UNIT 1

GRAMMAR:
Present Perfect Continuous:

Subject + Have/Has + Been + Verb (ing) + Object

- This is used in a similar way to the present perfect simple. However, we use the
continuous when we want to emphasise the process and duration of an action.
- I´ve been studying in this school for more than five months.
- If an action is very short, we cannot use the continuous form. I´ve been breaking the
window.
- We also use the continuous to emphasise that an action finished very recently or is
incomplete. I´ve been washing the dishes… and my hands are wet because I only
finished a second ago/ I still haven´t finished.
- If we want to emphasise the completion and result pf an action, or how many times an
action happens, we must use the present present simple.
- I've painted my bedroom. I´ve seen that film three times. I´ve been seeing that
film three times.

Past Perfect Simple:

Subject + Had + Past Participle + Object

- We use this to talk about actions that happened before another actions in the past. It
gives importance to the completion off an activity.
- When the interview had finished, I left.

Past Perfect Continuous:

Subject + Had + Been + Verb (ing) + Object

- We use it to talk about actions that happened before another action in the past.
- It gives importance to the duration of an activity.
- I was tired because I had been studying all night.

Future activities in the past:

was about to / was going to

- Sometimes when we are taking about the past , we want to talk about something that
was in the future at that time, something which had not happened and perhaps did not
actually happen in the end. To do this, we can use the past tense of the verb forms we
would normally use to talk about the future, e.g. am going to → was going to; am about
to → was about to; will → would.
- I was going to come to the cinema, but I had to babysit in the end.

Present and past habits:

To talk about present habits we can use:
1. The present simple with or without and adverb of frequency.
a. Our lessons start at eight o´clock.
2. The present continuous with an adverb of frequency. This usually implies that the
speaker finds the habit annoying.
She´s always taking my things.
3. Will
 My friends and I will usually meet and see a film on Friday evenings.

To talk about past habits that we have stopped doing, we can use:
1. used to
My dad used to read me stories when I was small.
We cannot use used to to talk about single events in past or when we give a period of
time. In this case, we use the past simple.
She used to work in a factory. She worked there for five years. NOT She used
to work in a factory for five years.
The negative form of used to is didn't use to. There is no present form of used to - we
use the present simple with an adverb of frequency.

2. would
We use would with past actions but not past states.
He would come and visit us on Sundays. NOT He would have a bike.
We do not usually use wouldn´t to talk about past habits.
He didn't use to give us present. NOT He wouldn't give us presents.

3. The past continuous with an adverb of frequency. This usually implies that the
speaker found the habit annoying.
My mum was always telling me to get up early on Sundays when I was small.

VOCABULARY:

Word formation People Ways of taking Other words and

phrases

Accuracy Actor Gasp Accommodate

Activity Participant Groan Amass
Argument Psychologist Mutter Anticipate
Coincidence Researcher Shriek Applause
Conclusion Scientist Sigh Beneficial
Decency Speaker Whine Bond
Explanation Whisper Claim
Failure Yell Close
Freedom Commuter
Frequency Devise
Friendship Fraternity
Happiness Fundraising
Honesty Get across
Importance Household
Intelligence Hunter- gatherer
Interaction Initiation
Invention Keep to yourself
Loneliness Like-minded
Movement Look out for yourself
Personality Precise
Popularity Rehearse
Protection Relate
Safety Respectively
Similarity Revolutionise
Sincerity Root
Sorority
Speak your mind
 Struggle
Support
Synchronise
Think through
Undergraduate
Upset

Body idioms and human interaction:

- Be under someone´s thumb
- Do something behind someone´s back
- Get something off your chest
- Give someone the cold shoulder
- Lend someone a hand
- Pull someone´s leg
- See eye-to-eye with someone
- Stick your neck out for someone

Similes:
- As clear as mud
- As cold as ice
- As cool as a cucumber
- As easy as ABC
- As fresh as a daisy
- As light as a feather
- As quick as a flash
- As quiet as a mouse
- As solid as a rock
- As strong as an ox
- As white as a sheet
Test: 6.30
Unit 2
GRAMMAR:

Modal verbs- obligation, permission, prohibition, criticism and advice - PRESENT

We use:
● Have to to talk about things which are obligatory or necessary. It often describes
obligations imposed on us by other people and authorities.
● Don´t have to to talk about things which are not obligatory or necessary.
● Must to talk about rules, regulations and obligations. It often describes obligations that
come internally, from ourselves.
● Mustn't to talk about prohibitions.
● Need to to talk about things which are obligatory or necessary.
● Don't need to or needn't to talk about things which are not obligatory or necessary.
With needn't we do not use to before the infinitive.
● Can´t to refuse permission,
● Should, Shouldn´t, ought to, had (´d) better (not) to give and ask for advice and
recommendations. Had better is especially for when we think we should do
something because it´s a goos idea. Ought to and had (´d) better are slightly less
common in negative and question form.
● Be allowed to to talk about things that we have permission to do.
● Be supposed to when somebody is expected to behave in a particular way, especially
according to someone in authority.

Modal verbs- obligation, prohibition, criticism and advice - PAST

We use:
● Had to to talk about things which were obligatory or necessary. NO MUST cuando es
pasado
● Didn't have to to talk about things which were not obligatory or necessary.
● Needed to to talk about things which were obligatory or necessary.
● Didn't need to to talk about things which were not obligatory or necessary, and so we
didn't do them.
● Needn't have + past participle to talk about things that were not obligatory or
necessary, but we did them.
● wasn't/ weren't allowed to to talk about past prohibitions.
● Couldn´t to talk about things that were prohibited or not possible.
● Should/ ought to have, shouldn't have + past participle to criticise past actions or to
say that they were mistake.

Modal verbs of speculation, deduction, possibility or probability - PRESENT and FUTURE

We use:
● Must when we are 90% certain that something is true.
● May, Might, Could, May not, Mightn't when there is a 50% possibility that something is
true (or not). We can add well after may, might and could in the affirmative to say that
there is a stronger possibility.
● Can´t when we are 90% certain that something is not true.
When we are 100% certain that something is or isn't true, we do not use modal verbs of
speculation and deduction.

Modal verbs of speculation, deduction, possibility or probability - PAST

We use:
● Must have when we are 90% certain that something was true.
● May have, might have, could have, may not have, mightn't have when there is a 50%
possibility that something was true (or not). We can add well after may, might and
could in the affirmative to day that there is a stronger possibility.
● Can't have when we are 90% certain that something was not true.
VOCABULARY
Collocations with Collocations with Collocations with do Compound nouns-
take make cars and the road

A call An apology A course Driving licence

A course An attempt A test Motorway
A decision A call Business Petrol station
An interest A choice Harm Road sign
A risk A comment Household chores Roundabout
A test A complaint Research Seat belt
Control A decision Your best Speed limit
Cover A difference Steering wheel
Effect An improvement Traffic jam
Place A mistake Traffic light
power A suggestion
Changes
Use of something

Unit 3
GRAMMAR

Verb + -ing form and infinitive

We use verb + -ing form after these verbs:
Admit - avoid - carry on - consider - deny - face - feel like - finish - give up -
include - keep (on) - practise - recommend - risk - suggest - take up

We use verb + to infinitive after these verbs:

afford - agree - appear - arrange - decide - expect - fail - happen - help -
hope - manage - pretend - promise - refuse - seem - volunteer - wait

We use the gerund or the to-infinitive after these verbs with little or no difference in meaning:
Begin - bother - can't bear - can't stand - continue - hate - love - prefer - start

We use the gerund or the to-infinitive after these verbs, but there is an important difference in
meaning:
Stop to do: you stop one activity because you want or need to do another activity.
Stop doing: you are doing something and then you stop.

Remember to do: you remember you need to do something and then you do it.
Remember doing: you do something and then you remember it later.

Forget to do: you don´t do something that you intended to do.

Forget doing: you did something, but now you don't remember it.

Like to do: you do something because you think it´s a good idea.
Like going: you do something because you enjoy doing it.

Try to do: you make an effort to achieve something.

Try doing: you do something as an experiment.
Mean to do: you intend to do something.
Mean doing: an action involves something.

Go on to do: you stop one activity or topic of discussion and start another, new one.
Go on doing: you continue doing an activity.

Verb + object + -ing form and infinitive

We use the -ing form after these verbs when they are followed by an object:
Catch - feel - find - hear - notice - overhead - see - watch

We use the to-infinitive after these verbs when they are followed by an object:
Advise - allow - ask - authorise - beg - choose - encourage - force - help - hire - inspire
- invite - need - order - persuade - pick - remind - send - teach - tell - want - warm

We use the infinitive without to after these verbs when they are followed by an object:
Feel - hear - help - let - make - overhead - see - watch

VOCABULARY:
Phrasal verbs- Other phrasal The human Prefixes Example
the mind verbs mind

Catch on Fit in Articulate Anti, co- Disappointing-Disjointed

Come up with Get on with Bewildered dis-/ un-/ im-/ Impenetrable
Hit on Look down on Grasp ir-/ in-/ il-, ex- Miscast - Miscalculate
Keep up with Look for Have a gift for inter- , mis- Overblown -
Leap out at Stand out Memorise over- , post- Overthinking - Overrated
Pick up Take up Perceive Pre-, re- Subconscious - sub zero
Piece together Work out Recall Sub-, super- Underrated - underpaid
Talk through Write down wander under- Uninspirings -
Unpredictable
Supersonic
Co-producer
Reconsider