ITM 0015

ECOTOURISM MANAGEMENT

The Nature of Tourism

Chapter 1
Presented by:
Shaina Santiago-Moraga
Attendance
Report
Review of the
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 ITM 0015
ECOTOURISM MANAGEMENT

The Nature of Tourism

Chapter 1
Presented by:
Shaina Santiago-Moraga
Chapter Questions:
1. Is tourism hard to define? Why or why not?
2. What is the difference between mass and alternative tourism?
3. Why is the discussion of values so important in the understanding of
sustainable development and sustainable tourism?
Is tourism hard to define?
Why or why not?
Magnitude of the concept
Tourism is difficult to define because it is dependent on the levels of
production and service. Also, tourism is intricately integrated on the
economic, sociocultural and environmental aspects of one's life.

Example:
If the sales of the restaurants were counted as travel and tourism, the figure
would artificially inflated by sales to locals. But to exclude all restaurant
sales would be misleading
Absence of focus
Clawson and Knetsch (1966) and Mitchell (1984): What complicates in defining tourism is its
absence of focus due to its complex integration in our socio-economic systems

Jansen-Verbeke and Dietvorst (1987): Leisure, Recreation and Tourism focuses on the experiential
and activity-based features; economic/technical/statistical generally ignore the human experiential
elements and focused on movement over political borders and money generated from it.
Structure of the industry
Leiper (1981): The discipline should be built around the structure of industry - 5 elements
a. A dynamic human element
b. A generating region
c. A transit region
d. A destination region
e. A tourist industry

Mathieson and Wall (1982) 3 basic elements

a. A dynamic element
b. A static element
c. A consequential element

Mill and Morrison (1985) like a spider web; Touch one part and reverberations will be felt
throughout
Interrelated system
Smith (1990) accepts the existence number of definitions of tourism

Tourism is defined as interrelated system that includes tourists and the associated services that
are provided and utilized to aid in their movement.

Tourist is defined as person travelling for pleasure for a period of at least one night, but not more
than one year for international tourists and six months for persons travelling in their own countries
with the main purpose to engage in activities for remuneration in the place/s visited
What is the difference between
mass and alternative tourism?
Mass Tourism vs. Alternative Tourism
Mass Tourism vs. Alternative Tourism
Tourism has been both lauded and denounced for its capacity to physically transform regions.
Tourism is the provider of long-term development opportunities; in the latter the ecological and
sociological disturbance to transformed regions can be overwhelming.

Mass Tourism has been criticized for the fact the it dominates tourism within a region owing to its
non-local orientation, and the fact that little money spent within the destination actually stays and
generates more income.

Alternative Tourism – forms of tourism that advocate an approach opposite to mass conventional
tourism – was to ensure that tourism policies should no longer concentrate on economic and
technical necessities alone, but rather emphasize the demand for unspoiled environment and
consideration on the needs of local people.

Although, mass tourism may be said to be predominantly unsustainable, more recently new and
existing developments in the industry have attempted to encourage more sustainable practice.
Why mass tourism has not been
rejected?
Why is the discussion of values so
important in the understanding of
sustainable development and
sustainable tourism?
Discussion of Values in Sustainable
Development and Tourism
Milgrath (1989) talked of values as fundamental to everything we do. He argues that
humans have as a central value the desire to preserve their own lives, which has
naturally evolved into a concern and value for other people – a social value.
Mass Tourism vs. Alternative Tourism
The AT sphere is shown to comprise two
types of tourism, socio-cultural tourism and
ecotourism.

Ecotourism involves a type of tourism that

is less socio-cultural in its orientation, and
more dependent upon nature and natural
resources as primary component or
motivator of the trip.
 ECOTOURISM

» responsible travel to natural areas

that conserves the environment,
sustains the well-being of the local
people, and involves interpretation
and education (TIES, 2015)

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Reference:
Fennel. (2007). Ecotourism 3rd Edition. Routledge
Group Insights/ Q & A Portion

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Next Meeting
Chapter 2: Ecotourism and Ecotourists
 ITM 0015
ECOTOURISM MANAGEMENT

Thank You
 ITM 0015
ECOTOURISM MANAGEMENT

Ecotourism and
Ecotourists
Chapter 2
Presented by:
Shaina Santiago-Moraga
Attendance
Report
Review of the
Last Session
 ITM 0015
ECOTOURISM MANAGEMENT

Ecotourism and
Ecotourists
Chapter 2
Presented by:
Shaina Santiago-Moraga
Chapter Questions:
1. Linking Chapter 1, how are sustainable tourism and ecotourism related?
2. What are some characteristics which have been used to differentiate
ecotourists from other types of tourists?
3. Do you think mass tourism has a place in ecotourism, or are the two
diametrically opposed to one another?
How are sustainable tourism and
ecotourism related?
Ecotourism Roots
Ceballos-Lascurain was the first to coin the phrase in the early 1980s. It
was defined as, ‘traveling to relatively undisturbed or
uncontaminated natural areas with the specific objective of studying,
admiring, and enjoying the scenery and its wild plants and animals,
as well as any existing cultural manifestations (both past and
present found in these areas.’ (Boo 1990:xiv)
4 Fundamental Pillars of Responsible
Form of Tourism (Hetzer, 1997)
1) minimum environmental impact;
2) minimum impact on – and maximum respect for – host cultures
3) maximum economic benefits to the host country’s
grassroots; and
4) maximum ‘recreational’ satisfaction to participating tourists.

According to Hetzer, the development of the concept of ecotourism grew as

a culmination of dissatisfaction with negative approaches to development,
especially from an ecological point of view.
 Ecotourism Roots

According to Nelson (1994), the idea of ecotourism is an old one which

manifested during the late 1960s and early 1970s when researchers
became concerned over inappropriate use of natural resources. Nelson
suggests that the term eco-development was introduced as a means by
which to reduce improper use of resources in development.
Ecotourism Roots
During the 19th century, many people travelled both in Europe and North America for the primary
purpose of enjoying the outdoors. For these people, ‘wilderness could become an intriguing
novelty and even a deep spiritual and psychological need.’

Fennell (1998) found an evidence of Canadian government ‘ecotours’ which were operational
during the mid-1970s. These ecotours centered around the Trans-Canada highway and were
developed on the basis of different ecological zones found along the course of the highway –
which was developed in 1976. This prompted Fennell to suggest that ecotourism most likely has
a convergent evolution, ‘where many places and people independently responded to the
need for more nature travel opportunities in line with society’s efforts to become more
ecologically minded.’
What are some characteristics which have
been used to differentiate ecotourists from
other types of tourists?
Ecotourist
An ecotourist is an eco-conscious tourist. It is a person who travels to a destination, spends time
and money for leisure, business, health, and other reasons, leaving the location better and the
people there more satisfied than when the tourist first arrived.

An Ecotourist is defined as someone who did at least one of the following activities during their
last travel:

Saw wildlife in its natural surroundings

Stayed in the wilderness
Visited a rainforest/ jungle
Visited national parks
Ecotourist

An Ecotourist is also defined as someone who agreed that they look for at least one of the
following activities:

Environmental/ ecological sites to visit

See wildlife in natural surroundings
Walk in untouched countryside and natural environments
Saw wildlife in its natural surroundings
Stayed in the wilderness
Visited a rainforest/ jungle
Visited national parks
Ecotourist

An Ecotourist is who sometimes plan trips around at least one of the following activities:

Bird or animal watching

Camping
Nature/ ecological/ environmental/ wilderness activities
Walking/ hiking/ bush walking/ rainforest walking/ rambling
See wildlife in natural surrounds
Characteristics of an Ecotourist
1. Wants an in-depth and authentic experience
2. Considers the experience worthwhile – personally and socially
3. Abhors large tour groups on strict itinerary
4. Seeks involvement, physical and mental challenge and not passive behavior
5. Adaptable, tolerates discomfort, often prefers unique and authentic accommodations
6. Have values that encourage ethical consumption of tourism and they will choose
destinations and companies on this basis
Types of Ecotourist
The United Nations came up with three classifications of the ecotourists.

1. Hard Ecotourist
This type of ecotourists is motivated primarily by a scientific interest in nature and usually looks
for those activities that requires strenuous effort. Hence the reason they tend to be demanding
for more amenities on hotels and resorts which makes the price go up.
2. Soft Ecotourist
This second type of ecotourists are more on the less intense and passive side of the spectrum.
They are interested and enjoys observing the wildlife, hiking and participating in local culture.
They are the fastest growing segment between all the three.
3. Adventure Ecotourist
This type of ecotourist is those who engages in moderate to high-risk activities like wind surfing,
rafting, sport fishing and many more. They are known for their adrenaline and the “all or nothing”
types. They love challenges and find risky activities fulfilling.
Sub-segments of Ecotourist
Misalignment of definitions and operationalisations of ecotourists made the empirical knowledge
about ecotourists questionable. A new naming convention was made because of it and resulted
into a subsegments of ecotourists.
1. Non-sustainable Ecotourist
The type of ecotourist who are visiting ecotourism destinations and motivated to experience
nature but not necessarily environmentally friendly.
2. Sustainable Ecotourist
Sustainable ecotourists are those who have deliberate intention to experience nature and
behave in an environmentally sustainable behavior but do not necessarily mean that they spend
their vacation visiting natural attractions.
3. Environmentally Sustainable Ecotourist
A broader term that refers to tourists whose actual vacation behavior consists of conservation,
protection or even improving the environment at the destination.
Classification and Types of Tourists
1. Based on Nature
Ecotourists - Tourists who practice responsible and sustainable travel that aims to raise
cultural and environmental awareness, mitigate environmental risks, and promote social
inclusion towards ecological balance conservation.
2. Based on Business and Organization
Business Tourists – People on business, traveling to countries and continents to
conduct business on behalf of their companies. Throughout the years, the term
“bleisure” has evolved. It is when business travelers incorporate leisure to their business
objectives while traveling.
Incentive Travelers – These are employees who are granted an incentive travel as a
reward for displaying an excellent and competent performance in his/her job. He/she is
given time to travel, provided that all expenses will be covered by the company.
Classification and Types of Tourists
School Travelers – In the Philippines, the trips of these type of travelers regulated by
CHED or DepEd which usually has educational and social objectives. This can also fall
under the category of educational tourists.

Medical Tourists – Several host countries specialize and offer cost-effective rates on
certain medical fields, encouraging tourists to go all their way for their needed or desired
treatments. Say for example, Siberia and Czech Republic are known for their dental
work skills while Brazil offers inexpensive and safe plastic surgeries and Panama for
affordable healthcare.
Corporate Travelers – These travelers are focused on traveling for the sake of
achieving corporate objectives, team building, and discussing organizational plans and
developments through meetings and conventions.
Classification and Types of Tourists
3. Based on Leisure and Hobby
– It encompasses the mainstream tourists which is an umbrella term in which niche travel types
have stemmed from.
Independent Travelers – These are well-experienced tourists who prefer to travel solo
for the sake of self-fulfillment, relaxation, and soul searching. They are commonly
termed as “backpackers”.
Adventure Tourists – These are adrenaline junkies who opt for the more dangerous
and adventurous aspects of this kind of travel. They immerse themselves into extreme
sports like hiking, skydiving, bungee jumping, water sport, etc.
VFR (Visiting Friends and Relatives) – These are the balikbayans, invitees, friends,
family members, fiancé, and spouses whose purpose is to visit their friends and relatives
in their homes in host countries.
Event Tourists – These are those who are traveling to attend a particular event in the
host destination. It could be a music festival or concert, a trade fair, an exhibition, or a
sports event.
Classification and Types of Tourists
4. Based on Culture and Education
Religious Tourists – The purpose of travel of these tourists is to visit a landmark
pertaining to their faith and religion. Example of this is the annual pilgrimage of the
Muslim community, Hajj to Mecca.
Food Tourists – These are tourists who are traveling for the purpose of culinary
experiences. However, it does not only focus on gourmet delicacies. In the purest sense,
culinary tourism or food tourism is really about the inclusion of the interest of food and
drink.
Heritage Journey Tourists – These are those who have strong fascination for learning,
understanding of cultural assets and conserving heritage sites particularly those listed
under UNESCO.
Classification and Types of Tourists
Exchange Students, OJT students, internship– Students under an international
exchange program are from a secondary school or university who study abroad at one of
their institution's partner institutions to evolve their knowledge. Exchange students will
attend classes at a local high school or university, usually as part of their current course
of study. Meanwhile, OJT or On the Job Trainee Students and interns are training in
foreign countries or communities, performing tasks or processes related to their
respective careers.

Travel Writers - Travel writers use their own personal travel experiences and
knowledge to describe tourist destinations mainly for travel publications such as
magazines and blogs. These writings can be in the form of blurbs, articles,
documentaries, or travel guides.
Do you think mass tourism has a place in
ecotourism, or are the two diametrically opposed to
one another?
Group Insights/ Q & A Portion

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Next Meeting
Chapter 2: Ecotourism and Ecotourists
 ITM 0015
ECOTOURISM MANAGEMENT

Thank You
 ITM 0015
ECOTOURISM MANAGEMENT

The Social and Ecological

Impacts of Tourism
Chapter 3
Presented by:
Shaina Santiago-Moraga
Attendance
Report
Review of the
Last Session
 ITM 0015
ECOTOURISM MANAGEMENT

The Social and Ecological

Impacts of Tourism
Chapter 3
Presented by:
Shaina Santiago-Moraga
Chapter Questions:
1. Discuss ways in which the tourism industry can have a transforming and
dislocating impact on the social fabric of host communities.
2. What is carrying capacity, and how are social and ecological carrying
capacities separate but related?
3. List some examples of different site, overt and educational
management styles.
4. What are the implications of Butler’s sequence for tourism
development? Why is carrying capacity such an important aspect of this
model?
5. What is a preformed planning and management framework, and why
are these reported to be better at managing human impacts in natural
areas than traditional carrying capacity techniques?
Discuss ways in which the tourism
industry can have a transforming
and dislocating impact on the
social fabric of host communities.
Social impacts of tourism
Four main stages to consider in the assessment of local feelings toward the
tourism industry, according to Donkey (1975)
•Euphoria. Tourists are welcomed, with little control or planning.
•Apathy. Tourists are taken for granted, with the relationship between both
groups becoming more formal or commercialised. Planning is concerned mostly
with the marketing of the tourism product.
•Annoyance. As saturation in the industry is experienced, local people have
misgivings about the place of tourism. Planners increase infrastructure rather
than limit growth.
• Antagonism. Irritations are openly displayed towards tourists and tourism.
Planning is remedial, yet promotion is increased to offset the deteriorating
reputation of the destination.
A notable impact of tourism on traditional
values is the demonstration effect where local
patterns of consumption change to imitate
those of the tourists, even though local people
only get to see a side of tourists that is often
not representative of their values displayed at
home (e.g. spending patterns).
- (Britton 1977; Hope 1980; Mathieson and Wall 1982)
Cultural expressions are bastardized in
order to be more comprehensible and
therefore saleable to mass tourism. As
folk art becomes dilute, local interest in
it declines.
- (Britton 1977: 272)
Ryan (1991: 164) has outlined a number of key points to
recognize the social impact of tourism in a region. The following
may be used as indicators or determinants of impact:
1.the number of tourists;
2. the type of tourists;
3.the stage of tourist development;
4.the differential in economic development between tourist-
generating and tourist receiving zones;
5. the difference in cultural norms between tourist-
generating and tourist-receiving zones;
6. the physical size of the area, which affects the densities
of the tourist population;
7. the extent to which tourism is serviced by an immigrant
worker population;
8. the degree to which incoming tourists purchase
properties;
9. the degree to which local people retain ownership of
properties and tourist facilities;
10. the attitudes of governmental bodies;
11. the beliefs of host communities, and the strengths of
those beliefs;
12.the degree of exposure to other forces of technological,
social and economic change;
13.the policies adopted with respect to tourist dispersal;
14.the marketing of the tourist destination and the images
that are created of that destination;
15. the homogeneity of the host society;
16. the accessibility to the tourist destination; and
17.the original strength of artistic and folkloric practices,
and the nature of those traditions.
Ecological Impacts
While tourism has transformed
much of the world’s natural
beauty into gold, the industry may
have planted the seeds of its own
destruction.
- Crittendon (1975)
Three different ‘states’ in tourism’s relationship with
environmental conservation (Budowski, 1976):

❑Conflict
❑ Coexistence
❑ Symbiosis
Cohen (1978) insisted that there was
indeed a distinct difference between
development for purposes of improvement
and aesthetic appeal versus the vulgar,
undesirable and irreparable damage
created by modern tourism.
The use of tourism resources could not be left
uncontrolled without running the risk of their
deterioration, or even destruction. The satisfaction of
tourism requirements must not be prejudicial to the
social and economic interests of the population in
tourist areas, to the environment and above all to
natural resources which are the fundamental
attractions of tourism and historical and cultural sites.
All tourism resources are part of the heritage of
mankind.
(cited in Romeril 1985: 216)
Stressor activities according to Pearce’s (1985)
framework for the study of tourism and
environmental stress

1. Permanent Environmental Restructuring

2. Generation of Waste Residuals
3. Tourist Activities
4. Effect on Population Dynamics
According to Priskin (2003),
➢Although tourists were aware of
environmental impacts from such activities,
they perceived the impacts of these activities
to be less than the perception of the
researcher
➢Education on the potential impacts of
nature-based tourism activities is needed to
help minimise environmental impacts.
What is carrying capacity, and how
are social and ecological carrying
capacities separate but related?
Carrying capacity
The concept of carrying capacity can be loosely defined on
the basis of the following four interrelated elements:

(1) the amount of use of a given kind;

(2) a particular environment can endure;
(3) over time;
(4) without degradation of its suitability for that use
The study . . . was initiated with the view that
the carrying capacity of recreation lands could
be determined primarily in terms of ecology and
the deterioration of the areas. However, it soon
became obvious that the resource-oriented point
of view must be augmented by consideration of
human values.
- (Wagar 1964: 23)
From the sociological perspective, carrying capacity
becomes much more dynamic and difficult to
measure. Complications arise when considering the
level or limit to the amount of use which is
appropriate for a specific resource. Owing to the
nature of the resource as a subjective, perceptual
entity, different types of users will have different
resource needs and expectations.
Shelby and Heberlein (1986) hypothesized that;

▪As use levels and encounters increased,

perceived crowding would increase.
▪As use levels and encounters increased,
satisfaction would decrease.
Shelby and Heberlein (1986) hypothesized that;

▪As use levels and encounters increased,

perceived crowding would increase.
▪As use levels and encounters increased,
satisfaction would decrease.
These are the following reasons for the weak relationship
between satisfaction and perceived crowding:

▪ Self-selection
▪ Product shift
▪ Displacement
▪ Multiple Sources of Satisfaction
▪Rationalising
▪Activity-specific influences.
▪Conceptualisation and measurement of
satisfaction may be inadequate
Although carrying capacity provides a quick, easy and inexpensive
means to manage protected areas, or other units, it suffers from a
range of problems that render it less useful. It’s inability to:
(1) assess and minimise visitor impacts;
(2) consider multiple underlying causes of impacts;
(3) facilitate different management decisions;
(4) produce defensible positions;
(5) separate technical information from value judgements;
(6) encourage public involvement; and
(7) incorporate local resource uses and management issues
- Farrell and Marion (2002)
Butler et al. (1992) found out,

The concept of carrying capacity

requires adept management.
List some examples of different
site, overt and educational
management styles.
The job of managing services and
activities at a site, therefore, becomes
a significant task.
❑ Site management techniques
❑ Overt management approaches.
❑ Information and education programmes.
- Pitt and Zube (1987)
The regulation of visitor
behaviour is a common approach
to addressing management
problems at recreation sites.
- (Frost and McCool 1988)
In a study of Glacier National Park, rangers were
given the task of managing visitors to this
attraction as well as protecting the eagles as an
endangered species. Restrictions on use included
prohibitions against entry where the eagles
congregate, restrictions on automobile movement
and parking, and close-up viewing available only
at a bridge and a blind, but only with the
accompaniment of a naturalist (acting as an
interpreter and distributing brochures to visitors).
What are the implications of
Butler’s sequence for tourism
development? Why is carrying
capacity such an important
aspect of this model?
The Butler Sequence

Butler’s basic premise was that increases

in visitation to an area can be followed by
a decrease in visitation as the carrying
capacity of the destination is reached.
Figure 1. The tourist area life cycle
The researchers suggest that tourism
numbers have been controlled
ineffectively and inappropriately
through airport capacity limits rather
than by limits set in accordance with
ecosystem sensitivity defined by park
planning and management.
Degradation was a
function of a rapid rise in
visitor numbers.
The model’s significance lies in the
fact that in many cases tourism
properties suffer from this sequence
of rapid development and later
decline, just like commercial products
in general.
Figure 3.2 emphasises the relative
importance of economic, social
and ecological variables in
establishing reasonable and long-
term levels of carrying capacity
within ecotourism destinations.
Figure 3.2 emphasises the relative
importance of economic, social
and ecological variables in
establishing reasonable and long-
term levels of carrying capacity
within ecotourism destinations.
What is a preformed planning and
management framework, and why
are these reported to be better at
managing human impacts in natural
areas than traditional carrying
capacity techniques?
Preformed Planning and Management Frameworks

The ultimate aim of these frameworks

is the protection of the resource base,
but also to ensure that people are able
to enjoy their recreational experiences
in managed settings.
Assessment of Ecological Impacts

Because tourists are bigger consumers of

resources than local people, careful
environmental assessments of all new
tourist developments are essential in
documenting unsustainable usage.
- Goodwin (1995)
Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs)

Its function is to identify impacts that

are of a non-monetary form, and thus
enable developers to use resources
efficiently in achieving a reasonably
sustainable product over the long term.
Reference:
Fennel. (2007). Ecotourism 3rd Edition. Routledge
Next Meetings
Chapter 4: Development, Economics and Marketing