Hand-Outs Biology 2014
Hand-Outs Biology 2014
Hand-Outs Biology 2014
Introduction:
BIOLOGY as a Science:
SCIENCE – comes from the Latin word “scientia” which means knowledge.
- Is both an organized body of knowledge and a process of inquiry that tries to answer
the natural world or find a solution to a problem.
2. Social Science
2. Physiology – (gr. Physis, nature) study of the functions of plants and animals.
3. Ecology – (gr. Oikos, house) study of the environmental relation and distribution of plants and
animals.
4. Embryology – (gr. Embryon, embryo) study of the formation and early development of the
organism.
5. Taxonomy – (gr. Taxis, organization and norms law) study of manning, grouping and
classifying of plants and animals
7. Pathology – (gr. Pathos, suffering) study of the nature of diseases, cause and symptoms.
8. Paleonthology – (gr. Palaois, ancient; onta, existing things) study of the past life as revealed
by fossils.
9. Geography – (gr. Ge, earth; graphien, to write) study of the principles of plants and animal
distribution.
10. Biotechnology – deals with the use of microorganism for converting new materials into food,
energy, chemicals, animal feeds, medicine and other products.
- alternative sources of energy to minimized pollution.
- it detects and prevention of diseases; means of producing medicines
- application of agriculture, food production, energy production and industry
that benefits to mankind.
- In order to conduct science, one must know the rules of the game. The Scientific Method is to be
used as a guide that can be modified.
Experiment. This is the most important part of the scientific method. It’s tests your hypothesis.
An experiment is a tool that you design to find out if your ideas about your topic are right or
wrong.
Conclusion. The final step in the scientific method. This is a summary of the experiment’s
results, and how those results match up to your hypothesis.
- You have two options for your conclusions: based on your results, either
1. you CAN REJECT the hypothesis, or
2. you CAN NOT REJECT hypothesis.
- was the hypothesis supported or not? After this step the hypothesis is either modified or
rejected, which causes a repeat of the steps above.
This is an important point. You can PROVE the hypothesis with a single experiment, because there is a
chance that you made an error somewhere along the way. What you can say is that your results,
SUPPORT the original hypothesis.
If your original hypothesis didn’t match up with the final results of your experiment, don’t change the
hypothesis. Instead, try to explain what might have been wrong with your original hypothesis. What
information did you not have originally that caused you to be wrong in your prediction? What are the
reasons that the hypothesis and experimental results didn’t match up?
Origin of LIFE
Life is everywhere
What is Life?
Defining life is complicated. Biology is often referred to as the science of life. Several theories
had been formulated about the beginning of life.
Theory – assumption based on certain evidence or certain observations but lacking scientific
proof.
1. The Divine Creation Theory. This theory states that life was created by some supreme
supernatural being. (God)
4. Marine Theory. According this theory, the first forms of life were formed under the sea
and mostly dependent on sulphur-based food chain.
An individual living creature is called organism. There are many characteristics that living
creatures share.
Living things make more organisms like themselves. They reproduce sexually or asexually.
Whether the organism is a rabbit, or a tree, or a bacterium, life will make more life.
Evolve biologically
Biological evolution refers to the change of inherited characteristics within a population over
generations. Organisms often adapt to their environment which causes, in the long run, their
characteristics to evolve.
UNIT II.
(PROTOPLASM)
The word protoplasm comes from the Greek word “protos” – for first, and “plasma” –
for thing formed.
All the living substances inside the cell (enclosed within the cell) is called protoplasm.
A. Inorganic Compounds
1. Water
Makes up about 75 to 85% of the weight of an active cell
Exists in free or in bound form
With 4 unique properties from which cell depends on them
Cohesion – maintaining the biological molecules
Specific heat – the amount of heat energy required of 1g before rises to
1degrees centigrade
Heat of vaporization – the amount of energy that 1g of a substance that
converted into gas
Heat of fusion – the ability of water to resist changing from liquid to ice
when heat is lost at its freezing point.
o Water – is important in digestion
3. Gases
Oxygen (98.5% as oxyhemoglobin; 1.5 dissolved in plasma)
o Oxyhemoglobin – haemoglobin combined with oxygen
o Hemoglobin – presents the Red Blood Cells (RBC)
CO2 – source of carbon and oxygen.
o Carbon dioxide – final metabolic product of carbon compounds present
in food.
B. Organic Compounds
Supply energy for its functioning
Regulate metabolism within the cell
1. Carbohydrates
Simplest organic compounds containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
Classification of Carbohydrates:
a. Monosaccharides – are the simplest carbohydrates and contain 6-Carbon atoms
Are the fuels for cellular work
Examples: glucose, fructose and galactose
Classification:
4. Nucleic acid
They ultimately control the life of a cell
5. Vitamins – organic compounds usually of plant origin needed by man and animals
for normal growth and development.
13 vitamins available but the body produces only 3 which are not even
sufficient to meet the needs of the body.
Must be supplied in person’s daily diet
1. Vit. A
2. Vit. B complex
B1 – thiamine
B2- riboflavin
B6 – pyridoxine
B12 – cobalamine
Folic acid
Panthothenic acid
Niacin
3. Vit. C – ascorbic acid
4. Vit. D
5. Vit. E – anti-sterility/anti-aging
6. Vit. K
Vitamin D - two forms: Vitamin D-2 & D-3 – both are anti-rickets
Required for normal growth & absorption of calcium &
phosphorus by the intestine
- Needed for the utilization of calcium & phosphorus which
are required for bone & teeth development.
seborrhea (seborrheic
dermatitis) – a functional disease of sebaceous glands
marked by increased secretion of altered quality sebum.
Commonly affects scalp (dandruff), face & trunk.
NOTE: This vitamin is easily lost through the urine & perspiration.
UNIT III
o Red blood cells (RBC) – also known as “erythrocytes” , 99% of blood cells, with
some 5 million cells per cubic millimeter of blood.
Function: to supply oxygen to all body cells
o Nerve cells – the nervous system is made up of trillion of nerve cells, which is
divided into 2 main groups; neurons and neuroglia.
Note: Each with their own particular role. All cells share the same basic structure.
A. What is Cell?
- it is the fundamental or basic structural unit of all living organisms.
a.2. Cytoplasm
- the cytoplasm is the part of the cell that lies between the plasma membrane and the
nucleus. It consists of a viscous fluid, which is 90 percent water and contains dissolved amino
acids, salts , sugars and other substances, and organelles. These include microfilaments( thin
protein strands) and microtubules(hollow protein rods) that together form a cytoskeleton which
gives the cell its shape and keep other organelles in their correct positions.
Chemical reaction:
- Anabolism – consists of those processes, such as protein synthesis, that
manufacture substances needed by the cell to build or rub itself.
- Catabolism – consists of those processes, such as the breakdown of
glucose during aerobic respiration, that release energy to power
anabolism.
5. Cells can regulate activities.
- all cells is made up of “DNA”
Cellular Reproduction:
Two forms:
1. Mitosis – is the simple cell division that starts from one mother cell and ends up with
two (2) daughter cells each having the same number of chromosomes.
2. Meiosis – is the reduction division wherein one mother cells divides into four (4) cells
each one having half the number of chromosomes of the original cell.
Significance of Mitosis:
1. Production of duplicate cells
2. Transmission of hereditary traits
3. Replacement of cells
4. Growth of cells
Significance of Meiosis:
1. it has 2 nuclear division
a. 1st
b. 2nd
Both are meiotic division
1. Diploid – dual somatic number of chromosomes
2. Haploid – single or halves number of chromosomes
Stages of mitosis and the characteristics of each:
1. Prophase – the chromatins are present like threads which are shortened and thickened
and later become the chromosomes and they are scattered.
2. Metaphase – they are the forces active within the cell. The chromosomes are aligned
at the equator.
3. Anaphase – the individual chromatid goes to the opposite poles or “split at both
ends”
4. Telophase – there is grouping of the chromosomes and spinning out of the long thin
threads of chromatins. It is also accompanied by the appearance of the nuclear membrane and the
nucleolus and the formation of the cell plate, or the appearance of “cleavage farrow”.
5.Interphase – the “resting phase”. The nucleus occupies the major of the cell volume.
PLANT TISSUES:
1. Permanent tissues – are composed of more matured differentiated cells like surface
tissues which form the protective outer layer.
a. Epidermis - is a one- layer tissue that becomes thicker in dry places for protection
against water loss.
- in the aerial parts of the plant, the epidermal cells secrete a waxy substance called:
cuticle – protects the plant from mechanical injuries, loss of water, and invasion of
parasitic fungi.
b. Periderm - this is present in the stem and constitutes the corky outer layer or bark of
old trees. They protect the stem from too much loss of water.
3. Vascular Tissues – these tissues are mostly found in higher forms of plants and enable
to exploit the terrestrial environment.
Ex. Trees, grasses
ANIMAL TISSUES:
1. Epithelial Tissues - covers and lining the body and its parts.
- Functions: protection, absorption, excretion, secretion and lubrication.
3. Cartilage -They can support great weights yet are flexible and elastic.
5. Muscle Tissues.
Give shape and form to the body; movement and locomotion
Skeletal muscle is responsible for voluntary body movements
Cardiac muscle pumps blood
Smooth muscle moves the walls of internal organs such as the stomach
Classification:
1. Location:
a. Skeletal – attached to the bone
b. Visceral – found in the internal organs
c. Cardiac – muscles of the heart
2. Function:
a. Voluntary – controlled by the will (control by the Nervous system)
b. Involuntary – cannot be controlled by the will
6. Nerve Tissues. These tissues are composed of nerve cells which are easily
Stimulated and can transmit impulses rapidly.
- Each cell is composed of a cell body containing the nucleus and one or more
extensions called dendrite fibers.
7. Vascular Tissues. (Blood)
Transports nutrients and oxygen molecules to cells and metabolic wastes away from
cells.
Composed of 2 major parts: plasma and blood cells (corpuscles)
Found: in the circulatory system
Function: carries oxygen, carbon dioxide, ions, nutrients an wastes to and from the
cells; contains cells for immune response (WBC).
3 Types of Blood:
1. RBC – Red Blood Cell known as “Erythrocytes”
- most abundant in the blood;
- present in haemoglobin;
-responsible for carrying oxygen and other digested food to all parts of
the body.
Runners
Runners grow along the ground from the parent plant. They form
adventitious roots & shoots at the tips,. Thus giving rise to new plants. An
example of a plant that has runners is the strawberry.
Tip Layering
Certain plants reproduce by allowing their aerial stems to arch down ward
so that their tips touch the ground. Thus adventitious roots may develop & new
plant shoots can grow. Examples of this type are blackberry, raspberry.
Leaf Reproduction
Some plants develop new plants along the margins of their leaves. An
example is the katakataka plant. In this plant, tiny plantlets develop between the
teeth in the toothed margin of the thick, fleshy leaves. As the tiny plantlets
increase in size, they drop to the ground & continue to grow.
Cutting
Cutting is a very common plant propagation method by which portions of
stems & roots are removed & transferred to loose, damp soil or sand. Woody
plants such as roses are easily propagated by stem cutting.
Layering
Layering is a vegetative propagation method that stimulates the growth of
roots & stem. A stem is buried in the ground then cut when roots are formed.
INTRODUCTION:
Plants are like animals and man. They have parts and each part has its own specific
function. Generally, a typical plant has 3 parts: roots, stems and leaves.
2 Types of Plants:
1. Vascular – trees, grasses
2. Non-vascular – algae - most love in water or in moist land.
1. The ROOT. The root is a leafless plant part which absorbs the dissolved nutrients from the
soil and water. It also serve as anchorage, storage and reproduction organs.
Ex. Sweet potato, carrots and bread fruits
2 kinds of roots:
1. tap
2. fibrous
- Tap root – is a type which is made up of the main root. Found in dicot plants.
Ex. Raddish, carrots
Dicot plants – two seed leaves
Ex. Santol, sampaloc, mango, rose, tomatoes & eggplants
- Fibrous type root – is made up of hair like structures of uniform sizes growing
like a brush. Plants belonging to this type are most monocot plants.
Ex. Rice, bamboo, corn and grasses
Monocot plants – have only one seed leaf
Ex. Orchids, grasses, pineapple, banana, ginger, lilies, onions
& sugarcanes
2. The STEM. The stem is a part of the plant bearing the leaves and reproductive organs.
Functions:
- support of the aerial organs,
- conduction of water and food nutrients from the roots to the leaves and to other parts of
the plant,
- reproduction
- development
Main parts:
1. apical meristem – found on the top of the stem, where embryonic leaves grow.
2. stele – the central part of the root or stem containing the tissues.
3. bark – it is generally referred to as the tissue outside the vascular cambium or wood.
3. The LEAF. The leaf is considered an important part of plant, because it is here where the
plant food is manufactured through the process of photosynthesis.
- the green coloring, chlorophyll is responsible for the transformation of sunlight or
energy from the sun into carbohydrates with the aid of water and carbondioxide.
- on the leaves, are numerous pores called the stomata which are actually responsible
for the respiration in plants.
Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants
A flower
is specialized branch where several spirals of petals arise
Reproductive parts:
Peduncle: The stalk of a flower.
Receptacle: The part of a flower stalk where the parts of the flower are attached.
Sepal: The outer parts of the flower (often green and leaf-like) that enclose a developing bud.
Petal: The parts of a flower that are often conspicuously colored.
Stamen: The pollen producing part of a flower, usually with a slender filament.
supporting the anther.
Anther: The part of the stamen where pollen is produced.
Pistil: The ovule producing part of a flower. The ovary often supports a long style, topped by a
stigma. The mature ovary is a fruit, and the mature ovule is a seed.
Stigma: The part of the pistil where pollen germinates.
A typical flower has the following parts: the calyx, corolla, stamen and pistil.
The calyx is a collection of sepals- the green, leaf-like structures that cover and protect
the rest of the flower in the bud stage. They also support the other parts when the bud opens.
Inside the calyx is the corolla. It usually consists of one or more rows of petals. These
are often, but not always, bright colored. The calyx & the corolla frequently attract insects. They
may also help to protect the inner parts of the flowers. In certain flowers, like the tulip, both the
calyx & the corolla are the same color.
The two reproductive parts of a flower are the stamen (male) and the pistil (female).
They are located at the center of the flower. Each stamen consists of a slender stalk, or filament,
supporting a knoblike sac called the anther. The anther produces various colored grains called
pollen. Pollen contains sperm nuclei, which are essential in reproduction.
The pistil is usually a flask-shaped organ that often consists of a sticky called a stigma; a
selnder stalk, or style, which supports the stigma; and a swollen base, or ovary. The ovary is
joined to the receptacle of the flower stalk. Inside the ovary are the ovules, which later become
seeds. Ovules may number from one to several hundred.
Pollens – are actually minute grains which are either powdery or sticky. They are so
light that they can float in the air and travel and suspended for a long time.
Fertilization
How does plant fertilization occur?
In order for fertilization to occur, sperm cells must be able to reach eggs. The sperm cells of
a flowering plant are contained in pollen grains. Pollination occurs when pollen grains are transported
from anthers to stigmas. After the pollen lands on the stigma, the pollen tube lengthens as it grows
through the soft tissue of the style until it reaches the minute opening of the ovule or the micropyle.
After passing through the micropyle, the pollen tube penetrates the thin wall of the embryo
sac. The tip of the tube ruptures, and the two sperm nuclei enter the embryo sac. The tube nucleus then
degenerates.
Within the embryo sac, one of the two sperm nuclei fertilizes the egg, forming the zygote
(the beginning of a new organism). Double fertilization occurs as the second sperm nucleus unites with
two polar nuclei to produce an endosperm nucleus.
After this double fertilization, rapid cell division & tissue growth begin within the ovule. The
zygote from one sperm nucleus and an egg cell will develop into the embryo plant. Meanwhile, the
endosperm nucleus gives rise to a mass of tissue called endosperm of the seed.
Kinds of Flowers
1. Complete flower – has all the parts – petals, sepal, stamen & pistil
Examples: Gumamela flower, rose, lily
2. Incomplete flower – may lack sepals or petals
Examples: ilang-ilang, santan, bougainvillea, poinsettia.
The Seed
A seed may be defined as a mature ovule. Seeds may be dispersed by natural
means, such as when pods open or fruits fall to the ground or by such dispersing
media as animals, wind, water, or people.
A seed has the following parts: the embryo, stored food, and the seed coat.
1. The embryo – like a very small plant that is contained inside a seed. It has the
potential to form all parts of a mature plant, including stem, root structure,
and leaves. It is protected by the seed coat, which prevents water from
entering the seed before conditions are right for germination.
2. Stored food – The stored food nourishes the young plant as it emerges from
the seed. In some seeds, foods is stored in a cotyledon, which supplies food
reserves until the first leaves develop.
3. The testa is the outer seed coat – protects the seed. It is smooth and comes in
different colors. The hypocotyl is a fingerlike projection that fits into a
protective pocket. At one end is the radicle (embryonic root) and at the other
end are the epicotyls (two tiny leaves folded over each other). Between the
leaves of the epicotyl is the bud that will later form the plant’s terminal part as
a shoot.
Seed Germination
Germination – means begin to grow or sprout
Germination happens once the seeds reach new ground, and a new plant begins
to grow. The ability of seeds to germinate is called viability.
The seed absorbs large quantities of water, and the embryo swells until the seed
coat bursts & the tip of the root of the new plant emerges.
The young plant that develops out of a plant embryo from a seed is called a
seedling.
A seedling consists of the main parts:
1. The radicle (root)
2. Hypocotyl (shoot)
3. Cotyledons (seed leaves)
The young plant begins to grow and eventually mature before entering a new
cycle of reproduction.
o Seeds can be dispersed in a variety of ways. They can be blown away by the wind
or carried on water currents. Some plants actually eject their seeds, causing them
to burst away from the parent plant. Some plants depend on animals to disperse
their seed. When birds or other animals eat fruit, they also are carrying away its
seeds, which will pass through their digestive system at another location. Other
seeds have barbs which attach themselves to passing animals, so that when they
are eventually brushed off, they may land in a place where conditions are right for
growth.
In order to grow, seed requires a place with right temperature, and water and oxygen.
Some seeds must be exposed to the sun, though not every kind of seed requires sunlight
in order to germinate.
When conditions are right, the seed starts to takes up water through the seed coat. This
triggers the embryo to use the seed's stored energy. Most seeds have their store of food in
the endosperm, which can contain proteins, carbohydrates or fat.
As the seed continues to absorb water, pressure builds until the seed bursts open. The
radicle, which is the first plant part to emerge from the seed, develops into a root which
grows downward in its attempt to get more water and minerals.
A Shoot Emerges
A shoot, called a plumule, starts to grow up towards the light and the air. A structure in
the embryo called the cotyledon emerges above the ground to form the first true leaves of
the plant called the seed leaves.
Growing towards the sun allows the plant's leaves to capture energy through
photosynthesis. If the plant's needs for sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide are met, it will
grow and thrive until it matures and produces seeds of its own.
EMBRYO
What is an embryo?
- The word embryo, comes from a Greek word that can be translated: something
that grows in a body. In botany, the plant embryo looks like a very small plant that
is contained inside a seed.
Significance
- The plant's fertilized egg is also called a zygote or embryo, which remains in and
grows to fill the embryo sac. The cells that developed as a result of double
fertilization become the end of sperm. As the embryo grows, the endosperm
surrounds it. The endosperm provides the stored nutrients to feed the plant from
the time that it is planted until it sprouts.
GERMINATION
INFLORESCENCE
What is Inflorescence?
- Is the arrangement of the group of flowers on plants.
Flowers are borne singly at the end of branches or at their axis, others are occurring in
inflorescence containing three or four or in a hundred flowers.
REPRODUCTION in ANIMALS
Reproduction – is the process by which plants and animals give rise to offsprings.
2. Internal fertilization – the eggs are fertilized within the female reproductive
tract.
- animals that use internal fertilization specialize in the protection of the
developing egg.
- ex. Reptiles & birds – secrete eggs that are covered by a protective shell
that is resistant to water loss and damage.
Mammals – allowing the embryo to develop within the mother. Most
mammalian mothers continue to care for their young for several years at birth.
The manner in which the eggs are produced may either be:
1. oviparous – are those animals producing eggs.
Ex. Birds, aquatic invertebrates like shrimps & insects like ants.
2. ovoviviparous – are those producing eggs with much yolk that develop within the
oviducts or uterus of the females.
Ex. Lizards & snake
3. viviparous – are those producing microscopic eggs that are retained in the body or
uterus of the females like in human species.
Digestive System
– process of breaking and digesting foods.
2. Accessory organs – secrete digestive enzymes that aid in digestion. These include the
pancreas, liver, and gall bladder.
o The process of chemical digestion takes place with the help of enzymes. Enzymes are biological
substances which act as catalysts – they speed up chemical reactions. Enzymes break down or put
together molecules.
“The key to a healthy digestive system is proper nutrition – a balanced diet of carbohydrates,
proteins, and fats, plus essential minerals and vitamins.
Carbohydrates:
- Are the most abundant group of organic compounds.
- Are the body’s primary source of energy.
- They provide energy needed for muscle contraction.
- Are digested into simple sugars which are then directly absorbed and utilized by the body.
2. Complex carbohydrates
- starch is a complex carbohydrate. Plants store glucose as starch. Starch in plants is converted by the
body into glucose during digestion. Beans, bread, peas, potatoes, and cereal grains are good sources of
starch.
- Fiber is also a complex carbohydrates. Fibers cannot be digested by the body because it does not have
enzymes to break them down for absorption by the cells. Fibers can be soluble and insoluble. Soluble
fibers dissolve in water, while insoluble fibers do not. Soluble fibers combine with fatty acids in the small
intestine and are released out of the body as wastes. These fibers also lower the cholesterol level absorbed
into the bloodstream. On the other hand, insoluble fibers add bulk to the fecal material. They also aid
fecal movement in the large intestine, resulting in a normal bowel movement. Vegetables, fruits, nd nuts
are good sources of fiber.
Lipids:
- Are organic compounds that do not dissolve in water.
- Examples of lipids inclide oils and fats. If a lipid is liquid at romm temperature, it is
generally referred to as oil, and if it is solid, it generally referred to as fat.
- Lipids act as an energy reserve. It provide essential fatty acids (EFA’s) that the body
cannot make itself.
- Salmon, sardines, tuna, plant oils (e.g. canola oil and olive oil), and seeds (e.g. walnuts,
and almonds) can supply the body with fatty acids. However, these foods contain saturated
fats. Saturated fats are fat that cause high low-density lipoproteins levels or LDL levels
(“bad cholesterol”).
- Too much consumption of foods that are rich in saturated fats causes the level of
cholesterol in your blood to build up over time. Raised cholesterol increases a person’s
risk of heart disease.
- Cholesterol is a lipid produced by the body. It is important in making bile and vitamin D.
EFA’s such as omega-3 are essential fatty acids which are important in reducing
inflammation and in lessening a person’s susceptibility to chronic diseases such as heart
disease and cancer. Cheese, egg yolk, and shellfish (like lobsters and shrimps) are some of
the foods that are rich in cholesterol.
- Fats are important in our diet. They provide protection and structural support to help
prevent injury to vital organs such as the heart, liver and kidneys. They insulate the body
from heat loss and extreme temperature changes. Fats also help absorb vitamins A,D,E,K
through the blood stream and maintain the health of skin and hair.
- Although they are essential to our body, excessive intake of fats can lead to health
problems including obesity, cardiovascular disease, and some forms of cancer. Hence, it is
always advised to eat fat-rich foods in moderation.
Proteins:
- Proteins are organic substances which are the building blocks of the body.
- Are made up of several small molecules called amino acids.
- The digestive system breaks down proteins into amino acids that the body needs to
produce cellular proteins.
- All cells in our body contain proteins.
- Are important for the growth of cells and tissue repair. Lack of proteins in the body
hinders growth, especially in children.
- There are 20 different amino acids and 9 of these are considered as essential because they
cannot be produced by the body; they can only be obtained through diet.
- Animal sources of protein such as fish, meat, eggs, milk and other dairy and poultry
products are good sources of complete proteins. This means that the proteins found in an
animal product contains each of the nine essential amino acids.
- Foods derived from plants are sources of incomplete proteins; they generally do not
contain as much protein as those derived from animals. Examples include legumes such as
nuts, soybeans, and soy-based products like tofu and soymilk.
Minerals:
- Are needed by the body to maintain normal physiological functions.
- There are 20 minerals needed by the body.
- Plants absorb mineral from the soil which are dissolved in water. Animals obtain minerals
by eating plants or other organisms. In humans, the majority of minerals are absorbed by
the small intestine.
Classification:
1. Major minerals – are minerals needed by the body greater than 100 milligrams (mg) a day.
2. Trace minerals – are needed by the body in very small amounts (less than 100 mg a day).
- Too little or too much intake of minerals may cause bad health conditions. Lack of iron can
result in insufficient red blood cells causing a run-down feeling. This condition is called anemia and is
normally experienced by women during menstruation. Older people are advised to take calcium
supplements to prevent osteoporosis, a degenerative bone disease in which calcium in bone is lost,
making the bone more porous and les dense.
Vitamins:
- Are organic compounds that regulate various metabolic activities of the body.
- Are needed by the body to grow and function normally.
- Are important in maintaining the overall health of the body.
- Vitamins A, C, and E are believed to help the body fight aginst free radicals (atoms or
molecules with unpaired electrons that can cause damage once they interact with the
cellular components of the body such as DNA).
- Vitamins C and D are important in keeping the teeth healthy.
- Vitamin B complex helps in the efficient functioning of the digestive system.
- Vitamin B1 plays an important role in keeping a person’s appetite. It also ensures that the
nerves function well, so the digestive system can send signals to the brain when it is full or
hungry, or if the food tastes good or bad.
- Vitamin B3 functions by keeping the digestive tract healthy.
- There are 13 vitamins needed by the body.
- The best way to get all the daily vitamins you need is to eat a balanced diet that contains a
wide variety of fruits, vegetables, fortified dairy foods, and whole grains.
- It is recommended by the World Health Organization that a person takes at least 400
grams or 2-3 cups of fruits and vegetables a day.
Digestive System
Respiratory System
Bronchial asthma – a disease caused by the narrowing of the bronchial airways of the lungs
which can lead to cough, wheezing, and difficulty in breathing. Bronchial asthma is caused by
allergens pr4esent in the surroundings, reactions to medicines such as aspirin, infections, and air
pollution.
Treatment: use of inhalers called bronchodilators, which contain medicine that causes the
bronchi airways to dilate.
Bronchitis – an inflammation of the lining of the bronchial tubes caused by the infection of
viruses and bacteria. The disease is acquired through cigarette smoking and exposure to polluted
air.
Symptoms: coughing, difficulty in breathing, and excessive mucus secretion.
Treatment: antibiotics and increased fluid intake to minimize the discomfort from the symptoms.
Emphysema – an inflammation and damage to the air sacs of the lungs. Emphysema is caused by
smoking and sometimes comes as an individual ages.
Symptoms: breathlessness and severe difficulty in breathing. There is no cure for the disease
since damage in the lungs is irreversible.
Treatment: use of antibiotics and bronchodilators, and cessation from smoking.
Circulatory System
Myocardial Infarction or heart attack – happens when the coronary arteries, or one of their
smaller branches leading to a part of the muscle is blocked, usually caused by a blood cot.
Symptoms: nausea, vomiting, light-headedness or sudden dizziness, shortness of breath, chest
pain and discomfort, and upper body discomfort in one or both arms, left shoulder, neck, jaw or
back, or upper part of the stomach.