ( 1 didn "t linish thc rcport) answcrcd thc question.

4. 7 In cach C:tlit! hc:luw decide which m,Lxim has not been 4.10 Speakers uften show tht!v are aware oí thc co-operative prin-,
observcd. Thcn t.lccidc whethcr th1s was a c:1sc oí tlouting or violu­ dplc whcn they use lillllc;r,_�.- which indic:11e lhat -tbcy ma y be
0
Hedges
tion. Whcrc you think thcn: has becn J cas.: ur {lou1ing. what irnpli­ vinlaung .1 maxim. What maxim is bcing alluucd to in each case'/
c:11urc might. bt! Jrawn·! Background infonnation is givcn in ,¡quare
(a) 1 don't mean to change the subject, but there's an
br:1ckl!ts.
i'�� (a) Ann,c: Mike, did you pass the driving test?
enormous wasp in here.
(b ) This is a bit convofuted but ...
Mik.:: No. !Mikc knows hc"s passcd thc driving tcstl (e) Well. 1 think he's honest.
(<l) Yop probably already know this but ...
(bJ Annn:: Do you want seconds?
\ Mikc: gmmm uh mmm [Mik.:'s just had nis
�¡'),. wisdom tccth .extractcd J
32 THE CO·OPERAnve PAINCIPLE ...NO IMPUCATURE

MORE ON
5
DISCUSSION Q 4.11 Why mrght ;pc:ik<!rs call :lllt?ntion to thc: foct th:n thcy may
QUESTIONS be viol:11ing a maxim? Think of sorne othcr common hedges that are
us..:J in this way.
IMPLICATURES
4.12 Gc:;turc. iJdal c.�prcssion and wnc oí voicc �annot b.: recre­
Jtcd 011 the pnnted pagc. :ind y.:t a great Jc:1I or thc communicauon
in a conversa1ion involv.:s thesc channds. T..iki: th.: dialog.ucs in
E.tercise �.l ,10J scc ii you could make the sccond speaker,·
rc,ponses rmply ")e, r:nh.:r than 'no· ,imply by using particular
�estures. 1a,::a1 cxprcs,rons or tones u[ vore:! 10 ac;ompany the
U llc:r.1n.;�.

4.13 Blakemore ( 199�) has po,m,:;J out that wc gcnerally do not

assumc speakcrs tu be: communic:mng unlc,s wc as�umc thcy are
r..11ional. 0r 111 othc:r won.Js. unl.:ss wc think thev are conformm!! to
cc:rt:1in norms :ind standarc.ls. Do you agrc:e'! T� �tart you thmking,
hen; Jrc sorne ,amplc uttcr:mc.:s trom two schízophrenic pauents.
\ Yciu m,ght Jlso want to induJc lhc J:11a from thc �lar< Brothcrs
111 vour discuss1on.)
Doctor: Good morning.
Paticnt ->.: A real magnanimous good morning to you on
this tirst Wednesday or our glorious New Year. ,\nd. .111cr all. wha1 ,s a lic !
Tis hut thc lruth in masqucr:idc.
Do.:tor: Where should we send it?
(Byron, Dn11 /111111)
Paucnr B Kindly send it to me at the hospital. Send it
to me. Joseph Nemo. in care of Joseph Nemo
and me who answers to the name of Joseph .w EXERCISE
Nemo will care for it myself.
5. 1 For c:ich J1:.1luguc. .1n.,wcr thc accompanyrn!l 4ucstion bascrJ
(Daca .1daptcd from Oblt!r and �lcnn. 1982)
nn thc 1mplic::11urc that you �:in Jraw from the sccond �pcaker's
response. Think .1bou1 why you rJrcw those implic:iturcs.
(JJ Carmen. Did you get the milk and the eggs?
FURTHER For mor.: Jhout Gnc:.:\ thc:urics: Davc: 1 got the m1lk.
READING Did Davc buy thc .:ggs·.•
Cnc:.:. l\189 t4m1c .1dvanccd) or Yuk, L996. pp. 100-1 for a
<hort cxtract [m'Tl r...¡ct:. \:;; CJ.rmt:n: Did you manage to fix tnat teak?
Davc: 1 tried to.
For J vcry intt!rcs1mg discussion ,if ch1ldrcn with prngmatic Jisordcrs:
Did Davc lix thc lcak'!
Bishup. 19•17. Chaptt!rs i .1nd 1!.
(e) F:iye: 1 hear you've invited Mar and Chris.
Ed: 1 didn't invite Mat.
Did Ed mvitc Chns?
tJ) S1cvc: What happened to your flowers?
Jane: A dog got into the garden.
Did thc dog bclong 10 Jane·>

33
34 MORE ON IMPllCATURES MORE ON IMPUCATURES 35

Comment Most pcoplc would dr.iw lht: implicatures: Most p.:opk dra" thc: following implicatun:s: Comment

(a) ·Davc <lid not buy the eggs.' (a) ·Stcvc <lid nol use ali of tht: printcr papcr. only somc of
lb) ·oav.: did not fix the le:1k.' it.'
(e) ·E<.1 invitcd Chris.' (bl 'Stcvc is not alw:iys larc wilb tbc rent. only somt:timc:s.'
(d) ·111c dog did not b<!lon� to Jane.' (e) ·Stevc <.lid not know for certain that lhe plane was late.'
(d) ·Stc:vc Jid 1101 frcczc 1hc ..:hc:i::s.:.'
Th,:s<.: impli.:atürcs .ir.: basc<l on thc quantity of iniormation offorcd
by the spcaku. In (.1) and (e) wc notice that the lir�l spcakcr's uut:r•
an.:c cnni:11ns .i11tl. ln I a) C:inn.:n 1s rc:illy ask:ng two qucstions: D1d ::,-; EXERCISE
y,m bu.v thc: r'lilk.' and Did v1111 !mv rhe c'!P,l'.' Similarly. in (e) Fayc:
!:;.3 �.;u\Y c.\,1111in1: dau'.)c: 1111piiL�turt:� 1n Hght ol thc: foHowmg inior­
mt:ncion, tWl) pr.lp<J,iti,Jns: Yrm 111v11r1tl '\,f.,r Jnd f,m i11v11tttl Cirns.
m,uion known only to Stcvc. Would you say that Stcvc was lying to
\Vhcn •Jnly <!ni! 1Jf thc qucs1ions or propusitions has bccn mcntionctl
fanc m E.�crcisc .5..2'.' Why-!
,n lht: rc:,ptJns-.:. ,..,: normally JSSum.: lh:it lht: s¡:caker LS ,till :.u.lhcring
• j
11, thc �1h)f<!r:ir1ve princ:plt: ·1nd :herciort! 1s 1mplying a response (JI Srevc has m tact u,,ed ali thc pnnc.::r papcr
tor lht: sccond onc as wc!I. And. wc normully tak.: il to bc thc oppo• t h I Stcve hns bct:n late: with 1hc rene .:vcry mo111h sine.: bc
mc or: the •>ne m.:nuoneu. {f Davc had buught the cggs .is well. he mo�cu in.
would havc �:11d so. 11 Ed had not invitcd Chris as wc!l. ht.: would (e) Stcve knows fur a fact that thc planc was l:ltc bcc:.tusc
havc said m. ln (bl the implic:uure comc:s from tlH! word 1rv. Tr:11n,; \likc lnd .-\nnic c;ilku him from thc airport.
to rix the k:1k :s an 1n1crm..:diati: stt:p to managmg to fix the lc:ak. tu) Stcvc hau ab,cntminucdly pu1 thc chc:t:st: in the freezer
Thc fa1.:t th:.tl Davc ,,nly mcnuond tht! intcrmcdiatc stcp !cads us anu 1h:1wcd i1 out b.:forc Jinncr hopin� thal Jane wouldn't
tu infor that he did not makc it to thc final st.:p. Thc 1mplic1ture in nouce.
lndefinite ert1cle (d) is base<l on thc use of thc 1r-.oHINITh ARTl!'J.é u,a11. We inicr
th:H if che uo,: had bdon11cu ro J:inc. shc woulu havt: rcfcrrcd 10 it
�s i1l� J,,,;. [� a mure: ��ncral Sé!fiSc!. wht.:n thc spcnkc!r uses thc
cxprcssi,in ,v,111 '( wc draw thc 1mplicaturc ·nol thc �pcakc:r\ X'. You w1II rccall from l;nir ! th:H from a scmanltc point of vicw. Comment
Our .:xp..:::r:uiuns JbQUI thc quantity of m1om1atio11 thal speak.:rs IJccausc .ill log1cally c:ntaib somc, Stt:vc:·s r<fiponse in {aJ is techni•
will providc ,n an uneranc:: Jlso h:ad ro utht:r common implicacun.:s. .:ally truc:. Thc s:irnc kmd of log1c applit:s to (IJ)-{d) as wcll. Howevcr,
JS wc: will �e:: in thc ncxt rwo .:xcrc:st.-s. frnm a pragmatic pmnc of vicw. Stcve;:·s uneranc::s bavc c::rtainly
m1slcd Jane bccau,;e of rhc implic:mm:s tlta1 pcoplc nurm:ifly dr:iw
in thcsc .:1rcu111s1anccs. Stcvc:·, 1rtckcry mvolved wh:11 we call ,;c." ..-11 S.:.tar implic:atures
EXERCISE ',,_ IMl'u•·, 11.1ub. Al! ,1f Src:vc·� rc,pons.!!I u:;c wurd.� thal partic1patc m
5.2 lf you wcrc Jan.:. 1v11a1 11npíit::.1turc� woulu you havc dr:iwn .1 ,cilc •JI valucs:

..
rmm c:.td1 oi Srcvc ·� rcspunscs'!
S,:alc of quancity: mme 11ws1 ull
(,t) Janc: Who used ali the printer paper? Scale ,ii frcqucncy: .Wlmt'timt!S 0Jie11 always
Srcve: 1 used sorne of it. Sc:ilc of coldnes.�: co11I coltl frc,::.mi;
Scak of likclihnod: possihly probably cerruinl,v
¡h) Jane: 1 hear you're always late with the rent.
Sr..:v.:: Wefl. sometimes I am. Wc nurmall� JSSumc ( followini,: the cn-opcrative principie) that.
wherc ,pcak..:rs hav,: a -;cale oí vaiucs al thc1r di�lOial. lhcy will
(cJ Jane: Mike and Annie should be here by now. Was
chou,c Lhc um: that 1s truthiul ¡max1m ul i¡ualily) :ind upcimally in1or­
their plane late'
m:111v,: 1m:uun uf 4uanmy}. So. wc normally draw thc implicarurc
Stcvo.:: Possibly.
·nol .111y ut thc ht�hcr vaiue� 1111 tite ,cale'. In otltcr words. if Stcvc
:-low lonk .ll ;hi� Jialo!,\UC. Would you nommlly inicr that Stcvc lwd has choscn tite word snmi:t1111cs. it crca1.:s thc 1mplic:nurcs ·not always'
1101 kcpl thc cncc,c in thc frcclcr'.' and ·no1 or'tcn·. [1 appcar.. Lhat in each case Steve has technically
adhercJ to tlle quaJit� maxirn bur viol:ucd qu:mmy. :-lcvcnheless.
, J) J:rnc· Th1s cheese !ooks funny. The label said to
mos1 01 lL� w()ufd th111k that from a pr.igma1ic point of view Steve wa.�
store it in a cool place.
lymg .:irnc:: h<! knew th:ll Jnyhouy would draw ütosc infcrcnces.
Srcve: Yeah, 1 did.
Havc you notic:d tita( wh1lc lht: implic:llurcs wc llave bccn looking
,11 rc4111rc a prcv,ou� uttcran�c. thcy .ire so ·strong· 1ha1 lhcy do nol
36 MORE ON IMPllCAT\JPES MORE ON IMPl•CATURES 37

Generalized ,ccm 10 rcquin: .my extrJ. knowlcdge 10 cxu:ict thc mcanmg! íhcsc .,,_,., EXERCISE
conversational types oi 1mplic:11ur.:s ,re som.:umcs c:ilkJ c;�'-ERAUZEo <"O'-"ER• 5.5 Hcrc are iour dialogues whcre Annic has 'c:inccllcp' either J
lmplicature.
\AT(0."AL 1\1�1.ICATt:RCS, prcsupposition .:onwincd m her utter:ince or an imphc:11urc lh:11
coulJ be <.lra"n from ht:r uu.::rancc (thc c:im:ellation comes afta 1hc
·Ja,h '). Do yllu no111:.: ,1 úifforcncc bctwcen presuppositions anú
EXERCISE �,. 1mplk:11un:, when thcy Jrt: c:incdled'.'
5.4 Look JI· cad1 oí th�-sc di:1logu,::s ,md the 1mphc:11ures whith
(Jl Cancc:lling Jn c:ustcnti.11 prcsuppos111on.
appcar in brackcis. Thcn decide what knowlcúgc thc ,pcakcr and
\.Likc. What happened?
hc:irer 1,ould ha,e 10 shan: in ord.:r ror that implic:11urc to be drJwn:
\nn,c:: Steve's dog wrecked the garden - and in fact,
Are you gcín!J tu .-.¡.,.,,::; µdn y 1onighc i Steve dcesn t have a dog.
My parents are 1n town. ,·:-io·)
<b) C.111cclhng J !cx1cal' prt:suppo,¡i1io11.
(b) Tüm: Where's the salad dressing? \.lik.:: What's uo7
(jahnd�: We've run out oí o(ive oil. 1 Thcrc bn I mv \nmc !'ve stooped smoking -· although l've ne.,<?r
,al:id Jrcs:.m�·¡ smoked.
le) Stc•,e: What's with '(Our mother? 1c) Cam:;;ihng J gc:neralizcJ 1mphc:11urc:
Jane: Let's go into the garden. ("! .::111·1 talk :ibout ,\Jikc: What's happened to the shampoo?
ir in hcrc·) .\nme: 1 used most of it - actually, 1 used ali of it.
(d) :-.lm: Want sorne fudge brown1es7 ld) C.111cdlint.t I parucul:iricú 1mplica1ure:
Chm: There must be 20,000 calories thern. (''<o l \(ike: Are '(OU coming to the party?
\mm:. My parents are in town - but I am com,ng.

Comment For (J) both parucs woulJ hav.: tu know .1bou1 Annu.:', rdat1onsh1p
w11h hcr parcnt.s. For cx:implc, ,t thcy bnth i(ncw lhal Ann,c tneJ \\¡ hcn I spcakcr .;;mc.:ls J prcsupposiuon. the rc,ull!i u�ually sounJ Comment
111 avoid h.:r parcms JI cvcry opportun,ty. rhc 1mplica11on woulJ be rather .:on1rnú1ctury vr mcohcrcnl Hüwcver. whcn both gener:ilize,J
·Yes' F11r (b) both parnc.� woulú havc to havc �omc general knowl­ .tnd pamcul:imcJ ,mplic:ttur.:, .m: .:ancdlcJ. the re�ulu usually
cJgc - .:ilivc 1>11 ís J po,s,blc tngrcdient m s.ilaJ Jrc,sml! But both ,ouno much more: ·nurmar
part,cs :ilsn ne�ú 10 shan: thc knowlclige 1h:11 thcy 1lnly use ,alaú n,erc c. l turthcr !cvcl 10 the inaly,¡1s vi ,pcakcr mc:amng wh1cn
Jre:,síng maJe irom olivc 01I. Fnr te I th.:re woulu h:.ivc to he ,omc • .· ve havc: nol explorcd y.:1. For �x:irnplc. dialogue (e) ..:ould Jlso be
!htn� ,n thc phys,cal .:0111cx1 01 tite u11erancc 10 ,uggcst 1ha1 rnmcon.: .,n,1Jv�cd Js vlikc·, Jccus:11ion lollowed by \n111c·, cnnCessinn. In the
,r
m1gh1 u•crhear Jane\ Jnswcr. Fnr cxamplc. thcrc was no one clsc ncxt !wo u111b we will be look,ng al 1h1s lc•,cl ul .tnJlys,s.
pn:,o.:nt. S1cvc m1gh1 we!I ,nfo:r 1ha1 •he probkm wnh Janes muthcr
has somethrng 10 Jo w11h thc gardcn. For (ti) both pamcs .1gain nct:d
mm.: gcno.:rnl k:iuwledgc • fouú w11h a high numbcr ol .:alon.:s • We hJvc Ji,1111gu1sheú IWll typcs ,11 ..:onvcTSJ11011al ,mpli• SUMMARY
makcs pcuph: put on wc:l!hl. But lmth oarues woulJ also nc::J m ;:i1urc�: ;;e::c::-::liz;;,J anú part:�ul;;rucJ.
sharc the knowlcdge that Om:, e, lrytng 10 lose wc1gh1. lf lhey bOlh • Gcnc:r:1lizeJ ,mphc:Hurc, .::in be Jrawn w,th very lilllc
knew that h.: w;is IJ')'tng 10 t?:1111 wc1gh1. tht: 1mplica11011 wuulJ be ms,ue· knowlcdgc. lf yuu heard ,1 wpe rcS!!_fding oi thc
·y._"'· [nlerenc�, wh1ch rc4u,rc 1h1, k1m.l 11t sharcJ know(cdl!e ..:onver-auon bul J...new 11,ltlnng 1hou1 !he par11c1pun1, or
Particularized bctwccn thc spc:1kcr Jnli hearcr are mmcumc.s callcd r ,RTl<"t LAR 1hc ph:\lcal cnar:1ctem1tcs 01 the conte.tl. you .:ould s�
conver.sational 171:.U '·o�VL:R.�\ noN.\L I.MPUC'.\ n k(!�. draw thosc implit-Jturcs. lñev are doscly connected to thc
impllcatun,s
At 1J11s p01n1. you mav bc wondenng about generalizcd 1mpnca- Jcgrcc oí mrunn:111vcnc� 1ha1 wc nonnally cxpcct ,1
1urcs. Thcv secm so conven110nal ind requ,rc so li11lc contextual ,peaJ...er\ uti.:rancc 10 pmv,dc.
knowlcdgc 1ha1 pcrhaps •he•, art: rcallv lhe !>:JITIC JS presuppos,uons. • 'i.:alar 11nphca1urcs ,líe J s¡><."t.,al tvpc <ll gt:neralizcJ 1moli­
There IS J test thJl IS ,omc11mc::, usco 10 dlSllO)!UISh presuppo,111un., ,-,llurc wh.:rc the ml'cn:ncc ,s maJe hy rclercnc;; 10 a ,cale:
1mm 1mplica1ur.:s. •Ji value,. ,me ,¡( ,vh1ch ha:. IJcen cho:.cn by th,:: ,pcak.:r.
Thc ,pc:1k.:r\ ;hou:c mplicatcs ·001 the h1gh.:r ,alucs·
 38 MORE 0N IMPLICATURES MORE ON IMPUCATURES 39,

• Panicufarized irnpficanm:s rcquin: not only general (b) Patrick: 1 didn't take it.
knowlcdgc but afso knowld!:(e which is particular or Virginia: Why do you always lie? ('You always líe')
·locar to tht: spcakcr and thc: hcarc:r. an<l oftcn to th.;
(e) Doris: Did Carmen fike the party?
phys1caf contc:xt ot' thc utterance as well.
Dav�: She feft after an hour. ("Sltc didn·c lik.: thc
• Both gcncralizcd Jnd particularizcd irnplicanues dtfft:r
party")
from prcsuppositions in lhat thcy sound much lcss contra­
dictory whcn thcy are caoccllcd by rhr:: spcakcr. (d) Mat: How did you do on those exams7
Chris: 1 failed physics. (·f didn't fail tht: othcrs")
FURTHER (�) R.:poncr: Senator, what is the present state of your
EXERCISES �., m:lr;ir1ge'
5.6 Apply !he ca111.:ciia1ion 1c�1 wc u�d in C:xercisc :5..5 to deddc
Scnator: Well, we, 1 think have been able to make
whcthc:� cach ,11 !hc 1111crcnccs in brackcts is J prcsuppo�ition oran
sorne very good progress and it's -1 would
tmpuc:Hurc.
say that it's - it's - it's delightful thar we're
<.1) L:nc.l:i: 'Nhat's w1th Jean? able to - to share the time and the relation­
Jcn: Slle discovered that her central heating·s ship that we - that we do share. ("Thc:
broken. ("Ht:r cc:ural ht:ating is bmkcn·) marriagc is not in a good state ")
Cb¡ Tcrry: How do you like your bath? lf) Stcve: Did you buy the c:ir 7
Phil: Warm. (•[ c.lon·t likc ir hot") Ed: lt cost twice as much as I thoughr it would.
('Ed didn ·1 buy tite car')
re) Annic: What do you think of th1s necklace and
bracelet? (g) :1,(aggic. The bathroom's flooded!
Mikc: The bracefet is beautiful. ("111..: nccklacc is Jam.:s: - Someone must have left the tap on. -{"lt
nut bcauuful') wasn·t James who h:ít thc tap on'). .
(d) Lois: Has the kitchen been painted7
Gabncla: Tom's away. ('No')
5.9 í'or thc particulanzcd implicatures in E.u!rcises 5.6 ,md S.S.
te) Jane: Have •¡ou seen my sweater? what son ot particular or 'local' knowlcdgc is nct:c.lcd to draw that
Stcvc: There's a sweater on the sofo. ("lt"s not implic�Hurc·! Whac snrts oi gt:n.:ral knowlcc.lg" d,, thcy re4uirt:! Y-ry
Slcvc',; swc�tt:r') wming ,ccnanus whcrc d1an;¡ing tite ·(ocal' knowfcugc: would lt::ul
to 4u1te ditTcrcm implic:Hurc�.
1 [) \,likc: How come Mary's all dressed up?
.\nnic: We're going to the D-E·/11-T-1-S-T. C-Mar,
hales thc c.lc111b1 )
5.10 \Ve havo: puintcd out lhut gcn.:ralizec.l irnplicarures tend to
lg) .\usun: lt works now. bt: based on a llouting oi thc 4uanticy maxirn. Thac is. 011 ú1c surfacc
Barbara: When did Eric fix it? ("Ene tixcc.l i!") they are nocic�abfy lc:;s mfonnativc than wc woufd �:cpt.-ct. Wbat
maxim or ma.·ums were llouted m �:ich oi thc parucularízed impti­
catures in Exen:ísc 5.6·)

e; OISCUSSION
5. 7 Which oí thc in1crcnccs 111 E,tcrcisc 5,6 ,tn! gencralizcd 1mpli-
1..�1turcs'.' Which ,mes are par1iculari1.cd implicarures·!
5.11 ll1erc i:; J sema111a: relatrnnship bi:twc,:n words callcc.l QUESTIONS
SUPPLE­ hyponymy. H.:re are sorne cxamplcs uf hyponyrny:
MENTARY 5.8 Apply rhe c.:mccllauon h.-st wc uscd in Excrcisc.� 5.5 an<l 5,6
EXERCISES ...., lll decide whc1lu:r c:ich of thc mfcrcnces in brack.:rs is a pre­ llyponvrn Supi:r-vrdi11me
�uppo�i11011 ur an implic:Hurc. For thc irnplic:itures. decide whetltcr rose ffower
thcy are gcncralizcd or parucuiarizcd. salman fish
hammer tool
(a) �likc: 1 heard about the mess.
Davc: Yeah, Steve reafly regrets sending that " lo thc ref:uion oi Hv1•or-Y'IY thc me:111111g oi che �u•i:rt-ortnrNATF.
Hyponomy
Super-o,dina11t
e-mail. ('Stcvc ;cm that e-mail") ::: ccrm is inc!udcd 111 thc mcaning ,>f the 11v1�JNY\1. That is. the Hyponym
 40 MORE ON IMPUCAT\JRES
MORE ON IMPLICATURES 41
meaning o( ron! im:luJcs the meanmg of /fower. \Ve can also say canicd this �ork forward by looking cvc:n more: systc:mat.i<:ally at
that tite hyponym 1s "J kmd of" thc supc:r-ordinatc:. For c:<ampl.:, a thc: various kinds of infcn:ocing that takc: place in oormal convcr-
ro:,c is a kind of tlowcr. Note ulso that the entailment rdacionship satioo. They suggcst that ali four ma�ims C3n be subsumcd under
bt:twe::n hyponyms and 1hc1r sup,!r-ordinaces 1s onc-way {see relcvance. Sc:c::
E.tcrcise 2.-l). For e:camplc. / p1cked a rore .:nta1ls / picked a f{ower.
but / p11:kr:J a j{o1>er Jocs noc ncccss.mly cntail / picked a rou. Spcrb<!r and Wilson. 1986 (quit.: challcnging).
D1scuss thc 1ypo of imphc:Jlures that .::in b<! drawn in thc following For a 'bcginncr's' introduc:ion 10 Spcrber and Wilson·� thcori.:s:
Ji:ilogucs wh1ch cxolo,1 the rclation oé h�pon�my. WoulJ you dass
;orne oi thc�c .1., ;cns:raliz1:J 1mplic:11ur.:s' Blakc:morc. l 9'.12.

al \.likc: Did ·¡ou ouy hPr .i rose?

...\nni.:: 1 boughc her a ílow<!r.
,1:,, Jane Triere's salmen en the menu.
St..!VC. 1 don·: like fish.
r.: EJ· 3e careful of that sofa.
:-.lc:ndvrh: ,t' s a p,ece ar rurn,ture. Dad.
n.J ) \la<. So vou·ve taken up teaching.
C:1r:s: lt's ¡¡ iob.

S. 12 In DbL-u�ion Quc,1ion 3.11 wc ln<Jked Jt sorne convcntional

mc:rnmg� tor ,m,/. Luok buá JI !he .:x:implcs ;iven thcrc CuulJ we
.::1.1ract<:nl.<: J11d .1., crcating Jifft:rcnl 1mplit:ature• in �:ich c:!St:·:
Co-ordlnodng Explore thc dfccts or two othcr , o-•>1t1>INA n:-.G roN11 "', 10Ns. but
conjunction, .ind ,ir f !.:re Jre ,umc cxamplc, to �et you ,t:incd.
tJ) ,om s1ayed but Mar1< left.
bl Tcm sraved bur aill s¡ayed :oc.
¡e) S,oo ttiat ar l"l leave.
<1) Dt.l -¡ou wam m,lk or ,u1ce'

Au:uhor¡ vüf'1l.S s. 13 ' .lO ... l,XILl,\KY VtK:C, 111(<: 1-/11111íd, mav. 1mi:l11. IWLSI. :v,I/
��.:are _;c;¡lar m1plic:11un:,! For c::amp11.:. compare You should wash
:he dishes Jnd You must wash tne dis.1es.

FURTHER n1c 1Jca th:ll prcsuppo,ll1011s Ju 0111 ·sur,1vc· can cdla1ion as well
I
READING .1.� 1mplic.·:11urcs 1::111 be problcm.111c. Fur mure on 1h1s debate sec:
S,mpson. 1993. pp. 133...JO.
Gncc·s work wus :in impunant first stcp in �y\lcmauc:illy .:xam1ntn!;
how hc:ircrs work tu Jcnvc the ultunatc mcssage from thc wonls
thal Jrc Jctuallv uttcrcJ. He rcco!lnizcd that. of all the ma:u=. rclc­
vance wa, probably thc most m;porwnc. although he n.:ver really
wckkd thc ,,su.: •ll how ,pcakcrs :llld ht:arcr.. .i.:1ually .l�!,'Tl rcle­
vance 10 paru.:ular p,ecc, >I mturmauon. '5pcrbcr JnJ Wilson havc
 6
SPEECH ACTS 43

SPEECH ACTS Th.: provcrb, .'\aw,is speak lvuder clwn wortis :md Easier said
than don,: sc::m to makc a clcar díslinction between spcakíng and
acting. However, Austin pointc:d out tha1. contrary to popular bclit:f.
thc:r<: 1s orwn no dear distinction betw..:en che two. He was one of
the rirs: modcm ,cholars to n:cognize that -words' arc in tbcmselves
.1c1ions ,,nc.J chat thcsc: wfü,CH ,<.-,-,¡ can and should be systema1ically Speech acts
;:udicc.J.

,�" EXERCISE
6.2 On.: way or' Jcs..:r1b111g wh:11 1hc: following uucranccs Jo 1� 10
,ay •ha1 th.::, dcscnb.: J iC:icc •Jf affairs. Bue 1hink or somc conccxc;
whcrt: �:.ic:i vt 1hcsc ,1s,cmons Jocs much more rhan simply dcscnbe
1 ,tare 01 .IÍfa1rs:
fl) There's a spider in your hair.
tbJ Someone's eaten all che ice-cream.
fe¡ l've goc a gun.
íú) You'·e an idioc.
(t:l I need the salt.

1 a¡ Your friend is :1huu1 to run his lin!Jcrs thmugh his hair: warning.. Comment
Thc ph.:nomcncr. w !:;: d:��usscc.J L; ve:-¡ widt:�pr::::d Jnd
obv1ous. and it canno1 foil LO havc bcen alrcac.Jy noucc:J. :u (b) You confrom your tl:a mate about the n11ss111g icc--:ream:
acmsinl!. re¡ Spokcn by .mmconc in a mask 10 .1 bank c:ish1cr. threur­
le:is1 hcrc JnJ lhcrc by others. Y.:1 1 have not iound .i1tcn-
11on pa1d !O it ,pcciric:ally.
""ini; (d) You havc bccn offendt:tl Jnd wam n:venge: insuJting. (c).
Y .JU �.1y 1h1s ro �omcnnc a1 the table who is sining near thc salt:
(...\ustin. (075. p. l)
requesón.;. When co111cxcualizcd, th�c uucr:'lncc:. ar,: c.Joing far
rhus hcgan íl ,.:nes 01 lt!�lurcs by lhc: plulosnphcr. J.L. ...\usnn. wluch more 1han ,imply Jss.:rung. 1111s is nm 10 ,ay th:11 a,,�cnion is not
.vcrc �!v.:n l! Harvard 1;11ivcr�ity in l<l55 ,md lal<:r puhiish<:d t.tmkr anvolv.:tl in thc�e utteranct:s. bul ralher that. therc 1s a more ba.s1c
th<: i1tl<! !-foiv :o Do Tiw,,::r wuh W,)rdr. purpo�c hcl11nd thcm. Auscin wantctl 10 countc:r a commonly hdd
vu:w by scmanttcbts 1h:J1 thc solc purpose ul making .1sscrtiuns 1s.
10 Jcs...T1bc ,;orne sta1c uf affairs. Tha1 vicw 1s ,;ometimes c:illcd 1be
EXERCISE ,.,.,
Dti!'iC!tll"'rlVf:. F�\LL,\t.'Y. Do:scncnive follacy
6.1 Decide if you cuuld pcríorm c:ich uf thc folluwing ac11ons by So far wt: h::ivc rc.,1ricted uursclvL-s to Jnalvsing uucranci::¡
e11her spcak111g or phys1cal gc�ture: cons1siing ,if dcdar:11ivc st:nrcnccs. but uncr:rncc:s bused on imper­
(:l) C.mgr:itulatc fümcunc. ,llivc .u;J 1JH..:r,..;gaiiv.: ,enlence:. ;-in .;l,o be ,lflillyscd in "'' ni, uf
(b) C.111 ,umcone's auen1ion to th.: 1.:!ev1sion sc1. what thc uucrancc doc,.
(el forbid somcune ru .:n1cr a room.
� EXERCISE
6.3 CI.L�sify c:ich or lhc following ultcranc::� as in1crroga11vc.
Comment (a) Yes. By say1ng Congra1ulationsl or by giving sumconc ¡¡ pal un 11npcra1ivc or Jcdara1ivc (scc Excrcisc 3.1 far cxamplcs of cach
the back or th.: thumbs up �ign. (b) Yo:s. By saying Look at the typc l. ll1cn decide what lhc spcaker is using thc uncr:mcc 10 do.
telev1sion or by poinring 10 11. (e) Yes. By s.1ying I forbid you to ¡a¡ You can pass the milk.
enter or t>y wagging ;'0ur finger ·1t thc per-on (as often happcns 10 tbJ Why don't ·;ou pass the milk?
111.1ppropna1ely drcsscd visi1ors 1,, 11;:ilian churchcs). le/ Have you got the milk?
, d) 1 could use the milk.

42
44 SPEECH ACTS SPEECH ACTS 45

(e:> Get me the milk. -l(a1 1 aoolog,ze.

Cf) Send the milk down here. -l(b) l'rn sorry.

Comment D..:sp11c: th.: iact that /e:) anJ (f¡ Jr.: tmp.:rauv..:�. (b) anJ (e) an: Austtn maJc Jll int.:rcs1ing obscrvauon. Sorne: utlt:ram:c, n,,1 only Comment
intcrrngauvc:s .t11J (a) anJ tJ) Jre dedarau\'c:�. ali six u11<:rances .:.111 pcrform J ,p..:cch JCI ,,ver Jnd Jb<>ve -;1mpk :isscrtion. thcy also
� oc JCIS 01 rcqucstin:_: (m1lk in lhis ca,c:). ;:mulun..:ous!y Jcscnh.: 1hc: -;¡,cc:ch Jet i,;cli. H..: .:alld tht!sc PERFOR· Performative
..>.us1111 pmn1..:d our 1ha1 m analy�mg a spc:cch JCt. we n.:cd 1,, makc ",n,,,, uucr:inc::s (1hc (al uucranc::s m �:1ch pairJ. Thcy contrJSI
., Jisuncaon bc:1,•c�n 1h.: L1J<"LT10, Jnd thc ILL.Jl'I.. no'< Thc: lccu­ ,1111h ·llhcr Jltt:rJnc�, ·.vhich mav l:c pcriormm,¡ 1hc ,ame .let 'mi 110
t?0n 1:--i tnc �r:-ua1 hJr.n or W<'íiJS u��{.! b� tn..: '>Pl.!Jk�r �1nt.J Uh!tr wt ;,,nr.ün .1 ;•�m- •HMA-r:•.::: ·,:..,u '.hJI ��;Jlkaly Jc,.:;ir.cs thc: Perlormative vtSrb
,;l,,.m:1n1tc ml.!:1111n!! Thc illo<.::.Jlhln (or 1L;.,,ct. TtOr,,.,\l("t FORCE) i.s whJt mccnJd ,c..:ed1 JCI. R:uh..:r. ;h..: hcarcr is Id: tll 111rer ch.: �pc:akt!r's
thi.: s¡::-�J!'\..:r Í!l Ju�n� b� Ulti.!nn1=! tlh!-...! wvrJs: -.:umn1:.1nJini:. oücrin�. :111..::1111•n .>.ust:11 c:1llcJ :hc,c u,,-.s~, :,vr- 'JllerJnces 111tc: lh I u1tc�­ Cons"tiltlVO -· i,,n,•f' lvf l (p ,Ñcr
prombin:!. 1hrc�tt!nin:.: th:inkin� • ..:t�. Bdüw .!, Jn 1.!'<amph: ,Ji bow _,:c, n :Jc:i ¡;:mi. 8.:!mv .ve tll�tratc :he ··.1.0 t�r..:,. Toe ,mJcr·
rn" :wo- vay mal�si, .::in .,·en, tor \l,kc:\ Ju.:ranc,: tu .-'.nmc: Give lnc<l w,�rJ'l J(lo! thc.: ln��I·• JR\I,\ rrvr; ,,r-10:5�. Pvrlormotivo vu,0�
rr:t! scme cash.
P:,...;.,.•r:t1ll',t: C.J/lS[cJl!',,'f!
LOCLT!Ot-:: \l,k� uuc:rcJ 1hc v.nrJs G,v..: ,,.� .:omc, ,a.ch wi11c:1 .,. � ..,, 1 2rom1s� i'!I be rhere. t''I be ¡!;ere.
._
,-:in bc: �cman11cally par.1phras..:u J�: ·HanJ ;0mc monc::1 1JV1:r 1 .l5l!!l.!t I was fcolish. 1 was foolisn.
•o me:'. w11h /tlt' rcic:r:ing te> �likc Narn ycu. th1s gun is loaded. This gun ,s loaded.
ILI.OCL TIOK :'\,likc pcrform..:li thc :i..., ur rcqu...,,tin:i .-'.:im..: 1 .U2!.lli2!l';J1, 1':n SOíl"(.
to Jtv..: h1m ;orne c:i,;h. 1 � '/OU. I' n ver¡ grateful.
1 .;¡rrJer you to s1t down. You must sit down.
Wc nc::t.1 10 Jis1in,;ui,h bc1wcc:i :hf ,ll0c:.a1rnn JnJ inc lllcu1rnn
hccausc " wc: ,aw in E,erci., .. 6_,_ Jiffor�nl '.ocu1i0ns ·::!!l havc :he 1 iu,•.:,.:r . .he ,j,;I h:11 Jn uuc:r:mc:.: .:untams J pcrmrmauvc ,,ero
s.1mc ,nocauon:irv forc::. Sim,larlv. thc: ,;1mc locuuon can havc Jocs 111>1 nccessanly makc: tite uiieranc:! 1L-;clf pcrrom1:1tivc. Js wc
Jirforcni •lhicuuo�:iry forc.:s Jcpc:n.Íing ,,n thc cnntcxt. Fur cxamolc vill 'ic:.: 111 lhc 11t.::tt �xcrc!S\!.
lt's colo in here ,oulJ c:1thc:r oc: :i rcqucst !o .:!ose 1hc w1n..1ow or
.in o/fer 10 do,c 1hc "'"úow
-\usun Jlso d1s1ml!u1shc:.J .1 1h1rú oari ui .1 ·mc::ch Je:. :hc ''-"'- i, 'J• �• EXERCISé:
n, ,. ínis " thc .11:tu:il rL-sult m rhc: iecuuo�. IL '11:lY l.lr TI,!V 101 hc 6.5 In �,,ch 01 .he ¡mues hc!ow ,mty 1hc: (.1, u111.:ranc:.:, woukl '>e
..,..n.u ·he iOcjKcr 'N<1111S :l) hapocn Cut il t!'i 1c·1c:thl.'.JCSS �,u�c:.; ,1.:r·,:rma11·,c n .>.u,1111, ·11cw Th111k Jbout ·vi� tite I hl JnJ CJ utt...:r­
,v •lw ocuuon. F,,r ��amplc. \.!ik�·, uutr:incc .:ouh.J haw Jnv JI rnL.:� N1H1hJ 1h.ll ne ;;!a!>Sl!:J JS pcr�"nr,,auv1.:.
·ne ollowm,; ¡,c:rlocuuons: ''.1-likc pcr;uac1cu -\nnic io .:i•vc h,m 'ht:
Ol\�nc·, · ..� n111c rctusc:.J h> �tvc :11m :.ne moncv': · \;1J'11t! .va3, .t,11 1 acm1t 1 'Nas Nrong.
,;ri..::i.JcJ' ;:..:.• \,¡ y,,u ,an ,e::. thc pcrloi.:atmn •� Jctincli hy ih..: !(iJJ I lhrnk 1 'NilS wrong. ~
ht.:J I know I was wrong.
ht:arl!r\ rc:.1c:1on
:!Jl I aooloqize to you.
:(b) 1 a muse you. �,� - -.. ,: ,
EXERCISE •.,_ .:1c¡ 1 flaner you.
6.4 Louk JI thc lnllnwmg pa,rs ,if u11<.:r:inc::s What Jilfcrcnc:.: Jo
.3¡.11 We prom1se to leave.
;mu n,i11c:.: b..:1wc.::n lhc: uucr:mcc,; in caen pair'
J(h) He adm11s he was silly.
l(J) 1 promise to be there. J(c) 1 warned you to stop.
!¡hJ 1'11 be there.
:1 J J adm1t I was foolish.
�I h 1 1 N3S foolish.
.n !íllUO 1 ,!:,.: JítlOh::n Nlth IQ) JnCI (Ci '� thar wn1lc 1Jm11tmg IS Comment
J¡ J Narn you. th,s gun ,s 'oaded. rn 1c11on nJt .-.in ·,..: ocrrormeJ ny ,pt:ak1ng, lhmkmg Jnú kn,>wmg
:11,, Th1s gun s oaded. ir., 1101.<, 11:1,k 111J <11111v ,re no1 p,:°rrorm:111vc: vcrb�.
46 SPEECH ACTS
-----: SPEEC>< ACTS 47
In group 2 11polog1:c". um11.u and Jlauu ali dcscnbc things wc c-Jn • t.:ucrancl!S can be analyscd as spcccb acts. a framework SUMMARY
Jo "-ith spccch Howcwr. to b<! periormativc. th.: v.:rb mw;t describe originally proposcd by J.L. Austin.,
an action wh1ch is under thc control of thc speaker. We can po1cn- • Spcech acts can be :inalyscd on threc levt:ls: tbe loculion
1ialh, Jmusc or lbttcr ,omcun,: wilh ,pccch but thc ultimah! decis1on (thc words thc speaker uses): th,: illocution. or illocu•
10 bc ,1mu�cd or flancred rcsts wirh rhc hcarer. Compare: (a) l'm­ rionary Coree (whal thc spc:i.ker is doing by using t.hose
tr¡ing to apologize. (b) l'm trying to amuse you. (e) l'm trying ,�ordsJ: t.hc pcrloc-uliun (thc dfoct of those word� on the
to flattcr you: Only in ta) b thcrc a ch:;Jr implic:uion that tl1t: hearer).
,pcak.:r is bemg pn:,cmcd from spcaking (or being hcard). Om: way • Austin propO!>cd thar unc:ranccs can be classificd as
of think,nl! about this 6 1ha1 apolo�!:e rdcrs tu :in illocuuon wh1lc peñonn:itive or const:11ive. Pcriunnauvcs likc I apologize
¡/11/ft'r ,ind-.111111.u rcicr lt) pcrlocutuins. >1multaneouslv statc JnJ ocrfonn the 1llocu1inn
la ,;r·,uµ ,; .:,1d1 oí thc ,crbs :s µc:nunnalivc. 1:-iuwc:vcr tn 1h1 lhc Con51J11vi:, can also oc uscd to·pcrform an illocution but.
sub¡cct oi thc vcrb ts not 1hc ,;pcakcr: / ,ir we. He adm1ts he was unlik.: pcr:orm:uivcs. thcy do no1 c.�plicirly name thc
silly simply sra1.:s wha1 'h.:' is duin\! out Jocs nol pcrform his Jet intcnJcd illocu11onary act.
,H .1Jm1S�11rn. Evc:1 "'hcn the sub¡cc: 01 tl1e perfonnaave verb i., /
,,r ,.,., JS m (el thc verb must he an thc simpk prescnl tcnsc nnt 1he
p.1,1 1c:1�c. F,>r �nmplc. ii you 1\crc cxpcc:111!! .an .1polugy fmm 111<: ::?J FURTHER
wuulJ you prcter I apolog,ze or I apologized'! 6. 7 De::1t.lc whi:thcr c:ich of thc uucranccs bclow is pcrform:mvc. EXERCISES
anti ii 001. why nu1.
EXERCISE .., (a) You congratulare me.
6.6 l.Jtscn Lhc w<ml h,irc1>v bdorc lhc verb m JJI nmc utrcr,rnccs (bJ I envy you.
an E:u!rci�e lí.3. For cxamplc: 1 nereby I adm1t I was wrong; 1 (el I command you to put out that cigarette.
hereby th ink I was wrong. Docs 1h1s proJucc •>dd rcs..ills in somc (d) 1 warned you not to go.
.::iscf! Why 1 Ce) Put your tovs away!
(O We convmce everyone w1th our arguments.

Comment .\lthou!:h /i,:reh.v dc>t!S no1 irc4ue111ly nccur in ordinary .:unvcrsa11on 6.8 Csmg the lucution. 1llocu1ion. pcrlocuuon analysis in 1he
anJ can makc JIIV uueranc:: sce:n .1 bu s11hcJ. it ,c:.:ms 10 ,oum.J Ji,cu.,�con fullowing Exercise 6.J. analy,,: Steve's u111::r.1ncc.
parti1.-ularlv oJd whcn thc uucrance 1s nul pcrfonnauvc. Thc 'hcrcby Jane: You've interrupted me again1
1c,1' 1s 4u11..: .1 rc!iaol� ,me. Stcvc: 1 was rude.
Aus11n·, Jislmction hctwcen perúinn.111vc .rnd cons1auvc u11..:r­
.1nccs .s nm w11hou1 prohtems. as .JJtothcr pl11limiphcr oí 1:ingua�c. .,._,. SUPPLE­
J.R. Scarlc. ha, pomtcd ,iul. How Jll wc in1crprc1 1'11 be there un 6.9 G,vc ,L� manv Ji1fcrcn1 t!locuuon..� as vou o:an ior lhe locu11ons: MENTARY
1ls ,1wn 1s .1 prumisc 1 ;\us1111 had proposcd thal tl11s can bc e:-cp:rnJcd l'm sorry anJ This gun is loaded. Describe thc cont<::Xt in which EXERCISES
10 a iull ínnn 111clm.hng 1hc pcrtoma11vc verh • 1 prom1se 1'11 be .:ach ,if tho,c illocutions would apply.
there. In Sc:irlc\ vic,;, th1s madc thc distincuon betwccn perfor­
nJJtiv-.:� J1IÚ �l)n�ta(Í\lc:'.\ 1Jlhcr Jrtitkiai. -..iw.�.c in ,i,c,Jry J11y �on�(j-
11vc uucr.lflc.::: can be cxpandcd ltl a pcrfunnativc onc. Bcsidcs. 1h1s 6.10 Choose ,1 p:mu:ular illocutionary forct: (c.g. apolugy. thre:it
Joc, 11111 rcallv raált: 1h..: 4ucs11011 ni hnw lhc hcarcr w11ulJ Jssign rc11u�1) Jnd ¡;1vc Jt lc:i:;11ivc diífcrcnt locuci11ns \lllhich cnulJ cxpr�s
the appro¡,na1c 1lloc1111onary rore:.: 10 u11cr:111ccs which do noc that force.
cont:1111 pcriormativc vcrlJ<,. Huw do wc knmv lhat lite speaker mc:ms
·1 promisc 1'11 he back' r:11hcr 1han ·[ fhrc:llcn 1'11 bc back"' What
about Coffee? How docs thc hcarcr ·compute' irnm this onc wortl 6.11 Givc thrcc pussihle pcrlocutions for lhe locution: l love coffee.
·1 offcr vou .1 .:nifce"' How Jo wc managc to 111tcrprc1 Can you
pass thé m1lk? nm J,. ·1 im¡uirc 1f you .1rc Jblc 10 pass thc 11111k
hut rJLhcr .is ·t ret¡ul!SI v,iu !U pass thc: m1lk' We w1II bc c:roloring 6.12 Thc ,:�pro.:ssions bdnw rcú:r to 'thtn\!S we 1.-:111 <lo with
thc,.: issucs III thc ncxt unll. words' Whicb ont:s focus un thc �pcakcr's action and which oncs
íocus on thc hcarcr·s re:n.·uon'!
1
-¡-
48 SP!ECH ACTS SP!cECH ACTS 49

c:ise oí performing tbe act by gt:sture, is this ever dependent on

(a) offend
(b) mock speech bcing uscd at sorne: point in the event? Think about bidding
( e) offer conuoh:nccs at an auction. for cxample. Can you tbink o[ any acts that c;:m only
{d) convince be performd by using words?
(e) argu,:
(f) wnsole
6.18 [n Exerd:ie 6.6 you might have i"<!ll 1ha1 th.: addicion of h.tr,!by
to He admits he was silly soundcd sligl1tly kss odd 1han ir did
6.13 Fine! al le:J.St Oné periorm:uive ve:b that could pro<luc:: che wi1:i che uthcr non-pcrformativc: uuc:ranccs. Cin you think of J
per!vcuti,m rcier.cd 10 hy e:u;:i or the followin11 verbs: s¡:.:�:al mu:nion whcrc He hereby admics he was sillv could be
cons1dcri!i.l pcriormauvc"!
(a¡ ¼ln!
b¡ p<!r.ü:JUC
kl .:oniuse
1J1 r.::tc...::-:arn For Jn Jnnotaté:.J •1<:rs1011 ,>i .-\us:in\ un�ínal kc:urt!s: FURTHER
(el 1mpres.s READING
(D plae:.ite -\usun. lll75.
(g) inspire For mtrnducti,ins tu Spéct:h•Jc: 1h.:nry:

OISCUSSION e_-;, S1uhbs. [<}83, C!mp1er 8.

QUESTlONS 6.14 Pt:rfom1ativc uucra.nces c:m bi: worued in -mch a way that C.mlth:trd. 19�5. Ch,1p1cr 2.
thcy do nm rc4uirc / or Wt' as !he sub¡cct. .\pply the ·hereby test' . \umn "s ¡:miposal chat �pcak,ng can b,: :inalysed as Jet ion has madc
to s!ach of thc following !O de1ermme wh1ch ones are pcrformanvc. J mJJllr contribu1ion to pr:1;;nia1ics. Hi� basit: analytic fr:um:work ha�
\\.h:11 :iJlows thcm to pa�s 1hc tesr.' ,mn:il:rn:J .:n .::;;_im,uus Jmoun1 oí Lhinking anu rc:.carch Jbout a
(,ll I forbid you to spit on the pavement. prc'lll1usly ncglccccd but vcry importan! arca oi interpc:rsonal
{b) Soitting on ,he pavemenr is íorbidden. m.:aning. Howcvcr. �orne ni h1s ide.is. parucularly his distinction
(e) So,tting on the pavemenr was forbidden. bctwcen pcn"0rma11vc and cons:a1ive uucranc(!:;. havc at!ractcd a
(J) You are forbidden to spit en the pavement. �:>ns1dcrahlc amount of cnt,c:sm. Sc.::
(el Soitting on the pavem,mt is inconsidt!rare. Hlak..,murc. 191)2. Chaotcr o.
rf) You mus: not so,t on the pavement. L.:�d1. l '.11!3. l11aptcrs , Jnd ,1

6.15 :-Vfücommumc:iuon c.an rcsult wbcn thc hearcr has miscali;:i­

la<ctl :he 1111endcu ,iloc:itlllll. This ot'ten torms cbe t,asis oi humour
JS in lhc: following r:icher awtul ¡oke where :i cumplaint 1s (dc!iber­
atcly"!) m,sinccrprercd .is prJi!.c.
Cus,.;mcr: Waitart There's a fly in my :,uup.
W:mcr: Don't worry, there's no extra charge.
Find cx;,mplcs 01 ¡ok.:s w1ch J ,imilar basas.

6.16 Look in a lhcs;1urus for th.: vcrbs related 10 lhc �pccch ,1cts
oí cu11fe:ssi,m Jnd upofo�y. How many did vou lind"! Wcre sorne
more IIC¡,\aUvt:ly ·1uadcd" than olhcr.;"?

6. 17 Foilowmg on from EJ1crci,;e 6.1. llunk ot .u least ñvc .icts

that vou .:nuld ncrform hy us,ng '-'lthcr words ,ir :;csturL-s. ín th.:
 7
MORE ASOVT SPEECti ACTS 51

MORE ABOUT SPEECH Thc problcm \\1th (a) is chal the hearer canaot understand wbat the
,peaker has actually said. Toe spc;aker muse nut be acting nonsen-
sically or prctenúing IO be someonc t:lsc and the hearer must be
Comment

ACTS c:ipab!e of untlersranding che locution. Se:irle callc:d thesc GE'IERAL

, oi-01T10Ns beoust: lhey apply to ali 1ypes of illocutions. Toe prob-
General conditions

lcms with (b) and (e) involvt: whaL Searlc calleJ the PR.EPARA'n>RY Prep,aroto,y
co,-.orno:-,s. In rh.:: ca,<: of .i promise it has to be .ibout something condltlons
Lh:.H woultl 11<.>L on.linarily happea. Anti it muse be about an 3ct that,
would be b<!neñeial to Lhe h<!an:r.
Tnt: prohlcms wi1h (d) anti (e) havc t<> do with che ·content' of
ch .... prümL.;..... A prom;::,\., :1J:-. iv U..: "..1WuL a futuu: J"-l fu tú) 11,irtttd
1s in thc pase l<!nsc;. And. ir must be .ibout an act performed by tht:
spc:1kcr. In (el makl! 11 w,mi.!crji1l de:mm is :in ,1.:1 lh:ll will bt:
pt:riurtnc:d by lhc: he:m:r. TI1c:se are: c:ilkd th<.: co:-,TS'-T COl'<OITIOl'S, Contont conditions
Dulcrent ill0cu1ions wrll havc diifert:nt .:on1c111 ,onJi1ions. RelateJ
ro the preparatorv .:undi1ions is th<.: s1:,,<:ERJTY co,-,01T10N. Tbat is. Sincoritv condition
che �pcak.;r muse ·be s1m:ere. In thc .:ase ..,( J promise. die spe:iker
must gcnuindy int.:ntl to carry out lht: act mcncion.:d. 171is is dcarly.
nu1 the c:ist! in ( f) unkss tJ1e speaker is Supcm1a.n.
Of cour.sc. not c:vcry u11er:1nce indutles J pcrionnacivc vcrb like
pro,ms,:. Yct we nimn::illy manage to in(cr wha1 lhc speaker in1ends.
Tu start tackling Lhis prublt:m. Searlc propuscd 1hac spcech accs .:ould
be :,¡roupt:tl inLo general catcgorics basc;r..l noL on pcrformaúve verbs
lf you do Lh:11. l won 't cal my desscrt.
but on lhc rclationship bctwecn ·Lh.: words· and ·thc world' and on
(Maneo Pe�cci. age 3)
who is respons1ble ior making that rclauonship work. Witbín each
As �oon .is our son (a d1:11npion dcsscrt cater) uucred thosc words . c:11cgory chcrc <::Jn be a vanccy oc diifcrcm illcJ<:u1ions. but thc
.,, . he looki:r..l quue pu:alcJ. He rcalizcJ 1hat his .1111:mpt to 'thrcatcn · bis mcmbcrs 01 caen gruup sharc a s1m1lar rcla1iunsh1p uf · fic" bctwce:i
parcnts har..1 somchow gonc hurribly wroni¡. bur why? Austin woulr.J lhe worJs and the wor!J. Wc ·11 starc w1th thrce vcry basic c:ncgoncs
havc �:ur..l that .\lauco·, thre:11 was not ·fdic1wus· bec:rnsc..1mon!:: :rnd ,,,me u( 1hc diffcrc:11 illoeuri<lns that would faU intll 1ha1
othcr thin�s . .1 1hrca1 ,h,>uld involve .m acuon lhat is undcsirablt: to category:
the he:1rer m1hcr than to the speaker. Ausun·s idea that i1 is poss1ble
R1·l'R1•sr-�, , 11VEs - Spcakcrs rcprcscm cxtcmal reality hy Rttpro�ntativei.s
10 �tare thc ,ccc�ary conJitions for a particular illocution to \:ount'
making the1r wortls lil thc worl<l JS 1h..:v bclicvc ÍL lo bt: (�·1111i11,;,
was dcvcmpcJ further by John $carie ( 197[). [n thc ne:u excrc1s e. we
clescrr/J111g, uifirmmg).
Feficity conditions will look .11 sorne of che 1ypcs of r-Euc1TY .:;0,-,01110,-,s ior a promisc.
,·0M�11ss1v1,s - Spc:ikc:rs commil 1hcmsclvcs to a. futurc act Commissive-s
wh1ch will makc the wnrld lit Lhcir words (pmmising, vo•ving,
EXERCISE ...,. 1/tr�111cni11�. cJjf,mng).
D11<Ec·nvr,s - Speaker.; direct hearcrs tu pcrform sume fu1urc Directivo�
7. 1 Wh:11 !!!ight make cach uf thesc ·promisc::' i:ifc!:.:::tous"?
.1c1 which will makc thc world fit che speakcr's words
(al Ti prometto di pulire la cucina. ['I promise you Lhat rn (c:01111111111dir1>1, ortlr:rrn¡;, req1101ing, wuming, .mggcsrmg).
c!c:rn up lhc !rnchen • spokcn to �ornconc; who the speaker
knows Joes 1101 uudcr.aand lralian. 1
/h) 1 promise thar 1'11 punch you in the nose.
.,;;, EXERCISE
(e) 1 promise that the sun will come up tomorrow. 7.2 ln each uf thc iollowing dialogues. Jcc1dc whcthcr thc sccond
(ti) 1 promise that I srarred the dishwasher. �pcaker's u11cr:1nel! 1s a rcpre,entativc. a commíssivc. or a dirc1.-civc.
(e) 1 promise thar you'II make a wonderful dessert.
(a> Jane: Coco's sick.
( f) 1 promise thar 1'11 jump over that skyscraper if I pass
Steve: 1'11 take her to the vet.
my exam.
(b) :i..likc;: What's the weather like 1n Dallas?
Anmc: lt's raining.

50
52 MORE ABOUT SPEECH .. .:rs MORE ABOUT SPEECH -'CTS 53
(e) fal: The garage is a mess. (a) 1 now pronounce you husband and wife.
Faye: Clean it up! (b) 1 name this sh1p 'Buster Brown'.
(e) 1 sencence you to 10 years in pnson.

Comment 1,1l-(c) wcrc f:iirly ca.sy tu clJss1iy Jccunling to this sysrcm. Stc,c·s
(
.1.:t was J .:omm1SSó\'c. Anmc', Jet v.,1s .1 reprcscn1:11i�c. F.i: s act In (J H..:) 1he mereª" of ut1<.:rtnt! the "ords has chant!cd 1he worid. Comment
was J d1rc�:1vc. .·\ .:oupk ar.: nü" m:imctl . .-\ ship rs nnw namcd ·B-usrcr Bruwn'
S.inic:llnc is nu\\ J pnsoncr ior lO years. To�.: kinds oí sp.:�c:i Jl�
,r
.ir.: .¡u11c ,¡;.:c:al ,n th.H th.:v ..::in only ·coum· ¡h.: <nealc,:r h;,, •ho;:
EXEP.CIS!: .1cpr,,pna1c .1u1ht1n1:, to perform thcsc Jet�. Scar!.: .:allctl thcsc:
7 .3 Look JI 1hc ,cc1mu ,pt:::ik�r;· uneran..:�s m ncxl lhc 1wo '.>t1 ·1 "'" r,u:-.,. TI10.: ,¡:.:akcr uuc:� words that ín thcmselvc,; ,h angc Oeclar.1tion:1
.J1alu��.11..:s.. <..Jn th��t: be ca"iil� dass1ricU us1ng thc ��ltt.!�oncs o( r::prc· 1hr: ""orld 111,1111111� ,lup,. murnu�t'S, ,en/c,11,:m�• .i refer,,:',¡ ·cullr') •
,..:nl:llt'-'\! . ..:�!mm1\S1\·c ,lr ..!ir..!..:.:¡vc · T .1i'ic ! "il\J\\.'i �ht.! '>im1lar.t:cs 1nt.! dü:\!r..:n�:.:s kctwt:c:-i ;he "Pc.........:h
.1c1 �:neg,tincs rhat "t: havc rc:!:1 Ji:;.;us.,mg.
,u1 C.1rmcn. You've rhrown away the paper. -
D:ive: l'm sorry. Table Tne rataucn bl!tween 'words ano ·:ht'! 'Nortd'
cl Plmdc 1 901 a new Nintendo game.
virginia: Who from? Stu.:!•:h ,u R<!mw11 .':,c!h,,,.'t!!t :/re IV/1t1 ..r rdpo11s1bw
C,JtC)fJf_\l ,nJrtl": m,J · thr: ....,,,r,d' jor il•• rdauv,r
Cct.:!�rJlh'lOS �he vonh ,:-han�t: thc: .i.or!ti spc:t�cr
R..:orc"icn 1..111,c.� 1hc ...,ord.s '.u tht: vodd
Commen� Dave'.; ultcrance m ltJ) •� J ,1:11cmcn1 likc lt's raining but 11 rcprc• • · ,1uuult..! worltO
,cnL� :he socakcr'� emmions r:ithcr th:m tite ·ou1sidc world' .-\n 1hc .vords tll ¡!lo Wllrlt.l · ::iOC:JKc:r
um:rancc lik.: ,h1s 1s tvp,cally u�cd � Jn Jp<.>logy Sc::irlc propo,.:d l';x:,c!lulo,;1r:<1I' Nnrid)
.1 ,pcc:al calcgory (or ,pc:<:ch ac:s J1:1t focu.� pnmanly on rcprescnung R,,�!:UJ\1.;•, ·hc ""r<1:, �t ,hc .1,,rntl
EJC:preuives thc ,p.:akcr·� 1cdings: <:XPREs.,1v1:� 1hrough which ,pcakcrs c:xpres.s < ..,,mm1-."'"t.."' !hc ,nr!d vtll tit ¡he ·•unls soc;u:,�r
rJ1.:1r féc:in� by 1nak1nt,1 1he1r wonJs 1it th.:1r mtemal psycholo�1ca l D•n.:ctl'.-,� 1 hc •,nrh.l wtll rit !he wnrd.s li,,:ue,
·vurlu. E:mn.::..\lvc:, .::m n:icr to the 'ic:.ircr ,ir to ,orne 01her .isoc::t
1i thc: w,md. hu1 thc::r fo.:as 1s tnc: ,pt!akcr, fi:ding .1bout 11. F,¡r
.:-.amoti: Ycu·re •,er¡ kind 0r :-h,s wine s awful would be �!assed
·1s �xon:ssive, 11/wniw,�. <Jpol,Jg1�1111J, CUll!/'<J111lutu1,, ,unduli11':fJ•
[n 1 ·vav. Vir.:m1:1·; attcnnc� ¡n .:) 1s \Jir-::.::1111:\· Pamck to pr ovilic
.1cr 111th �rnr.nallon ,1hou1 who gavc: h1m lhc "1ntcnuo gamc. Sc:arlc 7.5 L,><Jk Jt .:J<:h cH l!lcsc ¡,a,r, ot uttcr:ince,, Cla:;su·y thc likcly
'.1au ,mginally .:lru.scd t¡uc,11ons ikc: tlus as d!,fC,.:;!;'.c!>. ,\pan from mc�::!J• 1c: ,:,p.; �.,on:�sctJ oy 1hc I aJ u11erancc us111g thc c::ucgoncs
thi: ruca 1ha1 :c4ui:stlllt,\ u1(om1a11on from hcar-:rs :s ra1hcr diffcrcnt in T:1blc l. Salisr'y yourscif rh:it. givcn 1hc right .:ontext. thc (b) uucr­
irom rc4ucs11ng tha1 thcy p.;rform .m action. sorne qucsuons are Jnct m .::ich pa,r .:ould Jlso be uscd to ..:arry .iut th:11 •ype or' �p,:i:-.:h
n,udr ,nure dircctivc rhan u1i1ers. Compare Have they appoinceo JCL Why docs !he 1irs1 u11cr.:1ncc m c:ach pair �ccm a more 'dirc::t'
a new airecror? to Can you hand me the pen? Lc:cch (l'Jl:!3) way •>I performmg 1h e .1cf.'
proposctl .u1 extra c:1t<:!!t1ry m ucal with rc4ui:sts for informnuon:
�•� .., nvi,s through wh1ch ,;p.;:ike� .1sk for m1onnat1on. In rugativcs l(Jt Go away.
thc he:irer r:i1hcr than lh<: sp<::ikcr will rnakc: thc wnrds lit the world l!bl My essay 1s due tomorrow morning.
(llskm�. ,¡1111ryrni:, tfUl!S/Wlll/li:). 21 a) Put your jacket on.
lth1 Did you puc your ¡acket on>
EXERCISE �( 1 Be -�u•et
7 .4 ! low vou1tl you Jcscnbc thc rc:lauonsh1p bctw<:en thi: -"Ords :¡h, 1 'm verv upset thac so many of you are talking. ·
md 1h.: world 111 rhc iollowmg um:ranccs'! Do any nf thc �:11c,:on�-s JtJ¡ The Democrats Non.
wc ,a�c Ji,cu,,,ed ,o ··.1r ·aoture rh1s re!auonstup·! 11!-> ... ave /Ou "leard rhat che Democrats won?
,....
54 MOl'E ABOUT SP€ECH ,\CTS MORE ABOUT SPEECH ACTS 55

5(.1) Have you been fired7 a, a rcprcscntative: in 5(b) a rcpr.:scntJtive functioning as a roga­
5(b) Someone said you got fired. ti,c:: anó 111 ó(b) l rcprcsentarive functioning as a commi�ivc.
This lcó Sc:irk to a furtbc:r óistinctton bctween specch acts. In
6(a) 1'11 pay you back.
orREc.,· $1'!:!Xll ,crs thcre is a úircct rclationship bctwcen their Oirect spooch octs
6(b) Auchors always pay cheir debts.
lingu1suc structurc and che work thcy are: doing [n l"OIRECT SPEECH lndlrect speech acts
,<·N thc ,p.:ech Jet is pcrfonncd·indircccly through thc performance
of anocher ;ocech act. So. how do hearers know what the ·real' iflo­
curionary fo�ce ts whcn prcscmcd wich Jn indircct ,pcech act'! This
Comment l(a). :?(a) Jnd 3(J) ;irc dirccttves. 4(a) b a represc:n1:11ive. 5(a) is a
1s whcn: ft:!icity cnnúitions c:111 be quite usdul.
rogauve. and 6(al is a commissivc. ;'lote c1Ja1 c1Jc spc:ikers did not .........,,..
ScJrlc observed time 1n an indirect ipccch act. cvcn though thc
h:1\,r" rn .::.,y ' ()rrlPr yn, 1 tn en ;::iw�y I c;f;trP th;:it thP nPr'f"l(.\rr;Uc;
�urwc;; rorm l<JnKs llK.: a parucurar u1rcci spcccn acr. onc (or -non:J
won. or I ask whecher you have been fired. Thc dircci 11ncrpre­ oi 1111:: fdic1ry Cllndiuons for thut .Jet h�ve bc::n obviously vfolated.
t.111on c:imc frnm othcr linl!uiscic rcaturcs of thc uttcranc� wh1d1 wc
. \t the samc tune. vnc lur more) of tbc fclicity conditions tor
rt:cogniz.: as typ1c:il for that !ypc 01 spcech act. T.iblc :? summartzt:s
thc ·real' undedying, and thcrdorc indircct ,;pc.:ch act havc bccn
thcsc íc:uurcs.
'-jUc,uoncd ,ir mcntioned by tbc !ocuuon. givmg a hmt as to thc truc
11locut11>nar1 rore�. Jf rhc rcmaintng tcli1.,ty condilions for thc ·real'
Table 2 Typ1cal linguistic express1ons of speech acts ,pc::dt Jet .irc iuilillcd. tht:n che speaker will intcrprct thc locu1ion
JS ,Uc!l.
Spcedr�ac.:t lyp,cal é.rJmplc
cat,·i;ury c:pressw11
Dcclar:1r1on:, Jcclarao,e ,cructure woth Wc ¡i111J lh< deic11tlant ,;wltv .:-" EXERCISE
,pcaker as subicct �nLI J I rcsr�n.
perfonnauve vcrb 1n 7.7 Try your hm1d Jt wrüing sorne fcliciiy conc.Jitions for a 'true·
,;:imple: pr«!"«!nt t..:n"c ,>r ·fclicimus' dirccrivc.
Tm,: 'r .::ztmt; ,.;r;;p.:.:.
Bi/J ,wu ,m 11ccaim1ant.
dccfar:Hive ,'1ructurc w1th /'m 10,n, to heur tlwt.
words rcf..!!'Tlng to fcclings T/11s be�r u- dis�uscu,�. Yllur .mswcrs prohably lookcd mmcthmg likc th1s: Comment
D,rectivc..� impt:r:uive "M.:nfenct: Si1 Jown 1
• 1''1c ,pcak.:r must he .n a pos111011 co dircc1 ú1.: hcarcr m
Fustcm w,ur JºCIII l,,:lts.
pcr1om1 thc JCI.
R,u:a,1vcs 111tcrrnga11vc ,1rucrurc tVltt"rl' Jiti Ju: .;o? • n.c Jircc,ct.i .1cr must not hc mmcihing whrch has alrcady
Is -rh.: h·m·,m; !
llaopcncd ur wuuld happcn anyway.
C'(lffiJJll'lSIVCS Ucc!:.1r:.i11vc si:ructur-c wuh f'!J t::J/1 'IOU IIJIHS:Ílf. • íhc dircc1cd act must he ,nmcthmg thc hcarcr is willing or
,;p.:ak.:r sulljcct J11d [uiur" tV� re {UtnS: w run, you •"
time c.,presscd .Jh1i(!;1tct.l to c:irrv out if asked.
• Thc- dircc:cd .ic; must be ,omcthmg wh1ch rhe hcarcr is
c:ipablc ui c:mying out.
• n,c direc1cd Jet must he s1imc1hing wiuch 1s Ot!t!dcd by or
dcsirablc to thc �rcaker.
EXERCISE �.
7.6 TI11s rime look al tite (bJ uucrancc 111 .:ach uf thc pairs m
:::'J EXERCISE
Excrdse 7.5. U�ing Table 2. dcddc whar typc ur speech act thcy
·look likc'. 7.8 '.'low writc two kcy it:licity com.litions for a ·folicirous' rogativc.

For a ruga11vc: Comment

Comment l(hJ looks likc .1 rcprcscnt:nivc:. fu Facl. Scarlc would �ay thal II is .J
represental1vc. but in th,s .;ontcxt it can also ·do the work' of J dircc• • lnc �pcakcr musi no, alrcady havc thi: informauon rcqucstcd.
civc. In 2(b l wc have a rogative functioning as a din:ctivc: in 3(b) an • íhc �pcakcr mus¡ havc rcason to bclicvc that 1hc hcarcr can
c:xprcssive funcuoning as a dirccrivc: in .f(b) a rugativc íunctioning ,upplv thc 111formatinn.
56 MORE ABOUT SP!:ECH _.CTS MORE A.BOUT SPEEC>i ACTS 57

EXERCISE "··· ::;,� FURTHER

7 .9 .-\ mothc:r 1s s1.1nding by thc door a:, h..:r child starts 10 go out 7.10 In Excrci,,c, 7.2 .ind 7.J you werc askc:d to icJcnufy the spcech EXERCISES
\l.1thou1 h,s ja.:kct Jnd say�: Did you put your jacket on? üsing acts of th.: s..:cond spc:ik.:N u;.ing the c:itegoric:s in T:ibh: l. .-;ow go
the folictty cond111on, iur dirt.:ct1vcs and rogJuves. c:xpban why thc back Jnd Jo thc sam,: 1hing for thc tir11 speakers' um:ranccs.
moth..:r's uucr .111ce would be 1n11:rprcted .is :in indircct dir.:ctive.

7.11 An uttcrance 1ha1 looks ,upcrtii.:ially l:k..: :i Jirt!cltve beca use

•>I 1L� 1mper:111vc iorrn. but 1s inJir.:ctly realizing anothcr typc oi
Comment Did you put your jacket on? l,xiks supcrlkially ltk..: J ro¡pti,..: ,ce:!ch Jet. is >0mc1tmc� c:tllc.J .1 l"SELOO•D11<1:-.,1vE. L.ibel cach Pseudo-di,-eC1ive
�tv\!:t u� inr�rrog1tivt: (orm. t,ut 11 '-101::irt:s th-.: kcy :·clicil� ,·ondit•no �:' �he !Glh.;-.v�n; uth!:-:inc .. s J"i dirl.!t:t Jir.;:::ti\e. 1ndir�t.t <lir��tive llr
th.11 thc ,pc:ú.:r Joc, n,1; ,Jlrc:i..!:, know th..: Jn,"er to thc: 4u..:,111m p,cudu-cJirccuvc Fur J p,.:udo-Jirccttve st:it.: th.: true 1llúcu1tonar¡
lthc: mo1hc:r .:;in ,.:t: 1ha1 thc c!lild docs not h:ivc his jack.:1 ,1n¡. On torc�. Givc your rc:i:.<m, in �:1ch �a,;c makin!cl use ,if the folicity·
tite 01hc;r h.ind. th..: uttc:r.mc.: exphc:t!y qut!nc:s 0ne or thc fohc1ry ;onJi1ion tramc"úfk
.;onclttton� !or .1 Jirt!4..::1·..c· thc! Jir..:::-:,:tJ Jet mu,1 Ce ,�,m1;thrng. thal
,.11 vlo1hcr to �lulú. P1ease p,c!c up your c:omes.
ha, n01 .ilrc:i.J:, h:ipp.:ncd or w,)uld harpcn .111:-way. �ssuman�
rb, vlnthcr 1,> ch,ld· You haven't made your bed!
:hat 1h.: rcma1111ng fclkay co111.li1ion, lor J valit.l dir..:c:ive .ire mct
te:) Spc:iKcr has ¡u,1 !'leen th:inkcJ: Don't mentton 11.
rlol)k .1t ihc rcm:11ning fclu:11y .:onJiuon, for J Jir.:cu,.: .iml sausty
yllur;clt 1ha1 rhi, 1s the �-.1:.c:), thc �carc:r w1II intc.:rprc:t this as .in ,:,."> SUPPLE­
mJirt:ct dircct1vc 10 pul on th.: ¡acker. MENTARY
7.12 l,'�1111( thc .in�wcr to Excrchc 7.9. ,how how Can you be
lf 1he chtld ,imply rc¡,licJ No I didn't \I.Íthout puttmi; on thl! EXERCISES
quiet? would-h.: 111tcrprctcJ .a., .m 111Jir.:c: J1rcc11vc
¡ackct. it w11ukl normally be 1ntcrpr.:1cd a., J Jelibér:it.: rcfusai to
.::irrf out a Jirc:c:1vc. Oih:n whca h.:ar.:� ;ecdvc 1h1s kmcJ ..ii indirci:t
úirccuve th.:y rcsponJ to thl! rogattvc by Jnswcnng No wh1lc s1mul-
7. 13 Apply 1hc Jircct Jirccm-c/incJircct dircc1tvc1p,.:udo-direc1ive
1aneou,ly ,.:arryml! out thi: indirect dirccuvc.
,11rnlys1, uscJ m E:tcr�c 7.11 to the Coll0win!_!
Y,>U may havc Jlr.:ady oh,eí'icJ thac. particularly m thc c.1sc of
-direi:tívcs. thcrc: 1s .1 ,lrong !ink betwc::n pohrcni:ss JnJ ,he Jcgrc:: (.JJ Burglary v1ctm1 to policc 01liccr 1n a r.10,ackcd house:
,if t.iin:c1nc:s.�. Wc w,11 h.: cxploring 1J11s t!>.,uc m thc ncxt u1111. Officer. look ar the mess they've made! _ -
(�l vhiurncr to hcrc:iv..::J: Please acceot my deepest sym­
pathy.
SUMMARY • Sc.:::::!1 11.::s .:an :,.: Jmuped 11110 :icncral --:!h!'!•>r,cs wh1c!1 (-:1 vlothcr tu .:mid: 1-ow many :imes have I asked •¡oc to
Jí<! ba�cu ,m thc rc!attcnsmp bc.:twe.:n ·1he w,iro�· JIIU ·thc c!ean your room?
"'nr!J' .mcJ un ·vho 1s r.:so,ms1blc for orim;ini; .ibuut :he Id) 'vlmh.:r w d11id: You shoulo ctean uo ·¡our •oom.
rc!a11unsntp. ccl Wa11cr to úincr En¡oy your rr.eal.
• Spc:cch .ic:s can Jlso c.: �:a,suie:J Js Jirc::1 1>r moirect. In 1 ,) SJc.:k..:d "orkcr to bnss: Oroo deadl
J dircct .spcccll act lhcrc ;s a dircct rc!auonship hcrwc.:n
,is lingu1stic ,tructurc .111J ll1.: work 11 1s Joang. In indircL"I
,pcecll :u.1s útc �pcccn Jet is pcnorm.:cJ indirccúy throui;h 7 .14 L,.;,:;k Jga,¡¡ .it thl! u1tcr:1ncc,, in E.,crwc 7.l. Sine:: wc
thi; oeriorrnancc ni :in..ith.:r ,pc,:-�h .ict c:mduJcd chal thcy ·.ver..: nol prnmtscs, wha1 w..:rc th.:y''
• Fdicity cundilions are ,cts ,>Í ncccs.mry condiuons Cor an
1llocu11u11 to ·count'.
• Th.: tru.: 1ll0L-Utiunary force of Jn tndtrcct ,pc.:ch .1c1 c:111 7.15 f.1kc th..: .:�amplc uttcr.:inc�� in T:ihlc :? JJ1d .:onsm1ct .1
be mtcrn.-<l from lhc fact that une ,>r mure ut che fc.:hc>1y w111.:x1 whcrc .::tch oi thc!><! .:oultl be uscd 11> pcrfonn indircctly
�undiuons ,>f thc ·,urfacc· ,pc.:ech JCI h:1vc bccn obviously ,om.: ,llhcr 1vp.: uf ,pccch .1.:1.
v111la1cJ. wh1lc ..11 1h.: ,:im.: 11mc ,in.: or mure uf thc fclicuy
�oncJiuuns ,nr ,he mJircct ,peech .,et havc bci:n mcnuonc:J OISCUSSION
ir 4ucs1toned. 7 .16 lt ., ¡xi-stblc cu HIie lclii:11y .:onJiuon, that .tpply ro J!I che QUESTIONS
mcmbc,- oi 1 ,Jtc�•Jrv for c.�Jrnplc:. .tll .:um1111�1v..:s ,harc ��narn
fclic11v .1mJ111on� ,ucn 1s ch.:v Ttus: -o!fer n -,om.: way ltl J fucurc
 58 MO"E A80UT S?EECH ACTS MORE ABOUT SP�ECH ACTS 59
lCt which will b.;: pcrfonned by the spc:1ker. However. diffcrent illo­ For S.:arlo: in 1hc ·original" (quite chall.:nging}: FURTHER
cutions in thal category will havc $pccial fclicity comlilions that READING
Sc:irle. l97l, 1979.
distinguish lhern frorn cach Olhcr. For cxample. a thrcal involves an
action unJcs1rJb!e ro thc hearer. whik a prornisc involves a dcs1r­ For a bcginm:r leve! discussion of Sear[e's thinking wilh a short
ablc onc. Coulthard (1985) bas proposo:J that it is vcry difficull to e�tr:ict from his work:
,Hitc fdicity conJitions for cxprcssivcs in general because they are
Yuli;, 1996.
usually uscd to ¡')t!rtorm sorno: other .1ct ovcr and :ibove sirnply repre­
,enling thc spcakc:r·s psychological statc:. Do you agn:e·' For altcmativc w:iys of cbssifying spccch acts and idcncifying indi­
r.:ct spcech acts:
r .1hnv :tnd F"n<lw! l Q77
i. 17 1 ry "'mmg .1 set ol tcla:ity conll1t1ons tor each Ol the
iollowing dlo,utionar1 acts. For how Gric..: 's work on convcrs:1tion:1I implicacurc rclatcs 10
spcccb-act thcory:
(al lhankm,i
\b/ ,ornmamling L.:vinson. 1983.
(c} naming J -,hip
(J) apologizmg
(e!) congratulaung
(1) pcrfonrnng :1 marriage
You will probably timJ thar. íor somc of 1hcsc. th.: sinccrity con<li­
rion wa, a bit probiemJúc. For c:x:implc. do.:s an apolo¡:y have to
bo: sinccrc in or<lcr to co11nt .lS :in apoiogy'! In Parliamcnt an MP
says I apologize for calling my honourable friend a liar to avo1d
bc1�g �jc�td from thc House. Ths: mere form o!' words is .:nou¡:h.
.:vo:n when cvcryonc: prcscnt knows lliat lht! MP is nol rt:motely
,orry. Cun1cnt .:nmJiuuns can :1lso b.: a problcm in somc oí tho::.c.
Fur examplc. can You're hitched! b.: subsliruu:d l'or I now
pronounce you man and wife·.•

7.18 Lcech (1'183) pmpo�eJ thal ucdara11ons Jrc nm rcally

c,immunica11vc Jcts jl jlJ, but s1mply lhc linguislic pan of a l.trg.cr
ritual Jnd as ,uch do not rcally bdong in Table l. Do you agrcc !

7 _ 1 9 Do wc n.:c:.1 to g1ve cnnsillcranon ro pnralinguisuc .:lemcms'!

Can an .Jet ot' 1/11mki11g b.: fclidwus if spok.:n with clcnchcú tccth,
n.1rrowct1 .:yes. anJ a r:nhcr v1cious 1one or vmce'

7 .20 Scarl.: ,1cknuwh.:Jg.:ú thu1 thcrc jfC severa! ·grey arcas· in

his da.,silic:uion system. Using thc dassific:itions in Table l. whcrc
woul<l you pul ba,isr111g, complui11i11¡;, ucc11s111g, dcpluri11g'! What
distinguishcs cl/11¡idi11� from ,11111111111c111g, b,>th of which would b.:long
10 1h.: gcncrnl dass of n:prescmalives'! Is udvrsmg a rcprcsenlative
or a directiv..:·?

r
1
8
POLITENESS 61

POLITENESS 8.1 B.:low are lh·c uu.:rances with :in imp,:rativc structurc.
:;? EXERCISE

. '. .1 A;sume that e:ich onc "'ould be spoken by the host to a guest.
Rc:Jrrangc them in 0rder of polit.:nc:ss. starting with the le:ist polite.
Thmk about "'hat made ,orne oi thesc un.::rances s.:em more politc:
1han 01hers.

.
i
' - .!,)'
I
(J)
(b)
Take a look at this.
Clean up che kitchen floor .
1.:¡ Pass the salt.
, .! , f4ave somr more cake.
fe¡ Peel these potatoes.

\.l11st pt:upk rank thc uttcra111:c, likc th1�: Comment

. Wé: took acthe ímpon:m=ofpolitcn�-s U1;dcn:rmining áow �e-,

- - b¡
(e)
Clean up the kitchen floor.
Peel these potatoes.
·,ro:ucrure. :in� interp:rel il.tn:pnc� • · '\.: te) P¡¡ss the salt.
.
(a) Take a look at :his.
(J) Have sorne more cake.
In c:ich 01 1hcsc .::isc�. the sp.:akcr 1s rcuu.:sung ,;om.: �ort 01 Jction
RuJc: 1 .un in ,pct:ch jnJ hule: blc,-..:J w1th thc ,oft phra:,c from the hcarcr. What you prooably noÍiccd i� thal thc:: -;ml!Jlc�
01 pC!ICC ..:u,1· ol the ac11011. i�_ t�hcan:r. thc more politc the spcaki?r
(Shak..:spe:m:. /)r/11!1/11. ,\.:t l. Sct:nc 2) so11nJ,. In 1.1e1. bv 1hc time w..: �.:t to Have sorne more cake, thcr.:
¡::;-7'¡;,sruve bc ncñt to t!lc hcJ;er JnJ we mtcrpret this ·1s JO uffcr
\ ..:hiid •yho 1s '11.lt J1lowcd to say anythmg. :iut ·'io. thank To1ct ma.dn,
rarncr rhan a rc4uc,1. lcc�h t: 983) prop.oscJ .1 T \L, ,1A:<JM which
•ou JI home. � 111 not nmrtuv h1s mothcr in public by
-,:1lcc:s th1, 1cn..ie:1.:v ll c:m be ..ummarizt:J JS: Jlinimize thc �not
�t:'cJmatH!. ·t h..llc ,lt:jk. 1 w�nl te:.: .;:-c:.tm!'
to ,,tbcr. m:nim1Lc rhc bcnclit tu ,11hcr.
Emiiy !>os1. E:raue:111. l'r.22.
- ln,1anc:nl! thc ruJcnc�, ,JI •vattc:r\. ,\nurcw oiih:n 4.m,rt::.i
,m.: Js ;aymg · 1 j011 l knllw. ,;an you ." m :epi y to has quc:s•
�• E:XERCJSE
!mn. ·eJn wc: ,>rúe:� now •· lf \.Ir Biilen hau bc:!n taug!ll 8.2 Her� Jrc thrcc p11�1bic rc4uc::sc. icr tite �am1. JCt1on. A;;-am.
g,.><i,l manoer'i JS .1 �iliiJ. he would have 1sk.:d ·:-.1ay wc ,�umc that ca.::1 ,me would br: snoken bv 1hc:: h,ist ll.l .1 �ucst anJ
on!er nllw'?' . \.lr. Bailen shnulJ lcarn prooer mannc::rs rc:1rr:mgc them n nrJcr lll politc::nc�s. -;1:1rt1n!; wuh thc least poli1c.
h1msclí bcion: .:omplarnrng about ,he 1:10.:x 01 nic::n.:ss m Thmk 10<1ur what mJJc -;omc ,ii thc�c uttc:-:utc:!S secm more ;mlicc
othcrs. than othcr.;.
(lctter to 1hc cdimr of the E1•e111m¡ S1t1nd11rd.
1a1 Could l poss1bly ask you to set the table?
2.5 'lnvcmbc:r l 9lJX)
(h1 SP.t the table.
Wc dcarly mach gn.:at impon.me:.! to ·�pcaking pulitcly". fh1s aspcct re) Can you set the table?
nf thc commumcative prnccss wa:. l:1rgclv ignorcJ by �111. S,Erlc
Jnd..!l!!ce. Yc1. thc m.:eJ to be politc c.1n oitcn a1.-count ior whv wc
choosc tn 1mnlv rathc::r th;m asscn '1Jl idea ur whv wc churuc 10 use Comment
,in 1nd1rect dirccttv.?·likc Well, 1 really must get on with mv work
now. rathcr th:in 1 ·Jin:ct Jirecuvc 'ikc Go home.
1 n Se1 the ,aote.
, .: , Can 1ou set ene table'
1a '.:ould ooss;blv ask mu to -;et the table'

ºº
62 POLITENE$$

What you probably notic.:d is that as thése n:qu.:s15 bccorne more Two things emc:rg.:: hcrc. First of ali. and not surprisingly. saying
polite, lhcy also become more indir.:ct. Uueranct: (b) u,;i:s an imp,:r­ something ,;<X1u about thc orhcr person b rnuch more politetlian
ative suuctur..: making it J direcidar.:ctivt:. Cttc:ranct: (e) uses an saying somc:r.hini: bad. Lecch callcd this the A?�RODAnON .\I.\X(:,.t Approbation maxlm
int.:rroga1ivc structun:. phrasiñg a direi:tiv.: as a rogati\'e, (a quc:stion which can be- ;u�arizcd as: Minimizc dispr-.iise or olhcr; maximizc
ab,rnt thc: hc:arer·s abolity t0 carry out thé acrion). lincrancl! (a) is praisc oí ochcr. Sccond. if you havc to say something bad about
cvcn more indirect since rhc spcaker is tt:chnically asldng pem1is­ (<lisprnisc) thc othc:r. it sccms lO be more polir<! to lakc un indirect
.;ion to m,1ke ,1 rcqucst. What is hap¡:c:nin;; ht:re is thar. as rhc request mute. Lcech oouH.:d out th:11. whll<! �pe:1kus need to observe the
bt:comc:s mure indin:cr. the 5peakc:r is making ic less and lcss obvtous maxim of quaÜty (be trurhful) in rcprcs<:ntarivcs. 1hey often tlnd!that f ,;
rhar shc .::cpect5 thc hearcr to comply. Oñ thc: sUÍ1ace::it le:isC:-thlS this conílicts not ;o much with onc of Gricc·s orher thrce maxims,
provicfes '!rc¡¡r.:r frcedom far tht: h<!.'.lrer ro n:iuse thé n:quest Leech bue rather wuh th<! need to bt! poli1e. To n:solve this clash. spe:1kers
afso vbs.:;,ed lh.tt�1g_hcr th<: cost of th.: dm:cted act. th.: more 1mply .1 cnt:c,�m rathcr than bafdly �tale it.
likc:!y it is for the ,¡l'<!:1kcr t<> use a� indir.:ct fo,,;::Most pcopie juilg.: In di:1loi;ue l. You look amazing probably implies 1ha1 Ed did noc
Can you pass the salt? Js mure polit.: than -Can you clean up likc the hionJe hair. ! le: doc:� th1s by 1lou1ing tl1t: maxim oi q_uantity
the kitchen floor 7 S,J far w.: hase bt:en Jiscussing diro:ctivcs anJ (be ma:oma!ly infurma1ivc:). Toe Jmhíguity <lf umu::ng (Jmazing for
ctlmmissive�. Aut thc rc!,1tionsh1p_ bctwccn politenes_� and 1ndin:ct­ 11..> be.tury or ,un:aing far 1tS aw(uln<!ss'!) alluws thc speaker to b<:
ncss can .tlso :ipply to repr>!scmarivc:s. lrulhful .1nu y.:t �on11.:"hac more polirc than lhe direcc answer You
look awful. In dialo;!Uc 2. lt's ltalian, isn't ít? implies .t less than
whol..:-hcan.:d .:ndursemcnr uf the wm.: by fa1ling to be ma.umatly
EXERCISE ..,.
inforrnarive. ·answering· a que,;cioa wirh anothcr question. anu by
8.3 In c:ich of rhc following dialogucs. rhcrc Jrc rhree allemauvc failing 10 br:: maxunally rdcvanr sincc lh<: tapie was the wine·s lJSte
responses for lhc �ccund �pcakc::r. Put thcm in incrc:ising ordcr of nol 1ts country of ungin. Sull. Gabnda was b<!ing more politc th:m
politcnc:ss. cunung right out with thc fact that she Jid not lik<: it. [n dfaloi:ue 3.
buth (a) Let's hope none of them are lawyers anu (b) Sorne
:Vleridyrh: Well, l've done it. l've dyed my hair bfonde.
stude'l!S w�re very positive both imply r.Hhcr than dire::tly ��!e
Ed: {J) You look beautifuf.
rhat ov<:rall the ;tudenr l!valuations were not good and chercfore are
(h) You look awful.
more politc than Pretty bad. Whal mighc m:ike (b) more polit.: than
(e) You look amazing.
(:1) 1s thar ,r .1lluws Linda ro ma:cim1ze prais.: far Jean wbilc still bc:rng
2 fom: Do you like the wine I pic!<ed out? rru1hful. Howcver. not �veryonc r:11cs /a) as lcss polite0 A jokrng
Gahrida: faJ lt's ltalinn, isn't it? r.:plv .tnd the u�c 1.Ji /et', ( vou Jnd me 1 .::in indic:111! a icnsc of soli­
(hl Yes, 1 do. Jaruy hct\\ccn lht: ,pcakcr and !he hc:trcr. Too much aucntinn to
{C/ Not reatly. 1:1ct .111<.I Jppro-.11 ..:an •>it.:n �c�tn lik.: condt.-:sc�nsiun. You might wanr
to th1n� .ibout th1s J,pc<:t ,H· poli1.:n.:ss .is you <.lo th<: nexr cxcrcisc.
kan: Whar dio :he srudenrs say about my teaching?
Linda: (:11 Let's hope none of them ar� lawyers.
( b) Sorne students were very positive..• d' EXERCISE
(e} Preny bad.
8.4 1.1) lf y,,u :mu a dosc fm:nd wcrc having lunch. would you
prcier to $ay Pass the salt or Would you mind passing
me tne saltt Wlrn:h one woutd you use lu a. strangcr al
Comment Musr pcuple rank thc responses likc: thts: .11mthcr 1ablc in a rcsrauranr·!
(hl !í you wamcu lo ;isk your bank managc� :"or J loan. would
l(hJ You look awful. you prefcr I' d like to ask for a loan of f:500, llr Lend
l(c) You look amazing. me f:500'/
l(a) You look beautiful. !eJ Snmconc you havc just mct has .:ome ,>ver for dinncr und
:!(el Not really. ,iffcr.; ro hclp in thc kilchcn. Would you be more likcly
.!ta) lt's ltalian, isn't it? :o ,ay Here. pee! these potatoes or You could peel
2th) Yes, 1 do. these potatoes.
31.:l Pretty bad. /J) lf you hau 10 evacuate J bummg building would yl)u ,ay.
J(a) Let's hope none of them are lawyers. Fire! Get out! or Fire! Might I possibly ask you to
1(h) Sorne students were very positive. le.ive the building?
64 POlllENESS PCLrTENESS 65

lt!) Is :1 0 army �crgc:im oc,n¡,: rud..: whcn he: says Sit down, room. :'leg:iuvc polilcncss also involvc� mure frequc:01 us.: of mher
Prívate'? Sup posc you havc :irriwd ior 3 ¡ob intcrvicw and �11T1G.,n:-1G DEVl<.' ES. cxprcssions that ·soit..:n 1hc: blow·, likc pl<?ast!. Mitigating davlces
thc interviewer stands up "hc:n you enter. Would you possibly. mighr. /'m sorry bm . . . cte.
cons1dcr i t rude to say to her Sit down '. Would it be okay In 1hc next exe rcise we .::cplorc how Orown lnd Lc\'inson·s framc­
to say this to good frienús whcn thcy drop by? work can be uscd to analysc: di recnvc�.

:-;,� E X E R C I S E
Comment Leech observed thJI thc rc:ation,hip bctwccn indirectncss :ind 8.5 You wanr 10 .isk somi.:oni: to lcnd you a >1apler:
polac:ncs.� · ,::m be <Juitc .::1mplic:1H!d. Thc ,1,dal distam::: bctw.:en thc
CvülJ ·.. vu hinc j¡ thb .--, ithliUl lü},ii� ..in} t1u ng'.' U�,"-. ··
;pcakcr Jmf th..: hcara. Jnd thc: ni,;;:d_ _i<Ltl!:!Lll:�_J bi uthc:r
l f vou ·Jcc:Jc t o say somt!thing• .:ould you úrop .1 lu nt
pcoolc. ,an Jlso h.i,·c a signific3111 dicct on how wc intcrprct thc
ra tÍ1cr 1han g,H ng ·on rccllrd' .is ..1skmg rhe p<!rwn t'ur thc
púíi1cncss 01 an u111.:r:ince. JnJ ,nJccd ho,v wc struc1urc: our own
,i..1oler ' ProviJc J ut1..:ram::: that .:oulJ Jo this.
uncrJr.ci;,. Wc ,<!:: :n !.1 1 .ha1 bc1,,c::n incnJs 311 mJircct anJ more
li ,;,iu J,i ;;v ..:n r;cord JS .1skmg fur th.: srnpler. you Jrc
tormal Ji recuvc iikc: Would you mind passing me the salt? or
po¡cnually 1hr.:3 1ening 1hc 01 hi.:r pcrson\ n.:g.111ve t'ace by
Could you please pass me the salt? .::m ,ound r.ithcr uniricnuly.
im¡:,JSlíl:\ on them .1mi mu!<1ng 11 much hardcr Cor :hem to
Howc,cr. wtth someone Y'JU do not knuw ver:, wc ll. ,h1s �c::ms :norc
rcrusc. ( You Jlso n,k !os1ng your posmvc iact: 1f the hcarer
Jppropnate. In ¡ b J Jnd (e) wherc thcrc was a consu.Jcrablc powcr
Joc, no1 hclp �uu vu t . ) You w u ld go un record ·.v,th J
,Jr ,ratus c1iifcrem:c b<: :wccn ,pc:ikcr ,J nd hc:1rer / anothc:r kim.1 or
·bald' rc.:4ucs1: Lend me your stapler. Thc impcra1ivc
,oc1al J1s1ancc). wc ,ce J cunsidcrablc Jiifcrcncc in rhc acc::p1abdiry
f,irm li.:a,cs no room í,1r i.loubt tha1 1his 1s .1 úirccuvc. Or.
uf ·balJ' d1rcct1vcs. In thc c:L,c or thc mil11:iry. 1hc audtority oí a Faca--saving ac:t
vou ,oulJ !O on record bu1 us..: a FA<.:F.-S,\V ING A<:r. by
h11!ht:r rank is so absolutc 1h01 polih:ncss docs not rcally ,ccm an
phrasinh! y,ii,r r.:4ut:,t in ,uch a way 1h:11 on 1hr. su rface
ap-propria1..: c,ncnon to Jpply. fn Id) wc mi1ke 1ha1 �n urgcnt nccd
thc 01hcr pcr.;on is no1 Jircc1 lv ordercd to perfonn rhe
:'t:r damv .;;m makc vcrv ·t,ald" Jirccuvcs. evcn 10 pcúplc wc do ,101
.1.:1. Her.: 1re twn cx:implcs: Gotta sraoler you ca n len� ...
!r now ve� wcll. n,ll onÍv :1cc::otabic bu1
me? -1nd Could you lend me your sta ol!U7_ Whrch_o�
A fram�work to Jc:il :.vu h thcsc :.:nds or :ssues was -.
uscs J po>111vt: poli 1cncss SlrJle!,\y and wh1ch onc uses J
Brown Jnd Lc-,inson ( 1 '18i). In thdr analys1s. poli tcncss in
ncg:1uvc potilenc� 'itrJtc.:gy"'
Foc11 wont!S ,nuwm1! an a,�ar..: ncss ui 01hcr pcuplc's F ,,·¡; w ,,..-r:;, As
Focú tbcse ,,;u,hors. �.,, 1, rcicrs to our punlic ,dt-nna�c. Ther<: Jrc ,w,)
tsp..:c1s to this sc lf ,mage.
Poslrive factt P )srr 1v1, , . \L :; rdl!rs LO nur ne::d co b<: 1e::::;m:: o ,tnd likcd by
1 .1 1 Yllu �,,ulJ ,:.1t:K up ,he ,h,a: L\ .11 paoer ,cad:1 f1ir 1he ,wplcr .md Comment
01 hcrs 1nJ our nc::J to 'ce! th.a ·iur -.i:cial �roup
1hc:1 -.tJCI .umo1111g 1nH111U III your Jrawcr. In <Jl.ltcr wnrJs. you •van
Pos1tive puliteno:s� .!'l:tls. ->< is1T1vi; ,'(JL.JT-..11.,� uric:tts to prt.:$Cr✓1ng thc pos111vc face
fer tite <Jthcr person to llt h:r Pcrhaps you havc had J s1 m 1 lar .::-cpc•
�dtcr pcoplc. Whcn wc use pos1uvc poli1encss ..,., USI! ,pccch s1r.i1..:-
nt:nc:: 111 J restaurant •.vltcre .1 frie:id fws done a grc:1 1 dcal o(
1!IC� th:n t:moitas1zc llur füliuuntv w11h thc :11: :ircr. ,ud1 a:;
(umiJlint.: wtth their .v :.1llc1 or purse unul you �ay Let me get this.
prnnum::am,'n , ,harcd Jialcc1 ,,r �lang �xore�s1011s. nidrn:1
t h ) ,\n �,if-rccoru h1111. thc vcrbul c:4u1vaielll o( iumbling -1rou11ú in
fre4u..:n1 rcfcrcne:: lo ,pc:1kcr amJ hcan:r as "'I!. :md rc4ucs1s -.
:,,uur drnwcr;-would bi: ,;,1mcthu1g lik.: 1 can't find my stapler or
Jn: lcss
Where's my sta pler gone? (el In Brown Jnd Lcvm�n11 ·1 analysis.
Negativa Pace N1cfo, 1 1"E F,,,·r r.:rer� tu our nght 10 mde¡:cndcncc of JL"t1un :md
Gotta stapler you can lend me? oricnL� 1n po,nivc poli 1encss wil11
,1ur nc::ú '101 !O be 1mposeú ,in b\' ,11hers. ( . 'ote 1ha1 n,:,;1111ve
11s 1nt1 1m1ali1y ,,. rron unc1a11011 .mJ phras111g, wh1lc Could you lend
Negative potitenes1 nu1 mean lwd i1crc. ,imply JO ,1ppos11c tcrm tu posiu ve. ) 'IE0,\ 1'1v1,
me your stapler? ,mcnt� 10 ncg:1 11vc politc ness. íltc irnmework wc
l'rn 1Tt:-.i;ss ori.:nts to 0orl!$ervml! 1he nct.::t llvc facc of
hav..: hccn us111¡¡ is ,ummanzcd in figuro: l on tite following pagc.
n11s 1s 111udt mort: likdv if th;rc 1s 1 ;oc,al distancc
,m.:akcr and hcarcr. Whc� we use nc1!:llive politcness. wc
,irah:g1t:� 1ha1 .;mpha,izc ,,ur dcic:rcnec !or thc hcan:r. N ick namcs.
,lant! .mJ .n11m11Ji prununc,:mon ·cnd ,o he Jvrnded anu rc4ucs1s • !.�::�:t .111.1tY,eU p,>ht.:nés, oy ,ne JSc lt m:.1:..1111,. Thc S U M M A RY
1cnJ- to be mürc 1núÚcc1 ·md 1mpcrsllnnl. ,JÍlén 111volv11tg ,:oultl """ 1:1c1 maxim: minimizl! co�I to 01her. m:.L'll imize bcn!!lit to
,)r nJtdd f L'i'k 'IIJII ro ,,r li.!\tcn rd'\!rnng h.> !he.: hL!:Jtt:r ¡n lhc uthcr he!p, Ji,un,;ui,h ,c4uc,1s irom uifc:r.; .inJ mllucnc�,
• furd l";Cf�-o n. )·nu/,:11/s ,n· J,\kr,/ ,,,u o put :h,,• !r -�s.r,,v..; 111 rfte "'llll/ he "ª" v,: ,t ruc!llre Jirec11vcs rhe approh111ion ma.-um:
 66 POLl,El',c$S POLITENESS 67

minimizc dbpr-Jise of othcr: ma.-ómize pr-Jise of other inllu­ l Slc.:vc: This is a great restaurant isn't it7
enc::s lite way we �1ruclurc rcprescntativcs. (a) Jane: Not really. 1 hate spicy food.
• Lc:ech obscrveJ thal thc.: hig.her thc: cosl far thc: hcarcr in (b) Jan,.:: lt's pretty good value. but the food could have
a Jir.:c1i�c. or tht: gn:alcr lht! polt:ntial for dispraising been less spicy.
lhc: hc::m:r in o rcpn:scntalivc:. tht: more likdy it is for lhe {e) Jane: 1'11 say!
spcakc:r to be intlircct. Ho"'c::vcr. thc social distancc
:! S1-,vc.:: 1 thought that movie was boring.
bc:lwci:n thc speaker and ht!arer can also iníluenc:: thc:
(a) Jonc.:: So did l.
dc.:grcc of dircctness u�.:d.
• (b) Jan.:: That's rubbish! 1 loved it. - �-•··,
Brown and Lc:vinson :rnalysc: politc:ne�s as showing aware­
(el Janc: Parts of it were a bit slow. ;, • .:. �v .--�.-·
ncss l)f thc: nc:cd to pres.:r,c face lpublic sclf-imagel. •
• l'ii,ilÍve politene:,:; orients lo prt:scrving a pcrson·:, �.:lt­ J :itévc: Chnton's a foo1. -
i1m1g1: asan Jcccp1c:J. valued anJ lik�d mcmber of a social (a) Jane: Well. he has done sorne foolish things.
group. :"lc;:ativc politene,� oric:nts to a pc:rson·s s.:lf-lmagc /hi Jane: He is not!
J� Jn frc.:c inuivit.lual who should not be imposc.:d upon. (e; Jane: l'm sorry, 1 have to disagree with you.

Vouc:in Sc1e1w11 B Dccidc wh1ch oí lhc two uncrances in cach pair 1s more
1 polilc. $umc cx:1mplcs .liso cumain lhc prev1ous spc:1k�r•s utterancc
s.:r;,;ome1h.ng saynoming in �quarc brackt:L� which promptt:d lhc ont: you are anaJysing.

1
1
fr.on•YOm.tlMU
¡rurr.tto Jrouna n l(a) (Mikc: Their singing was wonderful!l
ycur a,:iwod
Annic: Yes, it was, wasn't it.
l(b) [Mikc.:: Your singing was wonderful!I
s..1y�thtng c;omotn:ng Ot1
J."ly
Annie: Yes, it was, wasn't it.
-on •<tCQrd record (\"'8tt>a! h1n1}
r1w lo51 my ::::>oler)
1 2(:i J [Mikc: l'm really grateful.j
l, 1 Annrc: Oon't mention it.
1
.my sorr.e1hmq on record sny 'lOm'lthtttg o., fOCOld b.�k:fy 2/b) [Mikc: l'm really grateful.]
Nlth ¡) (GeQ•iaVln9 :JC! ('1.ond me your swcter}
¡, Annu:: And so you should be. 1 helped a lot.
1
,...... .11 a 1 1 brought chis little gift for you.
s;rv somed'ltny on tSC:Ofd s:r¡ sometn111q on record J(bl I brought this large gift for you.
Mth a :aco-�·w1nq ne! :J1UYJ MCh ;\ ·�C(l•s;rvtnq 3C': U&lng
1)os11......, ooufone:;!; '.SO,KJ.."lntv) -ieqall\'8 oc ,reness tdcferoncot -1(.tl Would you like this sink cleaned up?
•'GCltb �!or you c..,"'U;(! :cncs mo,,,.j f-C.,uio ,ou ler-.d ,no i.-our st.-ipJc(""'
-l(hl Would like me to clean up this sink?
Figure 1 How to get someono to !end you a stapler lfollowing
Brown and Levinson. 19871
8. 7 Add lo fi¡;urc 1 lO ,how thc dilicrcnl ways you cou!d get
�omcom: lo stop blocking thc tdcvision �crc,:n.

FURTHER
EXERCISES "'-'- 8.8 Toe íollowini; uucranc�s couh.J .111 be incerprl!tet.l as direc­
8.6 Although L.:ech considcn.:d tht! lace maxim tht: mosl impur­
livcs. Docs onc mcmbcr of c:ich puir ,cem lcss poli1c tlmn thc othcr?
lanl imlucncc on lh,; way dircctivcs and comrnissivcs are phrascd.
Whal u1i1ucncc.:d your dccision'!
and thc.: approbatilln maxim lhc mosl cruda! onc for rcprescntativcs.
he has proposctl �cvcrJI ,Hhcr polilcm:ss rnaxims. In 1his excrcisc wc l(a) You must cut my lawn.
will luok al lW0 oí tht!m. In cach ,cction. íollow lhc a11aJysis tlin.:c­ l(b) You should cut my lawn.
tions. Toen. luoking ovcrall at that �.:ction. scc if vou can formulatc :!(a) You will help me unload the car.
a maxim which mil?hl account for your choic:cs. 2(b) You might help me unload the car.
S<!crw11 4 In 1-3 lhcrc ,m: thn:c po:ssiblc rcsponSL'S that Jant: could
makc lo S1c.:vc. R:111k thcm ll1 ,irdcr ol polilt!nes.�. swrung with thc
leas! politc.
 l •

68 POLJTENESS POlfTENESS 69

SUPPLE­ 8.9 Bdow are thr.:e c:<lracts from J coursc guid<: that I givs: my ChJrlvlt.:: (mil shoucing) Mum, 1 lis:ening you.
MENTARY studcnlS Pick out the diffor.:nt typ,!S of d1rcc1ives that I use anJ �laureen.: Will you stop shouting at me!
EXERCISES ",, propose reusom for tht: choiccs I havc mud.:. Charlouc: (shouting) Mum. we wanna straw.
:Vl:rnrccn: OK. There's no need to shout.
r-ailurt: ti) .:omply with th.:,;,: rcquircmc::nts 1s n:gard.:J by
thc Programrne as a vcry scnou,, ofícncc and cquivalcnt to Sopl11c: Don"! like my pickle (cating a chc<:sc anc.l p1ckk
.:h.:ating 011 an c::1arnina1ion. Bccausc oi tht: serious consc:• s;indwich) .
qucn.:es oi pb,;iarism. m:ikc surc you havc a copy of Charltm.:: Maureen.
·Gu1Jclines ior Studcn1s·. rc:id thc Si!ction ·Convcntions for Sophre: Oon't tell her.
Rt!icrencing· ,in p. 23• .1111.l 1f you sti!I h:iw .rny Joubts. you Charluuc: 1 am.
m.,_1 ..� ..1st '''J�r t�ror\ .!�'ttc� bt!}°:Jre "'t!��:t�I:�� :,'Gl!r v.o:-�. 'l':-'hlf'"' ílon't.
' lf ar .rny urnc you gct into mcdical or pcr;onal difliculti<:s C:1arlo11c: Mummy.
:Vlauro:::n: What'.'
which are :ikdy to scnously Jlit:ct your ,tutfü:s. pl,:a,c conract Charluuc· em Soph1c doesn"t like her piclde.
me. :10ur pcrsonal tUh>r or the ProgrJmme C..invcnor as s0on :Vlaun:cn: Tnar' s all right.
.i, p,i,�1bk ;o thar w.: ..:an cxpi:un your opti,ms and hclp you Soph1é: 1 like the cheese.
to linc.l th.: bl!SI way forw:.m.l.
S<lph1é: Can I have scme? (thcr.:·, ,mly ,me ,héct ,>i wtrnc
Toé Rea<ling Lis1 is by no means exhau,uvc Jnd you are Jrlwing papcr ldtl
strongly c::ncoura,;cJ t<J .1c4uam1 yoursdf w11h thc chilJ Charlu11c: OK 1'11 draw on something else.
l:.10guagc books library. Yuu w11l ne:.:J tu <lo J cons1dcr:iblc
.1muunt ,)i inJcpcnJcnr rcading .ind ,tudy m on.!cr to ,;ornpl.:t.: �. DISCUSSION
your Jssignmcnrs su..:ccs,fu!ly Rcmemb<:r: L<:clures .ind hand­ 8. 11 Expcrirncnt with ditfcn:nt m1ona11on pancrns on somc ui thc QUESTIONS
•JUIS ar<: only gu1Jcs to thc rcading not ;ubs111u1cs for it. dircc1 dirccllvcs in this uni1. CJn d1angl!� in IOnl! of vo11.:c or word
crnpha�1s :!!!::r !he 1<!'1<!1 o( pt:litcnc,;,:"/ You -::ir. ;,1!;:o tr)' rhis wilh !!1c
various rc,p,111,.:s in F..tcrci.-,c 8..3 ( rcprc:;cnlllllvcs).
8.10 Fivc-ycar-old Soph1c is bvmg lun..:h at her incnd
Char!ot1c·, housc. Charlo1te 1s lhrcc ycars old. :-Vlaurccn ,�
º
Charlullc·s mo1hcr. :\nalysc 1hc .ippropnatcnc:ss of Sophi<: s dircc­ 8.12 lt has llccn rnggc,1cd 1h:J1. in our cu!lurc at lcas1. nl!ga!ive
uvcs w;mg buth Lcccil, politenes.� max1m appruach Jno.J Brown :10d poli1cm.:ss has thc grc:itcst inllucnce on how wc phrasc dircctivcs
Lcv1nson , p,,si11vc mJ ncgauv" po!ill!ncss trJmcwork. Doc:s S,1ph1c wh1I,: posittvc politene:::;:; has thc gr<::Hc,1 in1lucnc::: on how wc phr.i,;c
,how �v1dc110:c ui usmg Jirfcr.. ,11 :ypc:s 01 din:cuvcs appruprial<:ly'.' our n:prcsl!nt:111ves. Dv you agrt:c .'
Wha1 Jhnut Charlullc·, .1b11ity lo .:omprch.:nJ c.liffcrcnl typcs ot
dirccuvcs·• What Jiffcrcm:::s Ju you ,1bscrvc bctwccn S,iph1c's .111J
C'harlmtc·, .Htcn11011 10 pulircncs.,/ Wha1 mi;;ht accounl fur thc:sc 8.13 Ohscrv:111onal ,tudics ,Jf p;irenis· -:onvcrsa11ons wich chcir
diffcrcnccs! ..::ulc.lrcn havl! ,huwn 1ha1 rhcrc is a rcla1ivcly high proportion oi
Sopluc: er can't undo this. úircctivc .ind ins1ruc11vc talk from thc adulls. t!Ílhcr by blunt
Charlollc: ask my Mum. comJ"Qilnús: bi, •·u rejul. d1111 ·1 J,, rhm. or by r,,L.KING •>vER. ThaCis. Talking ovor

Soph1c. em Maureen can you undo this please? 1nlking about pt:oplc Ín th<!ir prcscnct: anc.l rderring to thcm a.s we
1Jr rht!lhe. Thc iathcr·� C()nvcrsanon with his dauglucr at tite b<:gin­
Soph1c: oh I love Um Bongo ta ,oft drmk). My mum ning uf Lnil l is an 1llustra1ion t>f th1s . .\naly-c thc Llírcctivc use in
never buys it. thc 1olluw111g <:.xtracts. In what ways ,1re thcy similar'! Whal rc:.i.füns
L7tarloUé: A drop? A tiny b1c? ¡ufü:r.; sume to Soph1c) can you propuse for 1hc ,nml:trily!
S1Jphi<!'. 1 haven't got a straw today.
C := Ch,lc.l. r.. M = :-Vluthcr. C W:lntS 10 IUIII on Úlé lawn sprin­
Charlo1tc: Have one a ours.
Soph1e: kkrs. A rcscarcher i� prcs<:nl. r Adaptcd from Ervin-Tripp. 1979.)
Ask your mum if we can have a straw.
Charluu,: Mummy Mummy. C: 1\;lommy.
Soph1c: Not while she"s on the phone. \.I T has a linle problem with patience. We're working
Charlul!c ,,hou1in\l) Mummy. Mummy. on pacience. What is patience, T.?
S,iph1c: t's ro go 1in I qui.:i v.11ccJ ·Mummv· C. \lothing.
 9
70 POUTENESS

�I: Come on.

C: 1 want to turn them on now.
MAKING SENSE
�I: Wh at is patience7 Can you remember?
,
2 A home h.:lp. her t:lderly dient, R. and D. R's rdativc. are ali
in R's living room. Th.: home hdp :md D are Jiscussing c:1kes wh1ch
have bct:n lt!Íl r�r R. (AJapt.:J from Arkinson and Coupbnd. 19&'!.)
D· They're in there and l'm hoping. They're in
the fridge you see. l'm hoping she will go in
there and take them and eat them.
Hom.: hc!ip: Tnat's righ1 yean cion't waste ...

':
In our discu:;,inn o( Brown .inJ L.:vinson\ 1hcnries. w.: have conccn­
FURTHER traccd on how rh.: ,pcJkcr oricnL� to thc hcarcr·s face wanrs ia dircc­
READING uvcs. However, thcs.: authors Jiscuss how 1he speaker''! fact: wanL'i
c:in ,1lso intlucnci: lhc fonn ni Jo uttcranc:: and how pos11Jvc .mJ
t<
nega11vc polirc:ncss c:m be us..:ú 111 analysc 01hcr klm.ls o( ,pet:ch
acts. In JJdi11on. lhe,r book has -orne 1.1scrna1ing data írom uthcr
l::mguages JIH.J cultun:,. See:
l•·
Brown :ind Lc:vinson. l987 (fairly challcnging).
�r
For :in �cc::<'iibi<! discussinn of Brown and L<!vinson ·s U1eorics. see:
µ
�·
Yul.:. 19%. Chapter 7. .,::, EXERCISE
9. 1 1 askcd ruy 'itudcnts 10 read this pas:.age:

r·
Let:ch proposes :in intcrcsúng analysis o( why the use ,ii n.:gativc
�tructurcs .::10 givl! risc 10 diifcn,nl pcrcep1ions uf politenes.�. Tht: procl!durc is quite simple. First you arrangl! things imo
Compare Will you sic down7 .md Won·t you sit down? bu1 Can diffcrc111 groups . Of coursc onc pile may be sufficicnt
t you be quiet? wich Can't you be quier? Sc::c: Jcpcnding on how rnuch thcrc ,s to do. lí �ou have to go some­
L.:cch. I\J�3. Chaprcr.; 5 Jnd n. whcn.: clsc due 10 lack 1Jf facilities 1ha1 ,s thl! nexc sti:p. olh.:r­
w,sc you ore prclty wcll ,c1. ll is impurt:.int oot 10 ovcrdo things.
For in1ro<luc1ions to chíldrcn·s :icquisi1ion oí pragmatíc �k,lls and 1l1a1 is. it is bc:tcr to Ju tou icw things Jt onc:: thao 100 many.
rcfcrcnccs to currcnl work in this Jre:1.. scc: In thc shorl run this may 001 sc.:m loo uuportant but compii­
Fost..:r. 1990. Chapt.:r:; �A and 5.6 c.·umns can c::as1ly aris.:. A mis1ake .::m be .:xpcnsive as well.
Glcason. t\1\17, Chaplcr ó. .-\r fim tbc wholc procedurc will sccm complicated. S0011.
howevcr. i1 will just bccoml! :inothcr facct uf life. lt is difficult
IO fon.:scc uny cnu w 1hc nccessity for this task, in th.: ;,nwc­
►
diate futurc. bm then on e can m:vcr tell. Aftt:r Üll! proccdurc
1s complctcd. onc :irr:u1gcs rhe malcrials in10 diffcrcnt groups
again. Thcn rhcy can be pul into tht:ir appropriatc placo::;.
Evenrually. rhcy will be uscd once more and Ull! whole cyclc
will havc 10 be repeated. Howcvcr Ul:it is a pan of life.
(Green.:, 1986. p. 31)
:slow. covcr iliat pas.sage and try ro wri1e Jown as much o[ í1 as you
can remember

71
 72 MAi(ING SENSE
MA>QNO SENSE 73
Comment T'l1s passagc w:1� u,,cJ in a ,c:ri.:s oí <!X¡:crimcnts bv thc osvcholo­ Ju,,t likc thc l1Jples, Júurnalist>, you m1gh1 ha,..: fouml that you had Comment
l!!Sl J . O . Bransfo nl lo s1ud) thc df<:cts ,if .:on t,a t o� our ·abi l i tv ro 10 work 4uitc hard 10 find a sccond menning fer sorne: uf 1hc-s.: hcad­
makc sensc: oí what wc hcar and rc:aJ. lf you a re líkc mo,t p.:o'p le. lin1:,-s. Your �nowledite '1bou1 1he "orld m;dc on.: oi thc meaninl!s
1 imagm,: you iounú it quite: difficulr to unúcrstand this passagc anú so obvious Lhac you ;ere temporanly ·blindc<l· to Jny other possibic
conscqu.:ntly it was 1¡uite c.lirficult for you to rcm,:mbcr what vou 1111crpre1a11on.
had rcad. Thc problcm IS thar the words arc v.:rv gcneral. \Vhat
chin�s hJvc to be Jrrangt:d"! Wh:H c!o jimlitit'l, pr�c-;dure, .inú th tt (a) Th1, �,,uld mean ( 1 ) ,.\ reti�d p rks1 may p.:rform Brucc
,1ppropr111tt' plat·�s reicr to! :-.-ow rcad th.: passa!!t: a!.!run wirh som.: Spnngscccn'; marriagc cc:r.: mooy. or ( 2 ) A rctircd pricst
.tJdiuun:11 i ni0 rma11on: thc tille :, · \\, ash1ng Clothc, · � \\ihat wc now may b<:cr,111<: 1he ;puusc of Bruce Springs1cr;n. Th1s is :i c:ise
Lexicaf 1mbi9uit'¡
rim.1 is that knowing .,..hat this 1.:,1 · ¡, .1h,;u1 · Jllows us to u;c our 01 L.Ex 1c�1. A�tlllt;UTY becausc it arisc::s from mulliple
:� ¡'¡.,;;;;k:Js._ �t0ui ih..: W\)I jt,j tu l l l lC: I W Í I J l ti1c:,c \lilcJn.b Jít! íl.!r"i.!rnng :!�:!J�:�;;-: �f .: ��::::..::.:!¡ir ·.�·on.!. :!:..; ·:t:rb rv ,·:;.:.--�y. Y v� prcb­
to. �•nJ �OílM!QUt!nt!: t,, makc ,;cn:i..: oi the h.: :<t. Jblv founJ 1ha1 vour kn,iwle,kc about Bruce Sorin�s1.:cn.
01 cour,.:. thts :ex:. wn1ch wa, c�pcc:all� ·,- rl ltc:n for .::¡p.::ime :llal thc. rut., 0f prics� in our ,oi:icty. and J pcrhaps u�wa,:;antcd
purpos.:,. ,� 4uitc Jrtiñcial in •h,H r,cook Jo out usuallv 1alk ,ir wntc ,1,,ump1io11 1ha1 thc pri.:;1 was a man m.1dc ( l ) the more
c¡um: so vagu.:!y rvr ,o long. Bu1 · 10.ik JI rlus 'inci p�sagc ;mm J !tkcl� ,,11erprcra1 11 111
·rcu l' ho,ik: fh Th1s .:ould mcJn ( l I Th.: dciem.! ant"; ipc1..-ch results III J
r\ny .1 ttcmpt consciously 10 bnng abou1 tlus cniarl!cmcnl i:, Ion!? pmon tcrm. or ( 2) The dci.:núanc"s ;p.:ech tin i�hcs
doomcd to fa1lurc. and will succ::ssiullv bnnl! .ib;Jut rhose w1ch J hm!l grammaucal construc1ion. This ,s a nOlht:r case
ccinJi1ions o( 1cns1on whid1 11 is cssen 11ai 10 av�id. Thcre Jre ni lcxu::il Jrnb1gu1 1v. Tht: vt:rh w �nd has two slil!.htlv
thrct: rcgions ur Jrcas o( cxpan,ion. Of 1hcse ,mlv onc can be di1i.:rcm mc:m1;g/ :is dllt:S lhc noun Hmunce. :,/�ve;.
sccn or lt:h. thc!css. 1hc wortl dt'J°,/11,lunr �et.S up J courtroom contcxt.
(Tumcr. l ';)í7) wh,ch makcs 1111.:rpr.:uon 1 1 ) m uch more li kdy.

Ou1 ,1i conlc:<t i1 is �:<lrcmc !•t Jifficult to m;1kc �cnsc oi 1h1s p:1ssagc. (e) Thb .:ould m.:an ( l } With i llegal <lrugs. you c.m combat that
( 1t comes from u book un voit:t: proJ ucuon fo r :icturs. Jnd more r.:cling ué h.:lplcssncss. <Jr (2) That fe..:ling oi helplcssncss
�pcc1tic:1ll:,. l 1ccuon on Jv,iiding a · 1hroa1:, 1om: ·.¡ w1th illegal drug, can hc combalcd. Our �nowlcdgc of
In .1ddiuon 10 hclping us Jcddc wh:ll general 1erms likc fm:iliues wc1e1ys v1ews on ilkgal drugs lcads us to expect 1hal J
anJ place, :11.: rc(cmng to. tht: c-ome:n oi 1hc discour.;c ,ln<l our ncwspaper woultl probably havc m1cnded mcanmg (2).
knuwlcdgc 01 thc world ac1p us til rcsolvc amb1gu11-y . .vluch oi 1hc lan­ rh1' am.: thc .1mb1gu11� ha, re,ullt:J mJt from a word 11,íth
guag.: 1ha1 11.e h.:ar 1s 1cd111 1callv Jmbtguous. Wt: Jrc UliUully unawarc more !han one pus�1blc me:ming, bu! from 1wo altcrnativc:
oí 1h1s bccausc. JS wc •.v il! ,,;:c :n thc ncxt c.�crc1s.;, Lh,; come:<t :md m1.:rpn:1a1iuns llÍ thc gr:immaucal s1ruc1ure. Did you
úUr ,:xocct:mon, !c:.id us ;o smmg!y 1,J :1 particular 1ntcrpn:!ation. nu11cc th:ll thc .1mh1gui1y can be r.:mcdicd by using thc
,ame word> but producmg two c.liffe rcnt s.:mencc ,tructur.:s
wh,ch makc thc int.:ndcd mc:ming u n::unb1!luous·? Tius is
caJlcd ,�..,1· " • " · .,,, 1111m n-Y. S,,mcamcs wc íin d c:1.s.:s Synta�lc ambig uity
E X E R C I S E •:_.. whcrc th.:rc is bo1h lcxic:il Jnd syntactic am biguity as in th.:
9.2 Hcre Jrc sorne ncwspapcr hcadlincs ú1at havc madc it 11110
collcctions of ¡oumalisnc bloopcrs. For cach ot Lhcsc. wn cc down iamou,, (j,wrdiu11 hcadlinc m 1 �l:!'.:.: 3ritish lert waffles on
two pos ;blc in tt:rprcla tiuns. Decide whac has .:aused tne amb1guuy.
�
TI1cn thmk Jbuu1 why une intcrpretauon sc�m.:d more natural th:rn (J) lñ1s Jnscs trom thc l cx1t:al Jmbigu1ty ul muv. As wt: saw
che other. 111 Furthcr ExcrL;se l! ll. '11t1dal "erb� c:m havc 1wo typcs
.
(a ) Retired pnest may marry Bruce Springsteen ,1( mc:anm!JS: r- t•1�-rr�.,u, 1vhich rclc:rs h.> huw <.:t.:r�tin thc.: Epistemic

(h) Defendant's speech ends in long sentencc ,pcakcr 1s .1hout the truth ,if 1hc propositmn, ,md 1'"º"' ne Deontic

te) You can comba t thar feel ing of he lplessness with wluch rcicr� 10 issut:s ..ií pt:rmis.m in or nhligauon. Our
illegal orugs knowlcug.: ,it how pns<>ns opcratc makcs 1hc: dcontic
1d) Prison warden says mmares may have 3 guns 111t.:rprc1:H1on murn les, !1kcly.
f e J Rhode lsland secretary excites iurniture experts 1 t: 1 fh1s coulJ m.:an 1 1 J Rh,x.Jc lsl:rnd dem:al "urkcr ..::<cit.:s
t l l Crowds rusning 10 see Pope trample 6 t o death 1u m1tur-, cxperl.'>. 0r ( '.: ) Rhl.)úc lsland wnc111g <lcsk excite:.
turn11 urc .::t!)Cns. fh1s 1s 1no1hcr �:isé ,,r
!cx1c:il Jmbiguity
 74 MAJ<ING SENSE MAKING SENSE 75

but you may havc found it a bit puzzling if your mental (c) ·Toe Subaru For.:s1cr is not an ordinary sports-ut,liry
éictionary Jo.:s nol includc ·writing dcsk · us onc of thc: vcluclt!.'
poss1blc meanings of secr.:wry. Did you noricc how wc (d) ·Th.: :O,fonogram is a rdrigcrnrnr thal tits pn:ciscly inro
int<:rp rel .:xci111s som.:wh.it o.liff<:rently if we lhink that your renovation plans.'
ucretar,v rcfcrs to a wormm rathcr than a man'.' (c) ·Microsun is a tcchnolog1cal brcakthrough.'
(f) ·Hampton [nns are sanctuaries.'
/f) rhis i,_anolhcr c:ise of syncactic amb1guity. lt could mean
( l l Six are rramplcd to Jc:nh by crowds rushing to sce thc As you can st:c. irnplicatures �an rcsull from 1hc relalion betwcco
Pope. or (2) Thc: crowds :m: rushing to se:.: thc Pope a senes oí p hrascs as wcll as a series of ful! st:n1c;nces. (el uses a
tr:impl.: si:< to Jc:Hh. lncio.l..:nr.11ly. diJ yuu notic� how 1ormat very typical in Jtlvcnising wht!rc rwo nouo phrases are lin� ed
,)IW1<)u� it ,ccmcd that s:x rcfcrrcd lO .;i.� ¡J\?U[>lc ! FLUl'�IS. hy 1n implicó i<1lc1re. Somc1imcs thc link bc1ween two phr:ises rcqu,res
_
omirnng words or 1.!VCn largcr chunk:, oi scntcnc::s. as in: cvcn morl.! dabora1.: inicrcncing, :is in ., ra1hcr unfortunalc s,gn on
1 Do you wanl a cap oíl Coffee? ur 1'11 help. (clcan up th.: London t;m!crn.round: TerrÓrism. Subsramial Rewards.
th,; k11chcnl. 1s m pn:valt!nt in Jiscour.;c that wc Jrc .\t.Jv..,ni,cmcn1:; �ften have 01ctures in con¡unct1on with lhe 1ext.
usually not Jwar.: ,Ji ho1v rnuch miorrnatinn wc are tilling ·
Tl;esc pictures hclp to m!atc a cnntcxt wh1ch �uidcs thc imerprc•
_
lO trom thc.: con I ex c. lathin.. \n :1<.lvcrtiscmcn1 for J dishwashu shows :i woman tloauug
in J ,w1mmm!,t ponl. rhc text rcaJs By removing cruscy baked-on
In thc units on implica11m:. wc Wt!rt: workmg mo,tly with pa1rs ot
foods. our new Power Scour dishwasher virtually eliminates
utteranc::s. trorn two ditfc.:rcnt spc:ikcrs. Howevcr. wc.: abo draw 1rnpli­
soaking. Ar leasr fer dishes.
ca1urcs lrom .1 sc;ncs of ultl.!rancl!S irom u11: sa1111;: speaker (or writcr).
Sincc w<.: assumc ;hal the �pcak.:r ,, adhcnn'c! to thc ma:urn of rclc•
vanee;. wc .1..,¡:¡umc thal thcre 1� .1 connl.!ction bctw.:::n tht! uuc.:ranccs. .-:P EXERCISE

9.4 Fill in thc blank: 1bcre was an Amcrican prcsidcnt namcd

EXERCISE -'� fornes Polk. pronounccd poke w1th a silem l. Similarly. folk is
9.3 In .:ach case. whm 1mplicarnrcs do you have to draw for lh.: pronuunceu fvk11 w11h a siil.!nl i. ju,l J, l�c ,vhitc oi an cgg ¡,¡ _
uttcr:mc�s to be rdcvam to om: �mothcr' pronounccd --.

\:l) Wet feet? Look out for colds. Gargle with Listerine
quick.
D1d vou fall 1nto thc trap.' \to,t pcoplc do. Thc e.�pcci.;Hions set up Comment
(b) Is your teen 1usr barety hanging on? Big Sky Montana
hv (he CUntCXI l vi:rhal CúlllCXI in thi, C:J�) lcad mo,1 pcuplc lO forge1
is a great place for changes.
th:u thc yulk 1s thc yellow part o( Jll c;;g. nol t.ht: whllc. Psycholugists
te/ Tired of ordinary sport-utilities? Try the Subaru rctcr lo 1l11s JS thc ·Jtmo,ph,m: ctfi;c.:l'.
Forester.
(ú) Now there's a refrigerator that fits precisely into your v EXERCISE
renovation plans. lntroducin!) the Monogram.
9.5 Woul<.I you cons1dcr signing th1s pcti1ion'.'
tcl lntroducing Mi�rosun. A technoloqical breakthrough.
Vve ask rhat the government takc r.-:::::::sures to ensure th'!
(f) Birds have sanctuanes. People have Hampton lnns. stricr control or tota l elimination of dihydrogen rnonoxide.
This chemicJI

• Is a major component of acid rain

Comment • Can cause excessive sweating and vomiting
:-!ot fürpris111gly. tht! 1mplkaturcs ali .11l11w thc advcrtiscr.; 10 rnakc
daims .ibout thc1r pro<.luc1s wi1hou1 .:xplicitly asscrting thcm: • Can cause death if accidentally inhaled
• Can cause severe burns in its gaseous state
(al ·Gargling wilh Listcrinc w1II prcvcm colds.' (In addition • Contnbutes to soíl erosion
l<J 1mplying ·Wct icct c:iusc colds'.¡ • Decreases the effect1veness of automobile brakes
\l>l ·Big Sky �lont,rna (J p,ychiatric m:atmi;nt centre) will • Is iound in patients with terminal cancer
d1angc .i sttu:uion IV here your c.:cn is jusi bart!ly hanging on. ·

-·'
.1
 76 MAKING SENSE
'1-'�ING SENSE 77
Comment
This 1s J ,cry :stnkmg c;,;ample o( the ·:11mosphcrc eifccC. Tht: pct1· s1rnil,1n11i:, bct\\l!.:n 1hc:: [\\O conca·pts. Amer.c-Jn collcg..: studc:nts
11on was p,lrt of J ,ctt:ncé proj.:ct bv an Arnencan hi l!h schuol wen: >.:1v..:n ranuom pnirs of n,>uns likc: uch.: Jnd u111ograph ;iml wcrc
;1udcn1. Hc was im,cs1:ga!lnl! how sca:'nt,tic lan11ua11c can-111íluencc a5kcl to irn.il!inc: a conccxt where une could ser...: a., a mctaphur
pcopk"; 1h111krng. Th.:rc m;;u:.illy is a chcrnical caikd uihydrogcn for thr.: othcr.-1-kr..: is one of 1h..: -n.>ncs·
mono.�1dc. ll do.:s hav.: all thc .llarming propcnics dcscribcd in thc
pc1111on. D1/1_wlru,;e11 mo,w.rule 1s the ,c:enlllk tcrm for •�ura.Look My hometown doctor, Doc Wilson. was an old-fashioned
back JI tht! pc1iuon. Do :.11! th<Jsc prop.:rm:s ,cern .¡uitc so Jlarmtog coun!ry doctor. He knew all h1s patients, carefully and
now' individually. Each ache was as uniquely identified w,th a
parient as was his or her autograph. Doc Wilson '<new
you inside out.

9.6 Wh,ch o( Gric�"s ma:rnns leaJ� to 1hc

1ollow101!
• 1molica
· tur.:s
111 brack.:ts' • Thc c;:,ntr.:�t 01 tite Jis.:,iur,t: ,,nd ,,ur knowlcdl!c ,it :!!<.: SUMMARY
"orlc.f1i.:Ío us w r..:,olve potenual Jrnb1gu11y Jnd va!;!UC
, .t 1 'Nh.:it an elephant Jane 1s! , ·Janc :s dum�\ ·¡ ñ� 1n uttcranc::s. Jnd tu ·ill ,n m1\,mg inform:.11100.
(bl Sreve's a pig. 1·S1cvc ,s ,;rccdy"l ■ In <>rdcr cu m:.ik.: ,cnsc of .l scnc::1 vi utteram:es. wc havc:
"' Jr:iw 1mplic:11ur.:s about tite w:.1� tbc utt.:r:inc..:s are rc!c­
�unt to cach ólhér..·\gain. wc ar.: bclpcu to <lraw chc-,,c
Comment 1mplic:11urr.:, b)· world knmvlcd!;!e Jn<l tite disr:our.;c
Assurn111g Ju11c m (a) and Srcve 111 •b.l are human,. thcse staterncnts COOll!'tl
tlout lhe maxim oi 4uali1y. Thcy are m:rniicstly untrue. In oruer ior ■ l he langu;1ge 11sclf c:UI hdp ,.:1 up J cunh!XI wh1ch
us to a,sume th:11 thc ,pcakcr. Jrc ,1111 .idhenng 10 the co-opcra11ve rnnstrains <>ur thin kin!!. a, we SJW m 1hc dih�urogcn
pnnc:pk. we h:.ivc to mtcrprct 1hcsc ,;,Jtemcnts as \IEf\PHOIUi. Th:11 mono�1u.: c;,;:implc. Th;, 1s �or:1.:11mes calkd ·acmosphcrc
1s. liiiurcs of ,pccch wh1ch imply a cmnpanson b.:twccn two concepts: eifc1:t'.
"Jane 1s i1ke Jn el.:phant'; ·Stcve ,s likc a pi,!" In ta) 1hc:: runhcr infor­ • Conc.:xt .:an play J powc:rtul role m thc 1n1erpn:1a1ion 01
..:ncr 1s ·JJnl! 1s likc: an ..:kphant bl.��au�i: ,he L� durnsv·. In tb) ·Stcvc mctaphor.. Jnd ,11mles.
Símiles
1s like a pig bcc:1usc he is \!fCCúv'. Tcchnicallv. ,1M1L�s Jrc uitfor.:nt
from mt:1::iph,¡rs in th:.11 lht:y mak·c thi: comoar;son e;,;phc:t.:.. m Jane
,s like an elephant. ,ir Sreve ,s as greedy as a pig. H1Jwe•1c:r. th.: � SUPPLE·
undcrlyrn!! principie is tht: �ame . .¡ualitics .1rc crnnsfcrrc<l from 1Jnc MENTARY
9.8 What h:1s gonc wronl!. in thcsc 111:a<llincs''
�onccpt 11> mother Or. to puc 11 Jnmhcr way. llnc cunccpl is bc111y EXERCISES
un<lcrs11.iud m 1c::rms ,11 Jnmhcr rc!:ircu bur dilfor.:n1 .:onccpc. IJ) Warranty a1ds nome owners w1th defects
11>1 Never w1thhold herpes 1nfect1on from loved one
icJ Mondale's offens,ve looks hard ro beat
EXERCISE �:.
(<l) s;s foot boa caught in roilet. Woman relieved
9. 7 L,xik JI the mc1aphurs 111 Excrcise IJ.6 .Jt!ain. Tlus 11mc I hav.: (e) Belfast man char ged far H.:irrod's bomb
Jd<l.:d iOmc .:un1cx1u;1J mformuuon. Whar 1rnpiica1urns Jo you Jraw (O Westir.ghouse g1ves robot rights to firm
nnw'
1.11 She's srill m.:id at me. What an eleph.:inr Jane is! 9.9 S11ll ,m 1hc ,11h1c-ct 01 roholS. wh:.11 wen1 wrong wuh tlus job
(h¡ Look Jt this room. Steve's J pig. ,1dver11.scmc111 ior thc Ln1vcrsi1y ol Portsmouth'! Research
Ass1stant lntelligent walkingtclimbing robot.

Comment
íl11, ltmc wc inr'cr m (a) ·Jane has J long mcmory'. and 111 /h) ·S1e�c 9.10 Plav thc mcwphor �ame with yuur tncnds. Wnte a series
s -ne,,y· In .inalysmg m.:1aphór. s<>me Juthor.. .:mph:.1s1ze th.: role nf nuun,. likc ,1d11!. 1111,1,¡raph. ·ir,: hvdraut. mbbcr bww. etc. on
playcd by thc me:1m11g <Jvcrlnp :>eLwccn thc 1wo .:ona:pL� hc111g .:ard,. Jnd pu1 ch.: 111 111\l J bal,l, Draw .:>UL 1wo ,;ards anú r.:re:itc J
.:ump.1red. Hoy,,cvc::r. Jn mgt:mous ,tudv Jcscnbcd m \kCJbc ( !91lXJ ,tor.· ,vh1ch u:.c� me ,,i thc: ,,ouns .1, .1 mc1:1phor íor thc \Jlhcr
�how� hnw (nr J meiaphor ,., .vork. thc .:onc,:xt in wh11:h thc: compar•
i;;on ,s mauc can he ;nuch mure 1mp,m:1n1 ·han .1ny nhercnc
 MAKING SENSE 79
78 MAl<ING SENSE

9.16 [1 is sumetimc:s said rhat languagc works by combinmg Q DISCUSSION

9.11 What implic:nure would ,·ou drnw from an advertis.:ment
shuwing thc Tower oi Londoo ac
night with thc Bei:feater Guard sounds into words. ,\ords into scntcnc.:s and sentc:nces into QUESTION
sa�ing: We don't use guard dogs. They won't go inside. discour.;e. 111is implit!S tbal discuurse is lllc ·product' of thc pn::vious
Ytanipulat<: thcl contc:xt so that an c:ntirdy diffcrcnt implicaturc stt:ps. Think of al! thc ways that the context and purpose o( the
would bc drawn. díscour;e af.foct how the language sounds. what thc words mean. and
how tht: sentcm:es are strucrurcd.

9.12 In psychology cxpcriments abuut mi:mory for te:tts. subjects

oiten m1s1akc:nly thínk thcy heard Three turtles rested on a FURTHER
floating log and a fish swam beneath them wh.:n thcv had actu• For more ab,>u1 the íloating turtks and thc warm bet:r. an<l how
p�ycnu1og1sts study lht! ways lit�n wc IJl\:>-.:.:ss J;,:,�üun-.: . .;i.:i.;: READING
:iiiy hc:ird Three tuttles rested on a ffoating log and a fish swam
I· beneath ir. Why'? GJ.rnham. l 985. Chaptcr 7
.l [n sevcral oí the units wc mcnuoned how tht: use ot gesture. brn.ly
9.13 [n nthcr psycholugy cxpcrirnents. the ;cnt.:nci:s Tlr( bt1a 1w1s language and 1,>ne m voice can bave sígmlit:ant cifeclS un how \\,,:
warm and n,,.d11111ddiers were ,/111111,g bnghrf.v totJk lougcr tu rc:11.J ín1crprct uttcr:mccs. [f you would líke to tind out more about thcse
in the1r lb) conri:xt below than in thcir (a) contcxr. Why do you Jspccts of communicauon. -sce:
think this mighr be thi: case? Ellis and Bc:ittil!. 1981>• .:spcdally Chapters l -9.
(.i) We got sorne beer out of the car. The beer was warm. For mure abuut mc1aphor 111 rel:ition to .inalysing wrillcn t.:xts. set::
(b) We checked the picnic supplies. The beer was warm.
Thomborrow and Warcmg. 1998. Chapter J.
(a) 1 walked into the garden. The chandeliers were
shining brightly. For more about nu::wphor as a way of making scnse of the world.
thl r walked inro the sea. The chandeliers were shining �ce:
brightly. L.1koff and Johnson. l91l<l.

¡. 9.14 In Supplcmcnt:iry E"<ercise 3. 10. you werc :isked to write

advcrti�cm.:nts lliar ,lippeu in J series of daims vía presuppos1tio11.
Rcturn to thar -set ui ci;1ims and writc allvcrtiscmcnts for tlu: samc
protluer,. 1h1s umc using implicaturc 10 slip in thc claim. use Exercise
9.J for ;<leas.

9.15 Ask pcople to rc::id thc fullowing: 1 boughc sorne imported

Colombian coffee yesterday, but when I opened the package.
there was a strange white powder inside. Thcn cover thc
sc:111cncc. Fivc minurcs latcr ask thcm to wntc down 1hc senrcncc
thcy had rcad. Did thcy rcmcmbcr thc scmencc cx.ictly or did 1bcv
produce :i paraphrasc 10s1ea1r! :-<OLc clown anything they omiued
from lhc onginal -;cntcncc. Dill thc omissions contain infonnation
that c1iuld be infcrrcd from thc parJphrasc·.' Note down anything
thcy addcd in tht: reml!mhcrcd vcr.;ion. Did the addiLions contain
informatiun tha1 could havc bccn infcrrcd [rom thc original
'íCnit:nt:::·.,
 10
E'<PI.ORING �AGMAncs: PROJECTS 81

EXPLORING kind� 0t dircctiv.:s·.' Ar<! thcrl! Jiffcrcm:.:s bl!t\\cl!n thc kmds oí dir�c-
1ivcs adc..lrcsst:J 10 boys and thosc aJJrcssed 10 g1rls? lí you can gel
e.lata irom twu children interacting w11h an adult who 1s th.: pan:nl
PRAGMATICS: PROJECTS <JÍ only on.: lli th.:m. you can look for d1ffcrcncc, bctween thc direc-
ti,·es paren is ust: wuh 1ht:1r own .:hildrcn 1nd those Lhcy ust: w11h othcr
chilJr.:n.

\.lak..: a -.1ut!y oí .:hildrc:n·, pcrc�ption� oí wha1 11 is IO tJlk politely. PROJECT 3

Om: way tu J1> thi� is wuh 1wo �lovc puppcrs. You .;an havc: both Children's
pucpt:LS :isk Ior :he ,ame 1h111 g cu1 usmg 01rcc11ves IÍl:.tt J1iit:r in p,uc .. p,iuns ur
p<Jlilenc,, ..-\n cx.,mplc wuuld b..: Puppct i: Gimme sorne caney. polite ways of
Puppct :· i\rlay I have somt! candy7 A,k th.: d11IJ "htch puppcr talking
:, '-1!111'-! more !Jl)lilc Y,>u ,h,>ulc..l trv h> induJc Jir.:�:cd .1.::.s :ha!
vary m- thc1r .:0,1 11> lile hcarcr 1or· .:xampl<: Clt!an the floor vs.
Pass the sugar .•1, wcll Js 1ho,e wh,ch vary ,n 1hc:r Jl!gn:c •>f Jm:ct­
nc-.�. rh1s smdv would be: c:,p.:c1aily mtcrcsllng if you .:omoar..: two
PROJECT 1 Thcrc I\ �:im.:ntly J 1fob:11c ,1oou1 wncthcr J,hcrusmt! datms for or m1>rc ch1idr..:n 11 Jiff.:rcnt .1gcs. ,1 3-yc:ir-vhJ Jnc..l J --yc:1r-old 10r
Presupposition �osmcu �-s :md vuamms shoulc..1 be treatc:c..l JS ng0rous!y Js daims �x.imple.
and implicature lor mcc..1,cmc.,. \,lakc J .:ollcc11on 0r advcruscmcms for c:1ch o( thcsc Yuu ,uuld Jbu cx1cnd thc ,tudy by mdudin':l repreS<:nt:111v.:s w11h
in advertising thrcc t�pcs oí proc..lucts. C..2,!!! Qarc thc.m on rhc c..lct!rc:c tu wh1 ci1 thcy vary111 � c..lc;;n:�s 1>1 pohtcncss. How s:upid you .:ire• v,. How c!ever
Jsc prcsupposmun. Jl!!Dli�turc Jnd Jircct J�crtum 10 mnkc: daims you are! v,;_ How clever I am! cte. lf you fam:y yourscll .1s piay­
4-oou '. _rh.:_ bcncrirs or dfccrivencss 0f thc proc..luct. Fo�plc. look "nght. construct lilllc Jr:imas :ur thc puppcts which mvnlve Jdhllr­
1•ir chffen.:ncc < ,n !hc frt4:.:c:a;:, o: 1mplic:11urcs lhJt Jmc from thc ..:nc� !,) ,1r �,ohuon uf thc ai;rc1:mcn1 maxirn
use 01 ,1 ,;cnc;.s llÍ phrascs. rathcr thJn full s.:ntcnccs. Js m Beta
c:irotene. Nature's safest source of Vitamin A.
.-\c..lvcrtis.:men�, tcmJ 10 use the rmperauvc iorm 4u11c frc4ucn1ly. n1e h,L-.1s 1>1 111uch humour"' thc Y1oi:11mn ,Ji uur ..:ip.:ct.111011s about PROJECT 4
_ Ba3il Fawlty
Somc11mcs lhLs 1s to persuade us w: Buy X. or Visit our show­ hmv pcuplc -,h1111ld ht:havc. Csmt! lccch s politcncss 111ax1111s. mJkc
room. or ñeserve a seat now. But the ,mpcr:mve Jlso ias Jnurhcr ,1 Jc:a1led JnalV\IS ,>f Bastl F:.twlty\ verbal rut1<:ncss :i, wcll .is ht� and politeness
u� m Jc..l�crusmt! h carnes th.: presuppos,uon ·Y,>u w1ll as 111 .:xa!.!�t:ratcd 'Jut ,111en l.ltl<lmcc..l Jllcmp1, to 11:llter 111s guc,ts. Thrcc maxims
Fmd comfort and reliei with X. or Look years ycunger instantly ,cnpts 1mm che "mes .1ppcar m Ckcs1.. Jnt.1 801,ch 1: <l-).
w,ch Y look mr c..l11fcrcncc\ 111 lh<: 1rc4uency 1)1 1111pcra11vc 1orms
rh:.11 lrl�gcr th,s type oí pn:suppo,mron.
You �uulc..1 c:tp,1nc..l lh1s �tuc..ly ur milk c: J separar<: ,.uc.Jv ,11 holY l)n..:c whcn I wa, v1s1un,.¡ !he LS r\. 1 walkcd inw t ,hop 1h:11 ,clls PROJECT 5
modol verh, lik.: <WI. m1,;i11. ,·uula. anJ "'"" Jíe uscd 1,Í wcakc:n J<:Jns .1nd casu.il duthcs. fhc young ,.11<:s .1ss1s1.1m .vas J modc! <JÍ Positive and
d:11ms for products. \guin Jo you 0<>1ic1: Jiffcn:nt frc4ucnc:cs 11( us.: po,ll1v.: polit.:n..:ss: Hi• How .:ire you today? Fine, thanks. I negative
for Jiffcrcnt lypc.� 111 proJuc1s·• Jn�wcrcd. Wi1h ,irangcr� wc nom1ally cxpct:t thc c.�chan!lc to cnd politeness in
thcrc. bu1 sht: thcn Jddcu Thars grear! Thars reai great! i iatcr 3tores
k:1mcd th:Jt thc JSSl�lanLs workmg for th1� ..:ha111 ,11 ,hop� :.tn: traincJ
PROJECT 2
\,fokc .1 ,tuJy di thc l)lpl!S •ll Jir.:cuvc, lh:11 ;1ll11lt, ¡c.JJrc'-" ll) Y<)UIIC !ll ,!rc,.:t CU5lOITit:r, likt: 111,s 1101 1111ly 10 io,1cr a trit:nc..llv llllat!t.: uf
The directives
adults use with
cnildrcn. lf you .:an pcr..uac..lc j fam1ly w11h youni: duidrcn to l�r vo� tlle ,wrc but jbú w Jcter ,hopliíters. -\pparentlv. y,.1u know you,r
tape recunJ J fam1ly ml!al. vou w1II gct .¡u11c J lm of Jara. r In Unit 8. have hct:n 110111.:ec..l. vou .1re lc:;s likdy 10 �hoplitt. On Ll11: 01her hand.
children
tl �c --=�tracts from < �artonc .111<.1 Sophie·s lum;h wcrc only a irJctmn havc yuu cv<:r hcen ,n j ,turc whcrc thc �hop ass1s1ams are modcb
1Jt 1hc cnurc tr:in�npt.) lf th1s •� not ícas1bic. vou .:;iu sull g:Hh t:r .¡uitc ,11 ncl!allvc p11litcnc,;s. cvcn .1skmg pcnniss1011 to makc :m offcr JS
_
J ot •>t J:.tlJ w11h J notcpac..l Jm.l pcn. Bus srups. ,upcrmark.:ts. iov ,n May I nelp you. mad.:im? $p<;nc..l .1 Jav .n ,tor.:s w11h a :1011:pac..l
,torc, ind l.i:,t-louc..l rcstaur.mLs Jn: Jil !:UOc..l place, lO hcar par.:nis lflú ¡><.nc1l \lakc .111 JllJiht• .11 •he p0Ílt..:n.:s; ,tralct!y t!lat Jiffcr::nt
l, '.lkmg. �o thc:r .:n11Jr.:n. v1,u .:an !ook tnr thc rclu11v.: prop.Jrtton o( ,1,ir.:s use.
Jm.:ct d1rc.:11vcs 10 111<.lirc�t Jirccuvo:� Jddrcsscd 10 rh.: ch1lc..l. Dl)t:S this
vary w11h he i,;c <JI tht: ,hi(J·• Dn m,llht: rs .111c..l fotheN use Ji1fen:n1

80
 EXPLORING PRAGMATICS: PROJECTS 83
82 EXP\.ORING PAAGMA ncs: PROJECTS

any
PROJECT 6 :-Jc:il Kinno..:k to John :\l.1jor: Doesn't the prime minister th:ll your goal is 1101 10 .:v:iluate individual _children in
prnenl
The use of recall saying in Zimbabwe last year that tax reductions in way. but lo leam about children·s pragmat1c develo
presupposition the March budget would be fool's gold? in general. .
in political
Dc!nni,; Skinn-,r to :Vlargaro:1 Thatchcr: Ooes thc prime
• Remt!mber that children are p.:oplc! If thcy becom
c llred
g.:nth:
debates and or want to discontinuc lht! activity despite your
minister regret using a three line whip as a guillotine on may
interviews .:m:ouraoemcnt. vou must rcspect th.:ir wislu:s. You
the Single .European Act? break or retum al anolhe r time to finish
have 10 "'iakc a
(Quuted in Simpson. 1993) collccting your data.
Do you noucc how thc: presuppositions tngg,mid by Doesn't the
prime minister recall ... and Does the prime minister regret
... ·posi11un tne hc:irer to allmit to the presupposed ac;t whether
thc:y answer the quc:stion ·yes· or ·no'. Anothcr tactic thal is :;ome­
cimcs used in mtcril.:ws is to ask qucslion� oí the cypc How
outraged are you by the government's decision? which prcsup­
pnses thac the intcrviewc:: is outr:igeJ. [1 wkcs a IOl of work to 1h:ny
c:very prcsupposition in J qu,mion. anJ co11Sc!4ucnLI� many o( thcm
go unchall<:nged. Th1s c:111 makc presupposnion a powcrful too! in
pol itic:il llcbatc:s and intcrviews.
Make video m:ordings ,if politicaJ dd,:Hcs ami i.ntervicws. How
prevalen! is lhis l:Jctic'.' C:in you tell what thc intervicwcr.( poinls
of view are by 1he prcsupposiuons thcy use! You could cxtc:nd your
analysis of pra�matics. politics and point ui vicw by looking at thc
cypcs oí vcrbs used to reicr 10 speech accs. The honourable
rnernber has st�!ed/admi!ted/confessed thar ...

PROJECT 7 In Supplcmcnl.:lry Excrcisc 8.9 you :inalyscd lhe direa:tivcs I used in

Analysing my coursc guidcs. Y•JU c:111 brnadcn your invcstigation by collt:cting
written a series of coursc ¡¡uidcs and 01hcr ms1ruc1ions to smdcnts. induding
directive:s nmiccs on bulletin boards :ind or'ticc doors. Wh:it factor.; can you
u.Jcnufy 1ha1 causc variati,ms in thc stylc of din:cuvcs uscd'! Othcr
,¡nurccs 01 wnttcn dirccuvl!S Jre m(ormation on passports JnJ
lict:nccs (my L:S passpon is a �ymphony of modal vcrbs), mt:mbcr­
ship rulcs and ínfonn:ition distributcJ by clubs. cspcóally hcalth
clubs.

t:IHICAL • Allhougn H 1s :ifJ nghc 10 use a pcn .1nd notcpall to record

GUIDEUNES spccc!J thal you hc;1r m a public place. you should ncvcr
FOR PROJECT tape n:curd pcuplc wirhouc thc:r knowlcdgc. cvcn m public
WORK pl:u:cs.
• Whcn wnting up your pro¡cct. ncvcr 1dentify your infor­
mants by their real namcs. You can rcfcr to them cithcr
by inilials nr by a pscudonym.
• Whcncvcr you Jrc working wiclt ch1lurcn. makt! surc lhal
you ohtam p.:miissiun from e11her thcír parcnL� or ú1eir
1c:.1<:hcr1 ( íf you are collecting data 1n a 5chool).
• When working wirh children you ,hould c.�pl:un thc naturc
of your �tuJy co th.:ir parent or tc:i.:hcr and cmpha�ize
 .>NSWERS TO FURTHE� EXERCISES 85

ANSWERS TO FURTHER SP.3. Smn,; ÍJt'm::i u,.- hm.:J b.� 111)' fri,:111/ (word sub-
;cilucion. louclt,: rc:plact:d by /,(l{e. and ch,rngc uf

EXERCISES (e) t/1

;cntcm:c ,truccurt: rrom Jc11vc to pass1v<!)
/ook /ar r/rac bauk ru;ltt 11ui..
SP· J"II uurclt for tita, book immediau/_v. ( word sub­
,muti,in. look rc:placc:d b�· ,.:arel, and r:gltr nu,.
rc:pl.1c�d by imn1t!diu1e/v)
(J) Stc:�<1 1111153d 11111,·.
SP! /une 1vus iwgg,:d h.v St,:v,: (changc ul ,cnt.:n.:c struc­
lUh: �h>lll J�ti'-C .J fi...a,;,.>1\ .._. ,
SI".:: S1c!v,• guc,: l<1t1.t .i lt113. (chang.: m ,c:n1.:nce struc1ur.:)

UNIT 2
./.Z..7 (J) .\nJlyitc:illy ·1ruc h:cau�c ,ir thc n11::ininy. rclation,htp
n.:l\,c::n i11111ut,•r .1nJ m.immal. A hamslc:r i:, J k md vi
mJmmal
UNIT 1 1.7 (a) Pragmau.::.. lt .:unc:.,rn, )pc:akcr mc:anml!. º
lh) l'hts cannut hc Jc"gnah:d ,L, ·tru.:· ur ·!Jhc unlcs\ >ºu
lb) S�ntc:ic.: ,cmanllcs. fanc 1s g1v1r1g .1 ,c�anuc paraphrnsc <n,iw wh.:thcr my cou,m 1, ma/c: ur fcmalc.•md how ..ilJ
UI a sentcnc� 1n Stcvc·; lca,c. ,h.: he 1s (cx1r:1-linguiS11c mionn:mon)
Pragm:.111cs. Thc paren, 1s commenrml! nut lln thc li1cral Cn/css :,ou happ,:n l<l rcc'cr w JJI 11:malc human, .i. ;;trú
mcaning of Where are your shoes, young man? but •Jn n,g.irdk»� ui thcir agc. tcd1n1cally thts can1101 b<: dcs1g­
º
what she meam by u,mg that uucr.incc. Thc ch1ld has n:1tcJ .15 ·true· or ·rabi: unl�� you kn1Jw how old my sistcr
nus1nccrprc:cd her requcst for J<:tiun ,is a rcq1;cs1 for infor­ is (cxtra-linguisuc informauon).
marum. ,\¡¡a/yticallv ·tru.:· bccausc !JI thc mcamng rcla11onsh1p
(J) L.:�1�-:11 ,cman11.:s. Fayc is danfymg whac J word mc:ms bctwccn :m'((!r .111J ic:mulc:. ,\11 ,1Stcrs Jrt: 1cmalc (unJikc:
Synonym by prov1Jing a ,v,o"YM (a wurd wiU1 a ,1milar mc:rning). JII cuusin,¡.
Antonym muumful. .tnJ an ,,.,Tn"'v" f,1 word wirh rhc nppo�nc Analyucally ·talsc· hcc:iusc saymy chat .i roi:k 1s ft:m.Jlc
.:nt:ui:, ºhJt 1 ., .1 ..:ri:arur..:. But rcmemh.:r. tb1s b 'fobc
º
mc:mmg¡. dteerful.
Pragmaui::,. Thc scntcni:c Life �\' " :u/e told !Jv .i11 itiim has ,miy from .1 ,tnctly <cma11111: prnnt ot v11:w. Frnrn J pr:1g·
thc �cman11c paraphr:l!ic L,[.· ,s u rrorv rot,i b v :omr:mw mat,c ;iouu 01 vtcw Jny1h111y i, pos,1blc. L ucrc:.J 1·0 th.:
wult dimuuslted llltillf(lf o·upucuv. But S,1rah !S g,;mg I pral!• .:untcxt ,11 wa1ch111y a ..:Jr IOIJn ,1bout thc advcntur.:s of Pap.1
m:mc paraphrasc. That 1,. what thc ,pe:ak cr mc:mr bv in<.l \IJma Rod .rnJ JU thcrr baby rocks. this could he
uucrmg thosc wnrd,. nm wh:ll 1hc ,von!s htcrallv mean'. c11h.:r ·1ru.: or ·talsc dcpcndi11g on che: rock 111 .¡ucsuon.
Mtttat,hor Th1, kind 01 tigurauvc languag.: 1s i;allcd .1 \fE"� ,r1➔uR ( 1) Th" c:1111101 he dc�•�n.ircu .is true· or ·fabc · unkss you
Hc:rc. ti[.• 1s bcmg 1mplicitly curnparcd ru ,omcthmg .:!se. knolY ;umcthin!l Jb,1ut 1h.: pamcular 1orto1sc th:ll 1 -1:.1w
" tu/e told bv ,m tdim. (c:<tra-lingu1st1c ,nfonnauon¡.
º
• (,l) Th1s .:ann,,1 t;.; Jcs:g�atc:.! JS ·uuc· 0r ·fabc unlt:,s you
k!1ow 1hc caung hahu, lll my part1cubr cal (c.ura­
1.8 Hcrc Jrc mmc -;amp/c paraphr.isc,: lingu1s11c mlormallon).
thl Analvtu:ally •ruc ,kc:1usc ,ir thc mc:mmg rc!J11011sh10
(al H.:r mm/ter is 1ml1t1()py
bctwc�n m·k JnJ "'"" 1>1t:k mcans ,wr wd/l.
SP· Hcr muthcr rs ro,/. (wonl �ubs111u1ion u11/111ppv
rcplac::d by .i �ynnnym s11d)
1 h) �lv (r1,mti !0111/le.r rm11,: /J.:u11s. 2.8 Hcrc Jrc ,orne ,.11nnlc cn1:11lmcnts.
'iPI \/v pul /1c11,:s ,1r111,; h1twu. ¡wurd ,ubsmuuon. {rre111t
1.1) \/y H.\fc:r-111 ..,11," .,:r,JH,'l "tJJi"J. - \/y lll"l.!f•lll•lt1\\· -:raas
rcplaccd hy puf. JOÚ i,Mth<! rcplaccd bv hute 1
º t,1,,,..n
Active '>P:: \trm,; ho1u11� ar.: lo,11/r,:J hv nrv Jrttt11J. (ch,lnl!c
Possive
üi w\! \l.llt!r..,11-ur," -:rnwl· rt),\e"\. - Rost::1 ;.Ue �'""''' l)y mv
-;cnr.,nce ,tructurc from \, ,1vc to � ,.-,s1v1,)
u,·tt r•m-,11n·
1

34
.,
86 ANSll'IERS ro FURTHER EXERCISES ANSWERS ro FURTHER EXERCISES 87

(h) St1tve i.r furturLf. - Steve IS llOt 1:alm. ./ (c) Therc ,, �orne debate aboul this one. but usually 1hc inf.:r­
Steve is ¡irrio1LS. .- Ste,;e is ver:,: angry. cm:e · 1 trictl to pass rhc e�am · is analysed as a presuppo­
sition on the basis th:it ,c requtres no prcvious uttcraoce
(e) Tom sold ,, computa to Jlark. _. Tom wld sometlting 10
�lurk. to tlraw iL lt alm holds up undcr ncgation. For most
pcopte·s Jctinitiun oi manu:;e. 1 didn't manage to pass
Tom sold u cnmptt1er 10 .\t.irk. 1--- J/urk boug/11 a compuur
the exam. likewisc pr;:suppo,cs that •[ tried to pass the
j;om To_m.
c:cam·. Whcn a spccitic word (mu11ug11 in this c:isc) trig·
lu ) Hv brotlrer repa,red mv t:Jr ... �/y bmtlrer repa1rl!d a cehicfl!. gcrs :i prc,uppnsition. it i, somcumes callcd a u;x1CAL Loxical
Hv broth,:r rep111red mv car H Jl_v brmhu ji.ud m_v car. Y�CSLl'l'•JSITIO'-, pnrsuppotition

(f) ·\l!ain. tlm 1s :i bu tnckv. bue ·1 Jidn't timsh thc repon' is

normallv anJlvs.!t.l as .1� imolicature. 1 coultl eonúnut! chc
UNIT 3
0

3.7 (al ·Thc udcndani hau houuht a knii.:.' uttc:ran¿c bv ;avmg I staned ,t and I fin,shed it ,vi1hou1
íbl ·Yuu havc bcr.:n ,c!hn,i ¿ocamc.' �oundinl! �a"ntr;uicrory bccause thc: onginal uttcranci: only
(.:) 'A hrJ,t:lct was ,tolc:n'-:inu ·Toe brJcdct bclonucd co vou· implictl tlla1 1 haun·t tinishcd 1t. 1 Wc will iook at 1his ·1es�
<u l llh-' v.um;111 ,v..is murdcrcd· :ind ·She lcit thc �>fricc.­ for .m 1mplk:11urc in more de1J1l m thc nc'(t uml.)
(el ·Thc dnvcr r:111 che red lii:ht ·
(tl · You tclcphoncd your lo�-cr.'
(g) ·Y,,u havc bccn Jn active gang mr.:mhcr · 4. 7 (a) \likc ha, not vbscr"cu thc 4uality m:nim lbc 1ru1hiul).
(hl ·Y,rn h.:il che �c::nc or che crimc· Jnd ·A cnmc h:id he::n This is a violation. bccausc. assuming thac Anme does 001
C(lmmitrcd.' know the Jnswcr alrcady. 11 would not be obv1ou,, ro hcr
thac Mikc 1s tclling :i lit: .•
(bl :-..tik.: has not oh�erved lhc clarity m:wm. Tbis is :i vinla­
� ... ,,- 3.8 (a) ·Bfa;;e.: i� effccnvc· and ·Therc is a sccrct to Blascc:·� tioo. bccause :Vlikc is not dclibcratcly spcaking undcarly.
l.!ff\.!t:fP,cncss· 1e1 Tiiis ,s lluutiug uf tht: rcicvancc m:uim. Ir mcat h:iu bccn
thl ·Tilc packs are di,uncuvc· and •Bippo is ,rockcd locilly' thc m.11n course. Annic would probably draw 1hc impli­
.ind ·Thcrc 1s .1 pack chac',; ¡ust nghr for you·. .:;tturc •Mikc: didn't likc thc dinner'.
(C) ·Ali thc puflincs.� and wnnklcs will disappc:ir'. tul Th1s " a lluutini; 01 the ,¡uan1iry maxirn. The student 1s
!d) ·11 1s possiblc cu prcucct agaimc w:ircr -;pob' :ind 1ñe providini,: much more informatiun tlrnn is normally
pro1cc11u11 has bc�n increased' rc4uircd m 1h1s muauon lf I werr.: the teachcr I m1ght
·Bc1ore you �uuld nor .,:c1 .1 rcally cnsp prur'cssmnal timsh · draw 1hc 11nplicaturc thal ·TJu: �tudcnl was borcd .1nd
•ft has hccn Ji�oven:d how tu pcricct sldn m thn:c wavs· -cuunung 1hc minutcs" unul the cnd úi thc li:cturc·.
. md ·Each of lhc,c uiscovcm:s 1s poten!' anu ·TI1c fonn�la (e) Smcc 1h1s 1s .ibv1ouslv untrur.:. wc bave a tluutin¡; of tbc
is gcn1lt: 4ualily m:uim. Studc�I B can unly be Cl>--Opcr:itivc if Wt:
intcrprcr llu, JS J dr.1mauc way o( s:iying -rm very úred'.
Th 1s 1ype ol tigurauvc c:caggcranun is c:illcd HYrl:RllOLE. Hypert,olo
UNIT 4 4.6 , fa) ·[ havc :t hoyfr1cnu' = prcsuppos111on. (111is Clisrcnual pre (t) Tlu, is ,1 .::i,c ui Houtin¡; thc clarity maxim. (Compare this
�uppu,1uon rc4uires no prev1ous utterance 10 arrivc .11 thc cu (b) wlu:rc Mikc could not hclp hcm!_! unclc::ir.) Most
inicrcncc.) pcoplc would t.fraw thc 1mpiic.:iture ·J'm a b11 dubious
� (bJ ·You Jrc laughmg .!l me'= presuppos1tllln. ('n11s i, a about unnk111g th:n cocktail'
conventiunal a�umpuon in J Wh- 4uestinn and rc4uirc�
.,. no prcv1uus Ullcranc:: tu .1mve at tl11s kind uf Lnfcrencc.)
., (cl ·She lliun·t have any suppcr' = implicature. (,It re4uircs
5.6 (a) 'Her ccntr.il hc:tting is brokcn' = prcsuppositioo. :-lote thc UNIT 5
sharcd knowlcdge bctwcc:i thc speaker and the hcarcr ,IS
, .,.:0111r:idic11011 that results from thc c:inccll;i1jon: She
to whethcr Jnyonc .:!se cuulu havc g1vcn hcr suppcr.)
:;/,•.JI (d) '\.likt.: is ::ngagcu· = imphca1ure (Ir nceds nun-linguis11c discovered that her central heating was broken bur it
wasn't broken.
•:.• knuwlcdgr.: Jbout thc cus1om of buymg an cngugcment
ring .mu also occds 1hc contclt oi a prcv1ous Utt,!r:tnc!!. ¡b) ·: Jon ¡ lik.: 11 hot' = J .,.;.1l:1r ,mplicaturc. lt .:an be can­
Look how rhe m1plicaturc woultl ch:inge if lhc prcvious cdlcu wi1hou1 �ounding oud: 1 like it warm. No, actually,
uuer:1ncc wcrc Is Mike giving h1s mother a present?) 1 like ll hot.

J
 ANSWERS TO FURTHER EXERCISES
ANSWEM TO FURTHER EXERCISES 89
88

\C) ·Tht: ncálace 1s not bc:auufur = implii:atun.:. Hcre·s ln 6.8 A likely possibility would b<::
e:t:11npl1! of a .:anc::llation: The bracelet is beautiful and LOCUTION: S1eve ull<::n:J thc wor<ls. 1 was rude, whicb can
in fact so is the necklace. be semantically paraphros.::d as: ·1 was iJl-m:innered·. w11h /
(d) ·:--ill· = implic:11urc. Hcrc.:·5 an cxamplt: oi J cancdlation: reforring tu Srevr:.
Tom's away, but Mark carne over and painred it for me. ILLOCLiT!Ol\: Steve p.:rformcd the aL-t oí apologizing 10
Janc for having interrupted h.:r.
(t:) ·lt"; no! Sic.:ve·; swc:atcr· = implil:aturt:. Hc:rc's Jn .::tamplt: PERLOCCTION: Jane act:t:pt.:d Stcvc·s apology.
oi a .::111ccllation: There's a sweater on the sofa but it's
mine.
UNIT 7
fil :,í;,ry il:11.:, ,he: 1.h:nus1 = 1111piic:Hun.:. l-ic:n:·, Jll t:.-.unµic:
vf .1 �:1ncclla1ion: We're go,ng to the D-E-N-T-1-S-T and (j) Coco's sick 1s a surfoc..: r..:prc,cncativc. Bue it could be
she's hoping he'II ask her out. cakr.:n ..u :1 ·hmt' for St�\.c; to t�1kc her to :ht.: 'it:t. making.
11 an inúircct Jirccnve.
:,;) ·Eric !ix::d 11' = ¡m:�upp,,smon. '.'illtc thc ,on1radi.:11on that
(b¡ Whac's the weathcr like in Dallas? ,.:em, to be: .1 true
r.:sults from thc .;anc::llaulln: When did Eric fix it even
fO!.!:JtlVC.
though he didn': fix ,e?
te> Th-e g¡¡rage is a mess 1s .1 rcprcsenta11ve.
In Excrcisc 7.J:
5.7 Exampb (b/. (d and (e) Jn: !lcncrnliz.:d nnplicaturcs.
Exampl.:s (d) anJ (O are parucularlizcJ ,mplicacures. In (J) you (d) You've thrown aw¡¡y thc paper is .1 rcprcsent:mvc. but
in this cnntcxr it -;c.:ms 10 be functollntng more sp.:cili­
woultl nc.:cd pamcular kmiwlcd\¡t: ahout Tom anti Gabrir.:la. To whal
cally JS an m:cu�arion. Davc sc�rns 10 hav.: drawn mis
dc:Jrcc is Gabnr.:la dependc.:nt un Tom to get che kitchcn painccd'.' inicrencc �incc h.: thc;n apolog1zcs.
In (O the urii:1nal implicmure is mure likclv 1[ ),farv 1s a �mall ,h,ld A likelv analvsis herc is thal I got a new Nintendo
Jnd is ac1ua1(v prescni m thc room. i f )vlary is :in ·aduil and ouc oi game 1� a ,rait:1Mnt (a kind oí reprcscnta11vc). pcrhaps
carshoc. Annic .;nuld he hum,,rously imp(ying that :Vlary h:.1s ·1 w�-rct wllh .1n t:!crnc.:111 ui boasting.
crush un th<! úcntist.
Th.:sc dialogu.:s 1llus1race !1ow ,pc;c,h acL, oftt:n come in pairs:
n:4ucst1offcr. 4uc,t10nfanswer. a,cusatinn/apology. s1a1c.:mt:núqucry.
UNIT 6 In (el wcrc ynu surpriscd by Fayc·s response'! h ,c:.:ms as 1f EJ
6. 7 (a) "" TI1e vcrh is pcrtnrma11v.: but thc �ubjcct ,� nol m the
fir.;t pcrslln_ You hereby congratulace me munds lfü­ mii:ht havc bccn followmg che.: ,ame ·ma1cgy :is Jane in dialogue (a).
tmctly llÚÚ. L nfortun:ndy. 1c rcsul!ed 111 a rath.:r blunt Jircc!lve trom Fayc ra1hcr
(b 1 :-lo. TI11: ipcakcr �annot i:nvy someonc simply by spcakmg. thun an nffcr to dc:111 up ihe �arage.
So, mvy is 1101 a pcn"orrn:uivc verb. Note thc o<lditv of 1
hereby envy yo u.
(e) Yes. Thc vcrb is perrorrnat,ve sincc 11 1s possiblc to :,itve 7.11 (a) r\llhllu!lh th1s mcludcs thc pohtc .1ddi1ion ur please. this
an ,,rucr by ,pcaking. Tiu: suhicct i, :he ,p.:akcr. The verb is füll a direc1 Jirecuve. lt has an imper:wve 5trucrure and
is 111 the >1rn!')I.: prescnt tense. 1 herebv comm¡¡nd vou it fulfils !he fclicav conditions for a <lirecuvc. Thc speaker
to put out th¡¡c cig¡¡rene �uunJs srilted but nut o<ld. has thc nght tu m�kc this rc4ucs1. Jnd thc child is capable
tu) '.'<o. 1111: vcrh 1� p.:ri'ormauve bue ot is 111 the pase tense:. ,lf .;;1rryong 11 Jul. Thc rc4ucs1cd :iction is not fürne1h111g
'mré 1he lld<lity <ll I hereby warned you noc to go. that ha., .1lrc:1dy h:ippencd ,,r would h:ippcn 1nyway. ll1c
(e) \lo. Thc vcrb 1s nul pcrformative. You c:1111101 pUl t,>ys .11.:,1011 1s dcs1r:1blc to thc ,pcaker
Jway by �peaking. Thc · hcreby" test pro<luL-cs: Hereby p ut ( b) llus •� an indircct din:cuvc. ll is .1 surfacc rcprcscntativc
your toys aw¡¡y_ (dcclar:.uivc �trucrurc) but vmlatcs ,1 ki.:y felicity condition
1 f) '1,,.TI1e ,ubjcct •� on lhc lir.,t pcrson Jn<l thc vcrb is in íor rcpr�-,;cntauvcs: ,1 rcprcsentativc should statc infor­
lhe simple prcscnt tense. But. •.vhilt: �onvíncmi; ,an be m:uion Lhat 1s nut jlfcadv known to the hc:m:r. Note th:11
J()nc hy ,pc:ikm�. 11 ,,, nlll under thc CIJntrnl ,Ji thc ,;pcakcr thc ;ratcmcnt .1bou1 rnaking thcbc<l rncnl1oris JO JC[ ,hJl
.m<l 1s thcrdorc not J pcrtormauvc vcrb. '.'Jote thc odditv 1s dcsirahlc to thc ,pcak�r .1nJ which has not happc:ned
,,r We hereby convince everyone with our argument;. vet. cwu k t:,• (clicitv -:on<litilln� for a dirccuvc. :-lote also
that thc ,Hhcr t�m,iicions for ·1 dirt-ciivc ·1rc .1lso fullillcd.
90 ANSWERS TO FURTHER EXEACISES ANSWERS TO FURTHER EXEFICtSES 91

(e) This is a psc:udo-dircc1ive. Although it has an 1mpc:rativc 8.8 Most pcople pcrceive the (a) mcmber oí cach pair to_bc les.,
íorm. r.hc: •din:cted' acr is po1cntially much more desirable politc. Thc "ºº''L vt;RliS • .:un, co14/d, should, will, would, mus/. mu_v,
ior thc hcarcr lban thc speakt:r . .-\nd besides, lherc is no mig/1 1 convcy not only varying dcgrccs oí ccrt:iinty about thc cruth
use: Jirecting somcon..: not tv do an acr whích thcy havc of a statcm.:nt (He must have failed his exam vs. He might have
just done:. In fac1. w.: rccogníze thís as a common altc:r• failed his exam). but also varying dc:gn:cs of obligation oa the
natívc 10 You're welcome (an e;o¡prcssive). sub¡cct <>Í thc �enlence. Thc se uner:inccs are ali indircct direcrives -
,mee 1hcy hnve a dcclararive rather !.han an impcr:nive form. but
thc (a) ulterances sct:m much lcss indirccc titan thc (b) utter:incc:s. -
UNIT 8 8.6 Secrwn :\ Mu�t pcoph: rank 1hc u111::rances líke lhis: Thc use oí high obligatíon mlldals lik.: will and m,w in combin:ition
with thc bc:irer as subJt:ct (you). and thc facr [hat tht: act� rucnlioned
1( 1\ tanc� Nnt really. 1 hatP �picy fonrl
Lnvolvc b(!nt!fit for lllt.: speaker anJ crn;t lur thc l1\!.1re1. '°''kc th\!m
(bJ fonc: lt's prerty good value, bue the food could have
n.:arly as blunt as imp.:rJtivcs.
been less spicy.
<el Jane: 1'11 say'
2(bl That's rubbish! 1 loved it.
(cJ Parts ot it were a bit slow.
/al So did l.
3(b) He is not!
1c1 l'm sorry, 1 have to disagree with you.
(a) Well, he has done sorne íoolish things.
Agrottment muxim Wha1 .:n1<:rges here is Lc:ech'5 ,c.;llEE."1E:-rr \IAXJM: nurumae
disagreemen1 between selí ;ind othcr; ma."ÓOÚ2e agrcemcnt betwccn
sclf and 01her. Blunr rc:jection o( anotber pcrson·s .1.,;scrrions as in
l(a). 2(b) and 3(b) 1s u.sually se.:n as tmpohte. Bro1110 and Lc:vinson
woukl say ihat tlus thrc:atens positivc face as it implics that the
speaker doc:s not sharc or valuc che hc:ircr s bclicfs. So. wc oftt:n
t.ry lind at lcast :1 basis íor parual :igm:ment as iu l(b). 2(c) and
J(:t). Ha,c you nouced rhan whcn wc muse dis.1grcc with somconc.
wc oftcn mitigatc this by apnlo�i�ing íor it as 3{c)'!
.frcrw11 8 \.lust pcoplc rank 1hc ( .1) uucranccs ,n cach pa1r as more
puli1t,. What emerges hen.: is L..:t:ch's ,11)Dt'-'>TY '"':<tM: minimizc
pr.iisc: maximi1.e dis¡,rJise oí sclí. Compare How clumsy I am! with
How talented I ami An cxplanalion for thc diíforencc hctwecn -l(a)
and -l(b) 1s that in -Ha) thc speaker supprcsscs L11<: role as a gcnccom;
bendactor ,md U1crcforc appcars more modcs1.

/ \
-
� ,' Her,.: .1rc ,omt: possibilitics:
Say nu1hi11g: but k.ct:p shillmg arounJ un thc sofa or craning
:,,,,ur ncck.
Say �omt:thing off record: This is a really exciting programme.
Say somcLhing on recuró baldly: Move out of the way.
Say somcrhing ,1n record wi1h J facc-,;aving act using positive
puli1cni.:ss: You make a bener door than a window. or How
about moving over just a teensy bit. ,
S.iy somcthing ,>n rc.:urd wirh a facc-sa.,ing Jet llliing ncgativc
p,ilit.:ni:ss: Would you mind moving just a bit?
 818LIOGRAPH'I' 93

BIBLIOGRAPHY Gre.:nc. ,\ l 1%9) Pul/et 511rprÚ(S. Gknvic:w: Scon. Fon.�man &

Cu.
Grecnc. J (i9S6) l.,mg:ia�c (.,'11clttrsru11di11g· r1 Coi,:11111i-e rlpproaclr.
Buckingham: Open LlnrH:r..ity Prc,;s.
Gnc.:. P. (1989) S11ulies III r/rc W<1y of Woflb. C.1mbndgc. MA:
Harvar<l U111vcrs11v Pr.:ss.
Huriord. J. and H�aslcy B. (!983) Scmu1111cs: 1 Coun,1buok.
C.1mbriJgc: CJmbrid\lc lJniv.:rs1ty Pn:ss. •
L.i!,ov. W Jntl flnshcl. D. (1977) Th,m1pc1111e: Discu11rre: P,vcho­
,J,t'r'1nv ,,. C,1,11.,tr\/1t1on ",.w York. AcacJcm1c Pres..�.
L.ikotr." G .•mJ Johnsnn. �l. (l':lllO) Th.: ifrt11phor1 Wc Uve B_v.
Chic::i�u: Cmv.:r�uy or Ch1ca!¡U Prcss.
L.:,:ch.G , 1981 l S,•11w,wcs. Hamwnili.wonh. Pcngmn.
L.-:.:cn. G ·,,¡;:;) PrmL·:pitt, ,JJ l'rt11/lll<1I1.:s. L<>nJun: Longman.
l..:�111sun. S. ('.•l�3) Pra�m11ru:s. CJmhnd�c: C1mbrid!,!c C111vcrs1ty
Pr.:ss.
\lcCJ i.:c:. \ (!•NS) ·Scntcm:::s comb111eJ: tcxt :111d Ji!icoursc·. m
( R.:t.:renc:!s mark.:J wuh • ar.: parucularly su11able for bcgmnl!rs)
J. Glc:L�on (l!J. ) P1vclwli11 �uisw::, ('.:nJ cJn). Fun Worth: Harcoun
Bracc.
\nnb1k. R. (l'J-:-:!) Why a Duck. Londun: $tudiu Vb1a
0t,lcr. L. ind :"vknn. L. 1 l')�) Exceprwn11i L.i11'-:11ugtt Jnd Lim;uist1c,.
.-\.-ih. R. ( l 9ll5 ¡ l lvwfl!rs. Hor,ham: R.1vcuc.
:-.cw Y,,rk: .\caJcmic Prcss.
.\tkmsun. K. am.l Couplam.l. :-,.;_ (191lll) ·AccommoJation JS id.:ulogy".
1' .:1 ras. R. and Petras. K. l l':194) fhc iíó S111p1dl!St f/uni:r Ever SatJ.
LJ11gu11gc t1nd Co,r,11wn1cut1011 !i; 32J-7.
Lundon. \lich:ic! O'\.l:Jra Book.�.
Austin. J.L. íi9'"5) How 10 Dv T/im:;s ..,111! Wur,l.\- (:nJ .:Jn).
t'ust. E. (IIP-'.!\ J:.r,queffe (rcplic:i cdiuon puohs �d m l':10':IJ. Ncw
(J. t;nn,on anJ :"vf. Sb,sa .:ds) 0xford: 0xford Umvcrsíty Pr.:ss.
Y,,rk: Funk & Wa!!nnlb.
Bishop. D ( 1U97) l,11cumma11 (,"11dt!rs1mrc/i11�. Hove: P�ychology
Sc:irk. J tcd.l ( 1•r! \ Tirtt P/11/m·ophv of LJ11i:11ugl'. 0xtord: 0"tord
Pre:.s.
L.nrvcrs1tv Prcss.
Blakcmorc. D. (l<Jl>'.:l f.,"11dcrsrumii11,: U11erancitS. 0xford: Blackwcll.
'icarh:. J, ( Í•r l)\ E.tpre,�11111 11111/ \frm11n,;. Cambridge: Cambridgc
Brown. P anJ Lcvmson. S. ( l <187 ) Puli1ene:,,s: Somc Umversufs in
L mvcrsny P,C\S
l.,m,:11u�c Cst1f/l!. C.imbnJgc: C.imbmJgc Umver.my P:c:;:;.
SimlJ\UO. P r t'l•l31 LJn,:11ui:c. ldt:olm:._. o1111i Pa1111 of Vicw. LunJon:
Cccs.:. J. .inJ B,iotll. C. 11977) Fuwfrv fuwers. L,mJon: Cum.1.:1
R,iutlcJ�c.•
Public:iuuns.
'ipcrbcr D ,1m.l Wilson. D. (, •Ji!Cl) Rdevwrc,•: C:u11111111mrn1wn o1n,l
Cuupcr. G (c:d.1 ( 1º1!7) Ri:d I',1p,: /{o/ti:, up .Vew Bndl/e. :>kw Ynrk:
C1J i:11111<m. 0xturd: Blu.:kwcll.
Pengc::.
'itubh,. \,1 ( 1'183 ) DLfc,mr;t! A1111/v.f1s. 0xiord: Black-.,!!11.
(\iulihard, :VI. ( 1985) .411 h11roducrw11 ro Discourse ,·\na/vs,:, (:!m.l
rhornborruw. J. .111d Warcing, S. (1998) Pu11er1L'i III La11gU11,;c.
clln). Lundon: Lone.man.
L,>nllun. Routlcdgc. •
Cry�tal. D ( 191!7) The C.1mbrrd,:e E11cycf11petliu uf Lam;1111ge.
rumcr. J ( ¡ •>77\ v,,.,.,, ,md 5¡1��1·/r 1111/w r/,.-111r,, <3r<1 ,.,jn I Lnndon·
C.,mbmigc: Cambridge umvcrsny Prcss. •
Pí1111an.
Ellis. A. JnJ Bc:1111c. G. (1986} f'i,i: Ps_vclwfugy oj Lu11g1111�t! ,md
"fulc. (j ( t•><,.ll l'm,:111at1L"l. l),i;tun.1: Ü'.'<iurd Univcrs11v Pre,.,,.•
C..:m11m11mca1um. Hove. Ljwrcncc Erlbaum Assoctatcs. •
f
Ervm-Tnpp. S. ( 1979) ·OulJrcn·s verbal 1urntakm! - m E. Ochs jfll.l
B. Sd1idfclin (.:lis) D.:v.,/opm.:11111( Pr11g111,mcs. Ncw Yurk:
A..:;11Jcm1c Pr.:,s.
Fosrcr. S. / 1990) Tire C1111111111111cu11vc Comperence af Y111111,:
C..:l11/drc11. LonJun: Loncman. •
GJrnh:im. -\.. 1 !'1�51 P1;chuli11,:11,:,·11cs: Cmrrul r,,p,lS. L,m<lon:
Routlc<ll!c.
<ilc:;1son. J. (<!J.) 11m¡ //re De'ldopme111 ol LJ11r:1111,:i: 1J1h clln).
Ansron· .\llvn & Bacon.•

92
 INOEX 95

INDEX Foster. S. 70

Gamham. A. i9
nc11Jtion 20
ncg:11ivc face 64
nt:ga1ivc.: policc:ncss 64-5. 81. 90
gcncr:11 conditions 51
eeneralized convcrsational oif record 65--ó, 90
- implicanm: J6...l.!, 88 one-w:w eniailment U. S5-6
Glcason. J. 70 en recÓrd 65-6. 90
Grcenc. J. 71
Grk.:. P. 27. 32. 60 paralinguisuc fealtm:s 58
paraphrasc 3. ·[ L-12: see also
heuQcS Jl �cm::mtic. pragma1ic !')ar:.t­
·haeby' test 46. &, phra..�cs
Hurford. J. nnd Hcash:v, B. particularizetl convcrsaúonal
11) imotica1un: 36--l), SS
hypcrbolc 87 passi've 84
hyponym 39 pt:rfomiativc .tS-6. 88
hyp,mymy 39 pcrformativc vcrb �5-7
pc:rlocuti,111 +t 46-7. S\I
1llocut1011 44. ➔l;-7. 89 positive face 64
Tht: pa¡;t: numb<:rs in bold imJicalt! whcrc a Kl!Y woRo is dclincd
1llocu1ionary force +t 46-7. positivc polill!íll!SS 64-5. 8l. 90
ant.l/or illus1r.i1eJ by ex:1mpl,:s. Authurs· nam<:s which appcar in 1h1s
indcx are those spcciticaUy mencioncd iu 1hc 1cxt or excrcise:. Cor
55 posscssivcs 20
1mpcrative s1ructure 111. ➔3. 5J. pragmac11: parapitrasc (PP) 3.
Units 1-lfl (.,ce alsu Bibliography).
5n. 62, 65. 80. 89 �-6
acuve 84 co-ordinating conjuncuon 40 1rnolic:tl11n: s,:.: conversationaJ pragma1ks (<lctiniúon ot) 5
agrecmcnt maxim 90 Coullhard. M. 49. 58 iinplk:nure prepara1ory cúnditions 51
.1mbiguily 72-3. 77: :m: aiso Crystal. D. 7--<'l inJctinitc :mide 3-t pr::s:.:ppos:ticn (dcrinitioa cf}
lc:dcal ambiguity. sym:ictic imJircct spc<:ch acL� 55-6. 39 19. 22
ambiguity dcclararion� 5J..-4 i111erroga1ivc s1ruc1ure 18. -G. pseudo-dirt:ctive 57
analvtic scn1encc 10. 85 Jcclar:11ivc structure 18. 43. 5-1. 5.1. 56
:inco.nym 84 89 qu:ility maxim 27. 63. 76, 87
apprubation ma.lim 63. 65-ó dctinitc nuun phr.tsc 20 L.1hov. W. 1111d Fansht!l. O. 58 quan111y ma.�im 27. 1>.3, .'!7
,llmosph<:rc cffccl 75-o dcomic 73 Lakvif. G. and Johnson. M.
Austm. J.L. 42-3, -N. 60 c.Jcscrip1iv<: fallacy -43 ;'! rclcvance maxim 27. 40. 74. 87
auxiliary vcrb 40: see 11/so dircct spccch :1c1s 55-6. 89 Lecch. G. 7�'!. 24 . .tl. 58. tíl. rcprescn1auvcs 51-l. 62. 66, 81,
mo<fa l verbs dircctives 51-5. 62-ó. 80--2 n3-4. 70 �•)
Levinson. S. 58 ro¡;a11ves 52-ó. 1>2. 89
8ishop. O 32 cllipsis 74 le,ocaJ .1mbigui1y T.3
Blakemorc.:, D. 7-8. .tl. .19 Ellis. A. and Beatlie. G. 79 lcx1c:d prcsupposnion 37. 87 sc-Jlar implic:.llures JS. 37. 87
Br:rnsford. J.D. 7.! entailm<:nt 9. 11-U. 14. 18: .,·ee lcxical ,cman1ic:; 2 S.:arle. J. -16. 5 l. 53. 58. 60
Brown. P. and Levinson. S. o4. 11/sv onc-way. two-way. locu1ion 44. -17, 89 seman1ic paraphrasc (SP) 3
70 rnulu:tl cn1:11lmcnts ,c.:ma111ii::; ( dt!linition oí) 5
t:pistcrnic 73 '.'vlarx Brolhcrs 29 ,;enrcncc scm:mtics 3
c:rnccllation .37-8. .10. &'l ex1stcn1ial prc�upposnion :?IJ. maxims 27: r,:e a/so approba- sc:nrcnct: vs. uuc.:rancc 4-5
darity maxim 27. a; .37. 86 11011 . .1grcemenr. daricy. similc 1(,-7
clasb 28 cxprcssivc.� 52-1. 58 rnudcsty. quali1y. quan1i1y, Simpson. P. 16. �4. -10. 82
clt:ft scntcncc 16 rc!cvancc. tact maxims sincc.:ritv ccmdition 51
commissivcs 51-4. n2. 66 í:lce 64 sl!c u/so nt:ga1ivc fncc. \llcCabc. A. 76 spcc.:ch ·act (<lctinition ol) .tJ
const:ttivc -15-7 púsitivc f:tcc mctaphor 76-7. 84 Spcrbcr. D. an<l Wilson. D.
contcnt conJiuons 51 iace saving act 65--ó. 90 mitigating dcvices 65 -l()-1
contradictions lO facc wants 64 modal vt:rbs 73. 88: �t:t! ,i/su stress patlerns 13
conversational implicaturc !5--6. felicity .:ondirions 50. 55-ó. 39 aux1liarv verh� S1ubos. M. .1()
33. Só. 88 llouting maxims ?:7. 29. R7 lllOÚCSIV n,a,�jm 90 subordinate dause 21
co-<1pcr:1tivc prioc:plc 25. 27 roregrounding 13 murn:il .cntailmcm 12. 85--6 supernrdina1cs 3\1

94
- 1
96 INOEX
synonym 84 1wo-way eniailmc:m U. 85-o
syntactic ambiguily 73
synthctically false 10. 85 uttcrancc see sent.:nce vs.
synthetically true 10. S5 uttcrancc
synthetic sentence 10. 85
violating maxims 27, 29. 87
mee maxim 61, 65-ó
talking-over 69 Wh-words 18
Thomborrow. J. and Wareing,
s. 79 Yulc. G. 7-.l lo. 14. 32. -19. 53.
truth value 17 70