Introduction to World Religions and Belief System

MOST ESSENTIAL LEARNING COMPETENCY:

Analyze the brief history, core teachings, fundamental beliefs, practices, and related
issues of Confucianism

Topic:
CONFUCIANISM

Life and Times of Confucius

Confucius is the Latinized version of Kongzi
and the honorific Kong Fuzi both meaning “Master
Kong.” He was born on September 28 on 551
B.C.E. Hence, it is considered a day of celebration
in East Asia—an official holiday in Taiwan
(Teacher’s Day), and a day of cultural celebration in
mainland China, Hong Kong, and Singapore.
Confucius was born in a small feudal state of Lu
(now Shantung province) in Qufu. His personal
name was Qiu and his family name was Kong. He
came from a noble family, but by the time of his
birth, they had already lost much of their wealth. His
https://bit.ly/3c6fcpQ
first teacher was his mother, and at the age of 15 he
set his heart upon learning, thus love of learning became one of the highest virtues in
Confucian ethics. He married at the age of 19 and had a son at the age of 20. At this
point in his life he had already served in minor government posts and had already
gained a reputation as an all-around scholar. When he was in his 30s he had already
started a brilliant teaching career because of his mastery of the arts of ritual, music,
archery, charioteering, calligraphy, and arithmetic. He was also familiar with classical
tradition, particularly in poetry and history. He is often considered as the first person to
devote his whole life to learning and teaching for the purpose of social transformation
and improvement. He held several government positions including as arbiter, assistant
minister of public works, and minister of justice in the state of Lu. Frustrated that his
ideals and policies were brushed off by his superiors, he soon left Lu. For 13 years, he
wandered from state to state, trying to put his theories to practice. At 67, he returned
home to teach (where he gained more disciples) and to preserve his classical traditions
by writing and editing. He died in 479 B.C.E at the age of 73 and he left around 3,000
followers who preserved and put his other teachings to writing. It is believed that his
ideas were documented in writing by a successor known as Mencius
 Confucius lived during a critical time in Chinese history called the Warring States
period (475–221 BCE) during which several states fought against each other in an
attempt to expand their influence over what is now China. It was out of this period that
the China known today emerged in the third century BCE under the unification of the
Qin Empire. While several important schools of thought emerged at this time, the ideas
developed by Confucius had lasting impact for China and the entire region. After his
death, varying successors and adherents contributed to the spread of the Confucian
tradition. As with many great schools of thought, continued debate and discussion about
Confucius’ ideas have kept his teachings alive.
SACRED SCRIPTURES: THE CONFUCIAN CLASSICS
The Five Classics are a group of books which was regarded as early
Confucianism’s basic texts. This includes the Book of Changes, the Book of History, the
Book of Poetry, the Classic of Rites, and the Spring and Autumn Annals. The Analects
is also considered an important source of Confucian teachings since it contains a record
of his conversations with his disciples. Let us now take a look at what these classics are
all about.
Confucius has often been considered as the author or editor of the Classics, but
contemporary scholarship has shown that even though many of these texts can be
traced back to Confucius, they have undergone a long period of development.
Moreover, these Classics were burned during the reign of the Qin dynasty and was
restored only during the Han dynasty. It was Confucius’ followers who exerted effort in
writing and collating his teachings and philosophies.
Book of Changes
Also known as the I-Ching, the Book of Changes is believed to have existed at
the time of Confucius and is the oldest of the Classics. It focuses on short predictions
following a type of divination called cleromancy wherein six random numbers are picked
and arranged under sixty-four hexagrams.
Book of History
Also known as the Book of Documents or Shangshu, the Book of History is
conventionally attributed to Confucius by early scholars. It is composed of speeches (or
prose) of royalty and ministers mainly from the Shang and Zhou dynasties.

Book of Poetry
The Book of Poetry, also known as the Book of Songs/Odes/Shijing, is a
collection of three hundred and five songs compiled around 600 B.C.E. which includes
four sections of various themes such as love, courtship, abandonment and dances. It
also includes feast songs or state chants.
Classic of Rites
Originally the Three Li/Three Rites/San Li, the Classic of Rites is a compilation of
ceremonial rituals, administration, and social forms of the Zhou Dynasty. It is considered
as a complete body of work which includes the Ceremonials (I-li/Yili), an early manual of
protocol for the nobility, describing such occasions as marriages and funerals, sacrifices
and even archery competitions.

Analects
The Analects, or Lunyu (“conversations” or “sayings”), is also known as the
Analects of Confucius. It is a collection of sayings and ideas attributed to the Chinese
philosopher Confucius and his contemporaries, traditionally believed to have been
written by Confucius' followers. It is believed to have been written during the Warring
States period (475 B.C.E.-221 B.C.E.) and finalized during the middle of the Han
dynasty. At first it was considered as merely a commentary on the Five Classics, but
later on acquired tremendous significance that it has been classified as one of the Four
Books along with Great Learning, Doctrine of the Mean, and Book of Mencius. Among
other important Confucian works, it has become an influential canonical resource in
Chinese and East Asian philosophy.

CONFUCIAN DOCTRINES/BELIEFS
Perhaps Confucius is more often celebrated for his Golden Rule: “Do not do unto
others what you would not have them do unto you.” Found in the Analects, this saying
teaches the ethics of mutuality and reciprocity. Thus, it requires people to treat others
equal to themselves and in equally the same manner as they would have wanted to be
treated. Some of the most important Confucian doctrines include the idea of Tian or
heaven; human nature; rectification of names; the five constants; filial piety; and
ancestor worship.

Rectification of Names
Confucius believed that to return to the ancient Dao, people must play their
assigned roles in society. This was later called the rectification of names, or zhengming,
The Five Relationships include: 1) ruler-subject; 2) father-son; 3) husband-wife; 4) elder
and younger brother; and 5) friend and friend. The responsibilities originating from these
relationships are shared and reciprocal. For example, a minister owes loyalty to his
ruler, and a child owes filial respect to the parent. In return, rulers must care for their
subjects, and parents must care for their children. The Five Relationships emphasize
the upright sense of hierarchy. Among friends, for example, seniority of age requires a
certain deference. Zhengming helps bring social order for it advocates the idea that
every person has a particular role at a particular time in life, and that by abiding to this
particular role, one is able to fulfil one’s social duties and responsibilities, thus creating
social harmony.
The Five Constants
The Five Constants, also known as the Five Classical Virtues, or Wuchang, are
the five most important Confucian ethics mentioned in the Analects and the Book of
Mencius. These include the following: ren or benevolence; yi or righteousness; li or
propriety; zhi or knowledge/wisdom; and xin or fidelity. Ren, or benevolence, can be
achieved by returning to li, or the traditional Chinese rituals. It means following the
social hierarchy patterned after family relationships. Ren can also be achieved by
extending one’s filial love for parents and siblings to fellow human beings. It can also be
achieved by avoiding envy or harm. Yi, or righteousness, can be achieved by having the
moral disposition to do good, which can only be possible after recognizing what is right
and good. It can also be achieved through the ability to feel what is the right thing to do.
Li, or propriety, which is considered as the concrete guide to human action and social
order, can be achieved by following the guide to human relationships (rectification of
names, doctrine of the mean, The Five Relationships); it can also be achieved by
following the norms of ren, or righteousness. Zhi, or knowledge/wisdom, can be
achieved by knowing what is right and what is wrong, which is innate in people who are
basically good according to Mencius. Lastly, xin, or fidelity can be achieved by keeping
one’s word and being faithful, for Kung Fuzi believed that only people who are faithful
can be trusted with important tasks. Fidelity is also seen as the key to nation-building.

Filial Piety as an Important Virtue

For Confucius, family relations provide a model for social behavior. Respect for
elders, whether your own or others, is emphasized, as well as kindness to your own
children and juniors, including those of others. These were said to be instructed by
Mencius and have provided inspiration for generations of Confucians. Filial piety is said
to have provided China with a strong sense of solidarity not only in the Chinese family,
but also in Confucian social organizations and even among Chinese communities in
different parts of the world. Ancestor worship is a manifestation of filial piety, or respect
for one’s parents, which is directed toward older relatives and ancestors. The idea of
ancestor worship is based on the key Confucian idea that it is expected of children to
respect and obey their parents in life, and to continue remembering them after they
have died through the proper observance of rituals. One way to remember them is by
worshipping ancestral tablets which can be kept at home. These ancestral tablets
contain the information regarding the place where the family originated and the names
of the ancestors. Another way to remember ancestors is to worship them in their graves.
People occasionally visit the graves of their loved ones, clean the graves, offer food and
wine. The ancestors were believed to have tasted the food before the whole family eat
the meal being offered. Ancestor worship is an expression of a union between the living
and the loved one, clearly a manifestation of filial piety.
The concept of hun-po or soul is important in Chinese cosmology and early
concept of dualism. Accordingly, the human being is made up of two souls: an upper or
intellectual soul (hun) which becomes the spirit (shen) and climbs to the world above;
and a lower soul (po), which becomes the ghost and goes down with the body into the
grave. Thus, ancestor worship is important because of the belief that even the bodies of
the dead ancestors possess souls which need to be worshipped and revered
WORSHIP AND OBSERVANCES

The Book of Rites recorded the rituals practiced by the Chinese for many
centuries. Some of these rituals have been classified under Family Rituals, also known
as the “Four Rites,” which are rituals or ceremonies that characterize a person’s growth
and maturity, namely: coming of age rites, marriage ceremonies, mourning rites, and
sacrificial rituals. Many of these rituals are no longer observed, but they offer functional
proof of the religious nature of Confucianism.
Four Rites

COMING OF AGE RITES are ceremonies held to signify that a young person has
reached the marriageable age and could join the different activities of his/her clan as an
adult. Two important coming of age rites among the Chinese are capping and hair
pinning ceremonies.

Capping refers to doing the male teenager’s hair in a bun/coil and wearing a cap.
This is a ritual that male teenagers have to go through sometime between the ages of
15 and 20. In this occasion, a male Chinese receives his formal hat and ceremonial
gown, as well as his formal name. Also, a wine libation (a drink poured out as an
offering to the deity) is made and the young man is formally introduced to his ancestors.

Hair Pinning refers to the gathering of a girl’s hair into a knot, and securing it
using a hairpin or a hairclip; often done by 16-year old women after engagement and
before their wedding day.

MOURNING RITES often involve intricate practices, which include the following
steps: First, there should be public announcement of grief through weeping, and the
wearing of white funeral clothes by the family of the deceased. Mourning also
constitutes the offering of symbolic goods like money and food from the living to the
dead, preparation and setting up of a spirit tablet, payment of ritual experts, the playing
of music and chanting of scriptures to accompany the corpse and to pacify the spirit, the
sealing of the corpse in a coffin, and the removal of the coffin from the community.
There is also a tradition of exerting effort to recover the deceased, which is being
practiced to avoid false death. They do this by trying to call or shout over the wandering
soul through the person’s clothes, in case the soul just lost its way back to the body of
the person.
 MARRIAGE CEREMONIES are an important aspect of Chinese culture since
marriage is considered as a central feature of society; through marriage, patience and
love are cultivated to promote the right virtue. Traditionally, a marriage is decided by the
parents of the couple, with wealth and social status as the primary considerations.
Monogamy is preferred, which means married couples should be loyal to their partners
for the rest of their lives. Marriage rituals include giving of gifts and following the
necessary etiquettes, from marriage proposal to the wedding ceremony itself, in which
the groom and his family meet the bride at her home, after the bride sent the dowry to
the groom’s house; on the wedding day, rites include carrying the bride to the sedan
and the couple leading the festivity at the bridal chamber; on the wedding night, friends,
and relatives are supposed to banter the couple; and on the third day, the couple would
go back to the bride’s parents’ home to pay respect.

SACRIFICIAL RITUALS are performed regularly by the descendants of the

deceased ancestors. Sacrifices are often given at festivals. One such festival is the
Qingming Festival celebrated annually by Chinese all over the world to honor their
dead. Qing Ming means “clear and bright” which describes the weather on that
particular day of the year. It is observed by visiting the ancestor’s grave to clean and
repair it, and through offertories, such as food, fruit, wine, incense, or candles.
Descendants of the deceased normally bury their ancestors with belongings that they
wanted to be transported to the spirit world with the dead. During ancient times, some
royal families put bronze vessels, oracle bones, and human or animal sacrifices in the
grave. These were considered as things one may need in the spirit world and as a form
of continued filial piety. It is the oldest and most enduring Confucian ritual still observed
today.

SELECTED ISSUES
Certain issues arise when we try to reconsider the relevance of Confucianism
and Neo-Confucianism. One characteristic of the Confucian social order is the fixed and
strict hierarchy, with the higher partners being composed of men—fathers, husbands,
and rulers exercising more right and privilege over women who are placed in a
subordinate position. Another issue related to hierarchy would be authoritarianism,
which was an influence of the philosophy of Legalism and which became the guiding
principle of the Chinese government during the Qin dynasty. Still, the issue of
Confucianism’s incompatibility with environmentalism is another aspect being analyzed
by scholars.
Female Subordination
It is often said that a woman’s life under Confucianism can be summed up in
three periods, also known as the “Three Obediences:” obedience to her father while at
home; obedience to her husband when married; and obedience to her son when
widowed. Women, being at the bottom of the Confucian hierarchy, are expected to
display ideal behavior and accommodation. They are expected to demonstrate
obedience before all other virtues and are not expected to act as independent beings.
Women lived separately from men by custom. Women were also assigned the role of
providing a male heir to ensure the continuation of the tradition that male children
should perform the ancestral rites. This also excuses the husband to take on secondary
wives if the first wife failed to provide him with a son, while women were not allowed to
see other men other than their husbands and close male relatives. In the “Five
Relationships,” it is very clear that the relationship between husband and wife should be
based on male supremacy. In the Book of Changes, the male-female relationship is
represented in terms of the superiority of heaven over inferior earth. The patriarchal
nature of Confucianism is manifested in certain beliefs like preference for male children.
Men are expected to inherit the family names and property, and are responsible for the
care of their parents, that is why having male children is preferred. For one, women are
the ones expected to give dowry to the family of their groom when they get married, and
among poor families, having female children has become a burden rather than a
blessing. This also paved the way for more cases of female infanticide and abortion
every year (although abortion is prohibited in Confucianism except in cases when the
life of the mother is at risk). Implementation of the one-child policy by the Chinese
government in the 1970s and the 1980s made it even worse for women. Some would
say that despite the elevation of the status of women in China during the time of
communist rule, the one-child policy paved the way for the return of Confucian values
and made it once again trendy not to have girls. If the parents have a daughter for a first
born, they would often try to have a son. If the first three children were girls, it is not
unusual to keep the first girl, give away the second girl, and abort the third girl. For
critics, it is obvious that the more Confucian the society became, the less freedom the
women enjoyed.
Authoritarianism

Authoritarianism is another challenge that Confucianism still faces at present.

Because Confucianism stresses the hierarchy between relationships, this has reinforced
top-down values and hierarchical systems by encouraging deference to one’s superiors
—ruler, father, teacher, or anyone older. When Confucian values are used to suppress
opposition, thwart fresh ideas to surface, or to protect apathy, then Confucianism poses
a serious threat to the development of society and the flourishing of democracy.
Confucianism has been criticized on the issue of father-son relationship, especially on
the aspect of allowing the bad behavior of a father and requiring the son to accept it
when this occurs. After all, Confucianism teaches that a father must be respected at all
costs and a son must obey his father no matter what. This suggests that children must
not question the authority of their parents and simply accept their subordinate status.
When they become parents, the son will become a father hence that is the time that he
will enjoy a superior status over his son. Meanwhile, the daughter, when she becomes a
mother, will continue to be in an inferior position, this time to her husband.
Environmental Ethics
One more issue that Confucianism faces today is that of environmentalism. While
it is true that Confucianism advocates respect for the environment, its acceptance of
people’s dominance of nature poses a threat to the issue. The Analects mentioned the
subordination of animals to social interests. Some experts also say that when faced with
the dilemma between maintaining social duties and the environment, Confucianism
would lead one to choose the former than the latter. Confucian logic would give priority
to defense of social duties over environmental protection.