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The Routledge Handbook of the Psychology of Language

Learning and Teaching
Tammy Gregersen, Sarah Mercer
The Humanistic Approach
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Jane Arnold, José Manuel Foncubierta
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THE HUMANISTIC APPROACH

Jane Arnold and José Manuel Foncubierta
The humanistic approach to education has significantly influenced the field and while much has been
written about its advantages, there have also been some criticisms. Humanistic psychology, which
has made contributions in educational contexts, according to Underhill (1989), “is a general term
given to a loose, overlapping confederation of explorations in the field of human potential that share
some common beliefs and values, but which do not work from a single articulated theory” (p. 250).
In language teaching, the humanistic perspective is an attempt to place the learner at the center of
the process of target language acquisition. According to Sanchez Calvo (2007), an “undeniable root
of learner-centred teaching seems to be the humanistic approach” (p. 191). Unlike the approaches
centered only on the contents of the language, a humanistic orientation promotes freedom and
learner initiative, considering the learner as an active figure in the process of learning. In this chapter,
we will review the importance of humanistic aspects of psychology in education in general and spe-
cifically in language teaching and we will see how this has been incorporated in language classrooms.
Humanism in Educational Psychology

Moving away from psychoanalysis and behaviorism (both considered to limit a person’s control over
motivational factors), Carl Rogers was one of the founders of humanistic psychology, a perspective
which emphasizes the importance of self-actualization and reaching one’s potential. He contributed
influential ideas for education, such as the need for unconditional positive regard in which learners
feel accepted and thus have more confidence. Amini and Amini (2012) comment that, for Rogers,
“a precondition for learning to take place is that the subject of learning be relevant to the learner
and stimulate active participation of the learner” (p. 102). In his book Freedom to Learn, Rogers
(1969) points out that if what is done in the classroom does not relate in some way to the learners
and what they want to achieve, this learning “… involves the mind only. It is learning which takes
place from the neck up. It does not involve feelings or personal meanings; it has no relevance for the
whole person” (pp. 3–4). He proposed five elements of significant learning: personal involvement,
self-initiation, pervasiveness (affecting behavior and attitudes), evaluation by the learner (who knows
if it leads toward what they want to know), and meaningfulness (p. 5). Gadotti (1994) says, “Education
should have a vision of the pupil as a complete person, who has feelings and emotions” (p. 12).
36 DOI: 10.4324/9780429321498-5
Rogers saw the teacher not just as someone who presents the subject matter but as a facilitator.
Underhill (1989) describes the three qualities of a teacher/facilitator that Rogers considered support
whole-person learning—genuineness, unconditional acceptance, and empathy:
Teachers exercising the quality of genuineness are able to be authentically themselves in

the act of teaching, rather than playing the role of teacher… A teacher with the quality of
unconditional acceptance is able to respect and accept her learners for what they are, in an
unconditional way… This teacher who is empathic… is able to identify with others and to
feel what it’s like for them at any point in a lesson.
p. 258
Abraham Maslow was also important in the development of humanistic psychology. In his theory
of a hierarchy of needs, Maslow (1943) focused on the development of human potential and how
people reach important achievements. The hierarchy is typically represented as a pyramid with
different levels of needs—physiological, safety, love, belonging, esteem, and self-actualization—with
the most basic needs at the bottom of the pyramid. For the highest level, self-actualization, Maslow
(1943) notes that, “It refers to the person’s desire for self-fulfillment, namely, to the tendency for
him to become actualized in what he is potentially” (p. 382). Later, Maslow also included cognitive
needs, aesthetic needs, and transcendence. His theory has been useful in psychology and in educa-
tional contexts, especially in understandings of motivation, even though it was not based on empir-
ical research. A valuable contribution of his work is his holistic view of education, which takes into
account all aspects of the learner—physical, social, and emotional, as well as intellectual.
In a posthumous book synthesizing many of his ideas, Maslow (1971) stated that a humanistic
educational approach would produce people who are:
…stronger, healthier, and would take their own lives into their hands to a greater extent.
With increased personal responsibility for one’s personal life, and with a rational set of
values to guide one’s choosing, people would begin to actively change the society in which
they lived.
p. 95
Implications for the classroom abound in many of his theories. For students to reach their poten-
tial, not only are their cognitive needs important to consider but they also need to feel physically
and emotionally comfortable in the classroom to make the necessary effort to reach their potential
as learners.
Similar humanistic ideas are also found in the relatively new field of Positive Psychology (PP) (see
Chapter 5). Two of its founders, Seligman and Csíkszentmihályi (2000) consider that, “Psychology
is not just the study of pathology, weakness and damage, it is also the study of strength and virtue”
(p. 7), and they mention “four different personal traits that contribute to positive psychology: sub-
jective well-being, optimism, happiness, and self-determination” (p. 9). If in the process of studying a
language, students experience these positive factors, then this is likely to benefit their learning as well
as their lives more broadly. In their research with university students, Macaskill and Denovan (2013)
found that in a group where they incorporated a psycho-educational intervention that supported the
psychological strengths related to confidence (which they measured in relation to self-efficacy and
self-esteem), there were significant increases both in confidence measures and autonomous learning
in comparison to the control group which did not receive the intervention. As can be seen, there is
considerable overlap and resonance between the themes addressed in positive psychology and those
which lie at the heart of humanism.
37
Humanistic Perspectives in Language Learning

In the 1960s and 1970s, humanism was a term being used in diverse contexts. Its exact meaning was
not always clear.The term was taken up by experts in many areas of foreign/second language teaching.
In his book, Humanism in Language Learning, Stevick (1990, pp. 23–4) proposes five components of
humanism:
Feelings. This includes both personal emotions and aesthetic appreciation.

Social relations. This side of humanism encourages friendship and cooperation, and opposes whatever
tends to reduce them.
Responsibility. This aspect accepts the need for public scrutiny, criticism, and correction.
Intellect. This includes knowledge, reason, and understanding and fights against whatever interferes
with the free exercise of the mind.
Self-actualization. This is the quest for full realization of one’s own deepest true qualities.
In a humanistic approach to language teaching, affective factors are very important. They include
both intrapersonal aspects, such as learners’ motivation and confidence, and also the group relationships
established in the learning context. Stern (1983) wrote that, “the affective component contributes
at least as much and often more to language learning than the cognitive skills” (p. 386). According
to related neurobiological research, the two areas cannot be separated. For example, neuroscientist
Antonio Damasio (1994) explained that the affective component of learning needs to be considered
when discussing the neurological conditions which lead to the effective functioning of the brain.
Schumann (1994) states that, “the brain stem, limbic and frontolimbic areas, which comprise the
stimulus appraisal system, emotionally modulate cognition such that, in the brain, emotion and cog-
nition are distinguishable but inseparable. Therefore, from a neural perspective, affect is an integral
part of cognition” (p. 232).
The rise of Positive Psychology, whose roots are firmly planted in humanism, balances what is
good in life with life’s adversities, and it works to promote positive experiences and to focus on posi-
tive principles in institutions. It has also influenced how second language practitioners approach SLA.
As Dewaele, Chen, Padilla, and Lake (2019) point out, “For many years, a cognitive perspective had
dominated research in applied linguistics. Around the turn of the millennium researchers became
increasingly interested in the role of emotions in foreign language learning and teaching.” This has
led to diverse applications of PP in the second language acquisition context such as those MacIntyre
and Mercer (2014) discuss; they consider that, “PP has been designed to address three topic areas: the
workings of positive internal experiences such as emotions, positive individual characteristics such as
traits associated with living well, and institutions that enable people to flourish” and so “PP aims to
contribute another perspective to psychology by studying what we can do to increase strengths and
attributes such as resiliency, happiness, optimism and the like in the general population” (pp. 154–
155). While important in any educational context, such attributes are even more significant in lan-
guage learning where affective factors can strongly influence the results of the learning process. For
example, students speaking in front of others in a language that they do not always control well is
an inherent feature of second language acquisition contexts and it may produce anxiety in learners,
inhibiting production and comprehension of language. Thus, it is especially important to establish
a classroom atmosphere for language learning that contributes to learners’ sense of confidence and
security. MacIntyre and Mercer (2014) comment:
Many language educators are aware of the importance of improving individual learners’
experiences of language learning by helping them to develop and maintain their motiv-
ation, perseverance, and resiliency, as well as positive emotions necessary for the long-term
undertaking of learning a foreign language. In addition, teachers also widely recognise the
38
vital role played by positive classroom dynamics amongst learners and teachers, especially in
settings in which communication and personally meaningful interactions are foregrounded.
p. 156
An aspect of positive psychology that has also been important for Humanistic Language Teaching
(HLT) is Self-Determination Theory which centers on three psychological needs: A need for a sense
of competence, a sense of belonging, and a sense of autonomy (Deci & Ryan, 2001). All of these
are relevant in language teaching, but a sense of autonomy has played an especially central role in
understandings of the language learning process and related pedagogy. Arnold and Fonseca (2017)
suggest that, “what matters most for the development of autonomy is often invisible, not innovative
technology or teaching materials, important as they may be, but rather what happens inside and
between the participants in the learning community we create in the classroom” (p. 49). According
to the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR), language learning autonomy “can be
promoted if ‘learning to learn’ is regarded as an integral part of language learning, so that learners
become increasingly aware of the way they learn, the options open to them and the options that
best suit them” and then they can be “brought increasingly to make choices in respect of object-
ives, materials and working methods in the light of their own needs, motivations, characteristics and
resources” (Council of Europe, 2001, pp. 141–142).
Diverse humanistic factors play an important role in the language acquisition process: learners’
feelings about themselves such as confidence, anxiety, boredom, and interest; how they see the
relationship of the language and their academic and personal goals; and if learning is personally
meaningful. Learners’ feelings are always present, though they may or may not be taken into con-
sideration by the teacher. However, when they are, the learning process will be more effective. As
Oxford (2013, pp. 99–100) states, “emotions are powerful motivators for cognition.” Also, when
considering the learning process, ideally, there needs to be a commensurate focus on teachers’
emotions and a humanistic perspective would imply a consideration of the teacher as a whole
person as well as their relationship to learners (see Chapter 21). According to Moskowitz and
Dewaele (2021, p. 118), this “can lead to a deeper, more nuanced understanding of the student/
teacher relationship and by extension, the FL learning process itself.” One of the conclusions of
the research of Cuéllar and Oxford (2018, p. 67), which was designed to draw teachers’ emotions
out of the shadows, is that their emotions are important and that “they can manage their emotions
to serve the learning process.” Teachers need to be aware of how their own emotions are going
to affect what goes on in the classroom and, as Dewaele, Gkonou, and Mercer (2018, pp.126–7)
explain, teachers “should be able to regulate their own emotions to ensure they are in the right
frame of mind to create positive rapport with learners, generate enjoyment and manage any anx-
ieties,” and they continue by pointing out the need to “work towards a deeper understanding of
language teacher psychology including in particular how they manage the emotional complexity
of the FL classroom for themselves and their learners.” Although there is increasing recognition of
the importance of the teacher as a holistic, emotional being, the emphasis in humanism has tended
to largely focus on the learner.
Integrating Perspectives
In a humanistically focused class, the teacher is sensitive to learners’ affective experiences. Teachers
typically seek to accentuate the positive affective elements such as interest and enjoyment, while at
the same time, managing any negative emotions such as fear of speaking in front of others. According
to the Affective Filter Hypothesis (Krashen, 1985), just as negative affect can close down the mind
and prevent learning, positive affect can provide invaluable support for language learning. This is also
reflected in the broaden-and-build theory, which explains how positive emotions broaden thought
action repertoires, and in so doing build personal resources (Fredrickson, 2004) (see Chapter 14). As
39
such, positive emotions are not just desirable outcomes; they are desirable input states as they have the
potential to create a positive upward spiral.
One important emotional factor for teachers to develop is empathy with students.Teachers do not
need to always agree with their students, but they do need to try to understand how they are feeling,
to listen to them—not just the language they produce but also the person who is speaking. In this
way, interaction with students can be more meaningful. In their research, McAllister and Jordan Irvine
(2002) found that, “an empathetic disposition led to more positive interactions with their students,
supportive classroom climates, and student-centered pedagogy” (p. 442), all factors reminiscent of the
core features of a humanistic approach.
One of the authors who dealt most directly with humanistic language teaching in its early stages
was Gertrude Moskowitz. Her work is related in diverse ways to concepts from psychology such as
self-actualization where learners are encouraged to know themselves better and reach their potential.
This connection with psychology has strongly influenced the development of diverse pedagogical
approaches in language teaching. Although some activities she proposed may not be applicable in all
educational situations, the principles she presents in the introduction to her book, Caring and Sharing
in the Foreign Language Class: A Sourcebook on Humanistic Techniques, relate to many of today’s insights
into the role of psychology in language teaching:
• A principal purpose of education is to provide learning and an environment that facilitates the
achievement of the full potential of students.
• Personal growth as well as cognitive growth is a responsibility of the school.Therefore, education
should deal with both dimensions of humans—the cognitive or intellectual and the affective or
emotional.
• For learning to be significant, feelings must be recognized and put to use.
• Significant learning is discovered for oneself.
• Human beings want to actualize their potential.
• Having healthy relationships with other classmates is conducive to learning.
• Learning about oneself is a motivating factor in learning.
• Increasing one’s self-esteem enhances learning. (Moskowitz, 1978, p. 18)
An important influence of psychology on education reflected here is the concern for educating
the whole person, taking into account both intellectual and affective aspects. Stevick (1990) discusses
Moskowitz’s work on humanism in education, which he notes involves “concern for personal devel-
opment, for self-acceptance and acceptance by others” (pp. 24–25), something Moskowitz saw as
closely related to humanistic psychology, which considers how learners feel about themselves and
deals with both the intellectual and the emotional dimensions—in other words, the whole person.
Humanism was also present in the work of Wilga Rivers, an authority on language teaching and
learning who made many contributions to the field. She stressed how John Dewey, psychologist and
educational reformer, felt that education was not simply receiving knowledge of the subject taught
but also about how to live one’s life and reach one’s potential. Rivers (1983) commented, “In the
individualization movement of the 1970s, humanistic education continued its struggle for recogni-
tion of the primacy of the individual personality against deterministic behaviorist emphases,” and she
pointed out how, while “content is not neglected in a class that uses humanistic techniques, in an
affective or humanistic approach, students are encouraged to talk about themselves, to be open with
others, and to express their feelings” (pp. 23–24). She emphasized the emotional aspects of foreign
language learning and stressed the need to make material meaningful for learners, ideas supported by
key figures in psychology and education.
An advantage of taking into account the affective, humanistic dimension of learners is that it can
make it much easier to address a concern that exists in many language teaching contexts today: learner
diversity. Studies of inclusivity stress the importance of meeting the needs of diverse students and
40
working sensitively with individuals from a range of backgrounds and with different needs. Research
shows that this can involve things such as those indicated by Williams, Berger, and McClendon (2005):
1. Focusing on students’ intellectual and social development; offering the best possible course of
study for the context in which the education is offered.
2. Purposely developing and using educational resources to enhance students’ learning; establishing
an environment that challenges each student to achieve at high levels academically while
encouraging each member of the class to contribute to students’ overall learning and knowledge
development.
3. Paying attention to the cultural differences diverse learners bring to the educational experience
and how those cultural differences enhance the teaching and learning environment.
4. Creating a welcoming classroom environment that engages all of its diversity in the pursuit of
individual and collaborative learning.
Humanistic teachers, aware of their students as individuals, can in subtle ways communicate to
them acceptance of and respect for their individuality. This can lead to a positive atmosphere in the
classroom, which contributes to one of the chief goals of HLT, the creation of a well-functioning
group that supports the learning process. In this scenario, diversity is seen less as a problem but rather
more as an interesting challenge and potential resource. Diversity is a primary factor considered by
Howard Gardner (1993) in his Multiple Intelligence Theory, which proposes that intelligence is not
limited to that which can be measured only by verbal and numerical means and that success in life is
often determined to a great degree by other intelligences, such as musical, spatial, kinesthetic, inter-
personal, and intrapersonal, which are not always taken into consideration in educational programs.
There are many ways we can work in language classes to use all learning capacities and all types of
intelligence in order to support language learning.
Reflection is central to humanism, and the opportunity for reflection is stressed in human-
istic psychology (Schneider, Fraser Pierson, & Bugental, 2015) and education. When learners are
encouraged and given time to reflect on their learning process, this can lead to deeper learning and
more security. For example, completing one exercise after another in a textbook does not facili-
tate connections to what learners already know and it does not offer them the chance to practice
self-regulation in order to see how they need to proceed in order to have greater control over the
language and their learning. Reflecting individually or together with others in the class, including
the teacher, needs to be part of this process. Reflection on the learning and teaching transpiring in
class is also important for teachers’ professional development as their systematic reflection can lead to
greater professional competence. Farrell (2015, p. xi) states that with reflection, teachers “can not only
improve the quality of their teaching, but also provide better opportunities for the students to learn.”
As Quesada Pacheco (2005) affirmed, “Reflective teaching is undoubtedly a valid means towards
effective teaching practices” (p. 12).
The origins of HLT come in part from the work in the 1960s and 1970s of psychologists such as
Rogers and Maslow, who showed concern for the development of the whole learner with affective
and physical as well as cognitive needs.This concern is reflected in the alternative methods developed
then; however, those working in HLT did not limit themselves solely to methods but rather extended
their views to a broad, systemic view of experience closely related to psychology where learning,
teaching, and living are interrelated. SLA and psychology have both stressed the importance of inte-
grating affect and cognition in the learning process.
Humanism in language teaching does not require adopting one of the specific humanistic
methods. Moskowitz (1978) offers “some specific ways foreign language teachers can weave human-
istic strategies into their already existing curricular materials” and she states that this does not mean
“total abandonment of what teachers are expected to teach, but supplementing these materials where
appropriate” (p 1).
41
Humanistic approaches provide language teachers with options for teaching the language that can
make significant differences for learners in their language learning experience.
We can opt for teaching the language in a way that may teach the structure of [the lan-
guage], but certainly nothing more (for example, an activity in which students practice
question forms with superficial, non-meaningful items); alternatively, we can teach it in a
way that, while practicing the same forms, permits students to share part of themselves with
others, and in the process perhaps learn more about themselves and each other.
Arnold, 1998, p. 235
In addition to general concepts, humanistic approaches include specific methods for language
teaching—Community Language Learning, the Silent Way, Suggestopedia, and Total Physical
Response—which incorporate aspects closely related to humanistic psychology. However, Underhill
(1989) notes that often these methods have merely been considered for their colorful techniques
“without serious attention to the values, attitudes and awarenesses that inform those practices,” and he
also points out that it is not essential to use one of the specific humanistic methods “in order to facili-
tate learning in a way that is consistent both with the values of humanistic psychology, and with our
own individual awareness, knowledge and skills” (p. 250).
Even without teaching specifically following one of the humanistic methods, there are aspects
related to these methods that can be of use in many language teaching contexts:
• Learner-centered teaching. Richards and Rodgers (2014) encourage teachers to take into account
that learners learn in different ways.
• Teachers work towards establishing learners’ well-being. In HLT, effective activities for learning are
seen as those that, along with presenting the linguistic information to be learned, have personal
significance for learners, take into account mind, emotions and the body, include the possibility
of choice and lead to a positive atmosphere in the classroom where learners feel comfortable.
MacIntyre and Mercer (2014, p.154) referring to Seligman’s (2011) model of well-being describe
it using the acronym PERMA “to reflect the multiple dimensions of the good life, including a
focus on positive emotion (P), engagement with activities that use one’s character strengths (E),
developing positive interpersonal relationships (R), finding meaning by serving a cause beyond
oneself (M), and recognizing areas of accomplishment and achievement (A).” Language teachers
can reflect on these diverse aspects in promoting the well-being of their learners during teaching
and as an outcome of it (see Chapter 15).
• Use of music. There are many advantages to using music in the classroom. Fonseca and Toscano
(2012) point out that it can reduce stress, relax the body, keep the mind alert, stimulate creativity,
improve concentration and be the basis for many types of language learning activities. Music is
an important part of the HLT method Suggestopedia.
• Use of images. Stevick (1986) pointed out that a modification of images in the participants’ minds
is necessary for verbal communication to exist. Many advantages for working with images are
seen in activities suggested by Arnold, Puchta, and Rinvolucri (2007): facilitating memory, crit-
ical thinking, connecting with the imagination, and making activities motivating and personally
meaningful.
• Movement. One of the HLT methods,Total Physical Response, has movement as a central element
and as Arnold and Foncubierta (2019) explain, it is beneficial for learning because it gets oxygen
to the brain, strengthens concentration, leads to more participative learning, and helps to change
the rhythm of the class.
• Creation of a supportive atmosphere in the classroom. Dörnyei and Murphey (2003) mention some
possible feelings students might experience in a new language class: General anxiety and anxiety
42
about using the L2, doubts about understanding the teaching and knowing what to do, inse-
curity about their competence with the language, and general lack of confidence. However,
they also present factors that will facilitate the creation of an effective learning community: The
positive model of a teacher who gives space to diverse opinions, closeness, knowledge of others
in the group, cooperation, and the satisfaction of completing tasks together.
Communicative language teaching (CLT), an approach rather than an actual method, uses com-
munication as both the goal and the means to reach the goal. Hence, group dynamics (see Chapter 22)
are especially important in that learners are expected to participate in activities where they need to
interact with others in order to learn to speak the language. The field of education is rich with
research on group dynamics, which Heron (1999) referred to as “the combined configuration of
mental, emotional and physical energy in the group at any given time; and the way this configuration
undergoes change” (p. 51). Effective classroom learning is facilitated by “great teachers who can create
a positive classroom atmosphere [and] transmit insights in language and culture in such a way that
learners will perceive it less as a ‘transfer of knowledge’ and more like a ‘self-discovery of knowledge’”
(Dewaele, 2011, p. 37). The focus on group dynamics is central to both HLT and successful CLT.
Within HLT, there are also a number of specific methods that have several special characteristics,
which we will now consider. Community Language Learning (CLL) is a method developed by the
psychologist Charles Curran, arising from his work with Counseling Learning but focusing specif-
ically on language learning. As Richards and Rodgers (2014) point out, “counseling is one person
giving advice, assistance and support to another who has a problem or is in some way in need. CLL
draws on the counseling metaphor to redefine the roles of the teacher (the counselor) and learners
(the clients) in the language classroom” which is where “the content of the language class stems from
topics learners want to talk about and the teacher translates their requests into an appropriate syl-
labus” (p. 303). The teacher is not doing therapy, but rather recognizing that learning can be some-
what stressful and providing needed support for the students, while little by little encouraging their
independence.
Feeling secure during interaction is central to the precepts of CLL. Larsen-Freeman (1986) points
out the usefulness of the teacher’s position in the CLL class since if the teacher sometimes moves
around the class, “the threat is reduced and the students’ learning is facilitated” (p. 96). Furthermore, as
the teacher responds to students’ language production in a non-threatening way, this encourages their
confidence. Richards and Rodgers (2014) point out how in CLL the interactions between learners
“deepen in intimacy as the class becomes a community of learners” (p. 306).
Suggestopedia is a method created in the 1970s by Georgi Lozanov, a psychiatrist and educator
from Bulgaria. Stevick (1996) describes Lozanov’s view of learning: “People are able to learn at rates
many times greater than what we commonly assume to be the limits of human performance” (p. 306).
Such issues are considered in what Lozanov termed “Suggestology.” Positive suggestion comes from
the teacher helping to remove barriers to learning; this may be direct (comments on how they will
be successful in their learning process) or indirect (use of music and a pleasant environment in class).
According to O’Connell (1982), for Lozanov, “joy and relaxation are the prerequisites of all
effective, fast learning. In language learning this means that students must feel comfortable, unthreat-
ened, secure, and at the same time interested, amused and involved in meaningful activities using
the new language.” It is only in this state that learners will “respond to the teacher’s desuggestion/
suggestion, encouraging them to perform beyond their normal expectations” (pp. 111–112).
Music is a basic element used to put learners in a relaxed state. Fonseca Mora and Herrero
Machancoses (2016) affirm: “Melodies and rhythm can create an attractive and enjoyable environ-
ment fostering learners’ willingness to participate in the language classroom” (p. 362). According to
Larsen-Freeman (1986), “On the conscious plane, the learner attends to the language; on the sub-
conscious plane, the music suggests that learning is easy and pleasant. When there is a unity between
conscious and subconscious, learning is enhanced” (p. 79).
43
The Silent Way, developed by Caleb Gattegno in the 1970s, concentrates more on how students
learn than on how to teach. Learning is seen as creative problem solving. The method involves
working with somewhat unusual things: a Fidel chart (a color-coded chart with symbols for the
sounds of the language), vocabulary charts, and Cuisenaire rods (small wooden rods of different colors
and different lengths) used in activities. Underhill (2014) suggests that teachers “may associate it with
colored rods and word charts, but the Silent Way is neither of those things and is better seen as the
language learning application of Gattegno’s much larger vision for education, the Subordination of
Teaching to Learning” (p. 213). However, the props used in Silent Way classes, due to their concrete,
visual nature, can help learners’ retention. The teacher generally speaks little. Rather than receiving
explanations, students are involved in problem-solving. The teacher will speak if needed, but students
generally work independently and thus become more autonomous.
McNeill (1982) points out:“The silences which occur in the lessons provide students with a chance
to process thoroughly in their minds the few things that have been given by the teacher” (p. 119). All
aspects of the language are dealt with but a special emphasis is placed on pronunciation. Richards and
Rodgers (2014) summarize the learning hypotheses of Gattegno’s theories: Learning is facilitated “if
the learner discovers or creates rather than remembers and repeats what is to be learned… by accom-
panying (mediating) physical objects… by problem-solving involving the material to be learned”
(p. 291). Learners are encouraged to trust themselves.
Total Physical Response (TPR) is a method developed by James Asher which, as its name suggests,
involves movement in the classroom and stresses the importance of listening comprehension. When
children are learning their first language, their parents give them many commands (e.g., come here, get
the ball…), and before they begin to speak, they respond with movement. Asher reduced learner stress
by teaching the language through physical activity wherein students were not required to produce
language in the beginning, but rather just show comprehension of what they hear (stand up, put the
book on the table…). Asher said that “most of the grammatical structure of the target language and
hundreds of vocabulary items can be learned from the skillful use of the imperative by the instructor”
(Asher, 1977, p. 4). After a while, students begin to produce the language, giving commands to other
students and reading and writing the language. TPR has generally been used in the early stages of
language learning, and it has been considered compatible with other methods. Thornbury (2013,
p. 73) explains how TPR “exploits the physical nature of the classroom ecology,” and he points out
how “the embodied nature of language strongly supports a role for incorporating the kinesthetic and
gestural aspects of communication in language learning.”
Implications for Practice and Research

One of the main implications for language teaching from the humanistic approach is the need to
develop a positive group atmosphere, something highly recommended in educational psychology.
For this, it is important at the beginning of a new class to provide opportunities for students—and
teachers—to get to know something about each other. Another implication is the importance of cre-
ating teaching activities that deal with the different ways that students learn, and insights from differ-
entiation approaches can be useful here. Differentiation has been defined as “a philosophy of teaching
purporting that students learn best when their teachers effectively address variance in students’ readi-
ness levels, interests, and learning preferences” (Tomlinson, 2005, p. 363). Teachers can deal with this
by varying their teaching to include different ways to connect with and engage learners. For example,
broadening our vision of the learning/teaching process can take us, as Foncubierta and Gant (2016)
say, to “a more multisensory way of learning in the classroom,” and where
the use of images, the emphasis on the emotional gaze of the learner, along with the
sensations that are awakened by musical instruments and the experience that we gain
44
through activities based on physical movement or through the feeling of moving through
imaginary situations, can contribute to the development of a more multisensory way of
learning in the classroom.
p. 150
Future Directions
Humanism is associated with many of the developments in language education from the 1960s,
1970s, and 1980s, but its relevance is just as pertinent today. Many of its principles and themes are also
reflected in the emergence of the field of positive psychology within SLA.Yet, there remains work to
be done to understand humanistic principles in light of contemporary educational challenges and to
consider how these principles apply not only to learners and the classroom group, but also to teachers.
From a relational perspective on the language classroom, it is critical to understand the teacher as
well as each learner as a whole person and the relationships between all the stakeholders as holistic,
feeling individuals.
Currently, in studies on second language acquisition, there is an important focus on the learner
and on interaction among learners and between teacher and learners (Murphey, 2015). In learning to
speak a language, it is not enough just to do exercises in a textbook; learners need to interact with the
teacher and with each other. Language teaching and learning is deeply relational and interactional.
Taking a holistic and humanistic perspective, teachers can consider both the cognitive and the affective
dimensions of the process.There is great potential for further research on how concepts from human-
istic approaches can continue to provide inspiration and positively influence the processes of language
teaching and learning. As has been shown, there is a range of diverse methodological approaches to
such work, such as from the neurosciences. Humanism and its related principles will continue to be
relevant for language teaching practice and research.
Reflection Questions
• What can we do in class to reduce anxiety and to make learners feel more confident and more
motivated?
• In education, why is it important to see psychology as dealing not only with problems but also
with positive matters?
• What could we use from the research in the neurosciences to promote learning in language
classes?
Recommended Reading
Arnold, J., & Murphey, T, (Eds). (2013). Meaningful action: Earl Stevick’s influence on language teaching.
Cambridge University Press.
Here there are a collection of chapters which deal with diverse ways to make learning more mean-
ingful for teachers and learners in the language classroom.
Richards, J., & Rodgers, T. (2014). Approaches and methods in language teaching. Cambridge
University Press.
This book provides a solid introduction to early developments in language teaching, to what they
consider current approaches/methods, and to alternative twentieth-century humanistic approaches
and methods, giving information about their design, syllabus, activities, and procedures, among other
things.
45
Stevick, E. (1990). Humanism in language learning: A critical perspective. Oxford University Press.
Stevick clarifies here terminology and concepts related to humanism and discusses how it has been
used in philosophy and education and by different authors dealing with language teaching. Examples
of the HLT methods developed by Curran and Gattegno are presented and humanistic elements out-
side the methods are also discussed.
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The Routledge Handbook of the Psychology of Language

Tammy Gregersen, Sarah Mercer

The Humanistic Approach

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THE HUMANISTIC APPROACH

Humanism in Educational Psychology

Teachers exercising the quality of genuineness are able to be authentically themselves in

Humanistic Perspectives in Language Learning

Feelings. This includes both personal emotions and aesthetic appreciation.

Implications for Practice and Research

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