WEEK 16 pdae

VALUES AND IMAGE IMPROVEMENT

 
IS IT IMPORTANT WHO WE BELIEVE AND WHAT DO WE THINK?
 
 People do not care about the products, their design, and marketing – it is very important for them to find a way, how
to show their beliefs and values. Customers,
employees, and buyers – they are all people, so if someone does not understand people, they are not able to
understand the business   
(Simon Sinec)
 
 

VALUES AND IMAGE

 
Organizations should follow their beliefs and use it when attracting those, who have the same ideas. If a
person finds even the tiniest hint that a company could lie, he immediately starts to doubt about it and
suspect it because there are no entity of words and actions.
 
We are often hearing questions how to improve a design, how to lead better, how to understand the clients better;
however, Simon Sinek (the author of two books, best known for his effective model how to develop the leadership)
raises a more important and provocative question – how to help people to make a progress?
People are dependent on the ability to create communities, groups of people, which have the same values and
beliefs. According to Simon Sinek, every company should also be as a group of people which is unified with the same
values and beliefs. All businessmen have to take a risk, experiment, and try new possibilities without any fear to be
mistaken. Confidence is a very important component, which can help to develop person’s abilities. Sinek says that he
has a clear attitude how to achieve it – “person has to be surrounded with people, who believes in the same things
that you believe. Then the confidence will be created.”
Every person is different and they have more power to use all the strongest sides when working together. Different
opinions, experiences, and skills crate a diversity, which helps to solve problems and to look to the same situation
from different perspectives. But of course all these peculiarities have to be connected with trust and shared beliefs.
There rises a question how to create a feeling of trust? As S. Sinek says, trust is an innate instinct of a person and he
should find other people who have similar beliefs. The only problem is that trust cannot be measured and clearly
seen, so we have to search for some kind of signs that would confirm our presentiments of person beliefs. Every
decision is a way to show who we are and who we believe in, so it is very important to show our real values through
our actions. And this is the only way to find people who can be trusted. Symbols that can be seen as giving false
information are actions and words, which turn other people attention; however, it does not create trust.
All the same rules of communication should not be applied just in personal life but also in business. In order to prove
it, Sinek gives two different examples of people behavior. Firstly, try to imagine that you are asking your friend how
you should dress, behave, and talk that he would like you more than he likes you now. There are no doubts that he
will say “just be yourself”. It is strange because no one supports this principle in business. Author is surprised and he
thinks that it is nonsensical to make researches of market and try to find out what the client wants in order to get a
good position in market and to become exclusive. Organizations should follow their beliefs and to attract people who
have the same ideas. Person starts to doubt about the company and distrust it if he finds even the tiniest hint which
can show that company can be lying.
 
SYMBOLS
 
As well as companies, people can also create symbols which reveal their attitude. Consumers want to show
with the trademark to others, in what they believe, and what is important to them. We are using business
messages in order to show that we are here, and people and products, which are surrounding us, can tell
something about us.
 
Sinek highlights one more very important aspect, which is dignity and help to others.
People tend to trust those who are ready to help us. “I hate all the help to yourself industry”, “How can I become
happy?”, “What kind of five steps can help to become a millionaire?”, “What kind of 7 steps are to reach your desired
career?”, “I, I, and I. And how about the people who are near us? What kind of five steps could help a man sitting next
to you?”
 
A person can be happy with his work, can be excited about his achievements, however in order to achieve the
fulfillment it is very important to help others. The author gives statistics, which show that even 90% of people are not
feeling happy with their work. In his opinion, it is not for the nature of the work or salary, but the reason that people
are not happy with their work is, that they do not communicate with others and do not try to help others.
 
For example, you can buy the fulfilment with the donation. A person buys a fulfilment and the feeling of dignity when
donating. If you do not donate you can feel bad or even do not feel anything, and you never feel good. Homeless
person often thinks about himself, when asking for charity with a sign in his hands that informs about his excruciating
illness, starving children, or bad conditions of life. The attention is not paid to the benefactor. The author maid an
experiment, he changed a typical table of alms pray to a different one with a sign that is oriented in a benefactor – “If
you donate just one time per month, I am asking you to think about me the next time”. One homeless woman usually
collected 20-30 dollars per day; however, when a sign was changed she collected even 40 dollars per two hours. This
principle is successful in all spheres – divert the attention from yourself to a benefactor, visitor, buyer, client, and
user. They are most important not you.
 
Source:  https://europe-institute.com/the-image-and-values-of-organization/
 
Self-Appraisal
 

Synopsis and benefits of Self-Appraisal

Nobody knows where you excel and where you’ve gone wrong better than yourself. SelfAppraisal is effectively a self-
performance review, which can then be used as an integral part of performance appraisal.
 
There are both important benefits and consequences that result from using SelfAppraisal.
 
Such approach is useful for organizations to use as a precursor to the Annual performance review meetings with their
‘people’. It gives employees a better understanding and insight to their own performance and at the same time,
empowers them to take responsibility of their own career development. Additionally, it significantly reduces reliance
on the opinions of the manager/supervisor and therefore making it more of a two-way discussion and shared
evaluation. This way of assessment identifies where they may be discrepancies between you and your managers’
view on performance. At the same time, it reminds your manager of your achievements over the past year – Don’t
expect them to remember everything about every single one of their employees. On the other hand, there can be
consequences if this process is not used effectively or if used in isolation. This process is most effective and
successful if used in conjunction with other performance assessment methods such as ‘The performance Review
Meeting’, 'Peer Appraisal' and ‘The 360 Feedback Report’ as they provide little insight to team involvement for
example. Furthermore, over reliance on Self-Appraisal can result in senior positions not pulling their weight.
 
Self-Appraisals are normally carried out by employees individually evaluating their performance by filling out a form
template or set of questions, based on their performance. It may result quite challenging to remember specific details
over the past twelve months in your career. One way to make this easier is to keep an updated log or diary at work
where you can jot proceedings down throughout the year. Keep records of important assignments and projects,
success and challenges, changes in responsibilities and roles and any significant change when they are fresh in your
mind. Collecting this evidence will give you something to look back on, making you more prepared and putting you in
a better place to analyze.
 
Self-evaluation covers all individual areas such as
•       Your main strengths and weaknesses
•       Major problems and challenges encountered
•       Key accomplishments and drawbacks
•       Future career plans (Long/Short goals)
•       Required training and development areas
 
Having said this, be sure to emphasize the impact of your work and not just state your achievements. Provide bottom
line examples in order to show exactly how valuable you are to the business. Be proud of your achievements – don’t
overrate and don’t underestimate.
 
Shift the main focus away from the negative aspects as much as possible, however have the ability to recognize
where there is room for improvement. Dedicate enough time and effort in completing this process, as your outlook on
your performance could be completely different to how your supervisor has evaluated it.  This will help manager
understand weather or not you have an accurate understanding of your role and objectives.
 
Finally, keep in professional. Proof read it for mistakes, accuracy and figures used.
In summary, Self-Assessment makes meetings more effective if they share ownership on evaluating performance
and Self-Appraisal encourages this to happen. It encourages self-reflection and allows compassion of individuals’
views on their performance, becoming a joint responsibility to critique. However, for Self-Appraisal to be completed
successfully, the employee needs to have an in depth understanding of how it is done and their role and
responsibilities. Self-Appraisal actively engages with employees individually if used in their Performance Review
Meeting. This involvement encourages employees to strive even higher and therefore beneficial for all parties. 
 
Source:  https://www.accipio.com/eleadership/mod/wiki/view.php?id=1981
 

Self-Assessment Examples to Prove

Your Worth
While clearly important, writing your professional self-assessment can be a struggle. Before you start copying from a
template, you might want to consider the value of writing a genuine self-evaluation response that reflects on your real
contributions to your organization. Your annual self-assessment gives you a chance to think back on your biggest
successes and failures of the year and discuss your career and professional future with your manager. If you are in
HR, you likely spend so much time working on the annual performance appraisal process for others that you haven’t
taken a moment to think about your own self-assessment.
 
Self-assessments may also have a strong effect on how you're perceived within your organization. Not only are they
an important platform for taking a look back over your accomplishments and demonstrating clear communication
skills, they go into your employee file, which is likely to be reviewed by company executives, HR professionals, and
other managers whose departments you may move to in the future. Knowing that these self-evaluation questions will
become part of your employee record, it is important that they reflect your best efforts.  
 
Below are self-assessment examples along with tips and advice for reflecting on your accomplishments, identifying
your failures and mistakes, setting new goals for the future and defining a path for your professional development.
You can use these examples as an outline for responding to similar questions on your own self-assessment, or as a
starting point for brainstorming what you'd like to include in your own responses. While the self-assessment examples
provided are specific to certain jobs for added realism, you'll have to adapt them so they reflect the realities of your
role within your organization.
 

Reflecting on Your Accomplishments

Every employee self-assessment should offer an opportunity to detail what you've accomplished during the
performance review period. As an employee, this is your opportunity to demonstrate the value that you bring to the
company using real examples of what you've accomplished in the past year. As you read through our self-
assessment examples, you'll notice that while the facts and figures are all different, the examples all share some
common elements that you should include in your own self-assessment:
•       Include facts and figures- Keeping a journal of your accomplishments and work results throughout the year
can pay off when it comes time to write your annual selfassessment. Ensure that you can quickly draw on specific
examples of what you accomplished and how you brought value to the organization. If your organization uses
a performance management software or goal management software, you should be able to easily look back at your
results and pull them into the self-assessment.
•       Be specific- Vague sentences in your self-assessment end up being meaningless to the reader, but if you can
quantify your results with something specific, the reader can better understand the impact that your results had.
Saying "I responded to customer inquiries in a timely fashion" is much less meaningful than saying "I responded to all
customer inquiries assigned to me within 24 hours and assisted with other team members as well".
•       Rationalize results- If you're talking about a success that you had, explain how you achieved it. Write down
who else contributed, how responsibilities were divided, or what extra steps you took to ensure success. If you took a
special initiative to ensure the success of a project, this is a good place to document that. If you came up short on a
goal, this is the place to document what you learned through that experience, and/or what resources could have led
to more success.
 

Self-Assessment Example: Sales

Representative
"In my first three months as a sales representative for Acme Rocket Company, I have met and exceeded new hire
expectations for sales performance. While I was informed during the hiring process that it usually takes up to three
months for new hires to start achieving their monthly revenue targets, I was able to meet and exceed my personal
revenue target in all of my first three months, selling 109% of my target in March, 111% in April and 105% of my sales
target in May. The biggest factor in my success has been my attention to detail and responsiveness throughout the
sales process. Between April and May, I responded to 92% of inquiries from prospective customers inside my
territory within 24 hours, regardless of when or how the inquiry was received. The remaining 8% were responded to
within 48 hours. My timely responses and attention to detail have resulted in a 78% closing rate for new customer
inquiries and enabled me to exceed my sales targets in each month."
 

Self-Assessment Example: Marketing

Manager
"When I began my role as marketing manager at Acme Rocket Company, my goals were to increase our exposure
within the industry, expand our thought leadership and help Acme position itself as an industry leader. Throughout the
year, I engaged my team members with three important goals: increase Acme's presence at industry conventions and
trade shows, increase Acme's visibility at industry conferences, especially those with speaking opportunities, and to
enhance our support of Acme's account-based marketing strategy by developing personalized white papers and
research reports for our most important target accounts.
 
I am extremely proud of what my team and I have accomplished during the past year. Compared to the previous
year, when Acme attended just 2 conventions and 1 trade show, we were present at 4 industry conventions and 4
trade shows this year, enabling us to further promote our brand, connect with important industry players, and
generate key contacts for our ABM sales team. We also managed to book Acme speakers into three separate
conferences, creating a huge platform for us to evangelize our technology and the customer service approach that
makes us uniquely valuable for our customers.
This included scheduling our CEO for a speaking engagement at the annual Space Commerce Conference that
received over 10,000 live viewers on Facebook and boosted our social media following by 17% in two days.
 
Finally, our team produced 41 individual white papers and research reports for our target accounts this year. When
our sales team sent these reports to prospective clients instead of a generic sales message, closing rates were 18%
higher and revenue per sale was 41% greater. In total, these three initiatives have helped increase our inbound lead
volume by 87% compared to this time last year."
 

Self-Assessment Example: Customer

Support Representative
"In my first year as a customer support representative for Acme Rocket Company, I maintained high standards for
customer service and responsiveness that have been reflected in the results of my work. Given the target of
maintaining an average call time under 10 minutes, I maintained an average call time of 7:22 throughout the entire
year. This was a full two minutes faster than the company average of 9:25. I also maintained an average customer
satisfaction rating of 94% throughout the year, compared to the average rate of 90% for other employees in my role.
Finally, I minimized escalations by achieving a first-call resolution rate of 95%, compared to the company average of
90%. Together, these metrics demonstrate that I have consistently provided our customers with quality and timely
service that exceeds their expectations and the requirements set by Acme Rocket Company. The single greatest
factor in my success was the way I made use of Acme's internal resources, including training materials and internal
contacts. I developed a deep familiarity with our knowledge base by reading it during less busy periods, and I spent
lunch breaks interviewing reps from other departments about how best to answer customer questions related to their
work. My growing expertise and familiarity with Acme's operations contributes to my quick resolution times with
customers."
 

Reflecting on Your Mistakes

Throughout life, many people learn to strive for perfection and we may become afraid of making mistakes. In the real
world, mistakes are part of life and people make them every day. It's important to identify opportunities for
professional improvement by analyzing your work, looking for times when you fell behind or didn't get the result you
wanted, and thinking about how you can do better in the future.
 
A good manager will always frame mistakes as "opportunities for improvement". A mistake is an opportunity for you
to identify something that you can get better at, and your manager wants to see that you can recognize when your
performance isn't up to par and start identifying ways to correct it. Why is that so important? If you're seeking out a
leadership role in the future, you'll be in charge of maintaining performance for a whole team of people. Maintaining
your own performance is the first step to ensuring that you're able to do that.
 

Self-Assessment Example: Sales

Representative
"Despite meeting my most important performance objectives during the past three months, there were times when I
struggled with my job responsibilities. There were several occasions where I missed daily activity targets for lead
generation and customer calls, something that should never be acceptable for someone in my role with a positive
work ethic. In my view, those days represent lost opportunities to contribute even more sales to the team. While I did
meet my sales targets by responding decisively to warm prospects, I could have enlarged my sales pipeline by
meeting my outreach targets on a consistent basis. I am working towards improving my time management and
scheduling to ensure that I consistently meet daily activity targets."
 

Self-Assessment Example: Marketing

Manager
"Because of the ambitious nature of this year's marketing strategy, there were times when I pushed my team hard to
perform at their best, put in extra hours, and deliver on highly demanding projects. In general, I am always patient
and understanding with my team members about the challenges they are facing, but there were times this year when
I was perceived as too blunt when giving feedback on work that a team member produced. While I would never
compromise on my drive for results, it is important that I take the time to give more thoughtful and considerate
feedback to members of my team. When we are working under the pressure of deadlines, I can positively influence
the team attitude by demonstrating confidence and work ethic. I need to improve my emotional response to stress so
I can set a better example for my team."
 

Self-Assessment Example: Customer

Support Representative
"Although I demonstrated outstanding success in providing service to our customers over the past year, there were
several areas of opportunity for improving my job performance. Despite my consistency in resolving customer issues,
I was only able to successfully cross-sell our products to 5% of my customer base, short of my goal of 7%. Further
developing my technical knowledge of our products will enable me to make better product recommendations for our
customers, but I also need to understand more about how to communicate value propositions to our customers and
help them realize when it makes sense to purchase more from us. I believe that additional sales training and
education about our products would assist me in increasing my up-selling performance in line with company
expectations."
 
Setting Goals for the Future
The most important part of your employee self-assessment is defining your goals for the future and discussing them
with your manager. Your professional goals will fall into two categories: things you want to accomplish in your current
role, and your goals for professional advancement into other roles. Your self-assessment is your opportunity to
identify activities you'd like to be doing more of at work and talk to your manager about how you can move to a role
that better matches what you actually enjoy about your job. If you're going to spend more time in your current role, it's
important to set specific and measurable goals for your future performance. Your manager should help you create a
strategy to achieve your goals, but only if you're transparent about what you'd like to achieve. If you are interested in
moving departments, you should also find out about opportunities for advancement within the company and state
your intentions to move up if the right opportunity appears. Here's how to set goals for the future in a variety of
roles. These employee self-assessment tips are great for professionals who want to see continuous career growth!
 

Self-Assessment Example: Sales

Representative
"I am excited to build on my early success as a sales representative with Acme Rocket Company. I have
demonstrated my ability to meet sales targets with quick and responsive service, and I believe that improving my time
management will create more closing opportunities for me over the next year. My objectives in this role for the coming
year are:  Achieve 120% of my cumulative sales target for my first 12 months of employment.

    Meet my daily activity requirements with 90% consistency (currently at 75%)        Maintain a closing rate of 80%
for new customer inquiries
 
While I have enjoyed success so far as a sales representative, I believe that my skills would be well suited to the
position of sales manager. As a sales manager as Acme Rocket Company, I would lead a team of sales people,
providing the training, support and tools required for them to succeed. I have always been passionate about the
power of teaching to help others succeed and I believe that I could train new hires to replicate my early success with
Acme Rocket Company using the knowledge, skills and insight I have developed in my time here."
 

Self-Assessment Example: Marketing

Manager
"In the past year, our team managed to attend 8 conventions and trade shows, and secure speaking engagements at
3 industry conferences. In the coming year, we should optimize our strategies surrounding these important events to
maximize our return on investment. Acme Rocket Company should continue to produce personalized marketing
materials for its target accounts, a practice that has yielded significant ROI over the past year. In the coming year, my
goals are to:
•       Increase measurable ROI on Acme Rocket Company's convention, trade show and conference participation to
40% through cost reduction
•       Increase inbound lead volume by 30%
•       Increase lead capture on company website by 50%
•       Complete training courses in leadership and constructive feedback
 
In the past year, I developed a further interest in marketing strategy and the work that our marketing directors do to
determine how the company will invest our annual budget. In the future, I would be interested in learning more about
how marketing strategies and participating in marketing strategy development for Acme Rocket Company."
 

Self-Assessment Example: Customer

Support Representative
"In the past year, I was successful at providing fast and efficient service to our customers, but my sales numbers
lagged behind my goal. In view of that, the biggest opportunity for me to improve my up-selling is by making it a focus
of my professional development for the coming year. My goals for this year are:
•       Increase my up-selling percentage to 7% (currently 5%)
•       Achieve a first-call resolution rate of 95% or greater
•       Achieve a 95% customer satisfaction score based on providing exceptional service
•       Complete a sales training course
•       Complete a technical training course related to our products/business
 
As a customer service representative with Acme Rocket Company, the best part of my job is being able to provide
exceptional service to our customers. Over the past year, I developed a genuine passion for products and brand, and
I take pride in representing our company each time I interact with our customers, a quality I believe has driven my
success in service. In the future, I hope to take on a management role where I can share my passion for Acme
Rockets and help build a world class customer support department."
 

Summary
We hope you found these self-assessment examples useful in writing your own performance self-assessments. Or, if
you are a manager, we hope these help your teams confidently summarize their hard work! Your annual performance
self-assessment is an opportunity for you to reflect on your achievements and shortcomings during the past year and
set goals for the future, including for your advancement within the organization. When reflecting on your
achievements, it's important to include specific examples and statistics that reflect your contributions to the
organization. Give detailed explanations that include the what, when, where, why and how of your accomplishments,
and include any feedback you received from management about your work throughout the year.
When you reflect on your mistakes, don't be afraid to be honest with yourself and your manager. An honest
assessment of where you succeeded and failed shows a lot of maturity, and it's the first step to improving your
performance in the future.
 
Finally, your self-assessment is an opportunity to set goals and plan your professional development for the future.
Your manager can help you develop the skills and knowledge needed to advance in the direction you choose. When
setting your goals for the year, think about what you want to accomplish in your current role and where you see
yourself moving in the future. Thinking about what parts of your job you enjoy most may help you decide how you'd
like to advance your career.
 
Source:  https://blog.clearcompany.com/self-assessment-examples-prove-your-worth by: Sara Pollock
 
 
WHAT IS YOUR PHILOSOPHY OF LIFE?
 
“The fear of death follows from the fear of life. A man who lives fully is prepared to die at any time.” - Mark Twain
 
What if you went into an interview and someone asked you, “what is your philosophy of life?” How easily
could you answer that question?
 
By “philosophy of life” I mean a mental framework for understanding how the world works and how you fit into the
world. The philosophy of life would include things like how you decide what is “good” and “bad”, what “success”
means, what your “purpose” in life is
(including if you don’t think there is a purpose), whether there is a God, how we should treat each other, etc.
 
There are many names you might be use to label your philosophy of life: Libertarian, Feminist, Liberal, Conservative,
Buddhist, Christian, Entrepreneur, Artist, Environmentalist, Tea Party, and any number of others. Maybe you feel you
could summarize your philosophy of life with one of those words, but for most of us I’d suspect that our actual
philosophies of life are more complex and nuanced. They are not so easily boxed in. If we sat down in an interview,
could you explain yours?
 
Knowing what I do about you as a group of readers, I’d guess I could divide you into three groups.
 
The first group has a clear philosophy of life that you have thought through in-depth, have tested, and use regularly
and explicitly for guiding your actions. I’ll call you “The True North Group.” You have a compass for life and you
know which direction is the right way — the true north. If I asked about your philosophy of life, you could explain it to
me immediately, cogently, and concisely from the top of your head. You may not be able to give it a one-word label
but you have thought it through and could explain why your philosophy of life makes sense to you and how it governs
your thinking. I would guess this is the smallest group of the three.
 
The second group are those of you who have a loosely organized philosophy of life in which things basically hang
together, but which you couldn’t summarize quickly from the top of your head. If I gave you a little more time, you
could come up with an overarching framework that covers most things, though the fringes and the corner cases of life
would remain gray. I will call you “The Dusty Compass Group.” It’s like you have a compass for directing your life,
but you forget to use it. You have a roughly coherent system for understanding the world, and you pretty much know
it intuitively, but most of the time you don’t explicitly use it to filter and direct your experience. The compass lies on
the shelf collecting dust. When you eventually pull it out, you see it’s gotten a little wacky and you need to recalibrate
it. My guess is that this experience describes the largest group of people.
 
The third group I will call “The Inbox Group.” For The Inbox Group I’m abandoning the compass metaphor
because if you are in this group, you do not actually have a governing magnetic orientation for what life is about and
where you are going. Life may be about something, heck, your life may be about something, but you don’t know.
You’re too busy to think about it. Your approach is just to deal with what is coming at you, the way you manage email.
People and companies constantly send you messages to direct your attention and you basically follow their lead.
Why are you watching that new Netflix show? Why are you listening to that new Kanye song? Why did you decide to
be a surgeon anyway? You don’t really know. Or you think you know, but the reasons turn out to be pretty superficial.
I think this is likely the second biggest group, though it might be the biggest.
 
The difference between members of these three groups is almost entirely internal. You wouldn’t be able to pick
them out on the street. But their internal experience of life will be entirely different. One man plays squash because
he has a true north philosophy about pushing himself to his limits, maintaining his health and investing in friendships
with his playing partners. Another may value these same things but couldn’t articulate them. He just knows he likes to
play. A third has no real reason for playing other than someone asked him to. Maybe he just wants to be seen at the
racquet club. Maybe he just likes being asked. The external action of chasing a ball around a court is the same but
the internal motivation and experience is totally different.
In general, I think it is better to live as a member of the True North group. I say “in general” because there are
exceptions. Some people have clear, explicit life philosophies, but locking in those ideas has made them narrow un-
curious thinkers, who are a little too arrogant that they’ve figured it all out.
 
For the most part however, I think it is healthy to have a comprehensive framework for life and to live in line with it.
True North is the way to go, provided you remain humble, curious, and open to the possibility you may be wrong. The
alternative, of being in the Dusty Compass Group or the Inbox Group, is to not have an orienting vision for your life. It
means you are constantly at-risk of forgetting what you are about, know getting what life is about and steering off-
course (i.e., wasting your time).
 
Death is the great leveler for these groups. You might be in the Dusty Compass Group or the Inbox Group most of
the time, but when you brush near death -your own death or the death of someone you care about — your philosophy
of life has a way of getting clearer. The experience of nearness to death acts as a jolt that prompts you to yearn to be
in the True North Group — to live, as it were, on purpose. To make it count.
 
You may have had someone guide you through the exercise of thinking about what your obituary will say when you
die. For many of us, it is an arresting exercise because, if we are honest, the way we are spending our time isn’t
totally in line with what we want our lives to be about. Realizing that fact is like waking from a daydream.
 
For many of us, when we come near death the experience moves us closer to the True North Group and away from
what Paul Graham describes as “the things life is too short for.” In the face of mortality, we think hard about what
matters and the things that come to mind are no surprise: family, friendships, treating people well, learning, keeping
our health. We promise ourselves that those things will be our priority. And we actually begin to live more in line with
our aspirations.
 
But the weeks and months go by, and slowly, imperceptibly to us, but almost inevitably, we drift back to distraction.
We look at the compass less frequently. We just deal with what is coming at us. We don’t completely forget what is
important us, but we figure we can get to it later. We don’t completely forget what we think life is all about, but the
notion becomes less clear, less poignant, like an old photograph faded by the sun. Without the vivid orienting
direction of a clear philosophy of life, it becomes easy to do whatever’s easiest instead of living the way we’d want
our obituaries to read.
 
I like to think I’m a True North Guy, but honestly, the reality is I probably am a Dusty
Compass with momentary leaps up into True North territory. That’s why I find remarkable those souls who somehow
maintain a consistency of philosophy, and who live in line with it. They are remarkable because it is hard to live with
character. It is hard to live as if life won’t go on forever. And it’s why, every now and again, I find that reflecting on the
reality of death is one of the best things I can do to make the most of the reality of my life.
 
Source:   https://medium.com/the-weekend-reader/what-is-your-philosophy-of-life-e422c4b4f1d4 By:  Maxwell
Anderson
 
 

Why Everybody Needs a Life Philosophy

 
Nothing gives a person a sense of purpose like a distinct understanding of where they're going.

 
Decorative blue vector watercolor background with painting texture.  
What do you want out of life? Do you know?
A lot of people have trouble answering this question.
We all need personal philosophy in life or we risk wandering, and responding to random stimuli and information with
little or no impact on our long-term goals.
A philosophy of life is an overall vision or attitude toward life and the purpose of it. Human activities are limited by
time, and death.
But we forget this.
We fill up our time with distractions, never asking whether they are important, whether we really find them of value.
Without a personal philosophy, we end up living without direction.
 

These simple philosophies shape and

guide my life
•    Life is about solving problems, and every obstacle is the way forward.

•    You are the author of your own life.    Make improvements, not excuses.

•    Self-care comes first. If you’re not healthy, it’s tough to be happy.    Life is short. Do what brings-out the best in
you.
•    Question your assumptions at all times.
•    Effort matters more than skill or talent.
•    It pays to create your own certainty.
•    Commitment, resilience and perseverance will take you far.
 
The idea of a life philosophy, comes back to a central question, one that Mary Oliver asks well: “What will you do with
your one wild and precious life?
 

Purpose is life-changing
Nothing gives a person inner wholeness and peace like a distinct understanding of where they are going.
Robert Bryne once observed, “The purpose of life is a life of purpose.”
In order to get somewhere, you need to define your end goal. That is essential. And the sooner you define it, the
clearer everything else will become. A life without a purpose is a life without a destination.
Finding the right direction in life is an existential problem for all of us.
What do you look forward to in life?
Living without purpose is dangerous.
 
Fyodor Dostoyevsky once said, “The mystery of human existence lies not in just staying alive, but in finding
something to live for.”
Finding the right direction in life is something you create. You make the decision to act. To try. To do something. No
matter how small.
At some point in life, you’re going to have to stop thinking about taking action and act. Your purpose in life is to find
and do the things that make you smile, laugh and forget time. Even if you aren’t sure yet, move into the exploration
and experimentation phase of your life and enjoy the journey.
You can’t put time on it. You can’t force yourself to find your “why” tomorrow or next month, or even next year. But by
all means, search for clarity.
 
In the 1940s, Viktor E. Frankl was held prisoner in Nazi concentration camps. With all the agony and brutality, what
kept Frankl from giving up his relentless fight for his life was purpose!
He found meaning in his struggle, and that’s what gave him the power to push forward through unimaginable pain.
A quote by Viktor nicely sums up his philosophy on how people were able to survive the camps, without losing the will
to live.
In his book, Man’s  Search  for  Meaning, Viktor says, “Those who have a ‘why’ to live, can bear with almost any
‘how.’”
Once you have defined your aims and what you want, it is easier to deal with doubts. Easier not to get distracted from
what is important, keep your focus, and keep moving. Only sustained movement in one direction can bring tangible
results. You have permission to change your goal, rethink, choose another, by all means.
It’s hard to maintain any momentum if your direction lacks definition.
In order to reach big goals, you need time, during which you must continue moving in your chosen direction, not
veering off course.
Defining your direction as early as possible is the most important decision in sports. But curiously enough, this is also
the most important decision in life in general, but much fewer people realize it.
Living “on purpose” means you live intentionally.
 
Napoleon Hill once said, “There is one quality that one must possess to win, and that is definiteness of purpose, the
knowledge of what one wants, and a burning desire to possess it.
In order to get what you want, you have to choose one direction and move towards it, constantly improving over a
prolonged period of time. Maximum speed and output requires a precise framework.
People who have made genuine changes in their lives and managed to attain difficult goals are not stronger, more
intelligent or fearless than you. The only difference is the decision to act in the direction of their dreams. A strong
sense of purpose fuels your motivation.
Successful people have a definite sense of direction. They have a clear understanding of what success means to
them.
Everything they do is consistent with their goals. They look forward and decide where they want to be. Their day to
day actions helps them move closer to their vision. Once you find your why, you will be more careful and selective
about your daily actions.
 
In her book, Brave:  50  Everyday  Acts  of  Courage  to  Thrive  in  Work,  Love  and  Life, Margie Warrell, writes:
“Knowing your why is an important first step in figuring out how to achieve the goals that excite you and create a life
you enjoy living (versus merely surviving!). Margie continues “Indeed, only when you know your ‘why’ will you find the
courage to take the risks needed to get ahead, stay motivated when the chips are down, and move your life onto an
entirely new, more challenging and more rewarding trajectory.”
 
 

Clarity changes everything

 
Clarity of purpose challenges you to do better and commit to actions that get you closer to the one thing you really
want in life.
With clarity, you can pull together resources, ideas and people for a common cause.
Without it, there is wasted effort and even chaos.
Your direction defines what you do every day.
Clarifying not only your purpose but your direction reinforces your ultimate life purpose. You should have a clear
understanding of what you want next month, next quarter or next year.
Think about it: When you feel unclear about a goal, you have difficulty achieving it. And if you don’t know why you
should do something, you lack committed to taking action.
 
Bud Bilanich, an executive coach, says to develop your personal clarity of purpose you need to do three things:
First, define what success means to you personally.
Second, create a vivid mental image of you as a success. This image should be as vivid as you can you make it.
Third, clarify your personal values.
 
Getting clear about what you want is a process of trial and error!
Try something. Then ask yourself: Do I like this? Yes. No. Get a journal and start putting down your feelings,
thoughts, actions and behaviors.
Use what you write as a way to pinpoint areas you are constantly exploring. Evaluate your results constantly.
What actions, thoughts, beliefs and behaviors are you attracted to the most?
The key is to do more of what you enjoy and what brings out the very best in you, and you will continually clarify what
it is that you want to do, be and have in life.
Napoleon Hill once said, “There is one quality that one must possess to win, and that is definiteness of purpose, the
knowledge of what one wants, and a burning desire to possess it.
People who are constantly striving to achieve something meaningful in life crave clarity.
It’s the only way to reach deeper into yourself to find out what makes you come alive.
We all start from somewhere confusing, because you probably like to do a lot of things. But once you define your
purpose, you will become unstoppable.
Successful people have a definite sense of direction. They have a clear understanding of what success means to
them.
Everything they do is consistent with their goals.
They look forward and decide where they want to be. Their day to day actions help them move closer to their vision.
Once you find your why, you will be more careful and selective about your daily actions. 
 
In the words of Margie Warrell, Author of Brave:
“Knowing your why is an important first step in figuring out how to achieve the goals that excite you and create a life
you enjoy living (versus merely surviving!). Indeed, only when you know your ‘why’ will you find the courage to take
the risks needed to get ahead, stay motivated when the chips are down, and move your life onto an entirely new,
more challenging, and more rewarding trajectory.”
 
Closing thoughts
If you’ve been following along, you’ve probably done a lot of critical thinking by now.
Hopefully you’ve reached a new level of self-awareness.
I would suggest taking some time in a quiet place to think about where you are headed in life.
Are you happy with the direction of your life at the moment? The good news is, it’s never too late to change direction
because you are in control. Reevaluate how you’re doing with living according to your core beliefs, principles and
philosophies.
Adjust your goals and parameters so they’re up-to-date.
Never be afraid of questioning everything once again.
What life philosophies do you knowingly or unknowingly live by?

WEEK 17
PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL AND CAREER PATH
 
“If one advances confidently in the direction of his dreams, and endeavors to live the life which he has imagined, he
will meet with a success unexpected in common hours.”– Henry David Thoreau
 

Performance Appraisal
 
What Is a Performance Appraisal?
A performance appraisal is a regular review of an employee's job performance and overall contribution to a company.
Also known as an annual review, performance review or evaluation, or employee appraisal, a performance appraisal
evaluates an employee’s skills, achievements, and growth--or lack thereof. Companies use performance appraisals
to give employees big-picture feedback on their work and to justify pay increases and bonuses, as well
as termination decisions. They can be conducted at any given time but tend to be annual, semi-annual, or quarterly.
 

How Performance Appraisals Work

Because companies have a limited pool of funds from which to award raises and bonuses, performance appraisals
help determine how to allocate those funds. They provide a way for companies to determine which employees have
contributed the most to the company’s growth so companies can reward their top-performing employees accordingly.
 
Performance appraisals also help employees and their managers create a plan for employee development through
additional training and increased responsibilities, as well as to identify shortcomings the employee could work to
resolve.
 
Ideally, the performance appraisal is not the only time during the year that managers and employees communicate
about the employee’s contributions. More frequent conversations help keep everyone on the same page, develop
stronger relationships between employees and managers, and make annual reviews less stressful.  
 

Performance Appraisal Types

Most performance appraisals are top-down, meaning supervisors evaluate their staff with no input from the subject.
But there are other types:
•       Self-assessment: Individuals rate their job performance and behavior.
•       Peer assessment: An individual's work group rates his performance.
•       360-degree feedback assessment: Includes input from an individual, her supervisor, and her peers.
•       Negotiated appraisal: A newer trend that utilizes a mediator and attempts to moderate the adversarial nature of
performance evaluations by allowing the subject to present first. Also focuses on what the individual is doing right
before any criticism is given. This structure tends to be useful during conflicts between subordinates and supervisors.
 

Performance Appraisal Criticism

An issue with performance appraisals is that differentiating individual and organizational performance can be difficult.
If the evaluation's construction doesn't reflect the culture of a company or organization, it can be detrimental.
Employees report general dissatisfaction with their performance appraisal processes. Other potential issues include:
•       Distrust of the appraisal can lead to issues between subordinates and supervisors or a situation in which
employees merely tailor their input to please their employer.
•       Performance appraisals can lead to the adoption of unreasonable goals that demoralize workers or incentivize
them to engage in unethical practices.
•       Some labor experts believe that use of performance appraisals has led to lower use of merit- and performance-
based compensation.
•       Performance appraisals may lead to unfair evaluations in which employees are judged not by their
accomplishments but by their likability. They can also lead to managers giving underperforming staff a good
evaluation to avoid souring their relationship.
•       Unreliable raters can introduce a number of biases that skew appraisal results toward preferred characteristics
or ones that reflect the rater's preferences.
•       Performance appraisals that work well in one culture or job function may not be useful in another.
 
Source:  https://www.investopedia.com/what-is-a-performance-appraisal-4586834 By Caleb Silver
 

Professional Development Plan

 
Forms to Create a Professional Development Plan
  •    Performance Evaluation and Planning Form  
•    Performance Planning and Review Form
•    Self-Assessment Form
 
A professional development plan documents the goals, required skill and competency development, and objectives a
staff member will need to accomplish in order to support continuous improvement and career development. A
professional development plan is created by the manager working closely with the staff member to identify the
necessary skills and resources to support the staff member's career goals and the organization's business needs.
 
Professional development for staff members begins when a new member joins your team. In addition, all staff
members should have a "living" professional development plan in place. Planning should not take place only after a
staff member is identified as needing improvement. Professional development plans should be reviewed on an on-
going basis throughout the year, with at least one interim review discussion between the staff member and supervisor
prior to the end of the yearly performance review period.
 

Professional Development Planning

Steps
Use the following steps to create a professional development plan with your employee. Feel free to use the example
professional development plans (listed above) to assist you in the process.
•       Step One: Request a self-assessment from the staff member
•       Step Two: Develop your assessment of the individual's skill level
•       Step Three: Assess the department and organization's needs

•       Step Four: Explore development opportunities with the staff member         Step Five: Record and analyze the
staff member's progress
 

Step One: Request a self-assessment

from the staff member
Have the staff member complete a self-assessment of their interests, skills, values, and personality. When evaluating
the staff member's responses, keep these questions in mind:
•       What skills, career opportunities, technologies interest the individual?
•       Do those skills/interests/goals support the organization's needs and goals?
•       What are the short and long term steps to get there?
 

Step Two: Develop your assessment of

the individual's skill level
Based on the staff member's self-assessment, their work record, and your own observations, determine the staff
member's skill level in the following categories:
•        Technical skills: skills needed to get the job done.
•        Social skills: how do they work with others?
•        Aptitudes: natural talents; special abilities for doing, or learning to do, certain kinds of things.
•        Attitude: outlook, feelings, mind-set, way of thinking, and point of view.
 

Step Three: Assess the department and

organization's needs
In order for professional development to be successful, the staff member's needs and interests must be applied to
address organizational objectives. The staff member's career path must align with the organization's workforce
needs. In creating a professional development plan, consider the following goals:
•       Company goals
•       Departmental goals
•       Team goals
•       Individual goals
 

Step Four: Explore development

opportunities with the staff member
Explore the professional development opportunities available in the company with your staff member. Some
examples include:
•       Professional Development - The Professional Development Academy is a center dedicated to providing
professional development training programs and resources for staff that supports identified staffing needs. The
Academy offers long-term training programs with a tailored curriculum designed to develop skills and capabilities
needed to fill identified job opportunities.
•       New Projects & Responsibilities - Explore what new projects and responsibilities the staff member can assist
with in their own department. Staff members can use such opportunities to develop new skills such as web design,
business writing, and project management.
•       Workshops & Seminars - Learning & Organizational Development offers a variety of workshops and seminars
that help an staff member develop their work and computer technology skills
•       Educational Opportunities - There are a variety of educational opportunities available.
•       Volunteer Opportunities - Volunteer opportunities can present a unique way for an staff member to develop
certain professional skills.  
•       Mentorship - Interested staff can be paired with mentors for a variety of activities including information
interviews, shadowing, tutorials, etc. 
 

Step Five: Record and analyze the staff

member's progress
Collect feedback from the staff member about their development progress to assist in identifying what the staff
member is doing well, build on their skills, correct any problems that may arise, and help them develop new abilities
that will improve personal performance as well as organizational outcomes.
Use a Performance Log for tracking, recording and providing feedback from the staff member. Record dates, events,
expectations, and the impact of action steps on their development. Make sure to record:
•       Observations of enhanced skills or knowledge and how they were applied.
•       Progress towards goals and objectives.
•       Observations where skills / knowledge could be applied - use for future discussion.
 
Source:  https://hr.duke.edu/managers/performance-management/professional-development-plan
 
 
CAREER DEVELOPMENT

10 Key Areas of Development for Employees (with Examples and Tips)

Even when you feel appreciated at work, there are key areas for professional development that can help you improve
your personal productivity and attain valuable skills that can benefit you in all aspects of your career. Taking time for
self-improvement can help you feel more confident in your contributions at work. Though it takes some effort to
identify areas you could work on, development can be a worthwhile pursuit. In this article, we discuss key areas of
employee development that can help increase productivity and improve office morale.
 
What are key areas of development for employees?
An area of development is a skill or attribute that benefits your professional life. As an employee, focusing on
improvement in these development areas can help you become a more productive, empathetic and cooperative
member of the team. Managers and employers can offer support for employee development beyond technical and
academic skills, creating a culture that values self-improvement and allows for personal and professional growth in
key areas.
 
Examples of areas of development for
employees
As you analyze your professional behavior, consider if any of these 10 key areas of development will help you
acquire valuable skills. We offer examples and tips to show that self-improvement is often making small changes that
lead to big results.
1.    Goal-setting
2.    Communication
3.    Collaboration
4.    Listening
5.    Conflict resolution
6.    Adaptability
7.    Organization
8.    Accepting constructive feedback
9.    Integrity
10. Productivity
 

1. Goal-setting
If you seek more direction in your professional career, setting goals may be a good first step to improve focus and
work performance. Team projects often have broad and proximal goals and milestones to reach, but your own
personal development is equally important to help you feel satisfaction and pride in your work.
 
Whether you prefer using an online application or you like to write in a notebook, setting goals for yourself is vital to
advancing your development.
 
Goal-setting practices vary, but you can try these tips to help achieve your goals:
•       Divide long-term goals into smaller, more achievable parts.
•       Write down your goals in a journal, as a checklist, in a spreadsheet or an electronic document in your phone that
you can refer to frequently.
•       Create a vision board with a visual representation of your goals.
 

2. Communication
Offices and teams comprise groups of people from varying backgrounds and experiences. That diversity can help
bring fresh perspectives to a project, but it can emphasize how your communication style might be different from a
coworker’s.
Recognizing and working with others’ communication preferences is a great way to build positive relationships.
 
Try these tips to help improve team communication:
•       Create a balance between meetings, one-on-one conferences and electronic communication to accommodate
preferences.
•       Establish a fixed appointment or routine that helps facilitate timely conversation.
•       Assign a rotating discussion leader for in-person meetings so all members of the team have a chance to lead
and facilitate discussion.
 

3. Collaboration
Collaboration is a skill you learn at a young age when it is called cooperation or sharing. In the
workplace, collaboration involves working with others from different backgrounds to achieve a common goal.
Collaboration can inspire more productivity than when a person works alone.
 
Here are some tips to develop collaborative relationships:
•       Build camaraderie through brainstorming sessions, giving equal attention to all members’ ideas and input.
•       Participate in team-building activities or working retreats to learn each other’s strengths and weaknesses and
build a culture of supporting one another.
•       In advance of a more involved project, work with various coworkers on smaller tasks to determine which
partnerships will be effective for long-term success.
 
 

4. Listening
The qualities of a good listener are many, and they can be taught and developed with practice. In the workplace,
good listeners are valuable for others seeking mentorship or career advice, for sharing ideas on how to complete
projects and when getting to know coworkers personally for improved collaboration.
 
Here are some ways to be a good listener:
•       Make eye contact and avoid glancing at distractions, such as computers or cell phones.
•       Allow the other person time to think by not talking or interrupting during moments of silence.
•       Express emotion appropriate to the situation, such as empathy, happiness, congratulations or encouragement.
•       Ask thoughtful follow-up questions for clarification or to give the other person an opportunity to provide more
detail.
 

5. Conflict resolution
When disagreements arise between you and a coworker, it can be challenging to find easy solutions. If you have not
been able to resolve differences, you may need to seek conflict resolution advice or mediation that can help you
overcome the problem.
Here are some tips to help resolve conflict:
•       Participate in an organized conflict resolution training in a neutral environment before problems arise.
•       Walk away from the conflict if you feel too emotional—and wait until you feel calmer to discuss your concerns.
•       Avoid accusing each other. Instead, try the following phrasing: “When you [miss our morning meeting], I
feel [disrespected].”
 

6. Adaptability
Even the most thorough brainstorming and planning may not anticipate the scenarios that change the scope of a
project as it progresses. A change in leadership, a client’s restructuring of their vision, a financial setback or
restructuring of personnel can all affect a project’s deadlines and deliverables. Employees who can easily adapt to
the changing scope will both be more productive and happier even with fluctuating tasks and circumstances.
 
Here are some tips to become more adaptable in a changing work environment:
•       Before a project begins, acknowledge and accept that there will likely be adjustments.
•       If a project changes course, take time with your team to reassess and redefine the scope much as you would at
the beginning of a project by soliciting feedback and input from all members of the team.
•       Use mantras or read inspiring quotations that keep you calm and focused on outcomes, even if many aspects of
your work change.
 

7. Organization
Good organization is a habit that can positively affect every aspect of your job. When your paperwork, your electronic
files or your input into a database or a task-tracking program are in order, you will probably be prepared to answer
any questions that may arise and help keep yourself on task.
 
Here are some tips to keep your work organized:
•       Devote some amount of time each workday to organization, such as filing paperwork for 30 minutes after lunch
or entering progress into a spreadsheet.
•       Create a functional organization system—with physical file folders and backups on an external hard drive or
cloud storage—where documents and files are labeled clearly and consistently.
•       Keep high-priority tasks at the forefront of your organization system, whether that is an inbox for paper on your
desk or an electronic task-management system that helps you with reminders and alerts.
 

8. Accepting constructive feedback

It can be difficult to hear constructive feedback about your work or behavior. However, constructive feedback can
help correct behaviors and promote good work, whether between coworkers to resolve conflict or from manager to
employee.
 
Here are some tips to be open to constructive feedback:
•       Encourage your company to foster a culture where both positive feedback and suggestions for improvement are
a regular part of office communication.
•       Participate in a training that teaches best practices for constructive feedback.
•       When you receive constructive feedback where correction is warranted, try to be humble and assess how you
can implement even a small change.
 
9. Integrity
The best way to gain and keep the trust of your coworkers, managers and customers you serve is to establish
yourself as honest and ethical in all your business dealings, even when it may be difficult to tell the truth or admit to a
mistake.
 
Here are some ways to demonstrate your personal integrity:
•       Be open and transparent when dealing with financial transactions like petty cash, company credit cards or
turning in receipts for reimbursement. Only use company funds for allowed purchases.
•       Use company time wisely by working hard on your assigned tasks during the hours you are expected to be
there.
•       Follow up on answers you have promised others, meet your deadlines without excuses and take responsibility
for the results of your work.
 

10. Productivity
At the end of a workday, it can be satisfying to look back on what you have accomplished. Some days allow you to
pursue your list of tasks with efficiency and minimal distractions, and others can be filled with unexpected issues that
detour your attention from your original plan. Developing your ability to be productive no matter what happens during
your day is a valuable skill.
 
Here are some tips to increase your personal productivity:
•       Try to focus on one task rather than multi-tasking. You can try closing your office door, silencing your phone or
shutting down your computer for a period of time to meet a deadline. Every time you look away from the task, it may
diminish your focus and increase the overall time it takes to finish.
•       Create a system that you can follow every day. That might be making a list every morning, checking email only
at certain times of the day or being accountable to a coworker for motivation. Find something you know will be
sustainable for how you like to work.
•       Take short breaks when you feel especially challenged or tired. A short walk, some desk yoga or a snack can
help you feel revitalized and more able to refocus on the task.
 
Source:  
https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/key-areas-of-development-for-employees
 
 
 

CAREER PATH
 
What Is a Career Path?
 A career path is a sequence of jobs that leads to your short- and long-term career goals. Some follow a linear career
path within one field, while others change fields periodically to achieve career or personal goals.
 
A career path is a series of jobs that help you progress towards your goals and objectives.
Your career path includes the jobs you’ll need to hit your ultimate career goal, but it doesn’t need to follow a straight
line. There’s no blueprint or timetable for climbing the career ladder.
Career paths traditionally imply vertical growth or advancement to higher-level positions, but they can also include
lateral (sideways) movement within or across industries.
 
A Bureau of Labor Statistics survey of baby boomers found that they had an average of 12.3 jobs from ages 18 to
52. Changing jobs is expected, and sometimes those changes will involve different types of positions in various
industries. Some career paths have a few ups and downs and some people even plan a move down the career
ladder.
 
You might move down the career ladder by asking your company for a transfer to a position with fewer
responsibilities and less stress. Or you might apply for a position with a company that you're passionate about
working with, but the only available positions are lower level ones.
 
If you're feeling stuck and unsure of the next step in your career path, consider talking to a career counselor. A
reputable counselor can help you clarify your goals and explore your options.
 

Types of Career Paths

Career paths typically refer to either your path through an industry or your path through an organization. For example,
if your goal is to become a principal, you'd typically start as a teacher and work on your administrative credentials
while teaching. If you're in a large district, you might chart a path within your district. You might become a department
head and then advance to a position as an assistant principal.
 
If you're in a smaller district, you might need to move to a different organization to advance your goals. In that case,
your advancing within your profession, but moving to another organization.
 
Some organizations help you develop a career path as part of the employee development process.  In this case, you
and your supervisor or a human resources representative discuss your career development within your organization.
 
This discussion may take place as part of the performance appraisal process. Additional education, training, or work
assignments may be planned to qualify you for subsequent roles within your career path.
 
Ultimately, your career path depends on your career values and personal goals. You might change industries as you
pursue a higher income, better benefits, and/or increased job satisfaction. Or, you might wander off the path
altogether to take care of family or continue your education.
 

Examples of Career Paths

To get a sense of your options, it helps to review examples of career paths for a variety of fields. Keep in mind that
some career paths are direct and include specific jobs that move you up the career ladder and are typically followed
in order.
 
Here are several examples:
•       Administration: Administrative Assistant—Executive Assistant—Office Manager
•       Advertising: Advertising Account Coordinator—Assistant Account Executive— Account Executive—Senior
Account Executive
•       Communications: Public Relations Assistant—Public Relations Representative—Assistant Director of Public
Relations—Director of Communications
•       Customer service: Customer Service Representative—Inside Salesperson — Outside Salesperson—Major
Account Salesperson—Regional Sales Manager
•       Editorial: Editorial Assistant—Assistant Editor—Associate Editor—Editor—Senior Editor—Editorial Director
•       Education: Teacher—Curriculum Coordinator—Assistant Principal—Principal
•       Education to insurance (career change): Teacher—Insurance Salesperson— Trainer for New Agents
•       Engineering: Junior Engineer—Senior Engineer—Project Manager—Engineering
Consultant
•       Human resources: Human Resources Assistant—Benefits Assistant—Benefits Specialist—Assistant Director of
Human Resources—Director of Human Resources
•       Retail: Retail Sales Clerk—Assistant Manager—Department Manager—Store Manager—Regional Manager
•       Hospitality: Room Attendant – Housekeeping Supervisor – Housekeeping Manager – Executive Housekeeper
– Hotel General Manager
 

Requirements for a Career Path

Some people have deliberate, well-planned career paths. Others take things one job at a time, adjusting as their
goals and preferences change. Either approach (or a combination of the two) can be successful. Here are a few ways
you can position yourself for a successful career path:
•       Be in learning mode: Today’s job market moves quickly. To keep up, you need to be prepared to add to
your skillset. To find out which skills are most in demand in your industry, take a look at your peers' LinkedIn profiles.
You’ll learn which skills you’ll need to advance.
•       Network: Connecting with your peers can help you identify new directions for your career, even if you’re not
interested in job-hopping at the moment.
•       Be flexible: Don’t hold too tightly to your career plan. Be open to opportunity and keep your ultimate goals in
mind. What’s important to you? What do you enjoy about your job and career, and what would you prefer to minimize
at your next gig?
•       Don’t be afraid of a lateral move: Sometimes you need to move sideways (or even backward) to get ahead. If
a job offers you a chance to develop skills or connections that will be valuable later on, be open to a lateral move.
 
 
Source:  https://www.thebalancecareers.com/career-path-definition-with-examples-2059765 By ALISON DOYLE
 
 
RESUMES & COVER LETERS
What Makes a Good Resume?
Writing a good resume is valuable for employees searching for a new job. Writing a good resume puts you in a better
position to secure an interview with the hiring manager. However, your resume needs to stand out from the rest of the
applicants for them to be interested in your candidacy.
 
In this lesson, we will outline why writing a good resume is important and feature the characteristics of what makes a
good resume.
 
Why is writing a good resume important?
Writing a good resume is crucial for you to demonstrate your education, work experience and skills. Also, a good
resume communicates how your qualifications fit into the role in which you're applying for. Employers select
applicants if their resume is tailored to the job application, which shows that you can perform the duties required by
the employer.
 

Characteristics that make a good

resume
Here is a list of elements that will help you stand out from other applicants when applying to your next position.
1.    Power words
2.    Keywords
3.    Relevant skills
4.    Confidence
5.    Clarity and quantitative stats
6.    Formatting
 

1. Power words
Power words are action verbs that prove to be an influential element of a vigorous resume. Overall, they provide a
brief and effective context of your experience and the value you bring to an organization. You'll want to include action
verbs throughout your resume to help capture the attention of the hiring manager. Let's take a look at an example of
how to use a power word when explaining your experience:
Example: Educated new sales team representatives on department processes, coached new hires to close sales
and served as a mentor.
 

2. Keywords
Each employer has different sets of keywords that can help give you an advantage if they're included in your resume.
The usage of applicant tracking systems (ATS) by employers shows the number of keywords used, but they still have
to make a judgment to determine if your experience is what the company is looking for.
 
However, it's important to not write the resume based on your keywords, but keep the messaging centered on your
skills and relevant work experience. Let's review an example of a keyword that you can include on your
resume: Example: 3+ years of experience in web development
 

3. Relevant skills
You want to convey the skills that make you a qualified applicant and make you worthy of proceeding to the next step
of the interview process. Check to see if you have transferable skills from previous positions that can be inserted into
the resume for the job you're applying to. This is useful if you're planning on changing industries, but you want to
keep the focus on the value you provided to another company.
Example: Created and monitored a 10K email list for the University of South Florida's weekly newsletter, increasing
turnout at campus events during the 2018-2019 school year.
 

4. Confidence
The way you communicate your experience is critical in proving you're qualified for the position. Yet, you need to let
the interviewer know what tangible results you've earned on another organization's behalf. The results you've earned
and the way they're written on the resume are usually aligned with who makes it to the next round of the interview
process.
Example: Increased sales of marketing services by 40% over the first 12 months.
 

5. Clarity and quantitative stats

It's important for you to be concise when discussing your qualifications, so the hiring manager knows what you can
bring to the organization and understand your opportunities for growth. Stay clear of wordiness and prioritize the most
valuable information you want your prospective employer to know about.
Example: O**versaw social media efforts that expanded conversion rates by 27% for client accounts.
 

6. Formatting
You have a wide variety of choices for how you want to display your experience. Each choice can match how you're
trying to get the employer to notice your resume. Here are three examples of different types of formatting for your
resume:
•       Chronological: This resume merely highlights your professional job experience. This gives employers an
overview of your most recent work experience, listed at the top of the application, to the bottom where it can show
your first position in the workforce. The main point you want to emphasize is the tenure you have at one organization.
The longer you stay at a company, the more trust an employer has in you to stay with an organization for a while.
•       Functional: A functional resume details your workplace success within the skills you highlight. In other words,
the type of skills is the focus of this resume, and it can be beneficial if you're looking to work in another industry.
Employers like to hire employees that possess the ability to learn and obtain different skills, so they find out who can
adapt to their new role if they're given an offer.
•       Combination: A combination resume blends chronological and functional resumes. This is an ideal resume if
you're applying to an entry or mid-level position because you'll have the number of skills and experiences to apply to
the job description. If you have worked internships, you can combine the skills you learned from your internship in
addition to your responsibilities while employed with the company.
 

Tips for writing a good resume

Here are some additional tips to help you write a quality resume when applying for jobs.
•       Be careful of word usage: When you're writing your resume, ensure that you're making each experience read
as a statement, not a full sentence. The best resume is composed of statements with impactful action verbs. This
way, you can move directly to the salient points you want to cover.
•       Proofread and peer review: Always proofread your resume out loud before you submit it. This is important to
make your resume error-free and to maximize its quality. Have your friend or a family member read too so they can
give feedback about what you wrote.
•       Utilize white space: Blank regions of your resume that contains no text or imagery is known as white space.
You can remove skills and work experience that is not essential to the job posting to add white space on your
resume. A resume created on graphic design programs can give you more space to work with as well as create
appealing images and text that can attract interest from the hiring manager.
 
Source:  https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/resumes-cover-letters/what-makes-a-good-resume
 
 

Job interview

A candidate is interviewed at a job interview

 
A job interview is an interview consisting of a conversation between a job applicant and a representative of
an employer which is conducted to assess whether the applicant should be hired. Interviews are one of the most
popularly used devices for employee selection. Interviews vary in the extent to which the questions are structured,
from a totally unstructured and free-wheeling conversation, to a structured interview in which an applicant is asked a
predetermined list of questions in a specified order; structured interviews are usually more accurate predictors of
which applicants will make suitable employees, according to research studies.
 
A job interview typically precedes the hiring decision. The interview is usually preceded by the evaluation of
submitted résumés from interested candidates, possibly by examining job applications or reading many resumes.
Next, after this screening, a small number of candidates for interviews is selected.
 
Potential job interview opportunities also include networking events and career fairs. The job interview is considered
one of the most useful tools for evaluating potential employees. It also demands significant resources from the
employer, yet has been demonstrated to be notoriously unreliable in identifying the optimal person for the job.  An
interview also allows the candidate to assess the corporate culture and demands of the job.
 
Multiple rounds of job interview and/or other candidate selection methods may be used where there are many
candidates or the job is particularly challenging or desirable. Earlier rounds sometimes called 'screening interviews'
may involve fewer staff from the employers and will typically be much shorter and less in-depth. An increasingly
common initial interview approach is the telephone interview. This is especially common when the candidates do not
live near the employer and has the advantage of keeping costs low for both sides. Since 2003, interviews have been
held through video conferencing software, such as Skype. Once all candidates have been interviewed, the employer
typically selects the most desirable candidate(s) and begins the negotiation of a job offer.
 

Strategies

Researchers have attempted to identify interview strategies or "constructs" that can help interviewers choose the best
candidate. Research suggests that interviews capture a wide variety of applicant attributes. Constructs can be
classified into three categories: jobrelevant content, interviewee performance (behavior unrelated to the job but which
influences the evaluation), and job-irrelevant interviewer biases.
 
Job-relevant interview content: Interview questions are generally designed to tap applicant attributes that are
specifically relevant to the job for which the person is applying. The job-relevant applicant attributes that the questions
purportedly assess are thought to be necessary for successful performance on the job. The job-relevant constructs
that have been assessed in the interview can be classified into three categories: general traits, experiential factors,
and core job elements. The first category refers to relatively stable applicant traits. The second category refers to job
knowledge that the applicant has acquired over time. The third category refers to the knowledge, skills, and abilities
associated with the job.
 
General traits:
•       Mental ability: Applicants' capacity to listen, to communicate, to work with a team, to have attention to detail, and
to learn and process information,
•       Personality: Conscientiousness, agreeableness, emotional stability, extroversion, openness to new experiences
•       Interest, goals, and values: Applicant motives, goals, and person-organization fit
 
Experiential factors:
•       Experience: Job-relevant knowledge derived from prior experience

•       Education: Job-relevant knowledge derived from prior education    Training: Job-relevant knowledge derived
from prior training
 
Core job elements:
•       Declarative knowledge: Applicants' learned knowledge
•       Procedural skills and abilities: Applicants' ability to complete the tasks required to do the job
•       Motivation: Applicants' willingness to exert the effort required to do the job
 
Interviewee performance Interviewer evaluations of applicant responses also tend to be colored by how an
applicant behaves in the interview. These behaviors may not be directly related to the constructs the interview
questions were designed to assess, but can be related to aspects of the job for which they are applying. Applicants
without realizing it may engage in a number of behaviors that influence ratings of their performance. The applicant
may have acquired these behaviors during training or from previous interview experience. These interviewee
performance constructs can also be classified into three categories: social effectiveness skills, interpersonal
presentation, and personal/contextual factors.
 
Social effectiveness skills:
•       Impression management: Applicants' attempt to make sure the interviewer forms a positive impression of them
•       Social skills: Applicants' ability to adapt his/her behavior according to the demands of the situation to
positively influence the interviewer
•       Self-monitoring: Applicants' regulation of behaviors to control the image presented to the interviewer
•       Relational control: Applicants' attempt to control the flow of the conversation
 
Interpersonal presentation:
•       Verbal expression: Pitch, rate, pauses
•       Nonverbal behavior: Gaze, smile, hand movement, body orientation
 
Personal/contextual factors:
•       Interview training: Coaching, mock interviews with feedback
•       Interview experience: Number of prior interviews
•       Interview self-efficacy: Applicants' perceived ability to do well in the interview
•       Interview motivation: Applicants' motivation to succeed in an interview
 
Job-irrelevant interviewer biases The following are personal and demographic characteristics that can potentially
influence interviewer evaluations of interviewee responses. These factors are typically not relevant to whether the
individual can do the job (that is, not related to job performance), thus, their influence on interview ratings should be
minimized or excluded. In fact, there are laws in many countries that prohibit consideration of many of these
protected classes of people when making selection decisions. Using structured interviews with multiple interviewers
coupled with training may help reduce the effect of the following characteristics on interview ratings.  
 
The list of job-irrelevant interviewer biases is presented below.
•       Attractiveness: Applicant physical attractiveness can influence the interviewer's evaluation of one's interview
performance
•       Race: Whites tend to score higher than Blacks and Hispanics; racial similarity between interviewer and
applicant, on the other hand, has not been found to influence interview ratings
•       Gender: Females tend to receive slightly higher interview scores than their male counterparts; gender similarity
does not seem to influence interview ratings
•       Similarities in background and attitudes: Interviewers perceived interpersonal attraction was found to influence
interview ratings
•       Culture: Applicants with an ethnic name and a foreign accent were viewed less favorably than applicants with
just an ethnic name and no accent or an applicant with a traditional name with or without an accent
 
The extent to which ratings of interviewee performance reflect certain constructs varies widely depending on the level
of structure of the interview, the kind of questions asked, interviewer or applicant biases, applicant professional dress
or nonverbal behavior, and a host of other factors. For example, some research suggests that applicant's cognitive
ability, education, training, and work experiences may be better captured in unstructured interviews, whereas
applicant's job knowledge, organizational fit, interpersonal skills, and applied knowledge may be better captured in a
structured interview.
 
Further, interviews are typically designed to assess a number of constructs. Given the social nature of the interview,
applicant responses to interview questions and interviewer evaluations of those responses are sometimes influenced
by constructs beyond those the questions were intended to assess, making it extremely difficult to tease out the
specific constructs measured during the interview. Reducing the number of constructs, the interview is intended to
assess may help mitigate this issue. Moreover, of practical importance is whether the interview is a better measure of
some constructs in comparison to paper and pencil tests of the same constructs. Indeed, certain constructs (mental
ability and skills, experience) may be better measured with paper and pencil tests than during the interview, whereas
personality-related constructs seem to be better measured during the interview in comparison to paper and pencil
tests of the same personality constructs. In sum, the following is recommended: Interviews should be developed to
assess the job relevant constructs identified in the job analysis.
 
Assessment
 

Person-environment fit
Person-environment fit is often measured by organizations when hiring new employees. There are many types of
Person-environment fit with the two most relevant for interviews being Person-job and Person-organization fit.
Interviewers usually emphasis Person-job fit and ask twice as many questions about Person-job fit compared to
Person-organization fit. Interviewers are more likely to give applicants with good Person-job fit a hiring
recommendation compared to an applicant with good Person-organization fit.
 
An applicant's knowledge, skills, abilities, and other attributes (KSAOs) are the most commonly measured variables
when interviewers assess Person-job fit. In one survey, all interviewers reported that their organization measures
KSAOs to determine Personjob fit. The same study found that all interviewers used personality traits and 65% of the
interviewers used personal values to measure Person-organization fit.
 
Despite fit being a concern among organizations, how to determine fit and the types of questions to use varies. When
interview fit questions were examined, only 4% of the questions used in interviews were similar across the majority of
organizations. 22% of questions were commonly used by recruiters in some organizations. In contrast, 74% of the
questions had no commonality between organizations. Although the idea of fit is similar in many organizations, the
questions used and how that information is judged may be very different.
 
Person-job fit and Person-organization fit have different levels of importance at different stages of a multi-stage
interview proves. Despite this, Person-job fit is considered of highest importance throughout the entire process.
Organizations focus more on job related skills early on to screen out potential unqualified candidates. Thus, more
questions are devoted to Person-job fit during the initial interview stages. Once applicants have passed the initial
stages, more questions are used for Person-organization fit in the final interview stages. Although there is more focus
on Person-organization fit in these later stages, Person-job fit is still considered to be of greater importance.
 
In a single stage interview, both fits are assessed during a single interview. Interviewers still put more weight on
Person-job fit questions over the Person-organization questions in these situations as well. Again, Person-job fit
questions are used to screen out and reduce the number of applicants.
 
Potential applicants also use job interviews to assess their fit within an organization. This can determine if an
applicant will take a job offer when one is offered. When applicants assess their fit with an organization the
experience they have during the job interview is the most influential.
 
Applicants felt that they had highest fit with an organization when they could add information not covered during the
interview that they wanted to share. Applicants also liked when they could ask questions about the organization. They
also when they could ask follow up questions to ensure they answered the interviewer's questions to the level the
interviewer wanted.  Interviewer behaviors that encourage fit perceptions in applicants include complimenting
applicants on their resume and thanking them for traveling to the interview.  Applicants like to be given contact
information if follow up information is needed, the interviewer making eye contact, and asking if the applicant was
comfortable.
 
 
The Interviewer can discourage fit perceptions by how they act during an interview as well. the biggest negative
behavior for applicants was the interviewer not knowing information about their organization. Without information
about the organization, applicants cannot judge how well they fit. Another negative behavior is not knowing
applicants’ background information during the interview. Interviewers can also hurt fit perception by being inattentive
during the interview and not greeting the applicant.
 
There are some issues with fit perceptions in interviews. Applicants’ Person-organization fit scores can be altered by
the amount of ingratiation done by the applicants. Interviewers skew their Person-organization fit scores the more
ingratiation applicants do during an interview. By applicants emphasizing similarities between them and the
interviewer this leads to a higher Person-organization fit perceptions by the interviewer. This higher perception of fit
leads to a greater likelihood of the candidate being hired.
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Process

People waiting to be interviewed at an employment agency

One way to think about the interview process is as three separate, albeit related, phases:
(1)  the pre-interview phase which occurs before the interviewer and candidate meet
(2)  the interview phase where the interview is conducted, and 
(3)  the post-interview phase where the interviewer forms judgments of candidate qualifications and makes final
decisions. 
 
Although separate, these three phases are related. That is, impressions interviewers form early on may affect how
they view the person in a later phase.
 
Pre-interview phase: The pre-interview phase encompasses the information available to the interviewer beforehand
(e.g., resumes, test scores, social networking site information) and the perceptions interviewers form about applicants
from this information prior to the actual face-to-face interaction between the two individuals. In this phase,
interviewers are likely to already have ideas about the characteristics that would make a person ideal or qualified for
the position. Interviewers also have information about the applicant usually in the form of a resume, test scores, or
prior contacts with the applicant. Interviewers then often integrate information that they have on an applicant with their
ideas about the ideal employee to form a pre-interview evaluation of the candidate. In this way, interviewers typically
have an impression even before the actual face-to-face interview interaction. Nowadays with recent technological
advancements, interviewers have an even larger amount of information available on some candidates.
For example, interviewers can obtain information from search engines (e.g. Google, Bing, Yahoo), blogs, and even
social networks (e.g. Linkedin, Facebook, Twitter). While some of this information may be job-related, some of it may
not be. In some cases, a review of Facebook may reveal undesirable behaviors such as drunkenness or drug use.
Despite the relevance of the information, any information interviewers obtain about the applicant before the interview
is likely to influence their impression of the candidate. Furthermore, researchers have found that what interviewers
think about the applicant before the interview (pre-interview phase) is related to how they evaluate the candidate after
the interview, despite how the candidate may have performed during the interview.
 
Interview phase: The interview phase entails the actual conduct of the interview, the interaction between the
interviewer and the applicant. Initial interviewer impressions about the applicant before the interview may influence
the amount of time an interviewer spends in the interview with the applicant, the interviewer's behavior and
questioning of the applicant, and the interviewer's post-interview evaluations.  Pre-interview impressions also can
affect what the interviewer notices about the interviewee, recalls from the interview, and how an interviewer interprets
what the applicant says and does in the interview.
 
As interviews are typically conducted face-to-face, over the phone, or through video conferencing (e.g. Skype), they
are a social interaction between at least two individuals. Thus, the behavior of the interviewer during the interview
likely "leaks" information to the interviewee. That is, you can sometimes tell during the interview whether the
interviewer thinks positively or negatively about you. Knowing this information can actually affect how the applicant
behaves, resulting in a self-fulfilling prophecy effect. For example, interviewees who feel the interviewer does not
think they are qualified may be more anxious and feel they need to prove they are qualified. Such anxiety may
hamper how well they actually perform and present themselves during the interview, fulfilling the original thoughts of
the interviewer. Alternatively, interviewees who perceive an interviewer believes they are qualified for the job may feel
more at ease and comfortable during the exchange, and consequently actually perform better in the interview.
Because of the dynamic nature of the interview, the interaction between the behaviors and thoughts of both parties is
a continuous process whereby information is processed and informs subsequent behavior, thoughts, and evaluations.
 
Post-interview phase: After the interview is conducted, the interviewer must form an evaluation of the interviewee's
qualifications for the position. The interviewer most likely takes into consideration all the information, even from the
pre-interview phase, and integrates it to form a post-interview evaluation of the applicant. In the final stage of the
interview process, the interviewer uses his/her evaluation of the candidate (i.e., in the form of interview ratings or
judgment) to make a final decision. Sometimes other selection tools (e.g., work samples, cognitive ability tests,
personality tests) are used in combination with the interview to make final hiring decisions; however, interviews
remain the most commonly used selection device in North America.
 
For interviewees: Although the description of the interview process above focuses on the perspective of the
interviewer, job applicants also gather information on the job and/or organization and form impressions prior to the
interview. The interview is a two-way exchange and applicants are also making decisions about whether the company
is a good fit for them. Essentially, the process model illustrates that the interview is not an isolated interaction, but
rather a complex process that begins with two parties forming judgments and gathering information, and ends with a
final interviewer decision.
 

Types

There are many types of interviews that organizations can conduct. However, what is the same across all interview
types is the idea of interview structure. How much an interview is structured, or developed and conducted the same
way across all applicants, depends on the number of certain elements included in that interview. Overall, the
interview can be standardized both with regard to the content (i.e., what questions are asked) and to the evaluative
process (i.e., how the applicants’ responses to the questions are scored). When an interview is standardized, it
increases the likelihood that an interviewee's ratings are due to the quality of his/her responses instead of non-job-
related and often distracting factors, such as appearance. Interview structure is more appropriately thought to be on a
continuum, ranging from completely unstructured to fully structured. However, structure is often treated as a having
only two categories (that is, structured vs. unstructured), which many researchers believe to be too simple of an
approach.
 
Unstructured
The unstructured interview, or one that does not include a good number of standardization elements, is the most
common form of interview today. Unstructured interviews are typically seen as free-flowing; the interviewer can swap
out or change questions as he/she feels is best, and different interviewers may not rate or score applicant responses
in the same way. There are also no directions put in place regarding how the interviewer and the interviewee should
interact before, during, or after the interview. Unstructured interviews essentially allow the interviewer to conduct the
interview however he or she thinks is best.
 
Given unstructured interviews can change based on who the interviewer might be, it is not surprising that
unstructured interviews are typically preferred by interviewers. Interviewers tend to develop confidence in their ability
to accurately rate interviewees, detect whether applicants are faking their answers, and trust their judgment about
whether the person is a good candidate for the job.  Unstructured interviews allow interviewers to do so more freely.
Research suggests, however, that unstructured interviews are actually highly unreliable, or inconsistent between
interviews. That means that two interviewers who conduct an interview with the same person may not agree and see
the candidate the same way even if they were in the same interview with that applicant. Often interviewers who
conduct unstructured interviews fail to identify the highquality candidates for the job. 
 
Structured
Interview structure is the degree to which interviews are identical and conducted the same across applicants. Also
known as guided, systematic, or patterned interviews, structured interviews aim to make both the content (the
information addressed as well as the administration of the interaction) and the evaluation (how the applicant is
scored) the same no matter what applicant is being interviewed. Specifically, researchers commonly address 15
elements that can be used to make the interview's content and evaluation process similar. An interview's degree of
structure is often thought of as the extent to which these elements are included when conducting interviews.
 
Content structure:
•       Ensure questions are relevant to the job, as indicated by a job analysis
•       Ask the same questions of all interviewees
•       Limit prompting, or follow up questions, that interviewers may ask
•       Ask better questions, such as behavioral description questions
•       Have a longer interview

•       Control ancillary information available to the interviewees, such as resumes        Do not allow questions from
applicants during interview
 
Evaluation structure:
•       Rate each answer rather than making an overall evaluation at the end of the interview
•       Use anchored rating scales (for an example, see BARS)
•       Have the interviewer take detailed notes
•       Have more than one interviewer view each applicant (i.e. have panel interviews)
•       Have the same interviewers rate each applicant
•       Do not allow any discussion about the applicants between interviewers
•       Train the interviewers
•       Use statistical procedures to create an overall interview score
 
Multiple research studies have shown that using these elements to design the interview increases the interview's
ability to identify high-performing individuals. As mentioned, the structure of an interview is on a scale that ranges
from unstructured to structured, but it remains unclear which or how many structure elements must be included
before the interview can be considered ‘structured.’ Some researchers argue that including at least some, but not all,
elements into the interview should be considered “semistructured.” Others have attempted to create levels of
structure, such as Huffcutt, Culbertson, and Weyhrauch's four levels of structure, which point to varying degrees of
standardization in each level. Despite being difficult to say exactly what a structured interview is, structured interviews
are widely seen as more preferred over unstructured interviews by organizations if an accurate and consistent
measure of an applicant is desired.
 
Types of questions
Regardless of interview structure, there are several types of questions interviewers ask applicants. Two major types
that are used frequently and that have extensive empirical support are situational questions and behavioral questions
(also known as patterned behavioral description interviews). Best practices include basing both types of questions on
"critical incidents" that are required to perform the job but they differ in their focus (see below for descriptions). Critical
incidents are relevant tasks that are required for the job and can be collected through interviews or surveys with
current employees, managers, or subject matter experts. One of the first critical incidents techniques ever used in the
United States Army asked combat veterans to report specific incidents of effective or ineffective behavior of a leader.
The question posed to veterans was "Describe the officer’s actions. What did he do?" Their responses were compiled
to create a factual definition or "critical requirements" of what an effective combat leader is.
 
Previous research has found mixed results regarding whether behavioral or situational questions will best predict
future job performance of an applicant. It is likely that variables unique to each situation, such as the specific criteria
being examined, he applicant's work experience, or the interviewee's nonverbal behavior make a difference with
regard to which question type is the best. It is recommended to incorporate both situational and behavioral questions
into the interview to get the best of both question types. The use of high-quality questions represents an element of
structure, and is essential to ensure that candidates provide meaningful responses reflective of their capability to
perform on the job.
 
Situational interview questions
Situational interview questions ask job applicants to imagine a set of circumstances and then indicate how they would
respond in that situation; hence, the questions are future oriented. One advantage of situational questions is that all
interviewees respond to the same hypothetical situation rather than describe experiences unique to them from their
past. Another advantage is that situational questions allow respondents who have had no direct job experience
relevant to a particular question to provide a hypothetical response. Two core aspects of the SI are the development
of situational dilemmas that employees encounter on the job, and a scoring guide to evaluate responses to each
dilemma.
 

Behavioral interview questions

Behavioral (experience-based or patterned behavioral) interviews are past-oriented in that they ask respondents to
relate what they did in past jobs or life situations that are relevant to the particular job relevant knowledge, skills, and
abilities required for success. The idea is that past behavior is the best predictor of future performance in similar
situations. By asking questions about how job applicants have handled situations in the past that are similar to those
they will face on the job, employers can gauge how they might perform in future situations.  Behavioral interview
questions include:
•       Describe a situation in which you were able to use persuasion to successfully convince someone to see things
your way.
•       Give me an example of a time when you set a goal and were able to meet or achieve it.
•       Tell me about a time when you had to use your presentation skills to influence someone's opinion.
•       Give me an example of a time when you had to conform to a policy with which you did not agree.
Examples include the STAR and SOARA techniques.
 
 

Other types of questions

Other possible types of questions that may be asked alongside structured interview questions or in a separate
interview include: background questions, job knowledge questions, and puzzle type questions. A brief explanation of
each follows.
•       Background questions include a focus on work experience, education, and other qualifications. For instance, an
interviewer may ask "What experience have you had with direct sales phone calls?" Interviews composed primarily of
these types of questions are often labeled "conventional interviews".
•       Job knowledge questions may ask candidates to describe or demonstrate knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAs)
relevant to the job. These are typically highly specific questions.  For example, one question may be "What steps
would you take to conduct a manager training session on safety?"
•       The puzzle interview was popularized by Microsoft in the 1990s, and is now used in other organizations. The
most common types of questions either ask the applicant to solve puzzles or brain teasers (e.g., "Why are manhole
covers round?") or to solve unusual problems (e.g., "How would you weigh an airplane without a scale?").
 
Specialized formats
 

Case
A case interview is an interview form used mostly by management consulting firms and investment banks in which
the job applicant is given a question, situation, problem or challenge and asked to resolve the situation. The case
problem is often a business situation or a business case that the interviewer has worked on in real life. In recent
years, company in other sectors like Design, Architecture, Marketing, Advertising, Finance and Strategy have
adopted a similar approach to interviewing candidates. Technology has transformed the Case-based and Technical
interview process from a purely private inperson experience to an online exchange of job skills and endorsements.
 
 
 

Panel
Another type of job interview found throughout the professional and academic ranks is the panel interview. In this
type of interview, the candidate is interviewed by a group of panelists representing the various stakeholders in the
hiring process. Within this format there are several approaches to conducting the interview. Example formats include;
•       Presentation format – The candidate is given a generic topic and asked to make a presentation to the panel.
Often used in academic or sales-related interviews.
•       Role format – Each panelist is tasked with asking questions related to a specific role of the position. For
example, one panelist may ask technical questions, another may ask management questions, another may ask
customer service related questions etc.
•       Skeet shoot format – The candidate is given questions from a series of panelists in rapid succession to test his
or her ability to handle stress filled situations.
 
The benefits of the panel approach to interviewing include: time savings over serial interviewing, more focused
interviews as there is often less time spend building rapport with small talk, and "apples to apples" comparison
because each stake holder/interviewer/panelist gets to hear the answers to the same questions.
 

Group
In the group interview, multiple applicants are interviewed at one time by one or more interviewers. This type of
interview can be used for selection, promotion, or assessment of team skills. Interviewers may also use a group
interview to assess an applicant's stress management skills or assertiveness because in such a group setting the
applicant will be surrounded by other applicants who also want to get the job. Group interviews can be less costly
than one-on-one or panel interviews, especially when many applicants need to be interviewed in a short amount of
time. In addition, because fewer interviewers are needed, fewer interviewers need to be trained. These positive
qualities of the group interview have made them more popular.
 
Despite the potential benefits to the group interview, there are problems with this interview format. In group interviews
the interviewer has to multitask more than when interviewing one applicant at a time. Interviewers in one-on-one
interviews are already busy doing many things. These include attending to what applicants are saying and how they
are acting, taking notes, rating applicant responses to questions, and managing what they say and how they act.
Interviewing more than one applicant at a time makes it more challenging for the interviewer. This can negatively
affect that interviewer and his/her job as interviewer.  Another problem with group interviews is that applicants who
get questioned later in the interview have more of a chance to think about how to answer the questions already asked
by the interviewer. This can give applicants questioned later in the interview an advantage over the earlier-questioned
applicants. These problems can make it less likely for group interviews to accurately predict who will perform well on
the job.
 
Group interviews have not been studied as much as one-on-one interviews, but the research that has been done
suggests that in the field of education group interviews can be an effective method of selection.  For example, a 2016
study found that applicants for teaching jobs thought that the group interview was fair.  A 2006 study found conflicting
findings.  These include that applicants in a group interview who were questioned later in the interview gave more
complete and higher quality responses and that group interviews were seen as not fair. They also found that group
interviews were not as effective as oneon-one interviews. Further research needs to be conducted to more
extensively evaluate the group interview's usefulness for various purposes. This research needs to be done across
various domains outside of the education sector. Research also needs to clarify conflicting findings by determining in
which situations study results can be applied.
 

Stress
Stress interviews are still in common use. One type of stress interview is where the employer uses a succession of
interviewers (one at a time or en masse) whose mission is to intimidate the candidate and keep him/her off-balance.
The ostensible purpose of this interview: to find out how the candidate handles stress. Stress interviews might involve
testing an applicant's behavior in a busy environment. Questions about handling work overload, dealing with multiple
projects, and handling conflict are typical.
 
Another type of stress interview may involve only a single interviewer who behaves in an uninterested or hostile
manner. For example, the interviewer may not make eye contact, may roll his eyes or sigh at the candidate's
answers, interrupt, turn his back, take phone calls during the interview, or ask questions in a demeaning or
challenging style. The goal is to assess how the interviewee handles pressure or to purposely evoke emotional
responses. This technique was also used in research protocols studying stress and type A (coronary-prone) behavior
because it would evoke hostility and even changes in blood pressure and heart rate in study subjects. The key to
success for the candidate is to depersonalize the process. The interviewer is acting a role, deliberately and
calculatedly trying to "rattle the cage". Once the candidate realizes that there is nothing personal behind the
interviewer's approach, it is easier to handle the questions with aplomb.
Example stress interview questions:
•       Sticky situation: "If you caught a colleague cheating on his expenses, what would you do?"
•       Putting one on the spot: "How do you feel this interview is going?"
•       "Popping the balloon": (deep sigh) "Well, if that's the best answer you can give ... " (shakes head) "Okay, what
about this one ...?"
•       Oddball question: "What would you change about the design of the hockey stick?"
•       Doubting one's veracity: "I don't feel like we're getting to the heart of the matter here. Start again – tell me
what really makes you tick."
 
Candidates may also be asked to deliver a presentation as part of the selection process. One stress technique is to
tell the applicant that they have 20 minutes to prepare a presentation, and then come back to room five minutes later
and demand that the presentation be given immediately. The "Platform Test" method involves having the candidate
make a presentation to both the selection panel and other candidates for the same job. This is obviously highly
stressful and is therefore useful as a predictor of how the candidate will perform under similar circumstances on the
job. Selection processes in academic, training, airline, legal and teaching circles frequently involve presentations of
this sort.
 

Technical
This kind of interview focuses on problem solving and creativity. The questions aim at the interviewee's problem-
solving skills and likely show their ability in solving the challenges faced in the job through creativity. Technical
interviews are being conducted online at progressive companies before in-person talks as a way to screen job
applicants.
 

Technology in interviews
Advancements in technology along with increased usage has led to interviews becoming more common through
a telephone interview and through videoconferencing than faceto-face. Companies utilize technology in interviews
due to their cheap costs, time-saving benefits, and their ease of use.  Also, technology enables a company to recruit
more applicants from further away.  Although they are being utilized more, it is still not fully understood how
technology may affect how well interviewers select the best person for the job when compared to in-person
interviews.
 
Media richness theory states that more detailed forms of communication will be able to better convey complex
information. The ability to convey this complexity allows more media-rich forms of communication to better handle
uncertainty (like what can occur in an interview) than shallower and less detailed communication mediums. Thus, in
the job interview context, a face-to-face interview would be more media rich than a video interview due to the amount
of data that can be more easily communicated. Verbal and nonverbal cues are read more in the moment and in
relation to what else is happening in the interview. A video interview may have a lag between the two participants.
Poor latency can influence the understanding of verbal and nonverbal behaviors, as small differences in the timing of
behaviors can change their perception. Likewise, behaviors such as eye contact may not work as well. A video
interview would be more media rich than a telephone interview due to the inclusion of both visual and audio data.
Thus, in a more media-rich interview, interviewers have more ways to gather, remember, and interpret the data they
gain about the applicants.
 
So are these new types of technology interviews better? Research on different interview methods has examined this
question using media richness theory. According to the theory, interviews with more richness are expected to result in
a better outcome. In general, studies have found results are consistent with media richness theory. Applicants’
interview scores and hiring ratings have been found to be worse in phone and video interviews than in face-to-face
interviews.  Applicants are also seen as less likable and were less likely to be endorsed for jobs in interviews using
video. Applicants have had a say too. They think that interviews using technology are less fair and less jobrelated.
From the interviewers’ view, there are difficulties for the interviewer as well. Interviewers are seen as less friendly in
video interviews. Furthermore, applicants are more likely to accept a job after a face-to-face interview than after a
telephone or video interview. Due to these findings, companies should weigh the costs and benefits of using
technology over face-to-face interviews when deciding on selection methods.
 

Interviewee strategies and behaviors

While preparing for an interview, prospective employees usually look at what the job posting or job description says in
order to get a better understanding of what is expected of them should they get hired. Exceptionally good
interviewees look at the wants and needs of a job posting and show off how good they are at those abilities during the
interview to impress the interviewer and increase their chances of getting a job.
 
Researching the company itself is also a good way for interviewees to impress lots of people during an interview. It
shows the interviewer that the interviewee is not only knowledgeable about the company's goals and objectives, but
also that the interviewee has done their homework and that they make a great effort when they are given an
assignment. Researching about the company makes sure that employees are not entirely clueless about the
company they are applying for, and at the end of the interview, the interviewee might ask some questions to the
interviewer about the company, either to learn more information or to clarify on some points that they might have
found during their research. In any case, it impresses the interviewer and it shows that the interviewee is willing to
learn more about the company.
Most interviewees also find that practicing answering the most common questions asked in interviews helps them
prepare for the real one. It minimizes the chance of their being caught off-guard regarding certain questions, prepares
their minds to convey the right information in the hopes of impressing the interviewer, and also makes sure that they
do not accidentally say something that might not be suitable in an interview situation.
 
Interviewees are generally dressed properly in business attire for the interview, so as to look professional in the eyes
of the interviewer. They also bring their résumé, cover letter and references to the interview to supply the interviewer
the information they need, and to also cover them in case they forgot to bring any of the papers. Items
like cellphones, a cup of coffee and chewing gum are not recommended to bring to an interview, as it can lead to the
interviewer perceiving the interviewee as unprofessional and in some cases, even rude.
 
Above all, interviewees should be confident and courteous to the interviewer, as they are taking their time off work to
participate in the interview. An interview is often the first time an interviewer looks at the interviewee first hand, so it is
important to make a good first impression.
 

Nonverbal behaviors
It may not only be what you say in an interview that matters, but also how you say it (e.g., how fast you speak) and
how you behave during the interview (e.g., hand gestures, eye contact). In other words, although applicants’
responses to interview questions influence interview ratings, their             nonverbal      behaviors       may    also    
affect interviewer judgments. Nonverbal behaviors can be divided into two main categories: vocal cues (e.g.,
articulation, pitch, fluency, frequency of pauses, speed, etc.) and visual cues (e.g., smiling, eye contact, body
orientation and lean, hand movement, posture, etc.). Oftentimes physical attractiveness is included as part of
nonverbal behavior as well. There is some debate about how large a role nonverbal behaviors may play in the
interview. Some researchers maintain that nonverbal behaviors affect interview ratings a great deal, while others
have found that they have a relatively small impact on interview outcomes, especially when considered with applicant
qualifications presented in résumés.  The relationship between nonverbal behavior and interview outcomes is also
stronger in structured interviews than unstructured, and stronger when interviewees’ answers are of high quality.
 
Applicants’ nonverbal behaviors may sway interview ratings through the inferences interviewers make about the
applicant based on their behavior. For instance, applicants who engage in positive nonverbal behaviors such as
smiling and leaning forward are perceived as more likable, trustworthy, credible, warmer, successful, qualified,
motivated, competent, and socially skilled. These applicants are also predicted to be better accepted and more
satisfied with the organization if hired.
 
Applicants’ verbal responses and their nonverbal behavior may convey some of the same information about the
applicant. However, despite any shared information between content and nonverbal behavior, it is clear that
nonverbal behaviors do predict interview ratings to an extent beyond the content of what was said, and thus it is
essential that applicants and interviewers alike are aware of their impact. You may want to be careful of what you
may be communicating through the nonverbal behaviors you display.
 

Physical attractiveness
To hire the best applicants for the job, interviewers form judgments, sometimes using applicants’ physical
attractiveness. That is, physical attractiveness is usually not necessarily related to how well one can do the job, yet
has been found to influence interviewer evaluations and judgments about how suitable an applicant is for the job.
Once individuals are categorized as attractive or unattractive, interviewers may have expectations about physically
attractive and physically unattractive individuals and then judge applicants based on how well they fit those
expectations.  As a result, it typically turns out that interviewers will judge attractive individuals more favorably on job-
related factors than they judge unattractive individuals. People generally agree on who is and who is not attractive
and attractive individuals are judged and treated more positively than unattractive individuals. For example, people
who think another is physically attractive tend to have positive initial impressions of that person (even before formally
meeting them), perceive the person to be smart, socially competent, and have good social skills and general mental
health.
 
Within the business domain, physically attractive individuals have been shown to have an advantage over
unattractive individuals in numerous ways, that include, but are not limited to, perceived job qualifications, hiring
recommendations, predicted job success, and compensation levels.  As noted by several researchers, attractiveness
may not be the most influential determinant of personnel decisions, but may be a deciding factor when applicants
possess similar levels of qualifications.  In addition, attractiveness does not provide an advantage if the applicants in
the pool are of high quality, but it does provide an advantage in increased hiring rates and more positive job-related
outcomes for attractive individuals when applicant quality is low and average.
 
Vocal Attractiveness Just as physical attractiveness is a visual cue, vocal attractiveness is an auditory cue and can
lead to differing interviewer evaluations in the interview as well. Vocal attractiveness, defined as an appealing mix of
speech rate, loudness, pitch, and variability, has been found to be favorably related to interview ratings and job
performance.  In addition, the personality traits of agreeableness and conscientiousness predict performance more
strongly for people with more attractive voices compared to those with less attractive voices.
 
As important as it is to understand how physical attractiveness can influence the judgments, behaviors, and final
decisions of interviewers, it is equally important to find ways to decrease potential bias in the job interview.
Conducting an interview with elements of structure is a one possible way to decrease bias.
 

Coaching
An abundance of information is available to instruct interviewees on strategies for improving their performance in a
job interview. Information used by interviewees comes from a variety of sources ranging from popular how-to books
to formal coaching programs, sometimes even provided by the hiring organization. Within the more formal coaching
programs, there are two general types of coaching. One type of coaching is designed to teach interviewees how to
perform better in the interview by focusing on how to behave and present oneself. This type of coaching is focused on
improving aspects of the interview that are not necessarily related to the specific elements of performing the job
tasks. This type of coaching could include how to dress, how to display nonverbal behaviors (head nods, smiling, eye
contact), verbal cues (how fast to speak, speech volume, articulation, pitch), and impression management tactics.
Another type of coaching is designed to focus interviewees on the content specifically relevant to describing one's
qualifications for the job, in order to help improve their answers to interview questions. This coaching, therefore,
focuses on improving the interviewee's understanding of the skills, abilities, and traits the interviewer is attempting to
assess, and responding with relevant experience that demonstrates these skills. For example, this type of coaching
might teach an interviewee to use the STAR approach for answering behavioral interview questions.
 
A coaching program might include several sections focusing on various aspects of the interview. It could include a
section designed to introduce interviewees to the interview process, and explain how this process works (e.g.,
administration of interview, interview day logistics, different types of interviews, advantages of structured interviews).
It could also include a section designed to provide feedback to help the interviewee to improve their performance in
the interview, as well as a section involving practice answering example interview questions. An additional section
providing general interview tips about how to behave and present oneself could also be included.
 
It is useful to consider coaching in the context of the competing goals of the interviewer and interviewee. The
interviewee's goal is typically to perform well (i.e. obtain high interview ratings), in order to get hired. On the other
hand, the interviewer's goal is to obtain job-relevant information, in order to determine whether the applicant has the
skills, abilities, and traits believed by the organization to be indicators of successful job performance.  Research has
shown that how well an applicant does in the interview can be enhanced with coaching. The effectiveness of
coaching is due, in part, to increasing the interviewee's knowledge, which in turn results in better interview
performance. Interviewee knowledge refers to knowledge about the interview, such as the types of questions that will
be asked, and the content that the interviewer is attempting to assess. Research has also shown that coaching can
increase the likelihood that interviewers using a structured interview will accurately choose those individuals who will
ultimately be most successful on the job (i.e., increase reliability and validity of the structured interview). Additionally,
research has shown that interviewees tend to have positive reactions to coaching, which is often an underlying goal
of an interview.  Based on research thus far, the effects of coaching tend to be positive for both interviewees and
interviewers.
 

Faking
Interviewers should be aware that applicants can fake their responses during the job interview. Such applicant faking
can influence interview outcomes when present. One concept related to faking is impression management (IM;
when you intend or do not intend to influence how favorably you are seen during interactions). Impression
management can be either honest or deceptive. Honest IM tactics are used to frankly describe favorable
experiences, achievements and job-related abilities. Deceptive IM tactics are used to embellish or create an ideal
image for the job in question. Honest IM tactics such as self-promotion (positively highlighting past achievements and
experiences) may be considered necessary by interviewers in the interview context. Consequently, candidates who
do not use these tactics may be viewed as disinterested in the job. This can lead to less favorable ratings. Faking can
then be defined as "deceptive impression management or the intentional distortion of answers in the interview in
order to get better interview ratings and/or otherwise create favorable perceptions". Thus, faking in the employment
interview is intentional, deceptive, and aimed at improving perceptions of performance.
 
Faking in the employment interview can be broken down into four elements:
1.   The first involves the interviewee portraying him or herself as an ideal job candidate by exaggerating true skills,
tailoring answers to better fit the job, and/or creating the impression that personal beliefs, values, and attitudes are
similar to those of the organization.
2.   The second aspect of faking is inventing or completely fabricating one's image by piecing distinct work
experiences together to create better answers, inventing untrue experiences or skills, and portraying others’
experiences or accomplishments as one's own.
3.   Thirdly, faking might also be aimed at protecting the applicant's image. This can be accomplished through
omitting certain negative experiences, concealing negatively perceived aspects of the applicant's background, and by
separating oneself from negative experiences.
4.   The fourth and final component of faking involves ingratiating oneself to the interviewer by conforming personal
opinions to align with those of the organization, as well as insincerely praising or complimenting the interviewer or
organization.
 
Of all of the various faking behaviors listed, ingratiation tactics were found to be the most prevalent in the
employment interview, while flat out making up answers or claiming others’ experiences as one's own is the least
common.  However, fabricating true skills appears to be at least somewhat prevalent in employment interviews. One
study found that over 80% of participants lied about job-related skills in the interview, presumably to compensate for a
lack of job-required skills/traits and further their chances for employment.
 
Most importantly, faking behaviors have been shown to affect outcomes of employment interviews. For example, the
probability of getting another interview or job offer increases when interviewees make up answers.
 
Different interview characteristics also seem to impact the likelihood of faking. Faking behavior is less prevalent, for
instance, in past behavioral interviews than in situational interviews, although follow-up questions increased faking
behaviors in both types of interviews. Therefore, if practitioners are interested in decreasing faking behaviors among
job candidates in employment interview settings, they should utilize structured, past behavioral interviews and avoid
the use of probes or follow-up questions.
 

Factors impacting effectiveness

 

Interviewee characteristics
Interviewees may differ on any number of dimensions commonly assessed by job interviews and evidence suggests
that these differences affect interview ratings. Many interviews are designed to measure some specific differences
between applicants, or individual difference variables, such as Knowledge, Skills, and Abilities needed to do the job
well. Other individual differences can affect how interviewers rate the applicants even if that characteristic is not
meant to be assessed by the interview questions. For instance, General Mental Ability G factor (psychometrics) is
moderately related to structured interview ratings and strongly related to structured interviews using behavioral
description and situational judgment interview questions, because they are more cognitively intensive interview types.
Other individual differences between people, such as extraversion and emotional intelligence, are also commonly
measured during a job interview because they are related to verbal ability, which may be useful for jobs that involve
interacting with people. Many individual difference variables may be linked to interview performance because they
reflect applicants’ genuine ability to perform better in cognitively and socially demanding situations. For instance,
someone with high general mental ability may perform better in a cognitively demanding situation, such as a job
interview, which requires quick thinking and responding. Similarly, someone with strong social skills may perform
better in a job interview, as well as other social situations, because they understand how to act correctly. Thus, when
an applicant performs well in an interview due to higher general mental abilities or better social skills, it is not
necessarily undesirable, because they may also perform better when they are faced with situations on the job in
which those skills would be valuable. On the other hand, not all individual difference variables that lead to higher
interview performance would be desirable on the job. Some individual difference variables, such as those that are
part of the dark triad, can lead to increased interview ratings, initially, but may not be reflective of actual KSAOs that
would help the individual to perform better once hired.
 
The Dark Triad
 

Machiavellianism
Individuals who are high in Machiavellianism may be more willing and more skilled at faking and less likely to give
honest answers during interviews.  Individuals high in Machiavellianism have stronger intentions to use faking in
interviews compared to psychopaths or narcissists and are also more likely to see the use of faking in interviews as
fair. Men and women high in Machiavellianism may use different tactics to influence interviewers. In one study, which
examined the how much applicants allowed the interviewers to direct the topics covered during the interview, women
high Machiavellianism tended to allow interviewers more freedom to direct the content of the interview. Men high in
Machiavellianism, on the other hand, gave interviewers the least amount of freedom in directing the content of the
interview. Men high in Machiavellianism were also more likely to make-up information about themselves or their
experiences during job interviews. Thus, while individuals high in Machiavellianism may appear to do well in
interviews, this seems to be largely because they give untrue responses and because they want to control
interpersonal interactions.
 

Narcissism
Narcissists typically perform well at job interviews, with narcissists receiving more favorable hiring ratings from
interviewers than individuals who are not narcissists. Even more experienced and trained raters evaluate narcissists
more favorably. This is perhaps because interviews are one of the few social situations where narcissistic behaviors,
such as boasting actually create a positive impression, though favorable impressions of narcissists are often short-
lived.  Interviewers’ initial impressions of narcissistic applicants are formed primarily on the basis of highly visible
cues, which makes them susceptible to biases. Narcissists are more skilled at displaying likable cues, which lead to
more positive first impressions, regardless of their long-term likability or job performance. Upon first meeting
narcissists, people often rate them as more agreeable, competent, open, entertaining, and well-adjusted. Narcissists
also tend to be neater and flashier dressers, display friendlier facial expressions, and exhibit more self-assured body
movements. Importantly, while narcissistic individuals may rate their own job performance more favorably, studies
show that narcissism is not related to job performance. Thus, while narcissists may seem to perform better and even
be rated as performing better in interviews, these more favorable interview ratings are not predictive of favorable job
performance, as narcissists do not actually perform better in their jobs than non-narcissists.
 

Psychopathy
Corporate psychopaths are readily recruited into organizations because they make a distinctly positive impression at
interviews.  They appear to be alert, friendly and easy to get along with and talk to. They look like they are of good
ability, emotionally well-adjusted and reasonable, and these traits make them attractive to those in charge of hiring
staff within organizations. Unlike narcissists, psychopaths are better able to create long-lasting favorable first
impressions, though people may still eventually see through their facades. 
Psychopaths’ undesirable personality traits may be easily misperceived by even skilled interviewers. For instance,
their irresponsibility may be misconstrued by interviewers as risk-taking or entrepreneurial spirit. Their thrill-seeking
tendencies may be conveyed as high energy and enthusiasm for the job or work. Their superficial charm may be
misinterpreted by interviewers as charisma. It is worth noting that psychopaths are not only accomplished liars, they
are also more likely to lie in interviews.  For instance, psychopaths may create fictitious work experiences or
resumes. They may also fabricate credentials such as diplomas, certifications, or awards. Thus, in addition to
seeming competent and likable in interviews, psychopaths are also more likely to outright makeup information during
interviews than non-psychopaths.
 
 
 

Interviewer characteristics
There are many differences about interviewers that may affect how well they conduct an interview and make
decisions about applicants. A few of them are how much experience they have as an interviewer, their personality,
and intelligence. To date, it is not clear how experience affects the results of interviews. In some cases, prior
experience as an interviewer leads them to use more of the information provided by the applicant to decide if an
applicant is right for the job intelligence.  In other cases, the experience of the interviewer did not help them make
more accurate decisions.  One reason for the different results could be the type of experience the interviewer had. 
Also, other differences in the interviewer, such as personality or intelligence, could be a reason why results vary.
 
The mental ability of interviewers may play a role in how good they are as interviewers. Higher mental ability is
important because during the interview, a lot of information needs to be processed – what the applicant said, what
they meant, what it means for how they can do the job, etc. Research has shown that those higher in general mental
ability were more accurate when judging the personality of others.  Also, interviewers who have higher social
intelligence and emotional intelligence seem to do a better job of understanding how an applicant behaves in an
interview and what that means for how they will act once on the job.  These abilities do not appear to be enough on
their own to make accurate judgements.
 
The personality of the interviewer may also affect the ratings they give applicants. There are many ways that
personality and social skills can impact one's ability to be a good judge or interviewer. Some of the specific social
skills good judges display are warmth, interest in engaging with others, and eye contact. Interviewers who display
warm behaviors, such as smiling and leaning toward the applicant, are rated more positively than those who do not
act this way or show cold behaviors.  Interviewers who prefer to engage with others also tend to judge applicants
more accurately. It is likely that these people are using information from their own personalities as well as how they
see people in general to help them be more accurate.

Validity and predictive power

There is extant data which puts into question the value of job interviews as a tool for selecting employees. Where the
aim of a job interview is ostensibly to choose a candidate who will perform well in the job role, other methods of
selection provide greater predictive power and often lower costs.
 

Interview structure issues

  
An interview at a job fair

As discussed previously, interviews with more structure are considered best practice, as they tend to result in much
better decisions about who will be a good performing employee than interviews with less structure. Structure in an
interview can be compared to the standardization of a typical paper and pencil test: It would be considered unfair if
every test taker were given different questions and a different number of questions on an exam, or if their answers
were each graded differently. Yet this is exactly what occurs in an unstructured interview; interviewers decide the
number and content of questions, rate responses using whatever strategy they want (e.g., relying on intuition, or
using overall ratings at the end of the interview rather than after each time the applicant responds), and may score
some applicants more harshly than others. Thus, interviewers who do not consider at least a moderate amount of
structure may make it hard for an organization's interview to effectively select candidates that best fit the work needs
of the organization.
 
 

Interviewer rating reliability

In terms of reliability, meta-analytic results provided evidence that interviews can have acceptable levels of interrater
reliability, or consistent ratings across interviewers interrater reliability (i.e. .75 or above), when a structured panel
interview is used. In terms of criterion-related validity, or how well the interview predicts later job
performance criterion validity, meta-analytic results have shown that when compared to unstructured interviews,
structured interviews have higher validities, with values ranging from .20-.57 (on a scale from 0 to 1), with validity
coefficients increasing with higher degrees of structure.  That is, as the degree of structure in an interview increases,
the more likely interviewers can successfully predict how well the person will do on the job, especially when
compared to unstructured interviews. In fact, one structured interview that included a) a predetermined set of
questions that interviewers were able to choose from, and b) interviewer scoring of applicant answers after each
individual question using previously created benchmark answers, showed validity levels comparable to cognitive
ability tests (traditionally one of the best predictors of job performance) for entry level jobs.  Honesty and integrity are
attributes that can be very hard to determine using a formal job interview process: the competitive environment of the
job interview may in fact promote dishonesty. Some experts on job interviews express a degree of cynicism towards
the process.
 

Applicant reactions
Applicant reactions to the interview process include specific factors such as; fairness, emotional responses, and
attitudes toward the interviewer or the organization. Though the applicant's perception of the interview process may
not influence the interviewer(s) ability to distinguish between individuals' suitability, applicants’ reactions are important
as those who react negatively to the selection process are more likely to withdraw from the selection process. They
are less likely to accept a job offer, apply on future occasions, or to speak highly of the organization to others and to
be a customer of that business. Compared to other selection methods, such as personality or cognitive ability tests,
applicants, from different cultures may have positive opinions about interviews.
Interview design
Interview design can influence applicants' positive and negative reactions, though research findings on applicants’
preferences for structured compared to unstructured interviews appear contradictory.  Applicants' negative reactions
to structured interviews may be reduced by providing information about the job and organization.  Providing interview
questions to applicants before the interview, or telling them how their answers will be evaluated, are also received
positively.
 

Types of questions
The type of questions asked can affect applicant reactions. General questions are viewed more positively than
situational or behavioral questions and 'puzzle' interview questions may be perceived as negative being perceived
unrelated to the job, unfair, or unclear how to answer. Using questions that discriminate unfairly in law unsurprisingly
are viewed negatively with applicants less likely to accept a job offer, or to recommend the organization to others.
 
Some of the questions and concerns on the mind of the hiring manager include:
•       Does this person have the skills I need to get the job done?
•       Will they fit in with the department or team?
•       Can I manage this person?
•       Does this person demonstrate honesty, integrity, and a good work ethic?
•       What motivates this person?
•       Do I like this person, and do they get along with others?
•       Will they focus on tasks and stick to the job until it is done?
•       Will this person perform up to the level the company requires for success?
 
A sample of intention behind questions asked for understanding observable responses, displayed character, and
underlying motivation:
•       What did the candidate really do in this job?
•       What role did they play, supportive or leading?
•       How much influence did the candidate exert on the outcomes of projects?
•       How did the candidate handle problems that came up?
•       How does this candidate come across?
•       How serious is the candidate about their career and this job?
•       Are they bright and likable?
•       Did the candidate prepare for this interview?
•       Is the candidate being forthright with information?
•       Does this person communicate well in a somewhat stressful face-to-face conversation?
•       Does the candidate stay focused on the question asked or ramble along?
•       Did the candidate exhibit good judgment in the career moves he or she made?
•       Did the candidate grow in their job and take on more responsibilities over time or merely do the same thing
repeatedly?
•       Did the candidate demonstrate leadership, integrity, effective communications, teamwork, and persuasion skills
(among others)?
 

Additional factors
The 'friendliness' of the interviewer may be equated to fairness of the process and improve the likelihood of accepting
a job offer, and face-to-face interviews compared to video conferencing and telephone interviews. In video
conferencing interviews the perception of the interviewer may be viewed as less personable, trustworthy, and
competent.
 

Interview anxiety
Interview anxiety refers to having unpleasant feelings before or during a job interview. It also reflects the fear of
partaking in an interview.  Job candidates may feel this increased sense of anxiety because they have little to no
control over the interview process.  It could also be because they have to speak with a stranger. Due to this fear,
anxious candidates display certain behaviors or traits that signal to the interviewer that they are anxious. Examples of
such behaviors include frequent pauses, speaking more slowly than usual, and biting or licking of lips.
Research has identified five dimensions of interview anxiety: communication anxiety, social anxiety, performance
anxiety, behavioral anxiety and appearance anxiety. Further research shows that both the interviewer and applicant
agree that speaking slowly is a clear sign of interview anxiety. However, they do not agree on other anxiety indicators
such as frequent pauses and biting or licking of lips.  Trait judgments are also related to interview anxiety and can
affect interviewer perceptions of anxiety. Low assertiveness has been identified as the key trait related to interview
anxiety. Thus, the most important indicators of interview anxiety are slow speech rate and low assertiveness.
 
Another issue in interview anxiety is gender differences. Although females report being more anxious than males in
interviews, their anxiety is not as readily detected as that for males. This can be explained by the Sex-Linked Anxiety
Coping Theory (SCT). This theory suggests that females cope better than males when they are anxious in interviews.
 

Implications for applicants

Whether anxieties come from individual differences or from the interview setting, they have important costs for job
candidates. These include: limiting effective communication and display of future potential, reducing interview
performance and evaluation despite potential fit for the job, and reducing the chance of a second interview compared
to less anxious individuals.  Speaking slowly and low assertiveness have the strongest negative impact on
perceptions of interview anxiety. Thus, candidates who experience anxiety in interviews should try to display
assertive behaviors such as being dominant, professional, optimistic, attentive and confident.  In addition, they should
speak at a consistent pace that is not unusually slow.
 

Implications for organizations

Applicants who view the selection process more favorably tend to be more positive about the organization, and are
likely to influence an organization's reputation.  Whereas, in contrast, anxious or uncomfortable during their interview
may view an organization less favorably, causing the otherwise qualified candidates not accepting a job offer.  If an
applicant is nervous, they might not act the same way they would on the job, making it harder for organizations to use
the interview for predicting someone's future job performance.
 

Legal issues
In many countries laws are put into place to prevent organizations from engaging in discriminatory practices against
protected classes when selecting individuals for jobs. In the United States, it is unlawful for private employers with 15
or more employees along with state and local government employers to discriminate against applicants based on the
following: race, color, sex (including pregnancy), national origin, age (40 or over), disability, or genetic information
(note: additional classes may be protected depending on state or local law). More specifically, an employer cannot
legally "fail or refuse to hire or to discharge any individual, or otherwise discriminate against any individual with
respect to his compensation, terms, conditions, or privilege of employment" or "to limit, segregate, or classify his
employees or applicants for employment in any way which would deprive or tend to deprive any individual of
employment opportunities or otherwise adversely affect his status as an employee."
 
The Civil Rights Act of 1964 and 1991 (Title VII) were passed into law to prevent the discrimination of individuals due
to race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. The Pregnancy Discrimination Act was added as an amendment and
protects women if they are pregnant or have a pregnancy-related condition.
 
The Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 prohibits discriminatory practice directed against individuals who
are 40 years of age and older. Although some states (e.g. New York) do have laws preventing the discrimination of
individuals younger than 40, no federal law exists.
 
The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 protects qualified individuals who currently have or in the past have had a
physical or mental disability (current users of illegal drugs are not covered under this Act). A person is covered if he
has a disability that substantially limits a major life activity, has a history of a disability, is regarded by others as being
disabled, or has a physical or mental impairment that is not transitory (lasting or expected to last six months or less)
and minor. In order to be covered under this Act, the individual must be qualified for the job. A qualified individual is
"an individual with a disability who, with or without reasonable accommodation, can perform the essential functions of
the employment position that such individual holds or desires."  Unless the disability poses an "undue hardship,"
reasonable accommodations must be made by the organization. "In general, an accommodation is any change in the
work environment or in the way things are customarily done that enables an individual with a disability to enjoy equal
employment opportunities." Examples of reasonable accommodations are changing the workspace of an individual in
a wheelchair to make it more wheelchair accessible, modifying work schedules, and/or modifying equipment.
Employees are responsible for asking for accommodations to be made by their employer.
The most recent law to be passed is Title II of the Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act of 2008. In essence, this
law prohibits the discrimination of employees or applicants due to an individual's genetic information and family
medical history information.
 
In rare circumstances, it is lawful for employers to base hiring decisions on protected class information if it is
considered a Bona Fide Occupational Qualification, that is, if it is a "qualification reasonably necessary to the normal
operation of the particular business." For example, a movie studio may base a hiring decision on age if the actor they
are hiring will play a youthful character in a film.
 
Given these laws, organizations are limited in the types of questions they legally are allowed to ask applicants in a job
interview. Asking these questions may cause discrimination against protected classes, unless the information is
considered a Bona Fide Occupational Qualification. For example, in the majority of situations it is illegal to ask the
following questions in an interview as a condition of employment:
•       What is your date of birth?
•       Have you ever been arrested for a crime?
•       Do you have any future plans for marriage and children?
•       What are your spiritual beliefs?
•       How many days were you sick last year? Have you ever been treated for mental health problems?
•       What prescription drugs are you currently taking?
 
Applicants with disabilities
Applicants with disabilities may be concerned with the effect that their disability has on both interview and
employment outcomes. Research has concentrated on four key issues: how interviewers rate applicants with
disabilities, the reactions of applicants with disabilities to the interview, the effects of disclosing a disability during the
interview, and the perceptions different kinds of applicant disabilities may have on interviewer ratings.
 
The job interview is a tool used to measure constructs or overall characteristics that are relevant for the job.
Oftentimes, applicants will receive a score based on their performance during the interview. Research has found
different findings based on interviewers’ perceptions of the disability. For example, some research has found a
leniency effect (i.e., applicants with disabilities receive higher ratings than equally qualified non-disabled applicants)
in ratings of applicants with disabilities.  Other research, however, has found there is a disconnect between the
interview score and the hiring recommendation for applicants with disabilities. That is, even though applicants with
disabilities may have received a high interview score, they are still not recommended for employment. The difference
between ratings and hiring could be detrimental to a company because they may be missing an opportunity to hire a
qualified applicant.
 
A second issue in interview research deals with the applicants with disabilities reactions to the interview and applicant
perceptions of the interviewers. Applicants with disabilities and able-bodied applicants report similar feelings of
anxiety towards an interview. Applicants with disabilities often report that interviewers react nervously and insecurely,
which leads such applicants to experience anxiety and tension themselves. The interview is felt to be the part of the
selection process where covert discrimination against applicants with disabilities can occur.  Many applicants with
disabilities feel they cannot disclose (i.e., inform potential employer of disability) or discuss their disability because
they want to demonstrate their abilities. If the disability is visible, then disclosure will inevitably occur when the
applicant meets the interviewer, so the applicant can decide if they want to discuss their disability. If an applicant has
a non-visible disability, however, then that applicant has more of a choice in disclosing and discussing. In addition,
applicants who were aware that the recruiting employer already had employed people with disabilities felt they had a
more positive interview experience.  Applicants should consider if they are comfortable with talking about and
answering questions about their disability before deciding how to approach the interview.
 
Research has also demonstrated that different types of disabilities have different effects on interview outcomes.
Disabilities with a negative stigma and that are perceived as resulting from the actions of the person (e.g., HIV-
Positive, substance abuse) result in lower interview scores than disabilities for which the causes are perceived to be
out of the individual's control (e.g., physical birth defect).  A physical disability often results in higher interviewer
ratings than psychological (e.g., mental illness) or sensory conditions (e.g., Tourette Syndrome).  In addition, there
are differences between the effects of disclosing disabilities that are visible (e.g., wheelchair bound) and non-visible
(e.g., Epilepsy) during the interview. When applicants had a non-visible disability and disclosed their disability early in
the interview they were not rated more negatively than applicants who did not disclose. In fact, they were liked more
than the applicants who did not disclose their disability and were presumed not disabled.  Interviewers tend to be
impressed by the honesty of the disclosure.  Strong caution needs to be taken with applying results from studies
about specific disabilities, as these results may not apply to other types of disabilities. Not all disabilities are the same
and more research is needed to find whether these results are relevant for other types of disabilities.
 
Some practical implications for job interviews for applicants with disabilities include research findings that show there
are no differences in interviewer responses to a brief, shorter discussion or a detailed, longer discussion about the
disability during the interview.  Applicants, however, should note that when a non-visible disability is disclosed near
the end of the interview, applicants were rated more negatively than early disclosing and non-disclosing applicants.
Therefore, it is possible that interviewers feel individuals who delay disclosure may do so out of shame or
embarrassment.  In addition, if the disability is disclosed after being hired, employers may feel deceived by the new
hire and reactions could be less positive than would have been in the interview.  If applicants want to disclose their
disability during the interview, research shows that a disclosure and/or discussion earlier in the interview approach
may afford them some positive interview effects.  The positive effects, however, are preceded by the interviewers’
perception of the applicants’ psychological well-being. That is, when the interviewer perceives the applicant is
psychologically well and/or comfortable with his or her disability, there can be positive interviewer effects. In contrast,
if the interviewer perceives the applicant as uncomfortable or anxious discussing the disability, this may either fail to
garner positive effect or result in more negative interview ratings for the candidate. Caution must again be taken
when applying these research findings to other types of disabilities not investigated in the studies discussed above.
There are many factors that can influence the interview of an applicant with a disability, such as whether the disability
is physical or psychological, visible or non-visible, or whether the applicant is perceived as responsible for the
disability or not. Therefore, applicants should make their own conclusions about how to proceed in the interview after
comparing their situations with those examined in the research discussed here.
 

Applicants with criminal backgrounds

Although it is illegal for employers to ask about applicants’ arrest record during an interview as a deciding factor in
applicant hiring decisions, employers do have the right to obtain information about applicants’ criminal convictions
before hiring, including during the interview phase.  Many companies consider hiring applicants with criminal history a
liability. For instance, if a company hired someone with an assault charge and that person later assaulted another
employee or vendor, some people would say that the company was liable or legally responsible for not maintaining a
safe work environment. Although the legalities are more complex, this potential responsibility an organization may
carry often is a reason why many companies conduct criminal background checks. When making hiring decisions that
somewhat depend on one's criminal background, employers must consider the following:
•       Employers should only ask about an applicant's criminal conviction history if it is job related.
•       Treating job applicants with criminal histories differently based on their race or national origin is a disparate
treatment liability.  Disparate treatment is defined as intentional discrimination.  If employers ask about criminal
convictions in the interview process, the interviewer must ask all interviewees and not just interviewees of a perceived
sex, race, or national origin.
•       Excluding applicants with certain criminal records may end up overly excluding groups of individuals protected
under Title VII which is a disparate impact liability. 
Disparate impact is defined as unintentional discrimination.
•       Some states have different laws about how arrest and conviction records can be used in hiring decisions and
when employers can obtain information about criminal records.
 
Although not much research has been conducted to examine whether applicants should talk about their criminal
histories or not, a 2012 study found that employers were more likely to hire someone with a criminal record if the
applicant made face-to-face contact with the employer and was prepared and willing to discuss his/her job related
knowledge. Applicants also had an increased chance of being hired if they discussed what they learned from their
experience in the justice system, as well as how they were rehabilitated, during the interview. This study found that
employers preferred applicants that revealed their criminal records upfront and were willing to take responsibility for
their actions.
 
Ban the Box is a campaign to remove the question about criminal history from job applications as an opportunity to
give people with criminal histories a reasonable chance in the employment selection process. By allowing applicants
to be interviewed before disclosing their criminal histories, this campaign seeks to increase the number of applicants
with criminal histories in the workplace.  The campaign focuses on how discrimination in the recruiting phase of
selection makes it harder for people with criminal convictions to obtain employment. Not having employment makes it
harder for people with criminal histories to support their families, and a lack of a job can lead to an increased chance
of the person becoming a repeat offender.
 

Other applicant discrimination: weight and pregnancy

Job applicants who are underweight (to the point of emaciation), overweight or obese may face discrimination in the
interview. The negative treatment of overweight and obese individuals may stem from beliefs that weight is
controllable and those who fail to control their weight are lazy, unmotivated, and lack self-discipline. Underweight
individuals may also be subject to appearance-related negative treatment.  Underweight, overweight and obese
applicants are not protected from discrimination by any current United States laws.  However, some individuals who
are morbidly obese and whose obesity is due to a physiological disorder may be protected against discrimination
under the Americans with Disabilities Act.
 
Discrimination against pregnant applicants is illegal under the Pregnancy Discrimination Act of 1978, which views
pregnancy as a temporary disability and requires employers to treat pregnant applicants the same as all other
applicants.  Yet, discrimination against pregnant applicants continues both in the United States and internationally. 
Research shows that pregnant applicants compared to non-pregnant applicants are less likely to be recommended
for hire.  Interviewers appear concerned that pregnant applicants are more likely than non-pregnant applicants to
miss work and even quit.  Organizations who wish to reduce potential discrimination against pregnant applicants
should consider implementing structured interviews, although some theoretical work suggests interviewers may still
show biases even in these types of interviews.
 
Employers are using social networking sites like Facebook and LinkedIn to obtain additional information about job
applicants.  While these sites may be useful to verify resume information, profiles with pictures also may reveal much
more information about the applicant, including issues pertaining to applicant weight and pregnancy.  Some
employers are also asking potential job candidates for their social media logins which has alarmed many privacy
watch dogs and regulators.
 

Cross cultural issues

As with the common comparisons between Eastern and Western cultures, interviews and the constructs assessed by
the interview have been found to differ across the world. For example, studies of the United States of America (USA)
to Canada have found conflicting results in average levels of agreeableness in each country. People tend to use
social comparison when reporting their own level of agreeableness.  Even though Canadians are likely to be more
agreeable, they might score similarly to those individuals from the USA.  In situations where social comparison is a
factor, an honest answer could result in under- or over-estimation.
 
Because of these cultural differences, more businesses are adding cross-cultural training to their HR training.  The
goal of cross-cultural training is to improve one's ability to adapt and judge people from other cultures. This training is
a first step in ensuring the process of using the job interview to decide whom to hire works the same in a selection
situation where there are cross-cultural factors.
 
One cultural difference in the job interview is in the type of questions applicants will expect and not expect to be
asked.  Interviewers outside the USA often ask about family, marital status and children.  These types of questions
are usually not allowed by USA job laws but acceptable in other countries. Applicants can be surprised by questions
interviewers ask them that are not appropriate or consistent with their own cultures. For example, in Belgium and
Russia interviewers are unlikely to ask about an applicant's personal values, opinions and beliefs.  Thus, USA
interviewers who do ask applicants about their values can make non-USA applicants uneasy or misinterpret the
reason they are not prepared.
 
Another difference is in the consistency with which common constructs, even those that generalize across cultures,
predict across different countries and cultures. For example, those who seem high in Agreeableness can do less well
on the job in European workplaces.  But those high in Agreeableness in the USA or Japan will do better on the job as
measured on the same criteria.  In some cases, the structured Behavior Description Interview (BDI) that predicts who
will do well on the job in some countries, from their interview scores, fails to predict accurately which applicants to
hire in other countries.
 
Methodological biases
 

Construct bias
There are a few ways that cross-cultural differences can mess up the results of our attempts to predict job
performance. The first source of error is construct bias, the possibility that the construct being measured is viewed
differently by those from another culture, if it exists at all. One way this could happen is if the behaviors a person
displays, that go with that construct, are viewed differently in different cultures. It could also be the extent to which the
construct even exists in their country. For example, the Multidimensional Work Ethic Profile (MWEP), is a scale
demonstrated to work across many countries.  However, in China the MWEP concept/dimension of Leisure has been
shown to have poor equivalence with other countries, and may be a culturally inappropriate assessment due to the
Confucian concept of hard work without leisure. Research has shown that differences in the levels of established
cross-cultural constructs such as Cultural Tightness-Looseness increase or decrease the effect of the Five Factor
Model personality traits.  Tight cultures have strong social norms and adherence coupled with low tolerance for
behavior that deviates from those norms, and loose cultures are the opposite with weak norms and high tolerance for
deviance.  An interviewer from a tight culture might view the normal behaviors of a loose cultured interviewee as
signs of a poor moral character despite the behavior being normal. As such, differences between the tightness-
looseness of the interviewer's and interviewee's home countries can introduce method bias, negatively affecting the
interviewer's assessment of interviewee answers and behaviors. First construct bias must be measured by comparing
groups of persons from distinct cultures and comparing if any real differences are discovered. Then information on
those differences can be used to make the adjustments needed to allow the construct to measure what it is intended
to measure in people from a different culture.
 

Method bias
Response bias is another cross-cultural difference that has been shown to affect how we measure constructs and
interpret the results. Social desirability bias is a tendency to give a socially acceptable answer, even if it is a lie,
because we want to look good. Giving socially acceptable, but part or completely false, answers can inflate interview
scores. One simple example of socially acceptable answers is called acquiescence bias, which is a tendency to
agree with all questions with positive meaning.  People also have been found to show different attitudes towards
answers on the extreme high and low end of a set of options (extremely agree or extremely disagree).  In some
cases, people from a different culture may just be unfamiliar with a word (term, concept, context) or with a type of
question.  Another research study found that self and other reports of conscientiousness failed to relate with expected
job behaviors across cultures, demonstrating that one of the most predictive constructs in the USA is tied to aspects
of USA culture that may not be present in a different type of culture.
 
For example, in the West, applicants prefer to eliminate details and focus on the larger issue, tending towards a
comprehensive evaluation starting from individual elements then moving towards the whole. In Japan, a respondent
would go from the general to the specific in answering, preferring to divide a problem and analyze it piece by piece.
Likewise, there are differences between individualist and collectivist cultures in the types of answers they chose.
When given a series of options, individualists tend to choose the task oriented option that involves direct
communication with others.  Yet collectivists choose the option that sees group harmony and protecting or saving
face for others as more important. These differences can introduce method bias when interviewers evaluate or score
how the applicant did in the interview. This is why it is important to understand how and why the best answer in one
culture is not the best elsewhere. It might even be completely wrong.
 

Item bias
There is also item bias introduced by the actual items or questions in an interview. Poor item translation can be a
problem.  This might be incorrectly translating the same item to another language such as in an organization that
hires both English and Spanish speaking employees. Or it might be in someone not understanding the wording of an
item because they are not native to that country's language. Similar to construct bias, the wording of an item can
result in measuring different traits because of different meanings in the two different cultures.
 
Source:  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_interview
 

Job Interview Questions, Answers, and Tips to Prepare

 
  
 
 
Do you have a job interview coming up? Are you prepared? The best way to get ready for an interview is to take the
time to review the most common interview questions you will most likely be asked, along with examples of the best
answers. Knowing what you're going to say can eliminate a lot of interview stress.
 
 
 

Prepare for the Interview

You don't need to memorize an answer, but do take the time to consider how you'll respond. The more you prepare,
the more confident you'll feel during a job interview. When you're not sure what to expect during an interview, also
take time to review this refresher on how job interviews work, and these tips on how to prepare to ace your job
interview.
 

Job Interview Questions and Answers

Here's a list of common job interview questions, with examples of the best answers about you, your work history and
experience, the job, your goals, the new job, salary, and what you have to offer the employer.
 

The Most Frequently Asked Interview Questions

These are the most commonly asked interview questions, with examples of the best answers. Also review job-
specific interview questions for many different positions to get ideas for framing your own interview responses.
 

Questions About You

Interviewers will ask questions about you to gain insight into your personality and to determine whether you're a fit for
both the job and the company. These are open-ended questions which will give you the opportunity to show the
employer that you're wellqualified for the position.
1.    Tell me about yourself.
2.    What is your greatest strength?
3.    What is your greatest weakness?
4.    What makes you unique?
5.    Tell me about something that's not on your resume.
6.    How will your greatest strength help you perform?
7.    How do you handle failure?
8.    How do you handle success?
9.    Do you consider yourself successful? Why?
10. How do you handle stress and pressure?
11. How would you describe yourself?
12. Describe a typical work week.
13. Are you nice?
14. Are you willing to fail?
15. Are you willing to relocate?
16. Describe your work ethic.
17. Describe your work style.
18. Do you work well with other people?
19. Do you take work home with you?
20. How are you different from the competition?
21. How do you view yourself? Whom do you compare yourself to?
22. How does this job fit in with your career aspirations?
23. How many hours a week do you normally work?
24. How well do you assimilate into a new environment?
25. How would you adjust to working for a new company?
26. How would you describe the pace at which you work?
27. How would your co-workers describe your personality?
28. How would a professor describe you?
29. Is there anything else we should know about you?
30. What motivates you?
31. Are you a self-motivator?
32. What do you find are the most difficult decisions to make?
33. What has been the greatest disappointment in your life?
34. What are you passionate about?
35. What are your hobbies?
36. What are your pet peeves?
37. What is your dream job?
38. What is the worst thing you've gotten away with?
39. What won’t you miss about your last job?
40. Would you rather be liked or respected?
41. Why should I take a risk on you?
42. If you could relive the last ten years of your life, what would you do differently?
 

Questions About Leaving Your Job

Employers almost always ask about why you left, or are leaving, your job. Be prepared with an explanation for why
you're moving on. Do make sure the reasons you give match what past employers will say about you if they are
contacted for a reference.
1.    Why are you leaving your job?
2.    Why do you want to change jobs?
3.    Why were you fired?
4.    Why were you laid-off?
5.    Why did you quit your job?
6.    Why did you resign?
7.    What have you been doing since your last job?
8.    Why have you been out of work so long?
 

Questions About Salary

Some of the hardest questions to answer during a job interview are about compensation. Here's what you will be
asked and examples of the best answers. Questions about salary can be tricky to answer, and, in some
locations, employers aren't allowed to ask about your salary history.
1.    What were your starting and final levels of compensation?
2.    What are your salary expectations?
3.    What are your salary requirements?
4.    Why would you take a job for less money?
 

Qualifications Questions
The most important thing for interviewers to determine is whether you're qualified for the job. Here's what they will ask
to find out. When responding, be specific.
1.    What applicable experience do you have?
2.    Are you overqualified for this job?
3.    How did you impact the bottom line?
4.    Interview questions about your abilities.
5.    Sell me this pen.
6.    Tell me about your educational background.
7.    What can you do better for us than the other candidates for the job?
8.    What part of the job will be the least challenging for you?
9.    Which parts of this job are the most challenging for you?
10. What philosophy guides your work?
11. What strength will help you the most to succeed?
12. Why are you interested in taking a lower level job?
 

Job Performance Questions

How you performed in previous roles can indicate how you will perform in the job for which you're applying. Be
prepared to answer questions about what you did well - and what you didn't.
 
Be careful about how you to respond to negative questions. You can frame your responses in a positive manner,
even when discussing a challenging situation. As with questions about qualifications, be sure to relate your
performance to the employer's requirements.
1.    What do people most often criticize about you?
2.    What is the biggest criticism you received from your boss?
3.    What is the worst thing that you have ever gotten away with?
4.    What makes you angry?
5.    What problems have you encountered at work?
6.    What strategies would you use to motivate your team?
7.    What would you be looking for in an applicant?
8.    When was the last time you were angry? What happened?
9.    Why weren't you promoted at your last job?
10. Tell me about something you would have done differently at work.
11. If the people who know you were asked why you should be hired, what would they say?
12. What type of work environment do you prefer?
13. How do you evaluate success?
14. Describe a difficult work situation or project and how you overcame it.
15. Describe a time when your workload was heavy and how you handled it.
 

Questions About Your Work History

Is your work history stable, has it prepared you for the job you're interviewing for, and do you have any gaps in your
employment history that the company should be concerned about? If not, prepare to answer questions about what
you were doing when you weren't in the workforce.
1.    Questions about your work history.
2.    Questions about your resume.
3.    What were your expectations for the job and to what extent were they met?
4.    What were your responsibilities?
5.    What major challenges and problems did you face? How did you handle them?
6.    What have you learned from your mistakes?
7.    What did you like or dislike about your previous job?
8.    Which was most / least rewarding?
9.    What was the biggest accomplishment/failure in this position?
10. Questions about job demotions.
11. How have you impacted worker safety?
12. Describe the gap in your employment history.
 
 

Management and Teamwork Questions

Are you a team player? Do you work well with others? Do you prefer to work in a solitary environment or as part of a
team? Your work style, and how you get along with others, including co-workers, managers, and customers or clients
is important to all employers.
Here are some of the questions employers ask about getting along at work.
1.    Who was your best boss and who was the worst?
2.    Describe your ideal boss.
3.    If you know your boss is 100% wrong about something how would you handle it?
4.    What do you expect from a supervisor?
5.    Have you ever had difficulty working with a manager?
6.    How did you fit in with the company culture?
7.    Describe how you managed a problem employee.
8.    Do you like working in a fast-paced team environment?
9.    Give some examples of teamwork.
10. More teamwork interview questions.
 

Why You Should Be Hired

Why should you be hired over the other applicants? What makes you the best candidate for the job? Here's when
you'll have the opportunity to make a case for getting a job offer, and the chance to sell yourself to the interviewer.
1.    Why should we hire you?
2.    Why shouldn't we hire you?
3.    What can you contribute to this company?
 

The New Job and the Company

What do you know about the company, why do you want the job, and what would you do if you were to be hired –
these are just some of the questions you will be asked about the position and the employer.  Take the time
to research the employer prior to the interview, so that you can ask informed questions about the job and company.
1.    How is our company better than your current employer?
2.    What interests you about this job?
3.    What do you know about this company?
4.    What do you know about this company? (for sales jobs)
5.    Why do you want this job?
6.    Why do you want to work here?
7.    What challenges are you looking for in a position?
8.    What do you see yourself doing within the first 30 days on the job?
9.    What can we expect from you in the first 60 days on the job?
10. Are you willing to travel?
11. What is good customer service?
12. What would be your ideal company culture?
13. When could you start work?
14. Is there anything I haven't told you about the job or company that you would like to know?
 

Questions About the Future

Are you going to stick around if you're hired is something most employers want to know?
All these questions will gauge your interest in making a commitment.
1.    Tell me about the trends in your profession and industry.
2.    What are you looking for in your next job? What is important to you?
3.    What is your professional development plan?
4.    Where do you see yourself five years from now?
5.    How do you plan to achieve your goals?
6.    What will you do if you don't get this position?
 

The Final Question

The last question you'll most likely be asked is whether you have any questions. Here's how to respond.

                                                    Do you have any questions for me?

 
Source:  https://www.thebalancecareers.com/job-interview-questions-and-answers-2061204 By Alision Doyle
 
 
THE ART OF PARTICIPATING IN GROUP DISCUSSION
 

Perfecting the Art of Group Discussions

The Management institutes and Companies organize Group Discussions for the purpose admissions and
recruitments of freshers.
The purpose of GD being: -
§  To judge the leadership qualities.
§  Analytical abilities.
§  Problem solving capabilities.
§  Communication Skills.
 

Structure of Group Discussions

As obvious from the name itself, Group Discussions take place within a group of people. (say 10 to 30)
 
A Debatable Topic or Problem is presented either in writing on a blackboard or is stated verbally by the person in
charge, representing the organization.
This person is called the Moderator or Coordinator or Facilitator.
There is also a panel of judges, who just silently observe and evaluate the candidates.
 

Responsibilities of the Moderator are: -

§  To introduce the topic to the group of candidates.
§  Guide and control the flow of discussion among the group members.
§  Maintain discipline, as the discussion may get too aggressive or even unruly at times.
§  Keep the time-as only a limited period; say of 20-30 minutes is assigned to each session.
§  To also judge and evaluate the candidates on the basis of their initiative, capabilities and other factors of
importance (This is valid when the moderator is also acting as a judge)
 

A Group Discussion in Progress

A Group Discussion in progress is a virtual war of words. Before the actual discussion ensues, the candidates are
given the topic and are allowed about 5 minutes to mull over the subject and prepare their arguments.
 
This is how it typically moves forward and what needs to be kept in mind: - §          One needs quick and original
thinking.
§  The topic may be related to current affairs or some industry related problem.
§  A sound knowledge of national and international affairs is a must.
§  Once the group settles back, one of the members is supposed to initiate the discussion. There can be more than
one person trying to begin. In that case one needs to be really assertive and aggressive to take the lead.
§  Contrarily if only one person opens the dialogue, then he/she will surely be noticed but one should be noticed for
the substance rather than saying something meaningless.
§  Other members should immediately pick up the thread and carry the discussion forward.
§  Remember that time is of vital importance and before any one realizes it will be up and the discussion will be
declared closed.
 
Tips for Effective Participation in a Group Discussion
§  Keep your knowledge of current affairs-especially ‘hot’ topics up to date.
§  If it is a fresher’s interview for an industry or bank etc. then one should gather knowledge about their mission,
systems and challenges etc.
§  It may be useful to hold mock group discussions with friends or classmates.
§  Preparedness and self-confidence are the keys to success in a group discussion.
§  Grab an opportunity to speak but never lose sight of the main topic.
§  Be aggressive in presenting your viewpoint but do not be arrogant.
§  Speak clearly and loudly enough for everyone to hear what you are saying.
§  Don’t just say that you agree or disagree with a particular person-present your viewpoint with clear explanations.
§  Remember that in a discussion a person is judged for the leadership qualities and original thinking. Hence speak
fast and sensibly.
§  Listen attentively to others so that an important point is not missed out. Sometimes if any speaker cannot explain
the point properly, you can adopt and explain the point as your own.
§  You get evaluated not for your thinking but expressing your viewpoint and in the manner you do so.
§  If you perceive that the discussion is moving towards its end, try to quickly take an opportunity to summarize it and
draw logical conclusions.
§  During the discussion try to maintain an eye contact with the other speakers and do not focus attention on the
moderator alone.
§  Your confidence and communication skills are the best tools in a Group Discussion. Use them deftly and expertly.
 
Source:  https://www.successcds.net/Career/Perfecting-the-Art-of-Group-Discussions.html
 

CONCLUSION
 
Group Discussions are interactive. Remember that you will be interrupted and be prepared to hold your ground by
making your points clearly and forcefully.
 

Techniques for Leading Group Discussions

Learn how to effectively conduct a critical conversation about a particular topic, or topics, that allows participation by
all members of your organization.
 
A local coalition forms a task force to address the rising HIV rate among teens in the community.  A group of parents
meets to wrestle with their feeling that their school district is shortchanging its students.  A college class in human
services approaches the topic of dealing with reluctant participants.  Members of an environmental group attend a
workshop on the effects of global warming.  A politician convenes a “town hall meeting” of constituents to brainstorm
ideas for the economic development of the region.  A community health educator facilitates a smoking cessation
support group.
 
All of these might be examples of group discussions, although they have different purposes, take place in different
locations, and probably run in different ways.  Group discussions are common in a democratic society, and, as a
community builder, it’s more than likely that you have been and will continue to be involved in many of them.  You
also may be in a position to lead one, and that’s what this section is about.  In this last section of a chapter on group
facilitation, we’ll examine what it takes to lead a discussion group well, and how you can go about doing it.
 
WHAT IS AN EFFECTIVE GROUP DISCUSSION?
The literal definition of a group discussion is obvious: a critical conversation about a particular topic, or perhaps a
range of topics, conducted in a group of a size that allows participation by all members.  A group of two or three
generally doesn’t need a leader to have a good discussion, but once the number reaches five or six, a leader or
facilitator can often be helpful.  When the group numbers eight or more, a leader or facilitator, whether formal or
informal, is almost always helpful in ensuring an effective discussion.
 
A group discussion is a type of meeting, but it differs from the formal meetings in a number of ways:
It may not have a specific goal – many group discussions are just that: a group kicking around ideas on a particular
topic.  That may lead to a goal ultimately but it may not.
It’s less formal, and may have no time constraints, or structured order, or agenda.
Its leadership is usually less directive than that of a meeting.
It emphasizes process (the consideration of ideas) over product (specific tasks to be accomplished within the
confines of the meeting itself.
Leading a discussion group is not the same as running a meeting.  It’s much closer to acting as a facilitator, but not
exactly the same as that either. An effective group discussion generally has a number of elements:
 
All members of the group have a chance to speak, expressing their own ideas and feelings freely, and to pursue and
finish out their thoughts
All members of the group can hear others’ ideas and feelings stated openly
Group members can safely test out ideas that are not yet fully formed
Group members can receive and respond to respectful but honest and constructive feedback.  Feedback could be
positive, negative, or merely clarifying or correcting factual questions or errors, but is in all cases delivered
respectfully.
A variety of points of view are put forward and discussed
The discussion is not dominated by any one person
Arguments, while they may be spirited, are based on the content of ideas and opinions, not on personalities
Even in disagreement, there’s an understanding that the group is working together to resolve a dispute, solve a
problem, create a plan, make a decision, find principles all can agree on, or come to a conclusion from which it can
move on to further discussion Many group discussions have no specific purpose except the exchange of ideas and
opinions.  Ultimately, an effective group discussion is one in which many different ideas and viewpoints are heard and
considered.  This allows the group to accomplish its purpose if it has one, or to establish a basis either for ongoing
discussion or for further contact and collaboration among its members.
 
There are many possible purposes for a group discussion, such as:
Create a new situation – form a coalition, start an initiative, etc.
Explore cooperative or collaborative arrangements among groups or organizations
Discuss and/or analyze an issue, with no specific goal in mind but understanding
Create a strategic plan – for an initiative, an advocacy campaign, an intervention, etc.
Discuss policy and policy change
Air concerns and differences among individuals or groups
Hold public hearings on proposed laws or regulations, development, etc.
Decide on an action
Provide mutual support
Solve a problem
Resolve a conflict
Plan your work or an event
Possible leadership styles of a group discussion also vary.  A group leader or facilitator might be directive or non-
directive; that is, she might try to control what goes on to a large extent; or she might assume that the group should
be in control, and that her job is to facilitate the process.  In most group discussions, leaders who are relatively non-
directive make for a more broad-ranging outlay of ideas, and a more satisfying experience for participants.
 
Directive leaders can be necessary in some situations. If a goal must be reached in a short time period, a directive
leader might help to keep the group focused. If the situation is particularly difficult, a directive leader might be needed
to keep control of the discussion and make
 
WHY WOULD YOU LEAD A GROUP DISCUSSION?
There are two ways to look at this question: “What’s the point of group discussion?” and
“Why would you, as opposed to someone else, lead a group discussion?”  Let’s examine both.
 
WHAT’S THE POINT OF GROUP DISCUSSION?
As explained in the opening paragraphs of this section, group discussions are common in a democratic society. 
There are a number of reasons for this, some practical and some philosophical.
 
A group discussion:
Gives everyone involved a voice.  Whether the discussion is meant to form a basis for action, or just to play with
ideas, it gives all members of the group a chance to speak their opinions, to agree or disagree with others, and to
have their thoughts heard.  In many community-building situations, the members of the group might be chosen
specifically because they represent a cross-section of the community, or a diversity of points of view. Allows for a
variety of ideas to be expressed and discussed.  A group is much more likely to come to a good conclusion if a mix of
ideas is on the table, and if all members have the opportunity to think about and respond to them.
 
It is generally a democratic, egalitarian process. It reflects the ideals of most grassroots and community groups, and
encourages a diversity of views.
 
It leads to group ownership of whatever conclusions, plans, or action the group decides upon.  Because everyone
has a chance to contribute to the discussion and to be heard, the final result feels like it was arrived at by and
belongs to everyone.
 
It encourages those who might normally be reluctant to speak their minds.  Often, quiet people have important things
to contribute, but aren’t assertive enough to make themselves heard.  A good group discussion will bring them out
and support them.
 
Can often open communication channels among people who might not communicate in any other way.  People from
very different backgrounds, from opposite ends of the political spectrum, from different cultures, who may, under most
circumstances, either never make contact or never trust one another enough to try to communicate, might, in a group
discussion, find more common ground than they expected.
 
It is sometimes simply the obvious, or even the only, way to proceed.  Several of the examples given at the beginning
of the section – the group of parents concerned about their school system, for instance, or the college class – fall into
this category, as do public hearings and similar gatherings.
 
WHY WOULD YOU SPECIFICALLY LEAD A GROUP DISCUSSION?
You might choose to lead a group discussion, or you might find yourself drafted for the task. 
 
Some of the most common reasons that you might be in that situation:
It’s part of your job.  As a mental health counselor, a youth worker, a coalition coordinator, a teacher, the president of
a board of directors, etc. you might be expected to lead group discussions regularly.
 
You’ve been asked to.  Because of your reputation for objectivity or integrity, because of your position in the
community, or because of your skill at leading group discussions, you might be the obvious choice to lead a particular
discussion.
 
A discussion is necessary, and you’re the logical choice to lead it.  If you’re the chair of a task force to address
substance abuse in the community, for instance, it’s likely that you’ll be expected to conduct that task force’s
meetings, and to lead discussion of the issue. It was your idea in the first place.  The group discussion, or its purpose,
was your idea, and the organization of the process falls to you.
 
You might find yourself in one of these situations if you fall into one of the categories of people who are often tapped
to lead group discussions.  These categories include (but aren’t limited to):
Directors of organizations
Public officials
Coalition coordinators
Professionals with group-leading skills – counselors, social workers, therapists, etc.
Teachers
Health professionals and health educators
Respected community members.  These folks may be respected for their leadership – president of the Rotary Club,
spokesperson for an environmental movement – for their positions in the community – bank president, clergyman – or
simply for their personal qualities – integrity, fairness, ability to communicate with all sectors of the community.
Community activists.  This category could include anyone from “professional” community organizers to average
citizens who care about an issue or have an idea they want to pursue.
 
WHEN MIGHT YOU LEAD A GROUP DISCUSSION?
The need or desire for a group discussion might of course arise anytime, but there are some times when it’s
particularly necessary.
 
At the start of something new. Whether you’re designing an intervention, starting an initiative, creating a new
program, building a coalition, or embarking on an advocacy or other campaign, inclusive discussion is likely to be
crucial in generating the best possible plan, and creating community support for and ownership of it.
 
When an issue can no longer be ignored. When youth violence reaches a critical point, when the community’s
drinking water is declared unsafe, when the HIV infection rate climbs – these are times when groups need to convene
to discuss the issue and develop action plans to swing the pendulum in the other direction.
 
When groups need to be brought together. One way to deal with racial or ethnic hostility, for instance, is to convene
groups made up of representatives of all the factions involved.  The resulting discussions – and the opportunity for
people from different backgrounds to make personal connections with one another – can go far to address
everyone’s concerns, and to reduce tensions.
 
When an existing group is considering its next step or seeking to address an issue of importance to it. The staff of a
community service organization, for instance, may want to plan its work for the next few months, or to work out how
to deal with people with particular quirks or problems.
 
HOW DO YOU LEAD A GROUP DISCUSSION?
In some cases, the opportunity to lead a group discussion can arise on the spur of the moment; in others, it’s a more
formal arrangement, planned and expected.  In the latter case, you may have the chance to choose a space and
otherwise structure the situation. 
In less formal circumstances, you’ll have to make the best of existing conditions.
 
We’ll begin by looking at what you might consider if you have time to prepare.  Then we’ll examine what it takes to
make an effective discussion leader or facilitator, regardless of external circumstances.
 

SET THE STAGE

If you have time to prepare beforehand, there are a number of things you may be able to do to make the participants
more comfortable, and thus to make discussion easier.
 

Choose the space

If you have the luxury of choosing your space, you might look for someplace that’s comfortable and informal.  Usually,
that means comfortable furniture that can be moved around (so that, for instance, the group can form a circle,
allowing everyone to see and hear everyone else easily).  It may also mean a space away from the ordinary.
 
One organization often held discussions on the terrace of an old mill that had been turned into a bookstore and café. 
The sound of water from the mill stream rushing by put everyone at ease, and encouraged creative thought.
 
Provide food and drink
The ultimate comfort, and one that breaks down barriers among people, is that of eating and drinking.
 
Bring materials to help the discussion along
Most discussions are aided by the use of newsprint and markers to record ideas, for example.
Become familiar with the purpose and content of the discussion. If you have the opportunity, learn as much as
possible about the topic under discussion.  This is not meant to make you the expert, but rather to allow you to ask
good questions that will help the group generate ideas.
 
Make sure everyone gets any necessary information, readings, or other material beforehand.  If participants are
asked to read something, consider questions, complete a task, or otherwise prepare for the discussion, make sure
that the assignment is attended to and used.  Don’t ask people to do something, and then ignore it.
 

LEAD THE DISCUSSION

Think about leadership style
The first thing you need to think about is leadership style, which we mentioned briefly earlier in the section.  Are you a
directive or non-directive leader?  The chances are that, like most of us, you fall somewhere in between the extremes
of the leader who sets the agenda and dominates the group completely, and the leader who essentially leads not at
all. The point is made that many good group or meeting leaders are, in fact, facilitators, whose main concern is
supporting and maintaining the process of the group’s work.  This is particularly true when it comes to group
discussion, where the process is, in fact, the purpose of the group’s coming together.
 
A good facilitator helps the group set rules for itself, makes sure that everyone participates and that no one
dominates, encourages the development and expression of all ideas, including “odd” ones, and safeguards an open
process, where there are no foregone conclusions and everyone’s ideas are respected.  Facilitators are non-directive,
and try to keep themselves out of the discussion, except to ask questions or make statements that advance it.  For
most group discussions, the facilitator role is probably a good ideal to strive for.
 
It’s important to think about what you’re most comfortable with philosophically, and how that fits what you’re
comfortable with personally.  If you’re committed to a non-directive style, but you tend to want to control everything in
a situation, you may have to learn some new behaviors in order to act on your beliefs.
 

Put people at ease

Especially if most people in the group don’t know one another, it’s your job as leader to establish a comfortable
atmosphere and set the tone for the discussion.  
 
Help the group establish ground rules.  The ground rules of a group discussion are the guidelines that help to keep
the discussion on track, and prevent it from deteriorating into name calling or simply argument.  
 
Some might suggest, if the group has trouble coming up with the first one or two: Everyone should treat everyone
else with respect: no name-calling, no emotional outbursts, no accusations.
No arguments directed at people – only at ideas and opinions.  Disagreement should be respectful – no ridicule.
Don’t interrupt.  Listen to the whole of others’ thoughts – actually listen, rather than just running over your own
response in your head.
Respect the group’s time.  Try to keep your comments reasonably short and to the point, so that others have a
chance to respond.
Consider all comments seriously, and try to evaluate them fairly.  Others’ ideas and comments may change your
mind, or vice versa: it’s important to be open to that.
Don’t be defensive if someone disagrees with you.  Evaluate both positions, and only continue to argue for yours if
you continue to believe it’s right.
Everyone is responsible for following and upholding the ground rules.
Ground rules may also be a place to discuss recording the session.  Who will take notes, record important points,
questions for further discussion, areas of agreement or disagreement?  If the recorder is a group member, the group
and/or leader should come up with a strategy that allows her to participate fully in the discussion.
 

Generate an agenda or goals for the session

You might present an agenda for approval, and change it as the group requires, or you and the group can create one
together.  There may actually be no need for one, in that the goal may simply be to discuss an issue or idea.  If that’s
the case, it should be agreed upon at the outset.
 

Lead the discussion

How active you are might depend on your leadership style, but you definitely have some responsibilities here.  They
include setting, or helping the group to set the discussion topic; fostering the open process; involving all participants;
asking questions or offering ideas to advance the discussion; summarizing or clarifying important points, arguments,
and ideas; and wrapping up the session.  Let’s look at these, as well as some do’s and don’ts for discussion group
leaders.
 
Setting the topic. If the group is meeting to discuss a specific issue or to plan something, the discussion topic is
already set.  If the topic is unclear, then someone needs to help the group define it.  The leader – through asking the
right questions, defining the problem, and encouraging ideas from the group – can play that role.
 
Fostering the open process. Nurturing the open process means paying attention to the process, content, and
interpersonal dynamics of the discussion all at the same time – not a simple matter. As leader, your task is not to tell
the group what to do, or to force particular conclusions, but rather to make sure that the group chooses an
appropriate topic that meets its needs, that there are no “right” answers to start with (no foregone conclusions), that
no one person or small group dominates the discussion, that everyone follows the ground rules, that discussion is
civil and organized, and that all ideas are subjected to careful critical analysis.  You might comment on the process of
the discussion or on interpersonal issues when it seems helpful (“We all seem to be picking on John here – what’s
going on?”), or make reference to the open process itself (“We seem to be assuming that we’re supposed to believe
X – is that true?”). Most of your actions as leader should be in the service of modeling or furthering the open process.
Part of your job here is to protect “minority rights,” i.e., unpopular or unusual ideas.  That doesn’t mean you have to
agree with them, but that you have to make sure that they can be expressed, and that discussion of them is
respectful, even in disagreement. (The exceptions are opinions or ideas that are discriminatory or downright false.) 
Odd ideas often turn out to be correct, and shouldn’t be stifled.
 
Involving all participants. This is part of fostering the open process, but is important enough to deserve its own
mention. To involve those who are less assertive or shy, or who simply can’t speak up quickly enough, you might ask
directly for their opinion, encourage them with body language (smile when they say anything, lean and look toward
them often), and be aware of when they want to speak and can’t break in.  It’s important both for process and for the
exchange of ideas that everyone have plenty of opportunity to communicate their thoughts.
 
Asking questions or offering ideas to advance the discussion. The leader should be aware of the progress of the
discussion, and should be able to ask questions or provide information or arguments that stimulate thinking or take
the discussion to the next step when necessary. If participants are having trouble grappling with the topic, getting
sidetracked by trivial issues, or simply running out of steam, it’s the leader’s job to carry the discussion forward.
 
This is especially true when the group is stuck, either because two opposing ideas or factions are at an impasse, or
because no one is able or willing to say anything.  In these circumstances, the leader’s ability to identify points of
agreement, or to ask the question that will get discussion moving again is crucial to the group’s effectiveness.
 
Summarizing or clarifying important points, arguments, or ideas. This task entails making sure that everyone
understands a point that was just made, or the two sides of an argument.  It can include restating a conclusion the
group has reached, or clarifying a particular idea or point made by an individual (“What I think I heard you say
was…”).  The point is to make sure that everyone understands what the individual or group actually meant.
 
Wrapping up the session.  As the session ends, the leader should help the group review the discussion and make
plans for next steps (more discussion sessions, action, involving other people or groups, etc.). He should also go over
any assignments or tasks that were agreed to, make sure that every member knows what her responsibilities are,
and review the deadlines for those responsibilities.  Other wrap-up steps include getting feedback on the session –
including suggestions for making it better – pointing out the group’s accomplishments, and thanking it for its work.
 

Follow-up
Even after you’ve wrapped up the discussion, you’re not necessarily through. If you’ve been the recorder, you might
want to put the notes from the session in order, type them up, and send them to participants. The notes might also
include a summary of conclusions that were reached, as well as any assignments or follow-up activities that were
agreed on.
 
If the session was one-time, or was the last of a series, your job may now be done. If it was the beginning, however,
or part of an ongoing discussion, you may have a lot to do before the next session, including contacting people to
make sure they’ve done what they promised, and preparing the newsprint notes to be posted at the next session so
everyone can remember the discussion.
 
Leading an effective group discussion takes preparation (if you have the opportunity for it), an understanding of and
commitment to an open process, and a willingness to let go of your ego and biases. If you can do these things, the
chances are you can become a discussion leader that can help groups achieve the results they want.
 
 
 

DO’S AND DON’TS FOR DISCUSSION LEADERS

 
DO’s:
Model the behavior and attitudes you want group members to employ. That includes respecting all group members
equally; advancing the open process; demonstrating what it means to be a learner (admitting when you’re wrong, or
don’t know a fact or an answer, and suggesting ways to find out); asking questions based on others’ statements;
focusing on positions rather than on the speaker; listening carefully; restating others’ points; supporting your
arguments with fact or logic; acceding when someone else has a good point; accepting criticism; thinking critically;
giving up the floor when appropriate; being inclusive and culturally sensitive, etc.
 
Use encouraging body language and tone of voice, as well as words.  Lean forward when people are talking, for
example, keep your body position open and approachable, smile when appropriate, and attend carefully to everyone,
not just to those who are most articulate.
 
Give positive feedback for joining the discussion.  Smile, repeat group members’ points, and otherwise show that you
value participation.
 
Be aware of people’s reactions and feelings, and try to respond appropriately. If a group member is hurt by others’
comments, seems puzzled or confused, is becoming angry or defensive, it’s up to you as discussion leader to use the
ground rules or your own sensitivity to deal with the situation. If someone’s hurt, for instance, it may be important to
point that out and discuss how to make arguments without getting personal.  If group members are confused,
revisiting the comments or points that caused the confusion, or restating them more clearly, may be helpful.  Being
aware of the reactions of individuals and of the group as a whole can make it possible to expose and use conflict, or
to head off unnecessary emotional situations and misunderstandings.
 
Ask open-ended questions.  In advancing the discussion, use questions that can’t be answered with a simple yes or
no.  Instead, questions should require some thought from group members, and should ask for answers that include
reasons or analysis.  The difference between “Do you think the President’s decision was right?” and “Why do you
think the President’s decision was or wasn’t right?” is huge.  Where the first question can be answered with a yes or
no, the second requires an analysis supporting the speaker’s opinion, as well as discussion of the context and
reasons for the decision.
 
Control your own biases.  While you should point out factual errors or ideas that are inaccurate and disrespectful of
others, an open process demands that you not impose your views on the group, and that you keep others from doing
the same.  Group members should be asked to make rational decisions about the positions or views they want to
agree with, and ultimately the ideas that the group agrees on should be those that make the most sense to them –
whether they coincide with yours or not.  Pointing out bias – including your own – and discussing it helps both you
and group members try to be objective.
 
A constant question that leaders – and members – of any group have is what to do about racist, sexist, or
homophobic remarks, especially in a homogeneous group where most or all of the members except the leader may
agree with them.  There is no clear-cut answer, although if they pass unchallenged, it may appear you condone the
attitude expressed.
 
How you challenge prejudice is the real question.  The ideal here is that other members of the group do the
challenging, and it may be worth waiting long enough before you jump in to see if that’s going to happen.  If it doesn’t,
you can essentially say, “That’s wrong, and I won’t allow that kind of talk here,” which may well put an end to the
remarks, but isn’t likely to change anyone’s mind.  You can express your strong disagreement or discomfort with such
remarks and leave it at that, or follow up with “Let’s talk about it after the group,” which could generate some real
discussion about prejudice and stereotypes, and actually change some thinking over time.
Your ground rules – the issue of respecting everyone – should address this issue, and it probably won’t come up…
but there are no guarantees.  It won’t hurt to think beforehand about how you want to handle it.
 
Encourage disagreement, and help the group use it creatively.  Disagreement is not to be smoothed over, but rather
to be analyzed and used.  When there are conflicting opinions – especially when both can be backed up by
reasonable arguments – the real discussion starts.  If everyone agrees on every point, there’s really no discussion at
all.  Disagreement makes people think.  It may not be resolved in one session, or at all, but it’s the key to discussion
that means something.
 
All too often, conflict – whether conflicting opinions, conflicting world views, or conflicting personalities – is so
frightening to people that they do their best to ignore it or gloss it over.  That reaction not only leaves the conflict
unresolved – and therefore growing, so that it will be much stronger when it surfaces later– but fails to examine the
issues that it raises.  If those are brought out in the open and discussed reasonably, the two sides often find that they
have as much agreement as disagreement, and can resolve their differences by putting their ideas together.  Even
where that’s not the case, facing the conflict reasonably, and looking at the roots of the ideas on each side, can help
to focus on the issue at hand and provide solutions far better than if one side or the other simply operated alone.
 
Keep your mouth shut as much as possible.  By and large, discussion groups are for the group members.  You may
be a member of the group and have been asked by the others to act as leader, in which case you certainly have a
right to be part of the discussion (although not to dominate).  If you’re an outside facilitator, or leader by position, it’s
best to confine your contributions to observations on process, statements of fact, questions to help propel the
discussion, and clarification and summarization.  The simple fact that you’re identified as leader or facilitator gives
your comments more force than those of other group members.  If you’re in a position of authority or seen as an
expert, that force becomes even greater.  The more active you are in the discussion, the more the group will take
your positions and ideas as “right,” and the less it will come to its own conclusions.
 
DON’TS:
Don’t let one or a small group of individuals dominate the discussion.  People who are particularly articulate or
assertive, who have strong feelings that they urgently want to express, or who simply feel the need – and have the
ability – to dominate can take up far more than their fair share of a discussion.  This often means that quieter people
have little or no chance to speak, and that those who disagree with the dominant individual(s) are shouted down and
cease trying to make points.  It’s up to the leader to cut off individuals who take far more than their share of time, or
who try to limit discussion.  This can be done in a relatively non-threatening way (“This is an interesting point, and it’s
certainly worth the time we’ve spent on it, but there are other points of view that need to be heard as well.  I think
Alice has been waiting to speak…”), but it’s crucial to the open process and to the comfort and effectiveness of the
group.
 
Don’t let one point of view override others, unless it’s based on facts and logic, and is actually convincing group
members to change their minds.  If a point of view dominates because of its merits, its appeal to participants’
intellectual and ethical sensibilities, that’s fine.  It’s in fact what you hope will happen in a good group discussion.  If a
point of view dominates because of the aggressiveness of its supporters, or because it’s presented as something it’s
wrong to oppose (“People who disagree with the President are unpatriotic and hate their country”), that’s intellectual
bullying or blackmail, and is the opposite of an open discussion.  As leader, you should point it out when that’s
happening, and make sure other points of view are aired and examined.
 
Sometimes individuals or factions that are trying to dominate can disrupt the process of the group. Both Sections 1
and 2 of this chapter contain some guidelines for dealing with this type of situation.
 
Don’t assume that anyone holds particular opinions or positions because of his culture, background, race, personal
style, etc.  People are individuals, and can’t be judged by their exteriors.  You can find out what someone thinks by
asking, or by listening when he speaks.
 
Don’t assume that someone from a particular culture, race, or background speaks for everyone else from that
situation.  She may or may not represent the general opinion of people from situations similar to hers…or there may
not be a general opinion among them.  In a group discussion, no one should be asked or assumed to represent
anything more than herself.
 
The exception here is when someone has been chosen by her community or group to represent its point of view in a
multi-sector discussion.  Even in that situation, the individual may find herself swayed by others’ arguments, or may
have ideas of her own.  She may have agreed to sponsor particular ideas that are important to her group, but she
may still have her own opinions as well, especially in other areas.
 
Don’t be the font of all wisdom.  Even if you know more about the discussion topic than most others in the group (if
you’re the teacher of a class, for instance), presenting yourself as the intellectual authority denies group members the
chance to discuss the topic freely and without pressure.  Furthermore, some of them may have ideas you haven’t
considered, or experiences that give them insights into the topic that you’re never likely to have.  Model learning
behavior, not teaching behavior.
 
If you’re asked your opinion directly, you should answer honestly.  You have some choices about how you do that,
however.  One is to state your opinion, but make very clear that it’s an opinion, not a fact, and that other people
believe differently.  Another is to ask to hold your opinion until the end of the discussion, so as not to influence
anyone’s thinking while it’s going on.  Yet another is to give your opinion after all other members of the group have
stated theirs, and then discuss the similarities and differences among all the opinions and people’s reasons for
holding them.
If you’re asked a direct question, you might want to answer it if it’s a question of fact and you know the answer, and if
it’s relevant to the discussion.  If the question is less clearcut, you might want to throw it back to the group, and use it
as a spur to discussion.
 

IN SUMMARY
Group discussions are common in our society, and have a variety of purposes, from planning an intervention or
initiative to mutual support to problem-solving to addressing an issue of local concern.  An effective discussion group
depends on a leader or facilitator who can guide it through an open process – the group chooses what it’s discussing,
if not already determined, discusses it with no expectation of particular conclusions, encourages civil disagreement
and argument, and makes sure that every member is included and no one dominates.  It helps greatly if the leader
comes to the task with a democratic or, especially, a collaborative style, and with an understanding of how a group
functions.
 
A good group discussion leader has to pay attention to the process and content of the discussion as well as to the
people who make up the group.  She has to prepare the space and the setting to the extent possible; help the group
establish ground rules that will keep it moving civilly and comfortably; provide whatever materials are necessary;
familiarize herself with the topic; and make sure that any pre-discussion readings or assignments get to participants
in plenty of time.  Then she has to guide the discussion, being careful to promote an open process; involve everyone
and let no one dominate; attend to the personal issues and needs of individual group members when they affect the
group; summarize or clarify when appropriate; ask questions to keep the discussion moving, and put aside her own
agenda, ego, and biases.
 
It’s not an easy task, but it can be extremely rewarding.  An effective group discussion can lay the groundwork for
action and real community change.
 
Source:  https://ctb.ku.edu/en/table-of-contents/leadership/group-facilitation/group-discussions/main
 
Personal interview session/ mock interview session

An Overview of Mock Interviews

 
A mock interview, also known as a practice interview, is a simulation of an actual job interview. It provides job
seekers with an opportunity to practice for an interview and receive feedback on their interviewing skills.
 
What is a Mock Interview?
A typical mock interview is a practice job interview held with a professional career counselor. A mock interview helps
you learn how to answer difficult questions, develop interview strategies, improve your communication skills, and
reduce your stress before an actual job interview.
 
During a mock interview, the interviewer may use a semi-structured interview format rather than asking a formal list of
questions.
 

In-Person Mock Interviews

Many college career centers and career counselors offer in-person mock interviews. If you're a college student or
graduate, check with your career office to see if they provide in-person or phone or video mock interviews. 
 
If you're not affiliated with a college or university, a career coach or counselor is another option for practice
interviewing.
 
You can make an appointment with a mock interviewer, providing her with information on either a specific company
with whom you are interviewing or your general career field. This will help her to create mock interview questions
similar to those you will eventually encounter in your actual interviews.
 
The more specific the information you can provide for your mock interviewer, the better.
The mock interviewer will often record the interview with a video camera.
 
Some career centers and career counselors also offer mock phone and online video interviews and will record your
interview on a tape recorder or with a webcam.
 
After the mock interview (which usually lasts about 30 minutes), the interviewer will then review the interview with
you, and provide feedback.
 

Examples of Mock Interview Questions

The questions asked during a mock interview are typically the more general employer interview questions that are
asked during a first round or screening interview.
 
However, for candidates who know what type of position, career field, or industry they are interested in, job-specific
interview questions may be asked.
 
If you are using a mock interview to prepare for a job interview you have scheduled with a company, the interviewer
may be able to ask you actual questions that are asked by hiring managers at the company. Glassdoor.com has
company interview questions contributed by site visitors for many companies.
 
When you schedule a mock interview with your college career center or a career coach, provide them with as much
information as possible about your interests and goals. The more information the counselor has, the better able he or
she will be to tailor the questions to fit the actual interviews you will have.
 
For example, if you are searching for a tech job, the interviewer can ask a series of tech interview questions to
familiarize you with the types of questions that will be asked and to help you frame good responses.
 
If you're interviewing for a summer job, as another example, the interviewer can ask you the same questions you will
be asked by the people who hire for summer positions.
 
Do take the time to prepare responses to the questions you will be asked during a mock interview. This is an
opportunity to practice interviewing and to make sure that you have the interview skills to make the best impression
on your interviewer.
 

How to Prepare for a Mock Interview

Be sure to take your mock interview as seriously as you would an actual interview. Get ready for the interview just as
you would for an interview with a hiring manager: Arrive 10 - 15 minutes early, and bring your resume and any other
materials you would bring to a real interview.
Bring a notebook to take notes on what your mock interviewer tells you.
Dress in professional interview attire.
You should also prepare answers to general interview questions before arriving. Here's more information on these
types of general interview questions, including sample questions and answers you can review to get ready for your
interview.
If you have a mock interview to prepare for a specific job or career field, also review these job-specific interview
questions.
Mock interviews are an ideal way to practice for real job interviews because you are in a situation that mirrors an
actual interview with a company. When you review your interview with the interviewer, you'll be able to modify your
responses and interview behavior, if necessary.
 

Set Up Your Own In-Person Mock Interview

If you're not in a situation where you can participate in a mock interview with a professional counselor, you can recruit
a family member or friend to help you practice interviewing.
The more you prepare, the more comfortable you will be with interviewing.
 
Just as you would with a professional career counselor, provide your friend or relative with a copy of your resume and
lists of the general and job-specific interview questions you think you’ll be asked. Dress as you would for a real
interview and remember to practice using an appropriate tone of voice and body language as you respond to your
“interviewer’s” questions.
 

Online Mock Interviews

Another option for mock interviewing is utilizing an online program or application. Online practice interview programs
provide job seekers with a pressure-free way to prepare and practice for upcoming job interviews. Some of these
programs are very basic; users are given a series of random interview questions (either verbally or in writing) and
type in answers. While these programs get users thinking about how to answer various questions, they do not allow
users to practice verbalizing responses.
 
More sophisticated interview practice programs allow users to select questions related to their particular career field
or the type of interview for which they are preparing (i.e., behavioral interview, group interview, etc.). A pre-recorded
video of a mock interviewer asks a series of questions; the user must then orally answer each question.
 
Sometimes users are given a time limit, so they learn to answer questions concisely. The program will record these
audio answers, or users may be able to record themselves via webcam. After the simulated interview, the user can
review his recording, or email the file to a friend, family member, or career counselor for review.
 
Some programs even allow users to conduct live online interviews via webcam with actual career counselors. The
interviewer records the interview and then critiques the user's performance.
 

Benefits of Practice Interviews

Online practice interviews familiarize users with the interview process and allow users to practice answering common
interview questions with confidence. Webcam practice interviews are particularly helpful in that you can review not
only your answers, but your body language, eye contact, and interview attire.
 

Fee-Based Interview Programs

Be aware, however, that many of these online practice interview programs cost money, particularly the programs that
record your interview or involve actual career counselors. Thoroughly review any online practice interview program;
make sure the program offers what you want at a cost that fits your budget.
A mock interview is an emulation of a job interview used for training purposes. The conversational exercise usually
resembles a real interview as closely as possible, for the purpose of providing experience for a candidate. It can help
a job applicant to understand what is expected in a real job interview, and can help an applicant improve his or
her selfpresentation. Mock interviews can be videotaped; the candidate can view the tape afterward, and get
feedback. There are coaches who can provide feedback on aspects of the interview process. Mock interviews are
most common for job interviews, but may also be used to train public figures to handle interrogations by journalists,
as well as help candidates for office prepare for debates. Some organizations schedule mock interview events to help
many students prepare for job interviews. For example, some schools have mock interview training days, often
organized by career and guidance counselors. While the usual sense of the term is an exercise done as a form of
preparation prior to applying for jobs, there is another sense of the term which describes a playful or non-serious
interview. Mock interviews can help a person gain confidence for real interviews, as well as provide the interviewee
with information about how to handle an upcoming interv
WEEK 16 RPH
 On March 27, 2014, the Philippine government and the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF) signed an agreement to
terminate an armed war that began in 1969 and resulted in more than 120,000 deaths and hundreds of thousands of
forcibly displaced persons. Since the end of the armed war in Nepal in 2006, the Comprehensive Deal on the
Bangsamoro has been the most important peace agreement signed around the world (COL 002 READINGS IN
PHILIPPINE HISTORY, n.d.).
       Every peace accord is tailored to a specific situation and conflict. However, because it is the most recent peace
process, the Mindanao process has become a crucial reference point for other peace processes (COL 002
READINGS IN PHILIPPINE HISTORY, n.d.).
       Out of the 59-armed conflicts that have ended in the last 30 years, 44 concluded with peace agreements (Fisas,
2015: 16). Parallel to this has been the growth of social, scholarly, and institutional capacities to evaluate these
processes and strengthen peace-building measures (Human Security Report Project, 2012). However, no peace
process has ever gone off without a hitch. Hence, all peace processes learn from previous experiences while
innovating in their practices and contributing overall to the international experience of building peace. South Sudan,
Aceh (Indonesia), and Northern Ireland all absorbed lessons from the Mindanao peace process. Other nations with
internal problems, including as Myanmar, Thailand, and Turkey, are currently studying the Mindanao peace accord
with keen interest (COL 002 READINGS IN PHILIPPINE HISTORY, n.d.).

Context
       The Philippines is an archipelago comprising approximately 7,000 islands (COL 002 READINGS IN PHILIPPINE
HISTORY, n.d.). Among these islands, the largest one is Luzon (where the capital, Manila, is situated), and the
second largest is Mindanao. Together with Timor-Leste, the Philippines is the only Asian country with a majority
Christian population. A population of around 100 million people lives in a 300,000 km2 region. The presidential
system of government is in place, and executive power is limited to a single six-year term (Peace Process In
Mindanao, n.d.).
       King Philip II of Spain, in whose service Magellan was sailing across the world when he arrived at the
archipelago in 1521, is responsible for the country’s name. After three centuries as a Spanish colony, the Philippines
were handed over the United States in 1898. The fact that Spain never actually acquired possession of Mindanao has
far-reaching implications. Three centuries before Magellan, Islam had arrived, and the Spanish discovered a well-
organized system of rule, primarily through the sultanates of Maguindanao and Sulu (Peace Process In Mindanao,
n.d.).
       In 1946, the Philippines were the first Asian country to gain independence without an armed struggle (1 year
before India). When a nonviolent people’s movement defeated Ferdinand Marcos’ dictatorship in 1986, the
Philippines became a pioneer in overthrowing a tyrannical system through peaceful means. In 2001, a second
people’s power revolution overthrew Joseph Estrada’s government, which had been accused of corruption (Mindanao
Peace Process, n.d.). However, progress has been gradual during the last nearly three decades of democracy.
Politics continues to be a family battle in which a few families maintain power from generation to generation.
Relatives of overthrown presidents are still involved in politics (Peace Process In Mindanao, n.d.).
       Several metrics suggest progress in poverty reduction, literacy, and employment, but neighboring nations such
as Malaysia, Indonesia, and Thailand are well ahead of the Philippines in these areas (UNDP, 2015). The New
People’s Army, a Maoist-inspired insurgency that has been active since 1968, feeds its ideology on the continuance
of societal injustices (Peace Process In Mindanao, n.d.).
       In addition to the armed conflict in Mindanao and the communist insurgency, the Philippines also suffered from
Islamist terrorist attacks linked to transnational networks in recent years.

Peace Agreements
       The talks began in 1997 with an agreement on a general cease-fire. The parties outlined a negotiation agenda in
the Tripoli Agreement (2001) that included three primary elements: security (which had already been agreed upon in
2001), humanitarian response, rehabilitation, and development (agreed in 2002), and ancestral territories (2008)
(Peace Process In Mindanao, n.d.).
       The parties eventually adopted the Framework Agreement in October 2012, laying out a path for the transition.
The parties completed the annexes on transitional mechanisms (February 2013), revenue generation and wealth
sharing (July 2013), power-sharing (December 2013), and normalization (January 2014) during the next 15 months
(January 2014). Finally, the Comprehensive Agreement was signed in the Presidential Palace in March 2014 (Peace
Process In Mindanao, n.d.).
       The agreement’s major axis is the creation of the Bangsamoro, a new self-governing state that will replace the
existing Autonomous Region of Muslim Mindanao after a transition overseen by the MILF. The accord envisions a
reform process in the future autonomous area that will see a parliamentary system replace the presidential
administration that controls the rest of the country (Mindanao Peace Process, n.d.). The goal of this pact is to
encourage the formation of thematic political parties.
       The government understands that insurgency must be a part of the solution and assume the corresponding
responsibilities. As a result, the insurgency’s evolution into a political movement should include participation in
municipal and regional elections. 
       In terms of approval, the peace accord must be translated into a statute that governs the Bangsamoro Basic
Law, which governs the Statute of Autonomy. A plebiscite will be held in the conflict-affected districts after
parliamentary authorization. Because the municipalities bordering the current autonomous community will have the
opportunity to join the new entity, this plebiscite will also help to define the autonomous region’s territorial extent
(Peace Process In Mindanao, n.d.).
       Constitutional reform is a divisive topic. The MILF maintains that reform is required to consolidate the accords.
The government, on the other hand, has been hesitant to start a lengthy procedure that could open a “Pandora’s
box.” However, concerns regarding the constitution’s many agreements imply that such a reform process may be
considered in the future. Beyond the accord with the MILF, the Mindanao peace process may help to spark a national
debate regarding the country’s territorial arrangement, since key forces in other areas urge comprehensive
constitutional reform along federal lines (Peace Process In Mindanao, n.d.).
       Here are the main points of the agreement, as reported by Agence France-Presse:” (Philippines signs historic
peace pact with Muslim rebel, n.d.)
       The “Comprehensive Agreement on the Bangsamoro” is what it’s called. At the time of Spanish invasion and
colonization, the Bangsamoro were considered natives or original residents of the southern Philippines. Bangsamoro
people are acknowledged as their descendants and spouses (Philippines signs historic peace pact with Muslim rebel,
n.d.).
       Bangsa is a local word that means nation. Moro is derived from the Spanish colonial term “Moors,” which was
used to refer to Muslims (Key points on Philippine Muslim peace pact, rebels ...., n.d.).

AUTONOMY: The MILF abandons its claims to a separate state in Mindanao’s southern area in favor of
parliamentary autonomy in the Bangsamoro autonomous region. By 2016, this will be established. The Bangsamoro
will take the place of another Muslim autonomous area, the MNLF, which the government claims failed in the 1990s
(Philippines signs historic peace pact with Muslim rebel, n.d.).
DISARMAMENT: The MILF will “gradually” decommission its forces and place the weapons “beyond use,” with a
local police unit taking over law enforcement tasks from the Philippine police and military (Key points on Philippine
Muslim peace pact, rebels ...., n.d.)
POWERS: On defense, foreign policy, money, and citizenship, the Philippine government will retain exclusive
authority (Philippines signs historic peace pact with Muslim rebel, n.d.).
TAXES/REVENUES: The autonomous administration will get 75% of all local taxes and levies, 75% of metallic
resource revenues, and control over fishing regions up to 12 nautical miles from the coast (Philippines signs historic
peace pact with Muslim rebel, n.d.).
ISLAMIC LAW: The region will be governed by a secular administration rather than an Islamic state. Only Muslims
will be subject to Sharia law, and it will only apply to civil cases, not criminal acts. Basic rights to life, travel, privacy,
and freedom of religion and speech are guaranteed to all residents (Philippines signs historic peace pact with Muslim
rebel, n.d.).
TERRITORY: To span five provinces in the south, as well as two cities, six towns, and 39 villages, accounting for
nearly 10% of the Philippines’ total land area (Philippines signs historic peace pact with Muslim rebel, n.d.).
ENABLING LAW: By the end of the year, Aquino will seek parliament to enact a “Bangsamoro Basic Law” for the
autonomous region (Philippines signs historic peace pact with Muslim rebel, n.d.).
PLEBISCITE: In a plebiscite to be held in 2015, people living in territories to be included in the autonomous region
will need to ratify the law (Philippines signs historic peace pact with Muslim rebel, n.d.).
TRANSITIONAL AUTHORITY: After the plebiscite approves and ratifies the basic law, the territory will be governed
by a 15-member “Bangsamoro Transition Authority” until a regional parliament is elected. The members of the
transitional authority are appointed by Aquino, although the MILF will have a majority and the chairmanship (Key
points on Philippine Muslim peace pact, rebels ...., n.d.).
ELECTIONS: In May 2016, a regional parliament with 50 representatives will be elected in conjunction with national
elections (Key points on Philippine Muslim peace pact, rebels ...., n.d.).
Implementation Challenges
       Despite the positive developments, the implementation of the peace agreement is facing multiple obstacles 
(Peace Process In Mindanao, n.d.).
       The first constraint is time. The government was able to link the transitional period to the conclusion of the
presidential term in May 2016 during the Framework Agreement negotiations in 2012 (Mindanao Peace Process,
n.d.). However, the negotiating teams are unable to adhere to the agreed-upon negotiation and implementation
schedule. As a result, the parties will need to agree on a longer implementation period (Philippine Peace Process in
Mindanao:, n.d.).
       The delay is shared responsibility. On the one hand, the insurgency lacks enough qualified and trustworthy
people to shoulder all of the transitional obligations. The government negotiating team, on the other hand, is dealing
with a lack of buy-in for the agreement and its implementation by other parts of the bureaucracy (Peace Process In
Mindanao, n.d.).
       At the same time, Congress has been postponing the passage of the peace agreements into law, despite the fact
that the judiciary must still determine if they are constitutional (Peace Process In Mindanao, n.d.). These state
institutions will most likely raise issues that may further block the implementation of the agreements that have been
signed. 
       In the Philippines, prejudice against Muslims, a heritage from the colonial period, still runs deep.
       With less than a year until the country’s presidential and legislative elections (May 2016), “a number of important
politicians and media outlets are shifting to populist language to agitate public sentiment against the peace process,”
according to the report. (Peace Process In Mindanao, n.d.)
       Even among political actors with good intentions, a lack of knowledge about the Muslim population's social,
political, and cultural reality, particularly the insurgency, results in faulty diagnoses and wrong responses. “Previous
governments have linked the Moro problem to poverty and economic marginalization, ignoring the importance of
identity and esteem parity. The insurgency has been unable to establish a political discourse that can be understood
and supported by the entire population. The peace negotiators only demolished some of these erroneous imaginaries
after painstaking discourse, but the Christian and Muslim parts of society still fear each other.” (Peace Process In
Mindanao, n.d.)
       The rise of armed groups is the most serious security issue (Peace Process in Mindanao, n.d.). One explanation
is that in the Philippines, possessing guns is legal as long as a person is at least 21 years old and passes a
background check before being awarded a Possession License. Meanwhile, successive governments have failed in
their attempts to disband paramilitary groups run by local politicians. Other armed groups also proliferate. These
armed groups can be classified into three categories: a MILF breakaway group that is skeptical about the
government's political commitment (e.g., the Bangsamoro Islamic Freedom Fighters), extremist cells that are linked to
international extremist violence (e.g., Abu Sayyaf and Jemaa Islamiyah), and ordinary criminal organizations. 
       Other challenges are inherent in any process of transitioning from a state of conflict to one of peace (Peace
Process In Mindanao, n.d.). In addition to political will, the government needs to prove its capacity to transform words
into deeds, which has been historically proven to be a challenge. In parallel, the insurgency requires a radical
paradigm shift from a semi-clandestine military structure to a social and political movement, a terrain with limited
experience and at a disadvantage compared with established political actors.
       Several arrangements that will most likely figure in the discussions on political systems include any or a mix of
the following: 
 1. A structure separation from the existing political system for the development of MILF communities; integration
of MILF troops into the Armed Forces of the Philippines or the Philippine National Police; and strengthening
institutions for “personal autonomy,” such as Islamic education and Sharia law. 

2. Areas constituted as special zones, such as Swiss cantons, where Muslims can exercise a high degree of
self-determination.

3. A new and expanded autonomous region with additional powers. 

4. A Muslim state under the federal system of government.

5. An independent state where Muslims are the majority.

Conclusion
The following components of the peace process must be strengthened: 

 Both sides must build a national consensus on the roadmap agreed upon during the negotiations by conducting
additional consultations on the issues discussed in the negotiations. The government must reach out to the
leaders of the Christian majority, particularly members of Congress and local officials. The MILF must reach out
to the MNLF and traditional Muslim leaders.

 Christian and Muslim religious leaders must take the lead in rallying their people to support the peace process.
The Bishop-Ulama Forum, a conference of Christian and Muslim religious leaders in the Philippines, must be
actively involved in harnessing this support.

 The government and MILF must provide strong and effective mechanisms for the implementation of the peace
pact. A neutral third party must be present to oversee faithful compliance of Manila and the MILF with the terms
of the agreement directly.

 Funding for implementation must be identified and allocated in a way that insulates it from partisan and personal
interests of any group or party.

WEEK 17
LOCAL HISTORY
        Local history is the study of history in a local context, with an emphasis on events that shaped a local
community, such as persons or specific locales in a village or town. Movements, battles, births, and deaths could all
be examples of these events (3 Reasons Why Local History Matters, n.d.).
        No matter how different you are, you have a shared history in the city where you live. Below are the three
reasons why local history is important for our community (3 Reasons Why Local History Matters, n.d.).

1. Shared Experiences are Depicted in Local History

        As we learn more about notable people or sites in our city from years past, we discover that those citizens raised
children, worked hard to make a living, relocated to a new country, or had an entrepreneurial spirit that they used to
start a business. We can often visit conserved historic landmarks within a city as we learn about these shared
experiences. These well-preserved sites can be used to get first-hand accounts from persons who lived in the
neighborhood decades or centuries ago (3 Reasons Why Local History Matters, n.d.).
 2. The Human Condition Can Be Learned through Local History
        Records of families and people who settled in the city centuries ago can be found in local history museums.
Personal letters, papers, and images of people, businesses, and events that affected the city’s history are also
included in these records. These archives provide us with detailed information on how people lived decades or
centuries ago. Museum exhibits show these records and help visitors cultivate empathy, which is a deep
understanding of the circumstances and concepts surrounding an event or life at a certain time (3 Reasons Why
Local History Matters, n.d.).

3. Local History Museums Are Centers for Learning

        Local history comes alive in museums and historical societies. When a guest can read, visit a historic place, look
at an artifact, appreciate images or study real documents, we create learned connections. Museums provide extra
information not present in classrooms, as well as object-based learning that gives touchable looks into the past
beyond what a single textbook can provide (3 Reasons Why Local History Matters, n.d.).

Importance of Local History in Philippine History

        Many Filipino laymen lack interest or understanding of Philippine history. An inadequate historical background
and a general propensity on the side of the people to be less mindful of the value of the past to their present life, may
have caused this phenomenon (The importance of local history in Philippine history, n.d.). Such ignorance or apathy
may have also resulted from the dearth of materials, especially on local history, which is close to the hearts and
minds of the people.
        It is impossible to overestimate the importance of local history in comprehending and writing our national history.
The realization that Philippine history is unrepresentative and limited is the motivating force behind the need to
establish local history. The history of the Filipino people is mostly the history of Central Luzon, particularly that of the
Tagalogs. Important events and developments, including personalities, are addressed only briefly at best and
completely neglected at worst, especially in the Visayas and Mindanao. In this regard, the result is a
misrepresentation of Philippine history by failing to fully account for the inherent differences in historical and cultural
experiences of various ethnic groups in various geographical areas throughout the country (The importance of local
history in Philippine history, n.d.).
        Historians, both Filipino and foreign, are not altogether to be blamed for the kind of Philippine histories they have
come up with. The issue stems from Philippine historiography, which was bound by the severe constraints of Western
criteria or norms (e.g., historical writing has to be based on written sources). As the phrase goes, “without a
document, there is no history.” Primary resources were the only ones regarded reliable even when using written
sources. As a result, the work of national historians are severely limited by the lack of written resources produced by
Filipinos in their communities. As a result, any information they have absorbed into Philippine history has come from
colonial sources, which are seen as prejudiced.” (The importance of local history in Philippine history, n.d.) Hence,
national historians have been handicapped by this adherence to a generally accepted historical approach, which
offers limited information and undertakes for a people whose view of their history and struggles is perhaps primarily
found in their oral literature.
        The nation is made up of its parts, which include regions, provinces, cities, and municipalities, and the history of
the nation must be the sum of its parts’ histories. There is no town or province that exists without the nation, and vice
versa. Just as an auto technician can only understand the overall machine if he knows the specific pieces, national
history can only be understood in the context of local history. Interest in studying and comprehending Philippine
history is largely dependent on one’s appreciation of the history of his or her hometown (The importance of local
history in Philippine history, n.d.).
        Because it reflects people’s identity, experiences, and goals, local history is expected to be closest to their
hearts and minds. It is the interpretive recreation of their community’s history, “encompassing its political, social,
economic, and cultural life, as well as the evolution of the geographical unit’s institutions and the accomplishments
and failures of its people (The importance of local history in Philippine history, n.d.). Thus, to understand and
appreciate Philippine history, one should first know the history of his locality and its contributions to regional
development and overall nation-building (The importance of local history in Philippine history, n.d.).
        Therefore, the solution to the inadequacy of national history is in its revision and enrichment. This is a
responsibility not of the national historian but the local people. Providing a proper and adequate account of the
historical experience of its people is the fundamental obligation of every locality. This technique will enrich national
history while also correcting the misconception that Philippine history is primarily the history of Manila and its
environs. Local history, rather than encouraging regionalism, can help individuals better understand and appreciate
their entire national experience and heritage as Filipinos (The importance of local history in Philippine history, n.d.).
LOCAL HISTORICAL SITES
        The Philippines is a country with a rich cultural and historical heritage. Listed below are a number of historic
shrines and monuments from around the archipelago that serve as reminders of the country’s rich culture and history.
Rizal Park
        Rizal Park is located in the middle of Manila, the Philippines’ capital, and overlooks Manila Bay (ART IN THE
PHILIPPINES., n.d.).
        Some of the most pivotal moments in Philippine history have occurred at Luneta. Because of his martyrdom, Dr.
Jose Rizal became a hero of the Philippine Revolution after his execution on December 30, 1896. As a memorial to
him, Luneta Park was formally renamed Rizal Park. Among the most notable events in Luneta Park were the
declaration of Philippine independence from American dominance on June 4, 1946, and the political rallies of
Ferdinand Marcos and Corazon Aquino in 1986 (ART IN THE PHILIPPINES., n.d.). The Rizal Monument also serves
as the origin or Kilometer Zero to all other cities in the Philippines. The Rizal Monument that is situated in this park is
the national monument of the country. Swiss artist Richard Kissling designed this bronze and granite monument to
the Philippines’ national hero, which was unveiled in 1913. It is one of the Philippines’ most well-known landmarks.
Jose P. Rizal, the Philippines’ national hero, was born on June 19, 1861 and died on December 30, 1896, and this
monument was created in his honor.

Lapulapu Shrine

       Mactan Shrine houses this bronze statue of Lapu-Lapu. Lapu-Lapu was a Mactan Island native ruler who
opposed Magellan’s attempts to enslave his people, convert them to Christianity, and subject them to the Spanish
throne. Magellan was killed in the subsequent combat between the Spaniards and Lapu-Lapu and his soldiers on
April 27, 1521. The shrine was built on the site where the fight is said to have taken place (ART IN THE
PHILIPPINES., n.d.).
Magellan Shrine
       The Magellan shrine is a massive memorial tower dedicated to Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese adventurer.
Magellan is thought to have been killed here in the Battle of Mactan in 1521. The monument stands 30 meters tall on
Punta Engao, Cebu’s Mactan Island.
Blood Compact Site

        Tagbilaran, the capital of Bohol, is home to the famous Blood Compact Site. The Blood Compact, which took
place on March 16, 1565, between Sikatuna, a local chieftain, and Miguel Lopez de Legaspi, a Spanish explorer and
colononizer, is regarded one of the most significant events in Philippine history. The Sikatuna-Legaspi blood compact
is the first treaty of friendship between people of different races, religions, cultures, and civilizations. It was a
friendship contract based on equality and mutual respect (ART IN THE PHILIPPINES., n.d.).
Sultan Kudarat Monument

       This statue serves as a reminder that despite conducting 11 voyages to Mindanao, the Spaniards were never
able to capture the entire island. Sultan Muhammad Dipatuan Kudarat Del, the seventh Sultan of Maguindanao, is
commemorated by this monument. He managed to keep the Spaniards out of his sultanate in Mindanao. He was a
direct descendant of Sharif Kabungsuan, a 14th-century Muslim missionary (ART IN THE PHILIPPINES., n.d.).
Bonifacio Monument
       The Monumento Circle, which houses the Bonifacio Monument, the famous monument of Andres Bonifacio, is
Caloocan’s most well-known landmark. The word Monumento comes from the Spanish word monument (Monumento
Station, n.d.). Bonifacio is the founder of the KKK, a revolutionary group that began the fight for Philippine
independence from the Spanish colonialism of the archipelago, which lasted more than 300 years.
Pinaglabanan Shrine
       Pinaglabanan Shrine is in San Juan City, Metro Manila, Philippines, near North Domingo Cor. Pinaglabanan
Street. A figure of a woman carrying a bolo or machete, supported by two children, stands in front of the shrine. This
shrine recalls the first Filipino raid on a warehouse in the area by the Spanish in 1896. The statue appears on the
town seal as well.
McArthur Landing Site

        The McArthur Landing Site in Palo, Leyte was built to memorialize General Douglas MacArthur’s famous parting
words, “I shall return,” as he said before leaving the country after the Japanese Imperial Ary defeated it during World
War II. On October 20, 1944, this historic event occurred (Majestic Country, n.d.). The invasion of the Allies on the
shores of Leyte was a watershed moment in the Pacific War’s history “as well as the human struggle for freedom.
The landing on Leyte is a pivotal moment in the Philippines’ long history of friendship with the United States."
(MacArthur Landing Memorial National Park, n.d.)
NATIONAL LIVING TREASURE
       The National Living Treasures Award honors the country’s best traditional artists. The award was created
through Republic Act No. 7355, with the National Commission for Culture and the Arts as its implementer.
       The Abel Iloko is the iconic hand-woven cotton textile of the Ilocano. Highly regarded for premier quality and
durability, it was used for sails of galleon ships. The finest ones were found comparable to the best linen products of
Europe. The Abel Iloko is used for blankets, bed covers, draperies, and contemporary fashion.
       The tabungaw or gourd casque is a traditional headgear made of a gourd. These sturdy and waterproof hats are
lined with excellently crafted outer nito weave, which is a work of art in itself. Meanwhile, the inside of the hat is made
of two levels of nito weave that are also uniquely designed to make the hat fit snugly and comfortably on the head.
       The art of producing silver or gold jewelry and crafts in the Philippines flourished with the growth of Catholicism in
the country. The rush of church construction also came with the demand for liturgical vessels and objects. Crafts are
done painstakingly by hand, from drawing and carving the design on wood to hammering and polishing the metal to
bring out the piece's details.
       Mat weaving is passed down through the matrilineal line in the Sama culture because men do not participate in
the craft (GAMABA: Haja Amina Appi, n.d.). Each colorful mat takes up three months to make, from harvesting and
stripping the thorny pandanus leaves to drying, dyeing, and executing the geometric patterns. The resulting products
are a marvel of color harmony, precise visualization, and design execution.
       The pis syabit is a traditional cloth tapestry worn as a head covering by the Tausug of Jolo. It is multicolored,
measuring 100cm×100cm, and used as a headdress symbolizing the wearer's elevated position in society. At
present, the pis syabit is used even by women in its traditional function, as a shawl or as a neckerchief. Some even
use it as a table cover and wall ornament.
       The music of these instruments of Yakan is the soundtrack to various significant events of the community. The
kwintangan is used for courtship and celebrations; the kwintangan kayu for serenading the palay for it to yield more
fruit; the gabbang for announcements and an ensemble or peregeya; and a combination of kwintangan, agung,
gabbang, kwintangan kayu, gandang, tagutuk, and tuntungan for weddings, graduations, or baptisms.
       The sugidanon is a long narrative that is composed of 10 epics and sung in an exalted style. The story centers
on the heroic exploits of a semi-divine warrior character who embodies the principal ideals of the Panay-Bukidnon
heritage. Considering the length of the epic and the language used, which is no longer spoken, the art of epic
chanting is nearly lost if not for the work of people such Federico Caballero.
       Every occasion has a Kalinga dance with a series of graceful movements performed to the beat of the gangsa. It
features a kaleidoscope of colors due to the elaborate dress and adornments worn by the dancers and musicians.
This dance can be performed during festive occasions, such as a wedding ceremony, or in unhappy times, such as
an illness or untimely death of a member. All Kalinga dances reflect one underlying theme: oneness.
       The T'nalak is made from fine abaca fibers. Its production is a tedious process from the stripping of the fibers to
"bed-tying," which defines the design. The fabric tells a story using patterns, such as buling langit (clouds) and
kabangi (butterfly) and listens to the T'bolis' distant past. The T'nalak is an art form rich in ritual and steeped in
meaning, thereby creating a unique beauty that we can all take pride in.
       The inabal is made from stripped fibers of the abaca plant; the textile processing is done mainly by women. Wrap
tie-dye designs are standard in the Mindanao culture. The abaca textile is traditionally used as a blanket, wrap-
around skirt, trousers, or sling bag. At present, the inabal is redesigned and reprocessed into high-fashion bags and
clothing, office accessories, and tapestries.
       Of all the Mangyan's oral traditions, the ambahan remained in existence because it is etched in bamboo tubes
using an ancient Southeast Asian pre-colonial script called Surat Mangyan. The Ambahan is a poetic literary form
composed of seven-syllable lines. It is sung, and its message ranges from courtship to saying goodbye to a friend.
       The kulilal and bagit traditions in Palawan reflect humans' intensely poetic and subtle harmony with each other
and nature. The kulilal expresses passionate love with the accompaniment of the kusyapi of a two-stringed lute
played by a man and p'agang or bamboo zither that a woman plays. Meanwhile, the bagit is strictly instrumental
music played on a kusyapi, depicting natural elements, such as the resting of leaves or the chirping of birds.
       The kutyapi exists in a variety of designs, shapes, and sizes and is known by names such as kotapi (Subanon),
fegereng (Tiruray), faglong (B'laan), hegelong (T'boli), and kuglong or kudlong (Manobo). It is technically the hardest
to master among Filipino traditional instruments. The kutyapi only has two strings, but it can be rich, melodic, and
rhythmic sound, captivating in its intimate, meditative, and almost mystical charm.

WEEK 16 CONTEMP
According to experts, we now live in a time when the world produces enough food to support the world’s population of
nearly 7 billion people. However, between 2010 and 2012, around 870 million people around the world were still
hungry. The traditional answer to this situation, according to Bartthwal-Datta, is to increase food production; however,
increasing food production does not always contribute to food security. Many factors determine how a community,
nation-state, or the entire world might achieve food security. When used in a global environment, the complexity of
achieving food security grows. Ironically, the more severe and widespread hunger is, the more the concept of food
security is valued by society and their governments. However, considering that food production resources are finite
and strongly reliant on a lively and sustainable environment, the concern is how food production will cope with the
rapid growth in population. 
FOOD SECURITY
“Food security occurs when all people have physical and economic access to enough, safe, and nutritious food to
suit their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life at all times”. -World Food Summit, 1996
Food security refers to the ability of those who raise, catch, produce, process, transport, retail, and serve our food to
earn a fair living income. Human security and food security are inextricably linked. Food security is considered a non-
traditional security issue which is vital, like any other, to the survival and stability of any nation-state (FAO Food
Security_百度文库., 2014). 

Food Security has four dimensions: Economic and Physical Access to Food, Physical Availability of Food, Stability of
the Other Three Dimensions Over Time, and Food Utilization.

1. Physical Availability of Food refers to the physical existence of food. A nation-state must ensure local or
domestic food production, commercially import and export food, food aid and domestic food stocks.
Availability of food at the household could be from own production or purchased from the market.

2. Economic and Physical Access to Food refers to a sufficient supply of food at the national or international
level; nevertheless, this does not guarantee food securtity at the home level. Concerns about limited food
access have prompted policymakers to place a greater emphasis on incomes, expenditures, markets, and
pricing in order to achieve food security goals.

3. The process by which the body utilizes various nutrients is known as Food Utilization. Individuals with
sufficient energy and nutritional intake are the consequence of adequate care and feeding practices, food
preparation, dietary diversity, and food distribution throughout the home (Khazanah Research Institute, 2015).
This, when combined with good biological utilization of the food consumed, establishes an individual’s
nutritional state (Essay on Food Utilization, n.d.).

4. Stability of Other Three Dimensions refers to having a regular or consistent access to food on a regular basis
in order to maintain one’s nutritional status. Weather extremes, political unrest, and economic variables such
as unemployment and increased food prices can all have an impact on your food security.
IMPORTANCE OF FOOD SECURITY
The United States Department of Agriculture’s National Institute of Food and Agriculture claims that availability to
high-quality, nutrient-dense food is essential to human survival. It goes on to say that secure food availability has a
wide range of good consequences, including enhanced economic growth, poverty reduction, trade opportunities,
global security and stability, and improved health and healthcare. Food security brings about economic growth
because well-fed and properly nourished populations have advanced levels of human capital development, which
serve as a source of workforce for a thriving economy. Further, high levels of malnutrition and illnesses due to poor
food choices or lack thereof divert significant government funds for healthcare to other vital social services for societal
development. Malnutrition creates a generation of less functional and illness-prone people, which may require
sustained medical attention draining both private and public funds to do so.
In the same vein, food security reduces poverty since it allows families to invest their funds for needs that lead to their
development. Instead of spending their income on hospitalization due to illnesses brought about by hunger or
malnutrition, a family could spend it for the education of their children, giving them better chances in the future.
Food security is also crucial in creating trade opportunities. As countries and their local communities can produce
enough food to ensure food security, excess supply can be traded for food supply that is not locally grown or
exported to other countries for added income and augment the food sufficiency of that country.
Increased global security and stability is attained when there is food security. When a locality or country can provide
for the needs, among them food and water, there is less likelihood that they will revolt against their rulers due to
discontent, which could potentially and massive deprivation. It also prevents the possibility of massive migration due
to famine or conflict arising from discontent, which could potentially strain the limited resources of their destination
countries and lead to further conflicts with the latter's local population.
Food security is also responsible for the improved health and healthcare of people. Available and sufficient supply of
nutritious food prevents malnutrition and diseases, thereby lessening the likelihood of developing diseases that can
strain public and personal funds for hospitalization and medical costs. When a family cannot afford to buy healthy and
nutritious food to provide for its members, chronic diseases are common.
Experts argue that food security is a difficult concept to measure. However, one can argue that the inability to attain
all the dimensions of food security can lead to food insecurity. FAO defines food insecurity as when people lack
secure access to sufficient safe and nutritious food for average growth and development and active and healthy life.
According to the Utah State University Hunger Solutions Institute, hunger and food insecurity are two different
concepts related to each other. Food insecurity refers to the inability to obtain acceptable food in socially acceptable
manners due to a lack of or uncertainty in one’s liability to obtain it (Lee, 2017). Hunger, on the other hand, refers to
the restless or painful sensation that results from a lack of nourishment. Malnutrition can also develop over time as a
result of repeated and involuntary lack of food access (Ohio Association of Second Harvest Foodbanks, n.d.).
EFFECTS OF FOOD INSECURITY
Food insecurity has developmental severe, economic, social and medical impacts on individuals, families,
communities and countries. The unavailability of nutritious food to millions of people adversely affects individuals and
groups of people in various ways, namely:

1. Malnutrition and Economic Instability = According to the World Health Organization, it refers to
deficiencies, excesses, or imbalances in a person's energy and nutrients intake. In the Philippines, the cost of
early childhood malnutrition is around P328 billion or 2.8% of the GDP. In addition, the adverse effects of
malnutrition extended to a population's reduced human capital formation, excess mortality, additional health
burden and added educations cost, which could push the cost of malnutrition in the Philippines to 4.4% of the
GDP.

2. Social Upheavals = When a country has a high prevalence of food insecurity, it also tends to experience
social unrest and upheavals. Mass demonstrations of dissatisfaction with the sitting government can cause
economic and political instability, even deteriorate into a full-scale armed conflict with cross-border
consequences.

3. Mass Migration and Displacement = Food insecurity or starvation resulting from long-standing conflict can
lead to massive and forced migratory movements of people. This, in turn, can lead to potential conflict in their
destination countries as the needs of refugees or migrants can strain the latter's resources and food supply. It
can also pose risks to the sovereignty of destination states. Criminal and suspicious elements such as
terrorists and saboteurs can pose as refugees, infiltrate and compromise the host country's security.
10 CHALLENGES OF GLOBAL FOOD SECURITY
Food security occurs when all people can access enough safe and nutritious food to meet their requirements for a
healthy life in ways the planet can sustain itself into the future. However, food security faces several challenges
across production and consumption, which research will be essential to solving this predicament. (Coursehero, n.d.).

1. Rising population = There will be 219,000 people at the dinner table tonight who were not there last night,
many of them with empty plates.

2. Rising incomes, changing diets = Today, with incomes rising fast in emerging economies, at least 3 billion
people are moving up the food chain toward Westernized diets. They consume more grain-intensive livestock
and poultry products. Today, the growth in world grain consumption is concentrated in China. It adds over 8
million people per year, but the big driver is the rising affluence of its nearly 1.4 billion people. As incomes go
up, people tend to eat more meat. China’s meat consumption per person is still only half that of the United
States. That leaves a huge potential for future demand growth.
 3. It is falling water tables = In India, some 190 million people are being fed with grain produced by
overpumping groundwater. For China, the number is 130 million. Aquifer depletion now threatens harvests in
the big three grain producers — China, India and the United States—that together produce half of the world's
grain. 

4. More foodless days = In Nigeria, 27% of families experience foodless days. In India, it is 24%; in Peru, 14%.
The world is in transition from an era dominated by surpluses to one defined by scarcity. On some days, not
eating is how the worlds' poorest are coping with the doubling of world grain prices since 2006. But even as
we face new constraints on future production, the world population is growing by 80 million people each year.

5. Slowing irrigation = Water supply is now the principal constraint on efforts to expand world food production.
During the last half of the 20th century, the world’s irrigated area expanded from 250 million acres in 1950 to
roughly 700 million in 2000. This near tripling of world irrigation within 50 years was historically unique. Since
then, the growth in irrigation has come to a near standstill, expanding only 10% between 2000 and 2010.

6. Increasing soil erosion = Nearly a third of the world’s cropland is losing topsoil faster than new soil is
forming. This reduces the land’s inherent fertility. Future food production is also threatened by soil erosion.
The thin layer of topsoil that covers the earth's land surface was formed over long stretches of geological time
as new soil formation exceeded the natural erosion rate. 

7. Climate change = The generation of farmers now on the land is the first to face artificial climate change.
Agriculture as it exists today developed over 11,000 years of relatively remarkable climate stability. It has
evolved to maximize production within that climate system. Now, suddenly, the climate is changing. 

8. Melting water reserves = At no time since agriculture began has the world faced such a predictably massive
threat to food production as that posed by the melting mountain glaciers of Asia. Mountain glaciers are
melting in the Andes, the Rocky Mountains, the Alps and elsewhere. But nowhere does melting threaten world
food security more than in the glaciers of the Himalayas and on the Tibetan Plateau that feeds the major
rivers of India and China.

9. Flattening yields = After several decades of rising grain yields, farmers in the more agriculturally advanced
countries have recently hit a glass ceiling. The limits of photosynthesis itself impose that production ceiling. In
Japan, the longtime leader in raising cropland productivity, the rise in the yield of rice that began in the 1880s
essentially came to a halt in 1996. Having maximized productivity, farmers ran into the inherent limits of
photosynthesis and could no longer increase the amount they could harvest from a given plot. In China, rice
yields are now just 4% below Japan’s. Unless China can raise its yields above those in Japan, which seems
unlikely, it, too, is facing a plateauing of rice yields. Corn yields in the United States, which accounts for nearly
40% of the world corn harvest, are starting to level off. Yields in some other corn-growing countries such as
Argentina, France and Italy also appear to be stagnating.

10.  Little time to prepare = To state the obvious, we are in a situation both difficult and dangerous. The world
today desperately needs leadership on the food security issue. Any further progress requires a total
restructuring of the energy economy.

 (Brown, 2013)

MODELS OF GLOBAL FOOD SECURITY

 The key aspects of the Food Security Conceptual Model include an understanding of:

1. Assets for a living (human, financial, physical, natural, and social capital)

2. Livelihood strategies (food or income sources, expenditures, coping mechanisms)

3. Various scales of study are used, including macro, meso, and intra-household dynamics

4. Integrated sectoral analysis

5. Resistance

6. Proximate to underlying causes

7. Risk management

8. Resilience
Other Food Security Models (found online)
WEEK 17
Citizenship, according to Britannica, is a relationship between an individual and a state in which the individual owes
that state allegiance and is entitled to its protection. Citizenship entails a state of liberty with attendant responsibilities.
Aliens and other non-citizens residing in a country are denied or only partially granted certain rights, obligations, and
responsibilities. Citizenship is required for full political rights, including the right to vote and hold public office
(Britannica, 2020). Allegiance, taxation, and military service are the most common responsibilities of citizenship
(Citizenship and the Responsibilities of Citizens Essay, n.d.). 
Citizenship is the most privileged kind of nationality, and it differs from other forms of nationality in that it is political.
As a concept, it first arose in ancient Greece within the towns and city-states and was applied to male property
owners. The Romans were the first to use citizenship to distinguish the residents of Rome from those of conquered
territories – though, eventually, they would expand it to comprise all free inhabitants of the empire. Naturally,
citizenship conferred necessary legal privileges within the realm. Citizenship disappeared from practice in the west
during the middle ages and returned in part during the renaissance. However, as we know it today primarily,
citizenship has its origins in the French and American revolutions of the 18th century.
Citizenship as a concept is considered to have three elements or dimensions. The first is the legal dimension which
comprises rights; civil, political and social. The second one is citizens as political agents who actively participate in
society's political structures. The third is citizenship, as membership in a political community acts as a source of an
individual's identity. Two main models define any discussion about citizenship; the liberal model of citizenship and the
republican. 
There are two distinctly republican features of citizenship, says David Miller in 1999, willingness to defend the rights
of others of the political community and to promote its public interests, and playing an active role in the formal and
informal arenas of politics primarily as a way of expressing commitment to the community and identifying with it and
seeking to influence it – making sure that what is done is ideally done in the name of all of its citizens. Though it
would be easily set the two models up as rival conceptions, they can complement each other since liberal citizenship
must sometimes be secured by exercising republican citizenship. In other words, liberal rights must sometimes be
reserved by using one's 
political rights.
The term “citizenship” is made up of three primary components or dimensions. The first is citizenship, which is
described as a legal status characterized by civil, political, and social rights. The citizen is a legal person who is free
to behave according to the law and has the right to seek protection from the law. It does not have to imply that the
citizen participates in the creation of the law, nor does it necessitate that citizens’ rights be equal. Citizens, on the
other hand, are viewed as political actors who actively participate in a society’s political system. Citizenship,
according to the third definition, is membership in a political society that provides a separate source of identity
(Leydet, 2017).
WHAT IS A GLOBAL CITIZEN?
A global citizen is someone who is aware of and comprehends the larger world, as well as their own role within it.
They participate actively in their communities and collaborate with others to make the world a more equal, fair, and
sustainable place (Who is the Global Citizen?, n.d.). Citizenship and citizen are terms that usually refer to a person’s
national or geographical identification. A person who is recognized as a citizen of a certain country has special rights
and responsibilities as defined by that country’s government. A global citizen is someone who:

1. Respects multiculturalism

2. Recognizes that global citizens’ primary characteristics are unity and collaboration

3. Is aware that his or her actions have an impact on the world

4. Acts empathetically and behaves appropriately

5. Has teamwork spirit 

6. Helps other people and appreciates the cooperation

 7. Takes responsibility for global concerns that affect his or her society

8. Knows what his or her responsibilities and rights are

9. Acts as a contributing member of society in order to make things better

10. Recognizes that the world as a whole is linked

11. Behaves ethically in all situations

- (Manseur, 2017)
GLOBAL CITIZENSHIP
It is a style of life that acknowledges our world as a growing network of interconnections and interdependencies
(Carlin & Choi, n.d.). One in which our decisions and actions may have local, national, or international ramifications
for people and communities (What is Global Citizenship, n.d.).
Global citizenship fosters individual respect as well as respect for others, regardless of where they live. It encourages
people to think deeply and critically about what is equitable and just, as well as what would cause the least amount of
harm to our environment. Exploring Global Citizenship themes can help students gain confidence in standing up for
their opinions and improve their ability to evaluate the ethics and consequences of decisions (What is Global Citizen,
n.d.). Global citizenship has gained popularity in government, civil society, and educational discourses in Europe and
the Americas as a concept. Citizenship refers to a person’s status as a member of a specific group based on certain
characteristics such as gender, age, political affiliation, and other characteristics. Global citizenship, on the other
hand, entails thinking about the entire globe, improving it, and building a sustainable environment. Essentially, the
Global Education First Initiative (GEFI) of the United Nations Secretary-General has established education as a
method of fostering global citizenship. In order to help with this, UNESCO held two historic GCE sessions in 2013.
Thus, global citizenship means that one takes responsibility for international matters related to his/her society. It
concerns human rights and social justice (Manseur, 2017). 
Global citizenship is defined by UNESCO as a sense of belonging to a larger society and common humanity. It
highlights the interdependence and connectivity of the local, national, and global in political, economic, social, and
cultural terms. Listening to others and sharing one’s own thoughts are both aided by global citizenship. Exposing
learners to educational information that reinforces global citizenship ethics can help create a safe and equitable
environment. This means that global citizenship can be taught to students as a way to promote peace and stability in
society by teaching them what a global citizen is and how to be one, because the citizens who make up the
community are the ones who should be committed to global citizenship ethics in order to form a globalized ethical
society. Human rights preservation is the most important principle of global citizenship (Manseur, 2017). 
Rights of a Global Citizen
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, first drafted in 1948 following World War II, includes the rights of global
citizens. The fundamental character of the Universal Declaration, which is based on individual liberty, equality, and
equity, has not changed. However, how human rights are applied change over time, with changes in the political,
economic and social fabric of society. Also, new ownership that was not on the 1948 human rights agenda emerged,
such as digital access rights, LGBT rights, and environmental rights. Some argue that the advent of new freedoms
and the evolution of political systems necessitate an updated Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Thakkar,
2018).
The introduction of international and transnational human rights instruments has given credence to the idea of
deterritorialization of rights regimes and the prospect of protecting a person’s fundamental rights regardless of her
official membership status in a policy. Aside from differing judgments of the factual feasibility of such unbundling,
some authors point out the dangers and argue that it is not desirable. Citizenship regimes that are stable “encourage
internal redistribution and enable co-governance,” according to the World Bank (Leydet, 2017).
The discussion over voting rights is particularly complex, encompassing both external (increasing voting rights to non-
resident citizens) and internal voting issues (expanding the franchise to resident non-citizens). The argument may
protect migrants who qualify for permanent resident status and those who have entered illegally in the country and
temporary migrants, in particular 'guest workers' who are often denied any access to citizenship (Leydet, 2017).
Responsibilities of a Global Citizen
As human beings, we all stand in a variety of relationships – whether to our parents, spouses, children, siblings,
friends, colleagues, neighbors, fellow citizens or fellow religionists – all of which, however, may have come into being,
and are regulated by norms and involve mutual claims and duties. Moral conduct generally consists of recognizing
these norms and discharging our responsibilities towards these claims and obligations. A global citizen with moral,
ethical, political, and economic obligations lives in an evolving society (Talukdar, n.d.). These responsibilities include:

1. Understanding one’s own and others’ viewpoints on global issues is a responsibility. Almost every global
issue is accompanied by a variety of ethnic, social, political, and economic perspectives. Understanding these
varied perspectives, promoting problem-solving consensus among different perspectives, and developing
standard ground answers are all responsibilities of global citizens. Instead of taking sides with one point of
view, a global citizen should look for methods to bring all sides together.

2. Respect for the notion of cultural diversity is a responsibility: Most global issues have many perspectives,
which typically represent diverse cultural belief systems. Each of our major cultural belief systems adds value
to our efforts to find solutions to the world’s challenges. It is critical to maintain respect for the world’s various
cultural traditions in order to build a sustainable values-based world community; to make an effort to bring
together the leaders of these other cultural traditions, who often have much in common with one another; and
to assist leaders in applying the best elements of their cultures to the task of solving global issues and
building a world community.

3. Making contacts and developing relationships with people from different countries and cultures is your
responsibility. Global citizens must reach out to people from many countries and cultures and form ties with
them. Otherwise, we would continue to live in isolated groups with limited perspectives on global concerns
that are prone to violence. Building international partnerships is quite simple. Immigrants and people of
various ethnic backgrounds today make up the majority of countries, cities, and towns.

4. Understanding how the world’s peoples and countries are interconnected and interdependent is a
responsibility: Citizens of the world have a responsibility to comprehend the numerous ways in which their
lives are intertwined with people and countries in other regions of the globe. They must understand how the
global environment impacts them where they live, as well as how the environmental lifestyles they choose
impact the environment in other areas of the world.

5. Responsibility to understand global issues: Global citizens are responsible for understanding the significant
global issues that affect their lives. They must, for example, comprehend the effects of resource scarcity on
civilizations, the challenges provided by the existing global distribution of wealth and power, the causes of
conflict and the elements of peace-building, and the obstacles posed by a growing global population.

6. Responsibility to advocate for greater international cooperation with other nations: Global citizens need to play
activist roles urging greater international collaboration between their government and others. When a global
crisis occurs, global citizens must advise their governments on how to collaborate with other countries to
handle the problem, as well as with established international organizations such as the United Nations, rather
than taking unilateral action.

7. Advocacy for the implementation of international agreements, conventions, and treaties connected to global
issues: Global citizens pledge to support their countries’ ratification and implementation of the global
compacts, traditions, and treaties they have signed.
 8. In each of the world community’s value domains, responsibility for advocating for more effective global equity
and justice. There are an increasing number of cross-sector concerns that necessitate the application of
international justice and equity norms, such as the global increase in military spending, unequal access to
technology by different countries, and the lack of consistent national immigration laws. Citizens around the
world must collaborate and advocate for global equality and justice answers to these problems.
- (Belano, 2021)
(Read pages 195-200 of your “The Contemporary World” book)

WEEK 16 UTS