Invoking Flora Nwapa

Invoking Flora Nwapa
Flora Nwapa’s Efuru (1966) was the first internationally published

novel in English by a female African writer. Although Flora Nwapa
has been recognized as the Mother of modern African literature,
she is not sufficiently acknowledged in world literary canons or
Nigerian Women Writers, Femininity

world literature studies, which is something this monograph
aspires to redress from an anthropological perspective with the
help of earlier studies, especially by Nigerian scholarship. Draw-
ing on the Efuru@50 celebration in Nigeria in 2016, this book ex- and Spirituality in World Literature
plores the revival of Flora Nwapa’s fame as the pioneer of African
women’s literature.
Paula Uimonen
By exploring experimental ethnographic writing, the author
combines the genres of creative non-fiction, descriptive ethnog-
raphy and scholarly analysis in an effort to make the text more
accessible to academic as well as non-academic readers. Inspired
Paula Uimonen
by the social change perspective of African womanism and critical
decolonial theory, the book makes a contribution to current ef-
forts to explore a more socially just and environmentally sustain-
able world of many worlds.
Nigerian women writers, femininity and
spirituality in world literature
Paula Uimonen
Published by
Stockholm University Press
Stockholm University
SE-106 91 Stockholm, Sweden
www.stockholmuniversitypress.se
Text © Paula Uimonen 2020

License CC-BY 4.0
Supporting Agency (funding): This monograph is published with support from

Riksbankens Jubileumsfond (RJ) Grant no. M15-0343:1
First published 2020

Cover Illustration: The confluence of Oguta lake and Urashi river. Photograph
by author.
Cover License: CC-BY 4.0
Cover designed by Stockholm University Press
Anthropology & Society (Online) ISSN: 2002-6293
ISBN (Paperback): 978-91-7635-123-9

ISBN (PDF): 978-91-7635-120-8
ISBN (EPUB): 978-91-7635-121-5
ISBN (Mobi): 978-91-7635-122-2
DOI: https://doi.org/10.16993/bbe
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported
License. To view a copy of this license, visit creativecommons.org/licenses
/by/4.0/ or send a letter to Creative Commons, 444 Castro Street, Suite 900,
Mountain View, California, 94041, USA. This license allows for copying any
part of the work for personal and commercial use, providing author attribution
is clearly stated.
Suggested citation:
Uimonen, P. 2020. Invoking Flora Nwapa: Nigerian women writers, femininity
and spirituality in world literature. Stockholm: Stockholm University Press.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.16993/bbe. License: CC-BY 4.0
To read the free, open access version of this book online,

visit https://doi.org/10.16993/bbe or scan this QR code with
your mobile device.
Anthropology & Society
Anthropology & Society (ISSN 2002-6293, https://www.stock

holmuniversitypress.se/site/books/series/anthropology-society/) is
a peer-reviewed series of academic monographs and edited vol-
umes. The series strives to provide an open access platform for
contemporary anthropological research. With its unique insights
into the human condition, anthropology offers a fresh perspective
on social life around the world, which the series aims to convey.
Editorial Board
• Maris Gillette, Professor, School of Global Studies, University
of Gothenburg
• Mark Graham, PhD, Professor, Department of Social
Anthropology, Stockholm University, Sweden
• Nina Gren , Chair, PhD, Assistant Professor, Department of
Sociology, Lund University, Sweden
• Gabriella Körling, PhD, Researcher, Department of Social
Anthropology, Stockholm University, Sweden
• Susann Baez Ullberg, Assistant Professor, Department
of Cultural Anthropology and Ethnology, Uppsala University
Previous titles in the series

1. Olsson, E. 2018. Guiden till Spaniensverige: Diaspora,
integration och transnationalitet bland svenska föreningar
i södra Spanien. Stockholm: Stockholm University Press.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.16993/bao
Peer Review Policies
Stockholm University Press ensures that all book publications are

peer-reviewed. Each proposal submitted to the Press will be sent
to a dedicated Editorial Board of experts in the subject area for
evaluation. The full manuscript will be reviewed by chapter or as
a whole by two external and independent experts.
A complete description of Stockholm University Press’
peer-review policies can be found on the website: http://www
.stockholmuniversitypress.se/site/peer-review-policies/
The Editorial Board of Anthropology & Society used an ex-
ternal double-blind peer-review procedure while evaluating this
book proposal to maintain the integrity of the author and the
academic merit of the book. The book manuscript was assessed
with a single-blind peer-review process. The Board expresses its
sincere gratitude towards all researchers involved in this project.
The Author stepped down momentarily from her role as Chair
of the Editorial Board during the review process of the book to
avoid a conflict of interest.
Recognition for reviewers

Stockholm University Press and the Editorial Board would like to
extend a special thanks to the reviewers who contributed to the
process of editing this book.
Both the book proposal and the manuscript were reviewed by:
Thomas Fillitz, Professor, Department of Cultural and Social
Anthropology, University of Vienna, Austria
Sabine Jell-Bahlsen, Cultural Anthropologist, Ethnographic
Film Maker, Writer & Editor, USA
The book proposal was reviewed by one additional reviewer
who wishes to remain anonymous.
In loving memory of
Terho Uimonen (1960–2015)
Dr Sarah Nyendwoha Ntiro (1926–2018)
Saumu Omari Kirama (1945–2019)
Heidi Moksnes (1962–2020)
I dedicate this book to my mother

Aili Uimonen (1930–2017)
Contents
List of Figures ix
Acknowledgements xi
Prologue: Ethnography of Flora Nwapa and Nigerian Women

Writers 1
Conceptual groundings in anthropology of world literature 1
Reviving Flora Nwapa’s legacy though Efuru@50 13
Fieldworking in and beyond Nigeria 18
Poetic reflections on a good journey 24
Narrative structure and combination of genres 25
1. Cultural Tangles in Lagos 29

Kekenapep, jollof rice and power cuts 29
Cultural framing of fame at Efuru@50 34
Feminine storytelling and masculinist literary canons 40
Nwapa’s This Is Lagos and writing across genres 46
Eugenia Abu and the power of female storytelling 50
Creolized aesthetics in a pluriverse of literary worlds 54
2. Feminist Controversies in Maiduguri 61

Military escort, new moon and endless sky 61
Efuru@50 and African womanhood 65
Nwapa’s Women Are Different, feminism and womanism 72
Razinat Mohammed and women in the north 79
Tope Olaifa on women and violence 85
Womanist worldmaking and literary ontology 89
3. Celebrating Children in Abuja 97

Swimming pool, art galleries and TV interview 97
Children’s carnival at Efuru@50 102
Flora Nwapa’s children’s literature and Mammywater 106
Elizabeth Ben-Iheanacho and African Tales for Children 112
Vicky Sylvester and female role models 117
Multitasking careers and literary mothering 121
4. Post-War Publishing in Enugu 129

Code switching, check points and chi 129
Unveiling Efuru@50 and awarding the First Daughter 133
Flora Nwapa’s Never Again and women’s war stories 141
Tana Press and Nwapa’s post-war publishing 148
Social media-savvy Salamatu Sule 150
Digital revival of Tana Press 154
5. Culture and Relationality in Owerri 161

Celebrity children, deep culture and keynote debut 161
Concluding Efuru@50 with mighty swords and God’s
blessings 164
Flora Nwapa’s social worlds and spiritual relations 172
Digital incarnations and infinite fame 178
In memoriam Cecilia Kato 183
6. Sacred Waters in Oguta 191

Urashi river, writers’ residence and chewy snails 191
Female divinity in The Lake Goddess 195
Creativity and intertextuality in Flora Nwapa’s oeuvre 200
Femininity and spirituality in one world literature 205
Invoking Flora Nwapa 211
Epilogue: Revisiting Oguta and Thanking Ogbuide 213
Bibliography 225
Films 242
List of Figures
1 Efuru@50 press conference banner 14

2 Filming scholarly presentations at University of Abuja 21
3 Efuru@50 gift bags 37
4 Audience at University of Maiduguri 66
5 Student dramatizations of Efuru 105
6 Unveiling Efuru 136
7
Titled members of Igbu society paying homage to Ogbuefi
Flora Nwapa 165
8 The confluence of Oguta lake and Urashi river 208
Acknowledgements
This book has taken me on a long journey and I have many people
to thank for guiding and encouraging me along the way, in differ-
ent parts of our world.
In Sweden, I have been greatly inspired by the research programme
Cosmopolitan and Vernacular Dynamics in World Literatures
(2016–2021), coordinated by Stefan Helgesson, in intellectually
stimulating and warmly supportive ways. I am also thankful to all
my colleagues in the programme, especially Chatarina Edfeldt and
Katarina Leppänen who share my interest in gender, Erik Falk
who has done great work with African women writers and Lena
Rydholm whose life trajectory has intertwined with mine in un-
expected ways, as well as Bo Ekelund, Adnan Mahmutovic and
the rest of the Location & Orientation team. I am truly grate-
ful to Helena Wulff for inviting me to be part of this inspiring
research on world literature, thus adding yet another dimension
to our mutual interest in the anthropology of arts and creativity.
As always, I have been able to draw on the insights of my in-
tellectual mentor Ulf Hannerz, this time around for our Nigeria
connection and for lending me his copy of Efuru, first edition,
along with other relevant reading materials from his literary treas-
ures. At the Department of Social Anthropology at Stockholm
University I have also enjoyed stimulating conversations with var-
ious colleagues, especially Gabriella Körling (Mama Adam), as
well as Alireza Behtoui, Elina Ekoluoma, Mark Graham, Anna
Gustafsson, Eva-Maria Hardtmann, Simon Johansson, Jonathan
Krämer, Marie Larsson, Hege Høyer Leivestad, Elin Linder, Anette
Nyqvist, Isabella Strömberg, and Rasmus Rodineliussen. In June
2020, Heidi Moksnes unexpectedly passed on, a dear colleague
and friend, whose professionalism and motherly care for global
development I carry in my heart. Over the last few years, students
at undergraduate and advanced levels have provided construc-
tive feedback on this project, and I appreciate the opportunities
xii Invoking Flora Nwapa
to share my research with them. I am also thankful to Matilda

Wallin at Afrikultur as well as Föreningen Afrikansk Litteratur
(Association of African Literature) for encouraging my research
on African women writers, whose literary works they promote
to readers in Sweden. My friends Lotta Björnström and Susanne
Agnäs Benseddik have been supportive and encouraging, while
sharing my love for literature, and Annica Trampus has been an
angel through thick and thin. Tack tjejer!
It has been a privilege to get acquainted with Nigeria, a giant
in African literature. I am grateful to the organizers of Efuru@50,
especially Dr Wale Okediran, who facilitated my initial field-
work in Nigeria. I am indebted to the writers who so generously
shared their stories and whose creative spirit I cherish: Eugenia
Abu, Elizabeth Ben-Iheanacho, Cecilia Kato (now late), Razinat
Mohammed, Tope Olaifa, Salamatu Sule, Vicky Sylvester and
Gertrude Uzoh. I am ever so thankful to Flora Nwapa’s children
for welcoming and encouraging my work: Ejine Nzeribe, a tal-
ented writer in her own right, Amede Nzeribe, who makes wom-
en more beautiful through her astonishing Amèdè designs, and
Uzoma Nwakuche, the muse for this book, and so much more.
Heartfelt thanks to Chief Christopher Nwapa, Flora Nwapa’s
younger brother, for inspiring words and good company. God
bless you all.
I am also thankful to Elieshi Lema, Demere Kitunga, Langa
Sarakikya, Lydia Kasese, Penina Mlama, Sandra Mushi, and
Zuhura Seng’enge, creative writers in Dar es Salaam who inspired
me with their stories when I first embarked on this research pro-
ject on African women writers. I appreciate the creativity that
flourished at the FEMRITE@20 event in Kampala in July 2016,
organized by the Uganda Women Writers’ Association FEMRITE.
Sofie Wennström at Stockholm University Press has been most
helpful throughout the publication process and I also appreciate
the efforts of the Editorial Board for the Anthropology & Society
series and Hugh Jackson for proofreading the manuscript. The
expert peer reviewers have provided constructive feedback, for
which I am very grateful.
My friends and family in Tanzania have encouraged me, while
making me feel home. Nashukuru kaka Hussein Masimbi, for
Acknowledgements xiii
s haring insights into spirituality: One love! My daughter Nyamizi,

you are truly precious. Asante sana dada Upendo, for shar-
ing dreams come true. Asanteni to all my friends in Bagamoyo,
who always welcome me back home. And thanks to my house in
Bagamoyo and the Indian Ocean for peace, love and inspiration.
While writing this book I have lost several mothers, starting
with my biological mother Aili Uimonen. Shortly before she
passed on in April 2017, I reflected that the closest I have come
to motherhood is by being a daughter. After my mother’s pass-
ing, I came to cherish her life-giving and nurturing powers with
greater clarity, because had she not given me life, I would not be
alive. For some time, the pain of loss blocked my ability to fully
appreciate motherhood in the works of Flora Nwapa and other
Nigerian female writers. But I hope that I have managed to do
these literary mothers justice. I also cherish the nurturing love of
my Ugandan mother Dr. Sarah Ntiro (Akiiki), and my Tanzanian
mother Sauma (Mama Kaduma), who have now joined their an-
cestors. Thankfully, I am not left motherless, as other mothers
come into my life, just like children come into my life, through
other mothers. I feel loved and protected by my Nigerian mother
in Oguta, N’Dr Stella Akuzor Anozia, Ezeugegbe One. I recognise
how insightfully my little sister Idenu Anozia shares the love of
Ogbuide on Facebook, coaching new generations. And I appreci-
ate how our sister Joy refuted my notion of not being a mother,
after all her own daughter Chidimma calls me mother. By then, I
had already been made a mother by Nyamizi in Tanzania, who
explained to me that I was not childless, since she was my child.
With such loving mothers and daughters, I am truly blessed.
Last but not least, thank you to all readers of this book. By
invoking Flora Nwapa, I wish to bring attention to a remarka-
ble woman, whose literary worlds can inspire us to explore the
making of other possible worlds. Writing these words in the year
of the Covid-19 pandemic, I hope that this book can somehow
channel the healing powers of the lake goddess Ogbuide and oth-
er water deities, as we try to rebuild our world into a better place
for all beings.
Prologue: Ethnography of Flora Nwapa
and Nigerian Women Writers
Conceptual groundings in anthropology of world

literature
So I went on and on and on and wrote Efuru. I got it typed and
thought it wasn’t a bad story, but I didn’t have the courage to give
it to anybody, to read. Then I gave it to Chinua Achebe in Lagos,
who read it and said that it was a good story and that he was send-
ing it to his publishers, Heinemann of London. He did. And within
four, five months it was accepted for publication. That was how
it happened. [How did you feel then?] I felt on top of the world, I
felt great, I never knew. And once your book is accepted for publi-
cation, you become a writer! […] The first African woman to have
a novel published by Heinemann of London […] I made history!
[smiles and laughs] (Flora Nwapa in documentary film by NRK
TV 1987, 02:17–03:28)
Today we celebrate not only Flora Nwapa the author and Efuru
the book, but we celebrate an occasion larger than the two.
Efuru is not just a novel, and a character in a novel, Efuru stands for
the values of African womanhood […] The creation of the woman
Efuru is immortal, and the message for women defies time.
(Zaynab Alkali, keynote at Efuru@50 in
Maiduguri, 1 December 2016)
By invoking Flora Nwapa, this monograph draws attention to

Nigerian women writers in world literature, with an emphasis
on femininity and spirituality. Flora Nwapa’s Efuru was the first
internationally published novel in English by a female African
writer (Nwapa 1966). With the establishment of Tana Press
How to cite this book chapter:

Uimonen, P. 2020. Invoking Flora Nwapa: Nigerian women writers, f emininity
and spirituality in world literature. Pp. 1–28. Stockholm: Stockholm University
Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.16993/bbe.a. License: CC-BY 4.0.
2 Invoking Flora Nwapa
in 1977, Flora Nwapa also became the first female publisher in

Africa. Although Flora Nwapa has been recognized as the Mother
of modern African literature, she is not sufficiently acknowl-
edged in world literary canons or world literature studies, which
is something this monograph aspires to redress, with the help
of earlier studies, especially Nigerian scholarship. Structured
around the Efuru@50 celebration in Nigeria in 2016, this book
explores the revival of Flora Nwapa’s fame as the pioneer of
African women’s literature. Using an ethnographic rather than bi-
ographical approach, it captures Flora Nwapa’s literary practice
in the context of the Nigerian literary scene and its interlinkages
with world literature. The ethnographic portrayal of Flora Nwapa
is complemented with an exposé of a select number of contem-
porary Nigerian women writers, based on interviews carried out
during fieldwork in Nigeria. Using a combination of anthropolog-
ical, literary and African womanist theory, this book uses concepts
like creolized aesthetics and womanist worldmaking to advance
scholarly understandings of world literature, which is conceived
here as a pluriverse of aesthetic worlds.
This monograph aims to contribute to world literature stud-
ies with an anthropological perspective that addresses some of
the epistemological challenges of literary scholarship. Linked
to growing scholarly interest in globalization, world literature
studies tend to lean towards a sociological approach. Whether
focusing on the global circulation of literature and translation
(Damrosch), a literature-world of cultural capital and distinctions
(Casanova) or world literature as analogous to the capitalist world
system (Moretti), the emphasis has been on the production and
circulation of literary objects in the context of global capitalism.
More recently, world literature has even been conceptualized as
a world-literature system, defined as the literature of the modern
capitalist world system, with an emphasis on uneven and unequal
development (WReC 2015). This materialist orientation has been
challenged for its negligence of normative content and for conflat-
ing the world with the globe, thus obscuring imaginary aspects of
literature, especially literary worlding (Cheah 2008, 2014) and
aesthetic worldmaking (Hayot 2011, 2012). Lately, world liter-
ature scholars have suggested that the ‘recent turn towards the
worlding capacities of literary texts’ brings forth the existential
Prologue: Ethnography of Flora Nwapa and Nigerian Women Writers 3
value of literature, especially in this age of crisis, when ‘we need to

engage to our fullest capacity the imaginative resources of human
culture’ (Helgesson and Rosendahl Thomsen 2020, 165–6).
Conversely, this monograph contributes to the anthropology
of world literature, which is an emerging field of study. In a re-
cent discussion on literary anthropology, Wiles (2018) outlines
three main branches: the use of literature as ethnography, the
use of literary modes in writing ethnography, and anthropolog-
ical studies of literary practice. While the first two branches have
been explored and debated within the discipline, the anthropol-
ogy of literary practice has been quite limited, mostly focusing
on traditional or oral literary cultures and much less on contem-
porary literary practices (Wiles 2018, 11). Although problems
of representation have not always been considered when using
literature as ethnography, literary modes of writing have been
discussed in several anthologies (e.g. McGranahan 2020; Wulff
2016). Meanwhile, research gaps in the anthropology of literary
practice are slowly being addressed, including world literature.
For instance, building on ethnographic fieldwork in Nigeria,
Barber has explored the hidden histories of African literary cul-
ture, from small-scale print to handwritten diaries (Barber 2006),
and, in an effort to rethink literature, she has conceptualized text
as weaving with words (Barber 2016). In the first anthropological
study of writers, Wulff explores the social worlds of contempo-
rary Irish authors, from creative talent and writing practices to
marketing and professional career paths, along with Irish liter-
ature in a world context (Wulff 2017). In the multidisciplinary
world literature research programme that this study forms part
of, anthropologists are exploring a variety of topics: Swedish lit-
erature on transnational migration (Wulff 2018), narratives of
Siberian exile (Viktorin 2018), the worldmaking capacity of trav-
el writing (Nyqvist 2018), and literary fields and festivals in India
(Ståhlberg 2018, 2019). By focusing on Nigerian women writers,
this monograph aims to make a contribution to the nascent field
of anthropology of world literature.1
1
This study builds on the African Women Writers project, based on
fieldwork in Nigeria and Tanzania. The project is part of the research
I approach literature in terms of storytelling, thus paying at-

tention to how Nigerian writers themselves view their creative
work as well as scholarly appraisals of their literary practice. ‘Life
in Nigeria is a story,’ Eugenia Abu responded when I interviewed
her in Abuja: ‘the storytelling is everywhere.’ Her words echoed
those of Flora Nwapa when asked about the purpose of her writ-
ing: ‘I write because I have a story to tell’ (Flora Nwapa, cited in
Umeh 1995, 26). Similarly, in her sociology of the Nigerian nov-
el, Griswold underlines that ‘Nigerian novelists see themselves as
storytellers’ (Griswold 2000, 3). With their country’s rich history
of orature, especially folktales, it is not surprising that Nigerian
writers see themselves as storytellers. But there is something to be
said for the linkages between storytelling and literature more gen-
erally. Comparatively, Irish creative writers also view themselves
as storytellers and Irish culture has a long tradition of storytelling,
in different genres (Wulff 2017). Storytelling thus offers a produc-
tive entry into world literature.
Through storytelling I will probe literature as a form of world-
making. As an aesthetic form, literature conveys imaginary, affec-
tive, sensory and relational modes of being in the world, address-
ing the materiality, sociality, spirituality, morality and politics of
human existence. In terms of worldmaking, it reflects the ontogen-
esis of the world, a literary expression of the anthropological pos-
tulation that ‘the world is a conversation; it is not the object of our
conversation. In this conversation lies ontogénèse, the becoming
of being’ (Ingold 2018, 169, emphasis in original). This is com-
parable to world literature theory, which has suggested that the
world has ‘a narrative structure’; it is ‘formed by the telling of sto-
ries’ (Cheah 2014, 325). Through literary storytelling, the world
is thus not only imagined but also narrated into existence, which
makes aesthetic worldmaking an interesting entry point into how
we perceive and relate to the world and how we recreate it.
programme Cosmopolitan and Vernacular Dynamics in World Literatures

(2016–21). The programme brings together 26 scholars from different
disciplines to probe the exchanges, interactions and interlinkages between
the cosmopolitan/global and the vernacular/local (Helgesson 2018). See
http://worldlit.se and http://www.womenwriters.one.
Exploring Nigerian literature from within, this monograph ad-

dresses world literature from a dewesternized perspective. It has
been suggested that ‘“world literature” is what happens to com-
parative literature when – having, however belatedly, engaged the
task of “unthinking” Eurocentrism – it goes global’ (WReC 2015,
5). While the task of unthinking eurocentrism is long overdue, it
has yet to make sufficient inroads into world literature studies.
There is still a tendency to appraise non-Western literature from
the perspective of Western centres. In the case of African liter-
ature, it has often been assumed that African writers primarily
address international audiences, as discussed in the extroversion
of the African novel (Julien 2006, 2018), while the scholarly gaze
tends to focus on African novels that circulate in the global market
(e.g. Huggan 2001; Krishnan 2014), often highlighting global in-
equality in print culture (e.g. Helgesson 2009), thus emphasizing
the uneven development of the world-literature system (WReC
2015). While world system theory is good to think with, not least
to highlight structural inequalities veiled by the ideologies of uni-
versalism and racism–sexism (Wallerstein 1990), such capitalism-
centred theoretical models have certain shortcomings. In addition
to being too materialistic, to the point of reducing culture to ide-
ology, they tend to reify global asymmetries (Ortner 1984, 143).
A more radical departure is offered by what anthropologists have
called theory from the South, capturing world-historical processes
from the postcolonial margins (Comaroff and Comaroff 2012). In
world literature studies, this would mean paying more attention
to postcolonial studies, which have challenged the field’s Western-
centrism, but their ‘irreconcilable disagreements’ are not easily
overcome, politically or aesthetically (Helgesson and Rosendahl
Thomsen 2020, 34). Yet, since both fields value diversity in world
literature, there is some common ground to build upon.
Recent debates in the anthropology of world art offer interest-
ing points of comparison for a more pluralistic approach to world
literature. Scholars have argued for a reconceptualization of
world art in terms of global art, insisting on equality and diversi-
ty, thus advancing efforts to ‘reject the universalizing canon of the
European/North American art world’, while striving to surpass
the ‘repeated documentations of inequalities, stratifications, and
exclusions’ in world art studies (Fillitz and van der Grijp 2018, 11).
While recognizing the global dimensions of local art worlds in
global art, Fillitz has emphasized the need to think along the lines
of a ‘global art worlds network’, thus emphasizing ‘a plurality of
interconnected art worlds’ (Fillitz 2018, 101). These efforts to
think beyond Eurocentric hierarchical ordering and global mar-
kets offer valuable pointers towards a more inclusive appraisal of
literature as well.
Returning to world literature, a productive reorientation can be
initiated by adapting a globalectic vision, thus embracing ‘whole-
ness, interconnectedness, equality of potentiality of parts, tension,
and motion’ (Thiong’o 2014, 8). In the quest for a ‘cosmopolitan
construction of world literature as a shared planetary domain’
(Helgesson and Thomsen 2020, 4), it is perhaps worth looking
at the globe from afar: ‘On its surface, there is no one center; any
point is equally a center’ (Thiong’o 2014, 8). Thinking of globali-
ty through postcoloniality, Thiong’o argues that conceptions of
world literature ‘must bring the postcolonial to the center’, in-
sisting that the ‘postcolonial is at the heart of the constitution of
Goethe’s world literature, and even in theory, it indeed constitutes
the nonimperial heart of the modern and postmodern’ (Thiong’o
2014, 55). While I find globalectics good to think with, I also
strive to move beyond postcoloniality, to avoid the risk of reify-
ing the power structures of coloniality. In so doing, I pay atten-
tion to the epistemic disobedience needed for decolonial delinking
(Mignolo 2011). Again, I appreciate the emphasis on diversity and
interconnectedness, in this case ‘viewing the world as an intercon-
nected diversity’, while recognizing that it is a ‘world entangled
through and by the colonial matrix of power’ (Mignolo 2018a,
x–xi). But perhaps the heart of world literature is to be found
outside (post)modernity and (post/neo)coloniality altogether, in
other possible worlds.
This monograph explores literary interconnectedness from the
crossroads of Nigerian women writers (Nnaemeka 1995). It has
been ascertained that ‘African women writers are writing from
the crossroads and, at the same time, writing the crossroads’,
and that ‘[t]o write the crossroads is not to see, speak, and write
this or that; it is to see, speak, and write this and that’ (Nnaemeka
1995, 109, emphasis in original). Focusing on Flora Nwapa’s

work, Nnaemeka convincingly argues that ‘Crossroads, common
ground and nodal point, is a location that allows the coexistence
of and interaction between ambiguities and paradoxes and sus-
tains the proliferation of meanings’ (Nnaemeka 1997, 108). The
crossroads captures the complexities and intricacies of African
literature, or what I have elsewhere referred to as a transnational
tangle of multilayered location and multidirectional orientation
(Uimonen 2018). It pinpoints ‘the interstices between multiple
poles of belonging’ that makes a novel such as Chinua Achebe’s
Things Fall Apart (Achebe [1958] 1962) ‘an instance of world
literature’, especially the ways in which it ‘spectacularly resists
identification with any single unit such as a nation, language,
genre or tradition’ (Helgesson and Rosendahl Thomsen 2020,
3, emphasis in original). Indeed, the coexistence of this and that
resists and defies all kinds of conceptual units that much schol-
arship relies on, especially binary opposites like national/global,
vernacular/cosmopolitan, or modern/traditional. Comparatively,
Griswold has described the Nigerian literary scene as a ‘Nigerian
literary complex’, rather than a ‘literary system’, since its multiple
parts do not necessarily fit together in a systemic way (Griswold
2000, 25). This literary complex is ‘global as well as local’, linking
people and places around the world, while the novel itself is not
something superimposed from the outside but a literary form that
‘Nigerians have been reconstructing’, using ‘both Nigerian and
Western blueprints’ (Griswold 2000, 25).
In this book, I use the concept creolized aesthetics to capture
interconnectedness in world literature. Originating in linguistics,
anthropological theories on cultural creolization denote a dy-
namic process of cultural complexity whereby cultural elements
of different spatiotemporal origins coalesce, within the parame-
ters of a global political economy of asymmetric power structures
(Hannerz 1996, 1987). More recently, creolization has re-emerged
as a key concept in discussions of conviviality and cultural
diversity (Hemer et al. 2020; Eriksen 2020), emphasizing the rela-
tional ontology of Glissant’s earlier conceptualizations (Gutiérrez
Rodríguez 2020). Although often associated with the Caribbean,
in anthropological theorizing creolization has wider applicability,
denoting global phenomena (e.g. Eriksen 2020; Hannerz 1987;

Uimonen 2012), while recognizing the African roots of creolization
(see also Mulira 2015). Through the concept creolized aesthetics, I
adopt a globalectical reading of world literature, highlighting the
‘mutual containment of hereness and thereness in time and space’
(Thiong’o 2014, 60). In so doing, I am inspired by ‘the aesthetics
of decolonization’ (Thiong’o 2014, 8), while hoping to contribute
to the ‘decolonization of aesthetics’ (Mignolo 2018a, xii).
In thinking through creolized aesthetics, I am epistemologically
indebted to Nigerian women writers and scholars. When during
our interview in Abuja Eugenia Abu referred to herself as a ‘jollof
writer’, to describe her writing in all kinds of genres, the word
stuck in my mind. When I read Chikwenye Okonjo Ogunyemi’s
authoritative monograph, Africa Wo/Man Palava. The Nigerian
Novel by Women, I was intrigued by her description: ‘the nov-
el by African women is palava sauce, with numerous ingredients
thrown in from the African and Western worlds’ (1996, 118).
Trained in transnational anthropology by Ulf Hannerz, whose
theories on creolization were inspired by his early fieldwork
in Nigeria, I interpreted these culinary metaphors of mix-
ing d ifferent ingredients in terms of cultural creolization. My
attention to scholarly insights by way of tasty food was further
inspired by Paul Stoller’s classic work The Taste of Ethnographic
Things (1989), not to mention my experiences of Nigerian cui-
sine, which Nigerians have every reason to be proud of. Leaving
food aside, these culinary metaphors are telling of the cosmopoli-
tan creativity of Nigerian women writers and the scholarly holism
of Nigerian female scholars, which I hope this monograph can
convey, as I try to spice up world literature studies with some
African womanism.
To decentre and decolonize theory building, I rely on ver-
nacular theory, more specifically African womanism. Phillips
has described womanism as a social change perspective with
distinguishing characteristics: anti-oppressionist, vernacular,

nonideological, communitarian and spiritualized (Phillips 2006,
xxiv). While womanism as an alternative to feminism is usually
attributed to Alice Walker, womanism in African contexts differs
from the African-American model in significant ways (Ogunyemi
1996, 133; Phillips 2006).2 The womanist theory I use in this

book builds on Ogunyemi’s conceptualization, which draws on
gender roles and relations in Nigerian contexts, underscoring gen-
der complementarity and communal cooperation, while empha-
sizing motherhood. It is worth noting that Ogunyemi refers to her
vernacular theory as Nigerian womanism as well as African wom-
anism (e.g. Ogunyemi 1996, 106), thus illustrating the entangled
crossroads of a literary scene that readily identifies itself as being
both Nigerian and African, while her conceptualization of women
writers as griottes brings forth the interlinkages between tradi-
tional storytelling and literary creativity. In addressing the ‘need
to define African womanism’, Ogunyemi recognizes that ‘femi-
nism and African-American womanism overlook African particu-
larities’, whereby sexism is but one of many oppressive sites along
with ‘totalitarianism, militarism, ethnicism, (post)colonialism,
poverty, racism, and religious fundamentalism’ (Ogunyemi 1996,
114). By conceptualizing womanism from an African perspective,
Ogunyemi’s vernacular theory holds great explanatory value,
which is highly suitable to my analysis, especially my elabora-
tions on Flora Nwapa, who identified as a womanist. Moreover,
seeing that womanism ‘openly acknowledges a spiritual/transcen-
dental realm with which human life, livingkind, and the material
world are all intertwined’ makes it particularly applicable, while
I recognize that its endorsement of the reality and importance of
the spiritual world is ‘perhaps the most unique and potentially
2
While tracing the origins of womanism to Alice Walker’s short story
‘Coming Apart’ (1979), in The Womanist Reader (2006, xx), Phillips
recognizes ‘at least two additional progenitors’, namely Chikwenye

Okonjo Ogunyemi’s African Womanism (1985) and Clenora Hudson-
Weems’s Africana Womanism (1993). Ogunyemi herself notes that she
‘arrived at the term “womanism” independently and was pleasantly
surprised to discover that my notion of its meaning overlaps with Alice
Walker’s’ (Ogunyemi [1985] 2006, 28). Phillips clarifies that ‘womanism
is not feminism’, nor is it black feminism, underlining that ‘[u]nlike femi-
nism, and despite its name, womanism does not emphasize or privilege
gender or sexism; rather it elevates all sites and forms of oppression,
whether they are based on social-address categories like gender, race, or
class, to a level of equal concern and action’ (Phillips 2006, xx–xxi).
controversial’ characteristic of womanism as a critical theory

(Phillips 2006, xxvi).
By bringing forth Nigerian women writers and femininity, I
hope to counterbalance masculinist canonization and scholarship
in world literature. Based on reviews of anthologies of literary
history, Castillo has concluded that ‘the gender of literary histo-
ry is indisputably masculine’ (Castillo 2012, 394). Not only is
the number of women authors featured in literary history much
smaller than male authors, but gender tends to be categorized
with clusters like indigenous and non-Western (Castillo 2012,
400–401). This suggests the perpetuation of masculist central-
ism, with some female tokenism thrown in for good measure
(Spivak 1998, 145). Such gender imbalance is particularly evident
in the ‘monocultural, homosocial literary canon’ and the ‘preem-
inence of canonical “masterworks” in comparative study’, which
are primarily male-authored (Higonnet 2009, 139–40). This
male-bias is unfortunately common in world literature scholar-
ship as well, which has been rather silent on gender and race,
even in the age of digital humanities (Bergenmar and Leppänen
2017). Indeed, scholars have concluded that ‘[g]ender might pos-
sibly be the elephant in the room in world literature’ (Helgesson
and Rosendahl Thomsen 2020, 162). By contrast, there is a vast
scholarship on gender and women writers in African literature,
which this monograph builds upon.
By focusing on Nigerian women writers and spirituality, I also
hope to nuance the materialist obsession in world literature stud-
ies, bringing forth sacred engagements in literary worldmaking.
It has been ascertained that ‘deep engagement with contextual
factors’ is becoming increasingly pertinent to appreciate literary
production in today’s globalized world (Julien 2015, 25). While
deep engagement makes for more laborious scholarship, it brings
considerable epistemological gains. In The Igbo of Southeast
Nigeria, the first ethnographic study of Igbo society by an Igbo
anthropologist, the Igbo world is introduced by way of cosmolo-
gy, underlining the dual existence and interrelatedness of material
and spiritual worlds (Uchendu 1965, 11–12). Over half a centu-
ry later, it is telling that Chigozie Obioma introduces his second
novel, An Orchestra of Minorities (2019), with a graphic chart
of Igbo cosmology, culturally contextualizing his story narrated
by a chi, which he describes as a guardian spirit. Comparatively,

in her analysis of Nigerian women writers, Chikwenye Okonjo
Ogunyemi (1996) starts with an elaborate discussion of Igbo and
Yoruba cosmology and the interlinkages between chi and litera-
ture to contextualize her vernacular womanist theory. Spiritual
complexity is also evident in Flora Nwapa’s literary worldmaking,
not least the female deity Ogbuide, who she invoked through-
out her literary oeuvre and who is central to my own analysis
(e.g. Jell-Bahlsen 1995, 2007, 2016; Nnaemeka 1995; Ogunyemi
1995, 1996).
Nigerian writers’ and scholars’ insistence on deep engagements
with their cultural and spiritual worlds directs our scholarly gaze
to literary worldmaking in the pluriverse. Building on Ingold’s
theorizing on one world anthropology, a one world conceptu-
alized as an emergent pluriverse (Ingold 2018, 169), I suggest a
reconceptualization of world literature along the lines of a pluriv-
erse of a esthetic worlds. As scholars and activists around the world
are recognizing the urgency of reworlding, calling for a ‘a world of
many worlds’, a pluriverse of ‘heterogeneous worldings’ and ‘en-
tangled worlds’ (Blaser and de la Cadena 2018, 4), it would seem
that literary worldmaking gains even greater saliency. Escobar’s
emphasis on transition discourses, relational ontologies and cos-
mologies of liberation attuned to spirituality are particularly ap-
plicable to my analysis of literary worldmaking in relation to the
pluriverse (Escobar 2018), even more so given his recent effort to
unthink the dualist ontology of global capitalism and Western mo-
dernity, and search for different notions of ‘the real/possible and
other practices of world making’ in relational ontologies that show
how ‘all existence is radically interdependent’ and that everything
exists in ‘meshworks of relations’ (Escobar 2020, 4). It is especially
inspiring that he valorizes cosmovisions of matriztic cultures and
earth-based spiritualities (Escobar 2020), cosmologies that can be
gleaned from Flora Nwapa’s aesthetic worldmaking.
When appreciated through the social change perspective of
African womanism, Flora Nwapa comes across as an inspiring
foremother to contemporary progressive movements around the
world, not least through her spiritualized politics (Ogunyemi
1996; Phillips 2006). Thus I respond with relief to the invitation to
anthropology to rethink that ‘much of what the discipline d eemed
cultural beliefs might be not only such’ (Blaser and de la Cadena

2018, 17, emphasis in original). Similarly, I nod in agreement that
many scholars, including feminists, have ended up in a ‘spiritual
closet’ through their refusal to associate themselves with the sa-
cred, despite the fact that ‘the majority of people in the world’
simply ‘cannot make sense of themselves without it’, which is why
we should ‘engage the Sacred as an ever-changing yet permanent
condition of the universe’ (Alexander 2005, 15). Since this mono-
graph engages with the water deity Ogbuide, I recognize the value
of arts in sacred engagements, as exemplified by the multiple art
forms for Mami Wata around the world (Drewal 2008). If any-
thing, I would postulate that literature o
ffers a privileged form of
engagement with the sacred, since words are particularly power-
ful worldmaking tools that can put words on the spiritual dimen-
sions of human existence.3
I approach this study of Nigerian women writers with epis-
temological humility and ontological openness, in the hope of
avoiding some of the pitfalls of Western scholarship in African
contexts. Cognizant of the ethics and politics of social science,
I hope to make a contribution to ongoing efforts to decolonize
social science research, including anthropology. When I started
this research project, I quickly became aware of the controversies
of feminism in scholarship on African literature (Uimonen 2016).
Much of the critique centred on white imperialist feminism for
its one-sided gender politics (women as victims, men as oppres-
sors) and claims to epistemological superiority (Western scientif-
ic knowledge over indigenous knowledge), which rightfully have
been refuted on political and cultural grounds (e.g. Nnaemeka
3
I use spirituality to go beyond the epistemic challenges of ‘religion’,
which raises all kinds of problematic issues in African cultural contexts,
from the colonial idea that ‘Africans were pagans, a people without re-
ligion’ to the ‘counter discourse’ that their worldview was ‘profoundly
religious’ (Oladipo 2005, 355). Such misrepresentations are often related
to the use of Western concepts, which fail to capture the complexities of
worldviews in African cultures (Imbo 2005, 364). While foregrounding
spirituality, I will also discuss conflicts arising from religious colonialism,
which continue to wreak havoc in local cultures (e.g. Jell-Bahlsen 2008,
2011), a topic that Flora Nwapa addressed in many of her works, most
poignantly in her last novel The Lake Goddess (Nwapa 2017).
1995). In my efforts to avoid such epistemic violence (Spivak

1988), I espouse the open-ended, bottom-up perspective of femi-
nist anthropology, which recognizes all knowledge to be situated,
embodied and partial (Haraway 1988), while refining my own
feminist inclinations by way of womanism, noting that one can
be both a feminist and a womanist (Phillips 2006). More impor-
tantly, rather than reproducing the universal claims of Western
science, I rely on vernacular theory, in this case African womanist
theory. As an anthropologist, I thus hope to make a contribution
to the decentring of academic knowledge. As you will find, I rely
primarily on Nigerian and anthropological scholarship to sub-
stantiate my analysis, thus leaning on the work of experts who
are much more knowledgeable than I aspire to be. In so doing, I
hope to attain the positionality of an ‘inoutsider’ whose ‘empirical
right’ to knowledge production rests on ‘hard work’ and ‘humili-
ty’ (Nnaemeka 1995, 86).
Reviving Flora Nwapa’s legacy though Efuru@50

In August 2016, a press release was circulated to media in Nigeria,
announcing the Efuru@50 celebration. The press release appeared
on sites like the Nairaland Forum, an online platform with over
1.8 million members, and the event website (www.efuru50.com).
A press conference in Lagos attracted further media attention, and
the upcoming event was featured in local newspapers like The
Guardian, The Republic and Punch. The cultural significance of
the event was articulated through a slogan that was repeated on
various promotional materials: Efuru@50: a celebration of Flora
Nwapa, the pioneer of African women literature.
Efuru@50 was administered by a national organizing
committee as well as local organizing committees. The na-

tional committee was headed by Dr Wale Okediran, former
national president of the Association of Nigerian Authors (ANA).
Well known in literary circles, Dr Okediran had been the chairman
of the National Organizing Committee of Arrow of God@50 in
2014, a nationwide celebration of Chinua Achebe’s famous novel.
The local committees were led by eminent academics: Prof Hope
Eghagha, head of the Department of English at the University of
Lagos, Prof Vicky Sylvester, head of the Department of English
Figure 1. Efuru@50 press conference banner. Courtesy of Flora Nwapa

Foundation.
at the University of Abuja, and Dr Razinat Mohammed of the

University of Maiduguri. The Enugu event was coordinated by
Prince Paschal Mebuge-Obaa.
Targeting writers, scholars and students, the programme com-
bined literary and academic activities. In each location, there was
a competition for secondary school students as well as student
dramatizations of Efuru. Academics were invited to present papers
on various themes, ranging from ‘Flora Nwapa and Feminism in
Efuru’ to general topics like ‘Reconstructing Women’s Literature
in the 21st Century’ and ‘African Literature and Sexuality’.
The idea of celebrating Efuru@50 was inspired by o verseas

scholars who were experts on Flora Nwapa. Marie Umeh, p rofessor
emerita at John Jay College of Criminal Justice, CUNY, and lead-
ing expert on Flora Nwapa’s literary work, not least as editor of
the anthology Emerging Perspectives on Flora Nwapa (1998) and
author of the biography Flora Nwapa, a Pen and a Press (2010),
discussed the idea with Flora Nwapa’s children at the African
Literature Association’s annual conference in Atlanta in April
2016. Similarly, Professor Sabine Jell-Bahlsen, an anthropologist
and filmmaker who specialized in Igbo/Oguta culture and was
friends with Flora Nwapa, highlighted Efuru in her talk at
the Igbo Conference at the School of Oriental and African
Studies (SOAS) in London in April 2016. Her presentation,
Efuru@50: The Dialectics of Flora Nwapa, was filmed and
screened online.4 Although neither scholar was able to attend the
event in Nigeria, they encouraged Flora Nwapa’s children to pur-
sue a nationwide celebration.
Uzoma Nwakuche, Flora Nwapa’s only son, played a lead-
ing role in the preparations. As chairperson of the Flora Nwapa
Foundation, Uzoma had an official position, while being the only
son gave him insights and authority. Uzoma consulted his sisters
Ejine Nzeribe and Amede Nzeribe on a regular basis, but it was he
who appeared in press conferences and preparatory meetings and
managed the event web site. Uzoma revived Tana Press and man-
aged the printing of the 50th anniversary edition of Efuru through
local print shops in Abuja.
Efuru@50 took place in five different cities across Nigeria:
Lagos, Maiduguri, Abuja, Enugu and Owerri. It was hosted by
tertiary institutions that Flora Nwapa had been connected to
in various roles, as faculty or as visiting professor. Additionally,
by organizing the event in different cities, it was ensured that
Efuru@50 was a national literary event.
The event attracted some 2,000 participants: a mix of dig-
nitaries, scholars and students, as well as relatives, family and
friends. The best-attended event was in Enugu, with over 700
people, followed by Maiduguri, with over 500 participants. Lagos
4
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YcwFVXK4IZQ, last accessed on
29 June 2020.
and Abuja attracted a few hundred each, Owerri less. In each

location, high-level representatives of the university, such as the
vice-chancellor or dean, opened the event. In Enugu, the presence
of the deputy governor augmented the political significance of
the celebration. Altogether some 50 scholars prepared papers,
academic treatises on Flora Nwapa, Efuru and African litera-
ture. Some of the scholars were well-established experts on Flora
Nwapa; many more used the opportunity to delve into her work.
Students were the most numerous participants: university as well
as secondary school students who had participated in the writing
competitions preceding the event.
The keynote speakers were renowned experts who had known
Flora Nwapa personally. In Lagos, Professor Emerita Bolanle Awe
was recognized with great admiration, both as an academic and
as a role model for women. She had just released her latest book,
Nigerian Women Pioneers & Icons, which detailed the achieve-
ments of Nigerian women, including Flora Nwapa (Awe 2016).
In Maiduguri, the keynote was delivered by another celebrity,
Zaynab Alkali, well known as the first female author in English
from northern Nigeria and for her award-winning novel The
Stillborn (1984). In Abuja, Professor Leslye Obiora, former min-
ister of mines and steel development, delivered opening remarks,
having flown in from the United States to pay respect to her
auntie, Flora Nwapa. In Enugu, the well-known writer Professor
Akachi Ezeigbo delivered a keynote. Reflecting their academic
and literary proficiency, the keynotes combined analyses of Flora
Nwapa’s literary production with personal anecdotes, reminiscing
about Flora Nwapa as a friend, colleague and relative, as well as
female role model.
Using anthropological theory on performance and fame, in
this book I treat the Efuru@50 celebration as a literary festival,
which I approach as a cultural performance with multiple cultural
framings of fame (Munn 1986; Turner 1987). Similarly to other
parts of the world, literary festivals are becoming more common-
place on the African literary scene (Krishnan 2014), replacing book
fairs (Stringer 2016), while giving renewed visibility to literature
(Nesbitt-Ahmed 2017). Literary festivals in different places
offer valuable insights into literary culture, celebratory events with
ritual elements that cater to various communities (Weber 2018).

In anthropology, festivals are usually studied as complex ritual
and political events (Frost 2016), and scholars are now interro-
gating literary festivals, as exemplified by a recent study of the
Jaipur Literature Festival in the context of world literature
(Ståhlberg 2019).
Building on Turner’s theory on performance, I will approach
Efuru@50 as a sacred drama in which deep values emerged through
narratives of heroic deeds and morality as well as communica-
tion with transcendent beings (Turner 1987, 102). Similarly to
other cultural performances, the event venues were ritually trans-
formed for a privileged period of time, the participants forming a
communitas, temporarily set apart from the wider society, while
engaging in plural reflexivity in a state of liminality.5 In this par-
ticular event, society’s deepest values emerged through narratives
praising Flora Nwapa’s pioneering accomplishments as a female
writer and publisher, collective reflections that immortalized the
author. Participants were also involved in other forms of sacred
engagement, from prayers to God to invocations of ancestors,
thus firmly connecting material and spiritual worlds. The per-
formance of plural reflexivity was carried out through multiple
5
As I have discussed elsewhere, liminality can be reconceptualized as not
just a state of being neither here nor there but also a state of creolization,
being both here and there (Uimonen 2012). Such reconceptualizations
can be productive when using classical anthropological theory, which
beyond various colonial entanglements has also been constrained by the
dualist ontology and binary oppositions of Western science. For instance,
Turner’s widely used theory on social drama built on his ethnography in
what is now Zambia in the early 1950s, and he has described how his
‘study of social conflict’ unravelled that ‘Beneath all other conflicts in
Ndembu society is the concealed opposition between men and women’
(Turner [1957] 1996, 89). Since this presumed opposition between men
and women flies in the face of African scholars’ insistence on gender
complementarity, it is perhaps indicative of Turner’s own cultural bias.
Meanwhile, although her reflections on fieldwork in Nigeria in the ear-
ly 1950s convey some common prejudices among Western scholars at
the time, in her fictional autobiographical account (published under the
pseudonym Elenore Smith Bowen), Laura Bohannan recalls, ‘I began to
wonder where I could find the oppressed, downtrodden women descri-
bed by the missionaries’ (Smith Bowen [1954] 1964, 34).
cultural framings, within the encompassing frame of femininity

and spirituality, as will be described in this book (Turner 1987,
140–41).
I will also discuss how Flora Nwapa’s name travelled across
time and space, thus marking a value transformation of fame
through the expansion of intersubjective spacetime (Munn 1986).
In anthropological theory, fame is ‘a mobile, circulating dimension
of the person’, an ‘enhancement that transcends material, bodily
being, and extends beyond the physical body but refers back to it’
(Munn 1986, 105). It is particularly through the circulation of a
person’s name through the discourses of others that fame increas-
es in value. While fame is a positive value transformation, the op-
posite can also happen, a negative value transformation through
‘the subversion of positive, relatively expansive transformations’
(Munn 1986, 13). In Flora Nwapa’s case, her literary fame rest-
ed on her being the first internationally published female writer
and the first female publisher in Africa. But, at the time of her
writing, her female gender and African location were undervalued
in world literature, which contracted her fame.
Efuru@50 revived Flora Nwapa’s fame, as will be discussed
throughout this monograph. Prior to the event, her name had par-
tially fallen into oblivion. Her books were still read and taught
in literature courses, especially in Nigeria and the United States,
and her books were still sold, in Nigeria mostly as pirated
copies. But her legacy paled in comparison to her fellow male
writers Chinua Achebe and Wole Soyinka. Through Efuru@50,
Flora Nwapa’s legacy was resurrected, thus marking an important
event in literary history. And, in conjunction with the literary fes-
tival, Flora Nwapa’s name was also widely circulated online, thus
marking the expansion of her fame into digital infinity. These are
the stories that this book tries to tell.
Fieldworking in and beyond Nigeria

‘Is this your first time in Nigeria?’
‘Yes, but I have worked in Tanzania, East Africa, for
many years.’
‘Oh, then you understand how we do things here!’
‘Yeh, kind of. I consider Tanzania my second home. I even built

a house there this year, in a small town called Bagamoyo.’
‘Ah! Then you are African!’
I was surprised by how quickly Nigerians adopted me as an

African, far more readily than I was used to in Tanzania, where I
am typically seen as an outsider, a mzungu (white person). Being
referred to as an African was very flattering and I rejoiced in the
generous recognition of my ties to the continent. As a newcomer
to Nigeria, it was of course important to make it clear that I was
not totally new to Africa, thus banking on some of my cultur-
al capital. But I also realized that all my years in Tanzania had
somehow prepared me for Nigeria, as I easily slipped into friendly
joking relations with the organizing team, adapted myself to a
very flexible time schedule, and patiently respected the elaborate
protocol during the event. If anything, I felt quite at ease, and so
did my hosts. They seemed relieved that I was not more demand-
ing, that I adapted so smoothly and that I quickly grasped what
was going on. ‘You are very perceptive,’ Uzoma told me. ‘Well, I
have been trained as an anthropologist’ I responded.
Anthropologists are known to be like chameleons, adapting
themselves to whatever context they find themselves in, which
is how ethnographic fieldwork is made possible. It is through
immersion into a given cultural context that we have a chance
to grasp it from within. We observe what is going on and we talk
and interact with people around us. Characterized by serendipi-
ty, fieldwork demands a high degree of flexibility (Coleman and
Collins 2006a). It is a very personal undertaking, shaped by the
researcher’s personal and professional background and orienta-
tion, which demands a heightened sense of reflexivity (Aull Davies
2007). But fieldwork is not just about fitting in; it is primarily
a qualitative method for data gathering, steered by theoretical
interests and disciplinary history, which makes ethnography a
theory, not just a method, and, like all science, it is also political
(Nader 2011).
Although a newcomer to Nigeria, I was quite seasoned in
fieldwork. This was my fourth major fieldwork project, the first
dating back to 1994, alongside smaller and shorter projects
over the years. As a senior lecturer at Stockholm University, my
r esearch skills had also improved through the teaching of meth-

ods at undergraduate and graduate levels. In addition, my field-
work in Nigeria in November to December 2016 was preceded
by fieldwork in Tanzania for the same project, in July to August
2016. Thus I already had some experience of doing fieldwork
among writers, attending literary events and interviewing
authors.
At the core of this fieldwork is participant observation dur-
ing the entire Efuru@50 celebration. When the last day of the
event came to a close in Owerri, several participants remarked on
how busy I had been: filming, taking photos, jotting down notes.
‘You must be tired; you have worked so hard!’ they remarked.
None of my interlocutors saw that I also spent my evenings
writing notes and emails, while searching for material online.
Indeed, my mind was constantly occupied with everything going
on around me. Ethnographic fieldwork essentially means that you
do whatever it takes to collect as much material as possible in the
time available.
I travelled with the national organizing team and Flora
Nwapa’s three children. The organizing team consisted of Dr
Wale Okediran, former national president of the Association of
Nigerian Writers (ANA); Uzoma Nwakuche, chairman of the
Flora Nwapa Foundation; Isaac Attah Ogezi, a young writer;
Salamatu Sule, a young poet and literary agent; Ikeogu Oke, a
published poet and writer of children’s books, now late; and
Chinyere Iwuala Obi-Obasi, a writer and blogger. The whole
team was based in Abuja and, after returning from the Lagos
and Maiduguri events, they remained there, owing to inade-
quate travel funding. From Abuja to Enugu and Owerri I trav-
elled by car with the children of Flora Nwapa: Ejine Nzeribe
(eldest daughter), Uzoma Nwakuche (only son) and Amede
Nwakuche (youngest daughter). After the conclusion of the
event in Owerri, I joined Ejine and Uzoma for a weekend in
Oguta. I returned to Abuja with Uzoma, who also showed me
some local places in the capital. Before my departure from
Nigeria, Ejine drove me around Lagos, showing me some of
the city’s more prosperous parts, and I also met with Wale
Okediran to jointly reflect on the event.
In addition to participant observation, I conducted interviews

with women writers in Abuja and Maiduguri, eight in total.
Wale Okediran provided names and contact details for the writ-
ers, drawing on his network from the ANA. He told me there
were over 100 women writers in Nigeria, and supplied me with
a list of some 40 names. To optimize my participation at the
Efuru@50 event, I selected writers who were involved in the pro-
gramme as organizers and/or presenters, or physically located in
Abuja, where I had some extra time. The writers I managed to
interview were: Eugenia Abu, Elizabeth Ben-Iheanacho, Cecilia
Kato (now late), Razinat Mohammed, Tope Olaifa, Salamatu
Sule, Vicky Sylvester and Gertrude Uzoh. I contacted the writers
in advance through email, explaining the objectives of my re-
search and sharing my interview questions. In addition to taking
notes, I used a voice recorder and in a few cases also a video
camera during the interviews. I also had informal conversations
with various people, which I noted down afterwards, along with
my reflections.
Figure 2. Filming scholarly presentations at University of Abuja.

Photographer unknown.
I also relied on visual methods, especially photography and

video. I was taking photographs with a compact digital cam-
era and smartphone, and filmed with a video camera borrowed
from my department, occasionally with a compact camera. I was
constantly lugging around a canvas bag with equipment, including
notebooks and extra batteries. Having explored visual methods in
earlier projects, I was keen to advance my skills (Uimonen 2012).
This time around I did all the filming myself, which was quite a
challenge. I noted that my filming got better by the day, and by
the time we reached Abuja I could hold the camera steadily in
my hands for the duration of short speeches. The photographs
(over 850 in total) and videos (53 GB in total) constitute visual
and audio-visual field notes, which enabled me to document more
observations and narratives than time consuming written notes
allowed for. Based on my footage from the event, I produced a
short documentary film, Efuru@50, with the assistance of a video
editor in Tanzania, Yaki Bozi. The film is on YouTube and is also
used in this monograph.6
In addition to data collected during fieldwork in Nigeria, the field
of this study should be understood in a broader sense, e ncompassing
other forms of ethnographic engagement. While participant ob-
servation and interviews in specific places in Nigeria during the
Efuru@50 event constitute a standard way of doing ethnographic
fieldwork by being there, this study builds on a more open-end-
ed appraisal of the anthropological field. Instead of delineating the
field in spatial terms (place), it can be appreciated through the ‘met-
aphor of performance’ as something ‘constructed out of social ac-
tions’, which is ‘constantly in a process of becoming’, rather than
‘fixed (being) in time and space’ (Coleman and Collins 2006b, 12).
In my case, the field is not merely the Efuru@50 event but the social
relations established with interlocutors before, during and after the
event, as well as relations established through literature. It may seem
odd to refer to literature in terms of social relations, but literature
can be compared to what has been described as ‘voices in the field’,
capturing written rather than spoken narratives (Kristmundsdottir
2006). Since the main interlocutor in this study is the late Flora
Nwapa, my r esearch is comparable to Kristmundsdottir’s
6
Efuru@50 is available on YouTube at https://youtu.be/EndOXak9ESQ.
biographical research on Björg C. Thorlaksson, decades after her

passing. While anthropologists tend to study living people with
whom they can interact, she argues convincingly for the validity
of biographical research in anthropology, since it requires listening
to various voices in the field (typically written voices), while the
analysis of ‘lives already lived’ demands a thorough appraisal of the
person’s cultural and social context (Kristmundsdottir 2006, 165).
In my case, I use Flora Nwapa’s literature, as well as scholarly ac-
counts, recorded interviews and documentary films, to deepen the
ethnographic data about her life work, thus complementing materi-
al gathered during the Efuru@50 event.
This broader delineation of the field has a direct bearing on
my analysis, which is best seen as a cumulative process of knowl-
edge production. When I first arrived in Nigeria, my knowledge
of the country was miniscule. I had all kinds of prejudices about
Nigeria, shaped by the country’s negative image overseas. Prior to
my travel, I read a travel novel by an expatriate Nigerian writer
(Saro-Wiwa 2012), which gave me some insights into the coun-
try’s recent past and contemporary social life. During fieldwork I
acquired some familiarity with Nigeria, and data in the form of
travel notes, field notes, photographs and video. I also collected
material culture objects, from event paraphernalia to books. The
authors I interviewed generously gave me some of their books,
and I acquired more during the event. Additionally, I collected
material online, before, during and after the Efuru@50 event, pri-
marily from web sites, blogs and YouTube. While in Nigeria, I
became Facebook friends with some of the organizers, writers and
Flora Nwapa’s children, and have retained online contact with
them ever since. I also returned to Nigeria on two occasions, from
July to August 2018 and from December 2019 to January 2020.
In the process of writing this book, I have read a lot of literature,
written by Flora Nwapa and the writers I interviewed in Nigeria.
I have also read scholarly analyses of Flora Nwapa, including her
biography, as well as literary analyses of Nigerian and African
women’s literature. As is often the case with anthropological re-
search, it is through reading and writing that knowledge gained
during fieldwork develops into more substantiated scientific anal-
ysis. Hopefully this monograph has some worthwhile stories to
tell that can add to our knowledge of world literature.
Poetic reflections on a good journey

When I left Nigeria on 16 December 2016, after three weeks of
intensive work and travel, I was overwhelmed with impressions.
This was my first visit to a country of intriguing cultural com-
plexity, with its notorious media image, yet a literary giant on the
African continent. On the flight from Lagos to London I captured
my reflections in a poem; the words flowed smoothly. A year later,
the poem was published in the journal Ebedi Review in Nigeria
(Uimonen 2017).
A good journey
It was all meant to come together

In the land that has seen things fall apart
In a world where the centre cannot hold
It was meant to be catalyzed

Through the joyful celebration of women
Summoned by the story of Efuru
It was meant to be explored

Through travels across the nation
From Maiduguri to Owerri
It was meant to be rooted

In the small town by Oguta lake
Anchored in the Urashi river
It was meant to be tasted

From the first amala to the last suya
Peppered snails with Hero
It was meant to be welcomed

Through greetings of mighty swords
And the breaking of kola
It was meant to be inspired

By charming daughters of passion
In uncle’s good company
It was meant to be cultivated

Through the easy flow of words
Open hearts sharing life
It was meant to be connected

With the healing of space oddity
Breathing the full moon
It was meant to be
A good journey
Narrative structure and combination of genres

It may seem presumptuous to start writing an anthropolog-
ical monograph after three weeks of fieldwork in Nigeria in
November–December 2016, but this book has evolved through
various engagements over a longer period of time. The idea to
write a book was first suggested by one of my interlocutors,
Dr Razinat Mohammed in Maiduguri: ‘Paula, with all the inter-
views you have done, you will have enough material for a book.’
As a literary scholar, she could appreciate the value of the material
I had collected during my short but intense fieldwork. As I went
through my data, I began to agree with Razinat. When I sat down
at my battered old desk in my new house in Bagamoyo to write
a book outline in January 2017, the structure and content came
quite easily. I completed a first, rough outline in a day, which was
very encouraging. In the following year and a half, I stayed in
touch with some interlocutors in Nigeria through social media
and read a considerable amount of literature and scholarly works.
When I returned to Nigeria for three weeks in July–August 2018
to go through this manuscript with the women I write about, I
was encouraged (and relieved) by their positive feedback. I have
continued revising the text ever since, while staying in touch with
friends in Nigeria, and I also revisited the country for a few weeks
in December 2019 to January 2020.
Inspired by efforts to explore creative writing in ethnography,
this monograph departs from some conventional formats, thus
recognizing the anthropologist as writer (Wulff 2016). As we
write our stories, we have a professional duty to remain true to
our ethnographic material, yet, if our readers are to get a sense of
the experiences that we build our analysis on, we need to capture
our sensuous engagements and write with our minds as well as
our hearts (Stoller 1997). When doing research about writers, the
challenge of exploring more creative forms of writing becomes

even more pertinent. How else to convey their creative work?
This book combines the genres of creative non-fiction,
descriptive ethnography and scholarly analysis, in an effort to
make the text more accessible to academic as well as non-aca-
demic readers. In terms of disposition, the text is ethnographical-
ly elaborate and theoretically constrained, giving ample space to
people, places and events, while keeping scholarly analysis within
bounds. In an effort to provide a truthful account and in recog-
nition of their contributions to this study, all people appear with
their real names.7
Each chapter begins with travel notes, capturing my expe-
riences as a first-time traveller in Nigeria. During fieldwork I
wrote a separate text with travel notes, in the form of creative
non-fiction. These travel stories captured what felt important dur-
ing fieldwork, especially the highpoints that stuck in memory. In
this monograph, I reproduce these travel notes to capture some
of my impressions of Nigeria and to offer a more candid account
of fieldwork.
Structured around Efuru@50, each chapter discusses the event
in a given city, drawing on field notes, videos and photos, as well
as paper presentations. At each event, select key topics are brought
forward, inspired by statements and activities that caught my atten-
tion. I also use ethnographic details to elaborate on one of the theo-
retical frameworks of this book, namely the analysis of the literary
festival in terms of cultural framing and expansion of fame.
Ethnography of the Efuru@50 event is followed by in-depth
analyses of Flora Nwapa’s life and work, focusing on select literary
works as well as the cultural context of her literary practice. The
discussion is based on close readings of her books, scholarly analy-
ses of her works as well as interviews with and documentary films
about Flora Nwapa. The analysis covers a wide range of themes:
feminine storytelling and writing across genres (Chapter 1),
feminism and womanism (Chapter 2), children’s literature
7
An exception is the person I refer to as James in Chapter 2, who was not
aware of my taking notes of the many things he said to me, but whose
perspective on life in Nigeria made an impact on me upon arrival.
(Chapter 3), publishing and war stories (Chapter 4), family and
social relations (Chapter 5), and creativity in Flora Nwapa’s liter-
ary oeuvre (Chapter 6). Trained as a digital anthropologist, I also
discuss various aspects of digitalization throughout the book.
Each chapter contains an expose of contemporary women writ-
ers, drawing on interviews conducted during fieldwork and their
published works. While these writers recognize the pioneering
role of Flora Nwapa, their work also draws on other sources of
inspiration and, above all, their own talent and relentless efforts
to tell their stories. Inspired by earlier scholarly efforts to chroni-
cle African women writers in their own voices (e.g. James 1990),
the sections on contemporary women writers are mostly ethno-
graphic, bringing forth the writers’ own stories.
The chapters are concluded with theoretical discussions that
draw on anthropological, literary and vernacular theory to con-
textualize and explore the central themes of femininity and spirit-
uality in world literature, focusing on Flora Nwapa’s literary
worldmaking. From the outset, the concept of creolized aesthetics
is introduced to capture the cultural complexity of literary
worldmaking in a pluriverse of aesthetic worlds (Chapter 1),
followed by a discussion of womanist worldmaking and
literary ontology, with an emphasis on cosmologies of radical
interdependence and relational ontology (Chapter 2). Dwelling
on the social context of women’s literary production, the concept
literary mothering is introduced to discuss women’s writing ca-
reers (Chapter 3). Focusing on digital mediations in world litera-
ture, the dynamic reconfiguration of books into different material
and digital forms is discussed in relation to digital publishing
(Chapter 4), while Flora Nwapa’s digital afterlife is conceptual-
ized as digital incarnations (Chapter 5). The overriding themes
of femininity and spirituality are discussed in greater depth in
the concluding chapter, drawing on anthropological theories on
art, creativity and worlding, as well as literary theories on world-
making, analysed through African womanism to bring forth the
literary achievements of Flora Nwapa and her divine muse
(Chapter 6).
The epilogue offers complementary insights into Oguta culture,
based on cultural immersion during a revisit to Flora Nwapa’s
hometown in July to August 2018. The ritual initiation of a ti-

tled member of Igbu society, conversations and spiritual rituals
with Stella Akuzor Anozia, traditional healer and priestess of
Ogbuide and Urashi, as well as interactions with various people
encountered in Oguta shed further light on Flora Nwapa’s lasting
legacy and the cultural foundations of her literary creativity. The
epilogue also serves to pay homage to Flora Nwapa and Ogbuide
for inspiring the writing of this book.
As indicated in the title, through this book I am invoking Flora
Nwapa. The concept was inspired by Uzoma Nwakuche’s reflec-
tions in one of our WhatsApp chats on 14 July 2017. Noting how
easily my writing flowed, Uzoma suggested, ‘I think it’s like in-
vocation. The woman spirit is in alignment with the times and
season.’ I interpreted Uzoma’s reflection in relation to the cultural
context of Flora Nwapa’s literary work, which this monograph
will probe from different angles. In what came to be her last nov-
el, The Lake Goddess, Nwapa spelled out one of the central t enets
in Igbo/Oguta cosmology: ‘We know that there is life after death
and so when we die we join our ancestors and continue to live’
(Nwapa 2017, 15). Published posthumously in 2017, I cherish
these words as a reminder of Flora Nwapa’s continued spiritual
presence after joining her ancestors in 1993. The notion of life af-
ter death and spiritual co-presence of ancestors reflect an ontolog-
ical reality that departs from Western worldviews in fundamental
ways. Yet it is only by taking this ontology seriously that we can
make epistemological sense of Flora Nwapa’s literary legacy, es-
pecially the centrality of femininity and spirituality in her literary
worldmaking, as she followed her chi, inspired by Ogbuide, the
divine mother.
1. Cultural Tangles in Lagos
Kekenapep, jollof rice and power cuts

‘You are not allowed to travel in those three-wheelers in Lagos!
It is for your own safety!’ Wale shouted at me through the phone
shortly after I got back to the hotel. I was amused! He must have
checked with James, my host for the day, who told him of our lunch
outing. James and I had just returned from lunch by k ekenapep
(a motorized three-wheeler). We had taken a taxi to a place called
Sweet Sensations and from the many dishes on display I picked
jollof rice, fried plantain and fried chicken. It was delicious. The
rice was so tasty, fluffy grains with spices and peas. James ordered
the same for takeaway, explaining he was in a period of fasting
and praying. While I ate my lunch at the diner, James found a
kekenapep to take us back. I had been excited when I had seen
them on the road; known as bajaji in Tanzania, it was a cheap
and fast mode of transport I was familiar with. On our return
we laughed and took pictures in the kekenapep, which I posted
in Facebook, a befitting entry to my Lagos adventure. Or so I
thought until Wale called me, warning me about such escapades.
When the Virgin Atlantic plane descended on Murtala
Muhammed International Airport in Lagos around 5:30 am on
28 November 2016, I was impressed by the many streetlights
lining the highways. What a difference to Dar es Salaam, where
streetlights are few and far between, I reflected. Surprisingly, the
airport building was pretty run-down, seemingly chaotic but with
some semblance of order through lines mastered by uniformed
guards. As I lined up for the immigration desk, a blonde lady in
front of me kindly instructed me on the procedures: you go to

and spirituality in world literature. Pp. 29–60. Stockholm: Stockholm
University Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.16993/bbe.b. License: CC-BY 4.0.
the left desk first, then you get a stamp at the next desk, then you
go the right, where you will find your luggage. She was staying
in Nigeria, where her husband worked, but had lived in Kenya
and Uganda beforehand. ‘I would go back to Kenya any day,’
she declared ‘but when I leave Nigeria, I will never return.’ I had
explained that this was my first visit to Nigeria but that I live
half the time in Tanzania. ‘What’s the main difference?’ I asked
her. ‘People here are aggressive,’ she replied, ‘so you have to be as
well.’ I had already read about the assertiveness of Nigerians, so
her comment was no surprise. ‘And you can always pay your way
if you want to go ahead.’ She pointed discreetly at people press-
ing past us in the queue. Eventually we got our passports duly
stamped and could wait for our luggage. The belt marked with
our flight was empty, but another belt, with no sign, carried lug-
gage from our flight. Passengers pressed forward, grabbing their
heavy bags off the belt. ‘You will need to show your luggage tag at
the counter over there,’ the friendly English woman explained to
me, ‘but don’t pay them anything.’ When I passed the customs, the
officer asked for a gift, which I kindly but firmly declined. While
lining up for immigration, I had noticed large posters encouraging
people to report corruption. Land of contrasts and contradictions.
James waited for me with a large hand-drawn sign: Dr Paula
Uimonen. I smiled as I walked up to him. He had already tried
calling me, but my phone was still off, I explained. I asked him
about changing money and he immediately took me down a side
street to some money changers. He haggled with one man, but
decided to go further down the lane to some small stands in the
back. We got the same rate there, 460 naira per dollar. I changed
200 dollars and got a bundle of naira in small denominations
of 500-notes. ‘They are easily dispended,’ James advised me. We
walked back to the airport exit, where the driver showed up in a
beaten-up old van. I chose the back seat so I could marvel at the
view undisturbed.
The roads leading to town were run-down and lined with der-
elict, low buildings. I was taken aback. Lagos looked worse for
wear than Dar es Salaam, yet Nigeria was one of Africa’s richest
countries. It did not make sense. Some of the buildings seemed to
date back a few decades; undoubtedly stylish and modern at the
Cultural Tangles in Lagos 31
time, now just dilapidated. This part of Lagos came across as a

city of halted development, decades of neglect, with very few signs
of hope or aspiration. ‘It’s our leadership,’ James explained, ‘We
have so much embezzlement.’ During the one-hour drive to the
hotel, he despairingly shared his views on the state Nigeria.
‘If Nigerians could travel somewhere without needing a visa,
150 million people would leave this country.’ Life was hard
for many, although there were also pockets of luxury: ‘There
are places here where you can’t believe you are in Nigeria.’ The
new president was cracking down on corruption, going for past
leaders and officials, insisting on repayment. Meanwhile, the
country was at a standstill in a recession. The naira had drasti-
cally dropped in value and had not yet regained it. ‘We import
everything, even toothpicks.’ Manufacturing had never taken
off, owing to poor administration and infrastructure. Power cuts
were frequent. ‘We don’t have enough megawatts. We still pro-
duce the same amount as we did decades ago, but the population
has grown.’ Meanwhile, changes in lifestyle required more power,
modern amenities like refrigerators, TV sets and mobile phones. I
asked how Nigeria compared with neighbouring Ghana. ‘Ghana
is doing ok: even though we are much bigger, their economy is
stronger.’ How about Chinese investors? ‘There are so many
Chinese here; they are constructing everywhere.’ But foreign in-
vestment was not without some drawbacks. ‘I don’t understand
why we need to bring in expatriates for everything. Why can’t we
manage by ourselves?’
The money expressed the recession in a material way, through
the circulation of old, worn out notes. The stack of 500-naira
notes I got from the money changer were thin notes that had
passed through many hands.
The hotel room reflected the worn-down impression I had of
Lagos, a far cry from its ambitious name, Wonder King Hotel and
Suites. A young man asked us to fill in the registration form at the
reception desk, and then carried my suitcase up a narrow flight
of stairs. The room was spacious enough, chilled by a small A/C
unit that had been on for a while. I quickly switched it off, pre-
ferring to get acclimatized to the warmth. Little did I know that
it was one of the few times the A/C actually worked, since there
was power; most of the time the hotel ran on a generator, which
could only manage the rickety floor fan, not the A/C. The room
had a large bed, wooden bedstands and a wooden desk with
shelves and a chair, as well as an open wooden cupboard with-
out doors. The walls were painted in beige and light brown, with
paint stains along doorframes. A small window with double cur-
tains offered a bit of light, complementing the halogen lamp in
the ceiling, the only light that worked. There were sockets on the
walls, but most of them did not work either. The one socket that
actually functioned was hanging loose on the wall, looking as if
it was going to fall off anytime. A flat-screen TV was mounted
on the wall, offering a choice of six channels, of varying quality
of grainy screens. The bathroom had an elevated shower stand,
the tiles worn down, and a small sink that had seen better days.
Surprisingly, the water pressure was good and I enjoyed a cooling
shower after some rest. There was also a small balcony, overlook-
ing rusty roofs and satellite dishes.
The staff did their best to make up for the lack of amenities
with friendly and forthcoming service. The man who carried my
suitcase happily ran downstairs to get me a bottle of water, and
again to get change for my 500-naira note. The bottle was served
on a large plastic tray, costing no more than 100 naira. After a
while I heard a phone ringing and to my great surprise I discov-
ered an old landline phone on one of the bedstands. It was the
receptionist, who just wanted to make sure that I was ok and
to call if I needed anything. When I later called him about prob-
lems locking the balcony door, he swiftly appeared at the door.
After carefully checking the door, which he admitted did not work
so well, he showed me how to lock it by forcing the handle up.
Improvised maintenance, so common in African cities.
After some time, I got used to the room, and, since it only cost
10,000 naira per night, I could not complain. This was also where
the conference organizers were going to stay. I expected them
in the afternoon, but they only boarded the plane in Abuja around
7 pm. ‘We will be there within 2 hours,’ Wale said optimistically
when he called from the boarding gate in Abuja. The conference
was run on a low budget and I appreciated the effort in finding
sufficient comfort at a low price, in the vicinity of the University
of Lagos (UNILAG). This was certainly not a case of spending
loads of money on luxury hotels, which was often the case with
development conferences of various sorts, sponsored by interna-
tional donors.
I called Mom and some friends in Sweden and Tanzania on
SkypeOut through my phone and the connection was really good.
Sent messages through WhatsApp and replied to comments on my
Facebook posting. Internet access was cheap and fast in Lagos.
Great progress.
In the afternoon, after a short but heavy rainfall, James took
me to the university campus in the van that had now been fixed
by the driver. The rattling noise was gone and the driver drove at
normal speed. The campus was not far away, although I soon lost
my sense of direction. The arched campus entrance had an ambi-
tiously large sign, along with a billboard declaring the university’s
mission. We drove around various parts, the streets neatly lined by
tall palm trees. The buildings were of various quality, mostly run-
down, but a few were more recent and in better condition. The
Faculty of Creative Arts had fantastic murals and amazing sculp-
tures, while the School of Communication could boast Africa’s
first Pulitzer-winning journalist. Clearly there was considerable
talent at UNILAG.
The following morning we left the hotel just after 8 am, all
scrambling into the van: the national organizing committee of six
people and me. As we were waiting for Wale, I had a chance to
meet the others: Salamatu Sule, a writer I had emailed before ar-
rival; Ikeogu Oke, a poet and publisher; and Uzoma Nwakuche,
the son of Flora Nwapa. The night before I had met Chinyere
Iwuala Obi-Obasi, writer and blogger, and the poet Isaac Attah
Ogezi for a drink at the hotel’s lounge, shortly after their arrival
around 10 pm. They were amused by my kekenapep story, which
Wale had instantly shared. As we were waiting for the team to
assemble, Chinyeri was cracking witty jokes and someone point-
ed out that she also worked as a stand-up comedian. During the
short ride to the campus, there was a lot of joking in the team. We
had breakfast at a simple cafeteria on campus, a small place serv-
ing jollof rice, fufu, meat, fish and spicy sauce. I opted for jollof
rice and fried plantains, following Chinyere’s advice. It was the
first of many breakfasts I got to enjoy, as I learned that Nigerians
prefer what is called morning food.
As we parked the van outside the event venue, the University

of Lagos Staff School Hall, Uzoma excitedly called out: ‘There’s
my sister!’ He scrambled out and walked briskly to a beautiful
lady with long, thin braids: Amede. They hugged. The organizing
committee greeted her warmly and we took group photos in front
of a colour banner on the wall announcing the event. We then
entered the spacious hall, which was still empty, save for a few
girls managing a book stand at the entrance. Some school children
soon arrived and walked to the rows upfront.
Another lady appeared, warmly greeting everyone, introducing
herself as Ejine, the eldest of Flora Nwapa’s children. We chat-
ted for a while; she came across as very open and frank. ‘What a
sophisticated family,’ I thought to myself when I saw the three sib-
lings together, ‘and so warm and loving.’ Flora Nwapa’s children
had been brought up well: humble and kind in their disposition,
yet very accomplished professionals. Ejine was trained in thea-
tre and specialized in management training, Uzoma was a lawyer,
business developer, and poet, while Amede was a well-established
fashion designer. Quite a legacy.
Cultural framing of fame at Efuru@50

The UNILAG programme started almost on time, shortly after
10 am, with Chinyere Iwuala Obi-Obasi as the MC, c onfidently
introducing the programme and calling up people to the high
table, one by one and to applause from the audience. The organizing
committee chairperson, the keynote speakers, distinguished guests
and the three children all sat at the high table on the podium,
eight people altogether. The table was on an elevated stage in
the front of the hall, decorated with a shiny white tablecloth and
artificial flowers in pots. The ritualistic aspects were distinct: a high
degree of formality with pronounced social hierarchies, mixed
with joking and social commentaries. The participants in this
elaborate performance seemed totally at ease, quite accustomed
to the social and cultural requirements, not least the religious
framing of the event, which was omnipresent. When the high
table was filled, Ejine proceeded with a prayer. Dr Bisi Fayemi,
expert on gender studies, then delivered an opening address,
emphasizing self-reliance in the life and work of Flora Nwapa.
Next on the programme were the finals of the school competition,

with eight students seated on rows of chairs below the stage,
answering quiz questions, their responses noted by three judg-
es. A prize giving ceremony was arranged on stage, with Ejine
handing out prizes to the winners in Efuru@50 event bags. But,
before that, Professor Bolanle Awe, historian and writer, delivered
her keynote.
As Professor Awe made her way to the podium, she was wel-
comed by a long applause, a sign of tribute to a woman whose
age and accomplishments commanded respect. Dressed in an ele-
gant gown and elaborate headdress, Professor Awe was short and
thin, yet the respect awarded to her made her larger than life. She
greeted the chairperson and distinguished members of the high
table and audience with soft-spoken eloquence and congratulated
the organizing committee ‘for putting up this wonderful event’.
Predicting its cultural significance, she underlined, ‘I know this
event is going to be more and more significant as the time goes
on; this is only the beginning and I am happy the hall is gradu-
ally filling up.’ With a microphone in her hand, she proceeded
to read her paper, peering through her glasses, looking up at the
audience from time to time. Her paper combined factual analy-
sis with personal anecdotes. She recalled meeting Flora Nwapa
at CMS Secondary School in Lagos, ‘the oldest secondary school
in Nigeria’, when Flora Nwapa and Mercy Oriuwa came from
a girls’ school in Elelenwa in South Eastern Nigeria to join the
school in Lagos in 1949–50:
Their presence lent a cosmopolitan air to our school and

we were privileged to interact for the first time with girls from
eastern Nigeria. At that time you had schools where you didn’t
have the opportunity of interacting. You only heard that there
were Igbos and there were Hausas […] and so on and you lived
in Lagos so you went to school where there were mostly Yorubas.
But we had that opportunity of interacting with two girls from
south eastern Nigeria.
After sharing some memories of Flora Nwapa, especially her dim-

ples, smile and kindness, Professor Awe briefly recounted high-
lights in Nwapa’s illustrious career, while dwelling on her accom-
plishments as writer and publisher.
In 1977, she took up the challenge of publishing, which had been

the preserve not only of men but largely of foreign publishers. […]
Before she did that no woman had ever tried to do it in Nigeria.
And in addition to that, in fact before then, we only had foreign
publishers publishing books in this country. What I’m saying
is that you should realize her contributions in that field as well.
[loud applause]
Efuru, her first book, her first novel, was published in 1966 by
Heinemann’s African Writers Series. It was the 26th in the series,
but it was the first novel to be published by an African woman.
[Looks up at the audience, finger raised] What I’m saying there is
that before that there had been 25 other books published in that
series by African writers; hers was the 26th, but it was the only
book to be published by a woman. [loud applause]
It won great acclaim and attracted world attention. […]
It was reprinted in 1969, it was reprinted twice in 1970, again
in 1973, again in 1975, and again in 1978, and again reprinted in
1986 [applause] and again in 1989.
It has been translated into many languages. It was translated
into French, it was translated into Dutch, it was translated into
German and it was even translated into an Icelandic language.
[long, loud applause]
When Professor Awe stepped down from the podium after a stand-
ing ovation, she was treated like a celebrity. Young women flocked
around her, taking pictures with her, as she slowly made her way
through the auditorium. By then the audience had grown to a few
hundred, mostly students but also many distinguished writers and
intellectuals. The neat rows of white plastic chairs, marked MPH
UNILAG, were occupied by students in school uniforms and par-
ticipants dressed up for the occasion, women in elaborate gowns
and men in suits or batik shirts.
The presence of literary and scholarly dignitaries marked the
cultural significance of the event. From time to time the MC called
out the names of the people on the high table, along with the
names of other distinguished guests in the audience. This social
recognition reaffirmed Flora Nwapa’s elevated social status, em-
bedded in a web of social relations that attested to the continued
social agency of her literary creations.
In the highly reflexive performance of this sacred drama, the
calling of names and prayers served as an important form of
witnessing, bringing in third party observers to attest to Flora

Nwapa’s cultural influence (Munn 1986, 115). Not only was Flora
Nwapa’s name invoked but also the names of socially significant
individuals, thus affirming her fame and its expansion of inter-
subjective spacetime through a web of social relations. Through
prayers, God was invoked, which affirmed the intertwinement of
material and spiritual worlds. Through witnessing, the contrac-
tion of Flora Nwapa’s literary fame could be countered, thus over-
coming the negative value transformation that she had faced in
male-dominated canon formation.
At the back of the hall was a table with some of Flora Nwapa’s
books for sale, with the 50th anniversary edition of Efuru on
prominent display. Next to it was a table with gift bags, laminated
paper bags with a colour image of the original cover of Efuru: a
drawing depicting a woman standing in a canoe filled with goods,
steering it with a long oar, with Efuru and ‘Flora Nwapa’ in large
bold letters on top. The gift bags contained the programme, a
book of abstracts, a notebook and a pen, all bearing the event
logo: an photo of a smiling Flora Nwapa superimposed on a map
of Nigeria and the words ‘Efuru@50 National Celebrations’ in a
Figure 3. Efuru@50 gift bags. Photograph by author.

stylish font, followed by ‘50 years of Efuru, a celebration of Flora

Nwapa, Pioneer of African women literature’.
These ritual objects framed the sacred drama, symbolizing the
continued presence of Flora Nwapa, immortalized through her
books. The book stand was a material expression of the ritual-
ized commemoration of the author, a bordered space marking the
cultural mode of framing through which the temporarily formed
communitas could engage in retrospection (Turner 1987, 140).
The books served as material symbols of this cultural framing,
sacred objects that offered participants the opportunity to scruti-
nize, assess and revalue the life and work of Flora Nwapa. Through
her books, Flora Nwapa was resurrected, literary material objects
that mediated between the living and the dead. Her portrait pho-
to was embedded on book covers and event paraphernalia, thus
expanding fame through the circulation of her name and face, the
two centres of her personal identity (Munn 1986, 106).
After a short poem vigorously performed by the female
poet Adeyemi, it was time for paper presentations by scholars.
The paper session started around 12:30 and by then the audience
had dwindled in numbers, from some 200 to 60. Some of the dis-
tinguished guests on the high table had departed; others roamed
around the room, making phone calls and attending to other mat-
ters. The papers were presented in brief; presenters were only al-
lotted some 15 minutes each. It was difficult to hear what they
said, as many spoke very fast and the acoustics were poor. The
sound system in the hall was sub-standard, with muffled sound
and echoes. By contrast, the air-conditioning was working at full
power, blasting chilly air into the large hall. I regretted not bring-
ing a shawl, as I shivered whenever I sat still. There was some re-
lief during power cuts, but within minutes generators were turned
on. My glasses fogged up when I finally stepped outside.
As the programme was drawing to a close, Isaac was called on
stage to give a brief summary and the audience was then asked
to share their views and reflections through an open microphone.
A young lady spoke up, facing the audience from the front of the
hall while reflecting on gender. Another young lady with her hair
in dreads, a writer and blogger, volunteered to speak after some
prodding. She emphasized the significance of literature.
The event was concluded with a short statement by Uzoma, elab-

orately thanking everyone and sharing some personal reflections.
Dressed in a knee-long black shirt, with matching trousers and
shoes, his aristocratic posture was enhanced by his height, as he
casually leaned over the podium, microphone raised in his hand:
It’s been a journey for my sisters and I, twenty-three years after

our Mom passed away. You know, to celebrate a woman is like
celebrating birth, celebrating life. Ahh, you know when you talk
about born, to be born, to bear; these are all words that are related
to women. So you cannot talk about life without talking about
woman. And in the sphere of African literature, we just happen to
be born by a woman that we are just realizing is as important as
she is.
Uzoma’s recognition of his mother’s eminence underscored the

cultural value of witnessing, thus validating the spatiotemporal
expansion of Flora Nwapa’s fame. For Uzoma and his sisters, this
intersubjective expansion meant a value transformation in their
intimate social relations with their mother, now reconfigured as a
famous writer whose lasting legacy was firmly embedded in a so-
cial world of acclaim; her name entrenched in discourses of praise.
By connecting women, birth and life, Uzoma expanded his
mother’s fame even further, underlining the universal essence of
human existence, while building on values that are deeply en-
trenched in Igbo/Oguta culture. His discourse reflected the prima-
cy of motherhood in Igbo culture, which is firmly rooted in Oguta
cosmology, epitomized in the Goddess of the Lake, a female di-
vinity also referred to as Our Mother or Great Mother. Uzoma’s
recognition of the life-giving power of women thus spoke to uni-
versal values as well as local beliefs, his tribute echoing essential
features in Flora Nwapa’s aesthetic worlds.
Through these words, the femininity and spirituality of Flora
Nwapa’s life work was brought forward, a moral universe that
recognizes women as life givers, which I interpret as the encom-
passing cultural frame of the sacred drama of Efuru@50. As an
encompassing frame, it set the tone for the celebration, expressing
‘the “ultimate” meaning of the event’, thus intensifying the reflex-
ivity of a highly ritualized performance that served as a commen-
tary on ‘the mainstream of social existence’ (Turner 1987, 140).
It is highly significant that these reflections were articulated by

her son, a man, thus underlining the complementarity of men and
women in Nwapa’s social and literary worlds.
Feminine storytelling and masculinist literary canons

They saw each other fairly often and after a fortnight’s courting
she agreed to marry him. But the man had no money for the dow-
ry.8 He had just a few pounds for the farm and could not part with
that. When the woman saw that he was unable to pay anything,
she told him not to bother about the dowry. They were going to
proclaim themselves married and that was that.
Efuru was her name. She was a remarkable woman. It was not
only that she came from a distinguished family. She was distin-
guished herself. Her husband was not known and people won-
dered why she married him. (Nwapa 2016, 7)
With the opening lines of Efuru, Flora Nwapa made African and
world literary history, a novel with a female protagonist, narrated
by a female writer. In Efuru, Flora Nwapa depicted women in a
variety of roles and settings, from the virtuous Efuru to the malig-
nant gossiper Omirima, not to mention the female deity Uhamiri
(also spelled Uhammiri), the Woman of the Lake. Yet, as much as
Nwapa’s narrative voice was carried by female characters, women
were portrayed in relation to men. Starting with her elopement
in the opening of the book, Efuru’s relations with her husbands in
two consecutive marriages was a central theme, as was her close
relationship with her father. But the story was told from a wom-
an’s perspective, which was quite revolutionary at the time.
‘When I started writing Efuru, these stories just came to me,
naturally,’ Flora Nwapa recollected in the Norwegian documen-
tary film Forfatterinne idag: Flora Nwapa (Female Writers Today:
Flora Nwapa) (NRK TV 1987, 16:14–16:20).9 Efuru was inspired
by stories that Flora Nwapa had heard from women in her village,
where she had lived until she went to secondary school. In the
8
What Flora Nwapa translated as dowry is commonly described as bride
price, and in her second novel, Idu, the writer used the term ‘bride price’
instead (Nwapa 1970).
9
https://tv.nrk.no/serie/forfatterinne-i-dag/1987/FOLA00000687/avspiller,
last accessed on 29 June 2020.
interview she described how her mother worked as a dressmaker,

after retiring from teaching upon marriage, and that many women
came to her and talked with her. Since she helped her mother with
turning the handle of the sewing machine, Flora Nwapa had many
opportunities to listen to and observe the many women who vis-
ited, talking about their lives with their husbands and many other
things. Although she did not realize it at the time, these stories
inspired her own storytelling, as was the case with many other
women writers, who drew on the stories of their foremothers (e.g.
Nnaemeka 1997; Ogunyemi 1996; Umeh 1998a).
Through Efuru, Flora Nwapa gave voice to women in African
literature, placing them at the centre of literary storytelling. At the
time, most novels were written by men, with male protagonists,
their portrayal of women often negative or marginal. In an inter-
view with Marie Umeh, Flora Nwapa reflected on her counter
narrative:
I attempt to correct our menfolks when they started writing,

when they wrote little or less about women, where their female
characters are prostitutes and ne’er-do-wells. I started writing to
tell them that this is not so. When I do write about women in
Nigeria, in Africa, I try to paint a positive picture about women
because there are many women who are very, very positive in their
thinking, who are very, very independent and very, very industri-
ous. (Flora Nwapa, cited in Umeh 1995, 27)
Through her literary representation of women, Flora Nwapa be-

came known for her commitment to women’s rights, which is well
recognized in scholarly appraisals of her work. In an early an-
thology on 20 Nigerian women writers (Otokunefor and Nwodo
1989), Flora Nwapa is acknowledged for the ‘unique position of
being the first Nigerian female novelist whose work was published’
and her ‘commitment to the cause of women’ (Mojola 1989, 19,
27). In the authoritative anthology Emerging Perspectives on Flora
Nwapa, scholars underline Nwapa’s woman-centred storytelling,
concluding that ‘Nwapa’s central ideology’ was ‘female autono-
my, self-fulfillment, and economic independence’ (Umeh 1998b,
13). More recently, Bolanle Awe has recognized Flora Nwapa as
one of Nigeria’s 34 women pioneers and icons, underlining that
she was ‘popularly known for championing the fight of discrimi-
nation against women in our society, she being a devoted women’s

rights activist’ (Awe 2016, 55).
To appreciate Nwapa’s literary achievements, it is worth put-
ting her feminine storytelling in the context of African and world
literary canon formation. Honoured as the ‘Mother of African
Women’s Writing’, Flora Nwapa has been described as a ‘trail-
blazer’ in the ‘world literary canon’ (Umeh 1998b, 9), having
‘brought a new literary canon from Nigeria and presented it to the
world for its perusal’ (Mills 1998, xvii). Efuru was the 26th novel
in the canonical Heinemann African Writers Series, yet the first to
be written by a woman, as Bolanle Awe underlined at Efuru@50.
Nwapa’s second novel Idu (1970) was published as number 56
in the series, yet she remained the only woman writer until Bessie
Head’s Maru (1972) was published as number 101 in the series.
Out of 270 numbered titles published in the series from 1962 to
1987, only 14 titles were written by women, more specifically by
10 different women writers from eight different countries (Currey
2008, 301–8).10
Similarly to the masculinist orientation of world literary
canons, African literary canon formation was dominated by male
writers, editors and publishers, as well as male literary scholars
and critics. At the time, African literary actors were intent on de-
colonizing African literature (e.g. Thiong’o 1986), their critical
eyes turned to imperial centres, yet paying little or no attention to
women writers (e.g. Chinweizu et al. 1983). As noted by Ghanaian
writer Ama Ata Aidoo, ‘in Toward the Decolonization of African
Literature the authors mention Ama Ata Aidoo and Flora Nwapa;
but very much en passant, as an afterthought’ (Aidoo 1988, 161).
She described a situation in which African commentators ‘man-
age[d] to convey—solidly—to the interested world community, an
impression that either there are no African women writers around
at all, or if there are, then their work is not deserving of serious
critical attention’, which resulted in a lack of attention from lit-
erary critics that ‘damaged the career of so many women w riters’
10
They were: Mariama Bâ (Senegal), Charlotte Bruner (US), Buchi Emecheta
(Nigeria), Nadine Gordimer (South Africa), Bessie Head (Botswana),
Doris Lessing (UK/Zimbabwe), Martha Mvungi (Tanzania), Rebeka
Njau (Kenya), Flora Nwapa (Nigeria) and Alifa Rifaat (Egypt).
(Aidoo 1988, 162). In her discussion of gender politics in the

African literary canon, Stratton has underlined the double bind
of women writers: they were rendered invisible, while their works
were trivialized and distorted by literary standards that were both
‘Euro- and androcentric’ (Stratton 1994, 6). Not surprisingly,
critical scholars have underlined that recognizing women writers
in African literary history would mean a thorough revision as it
would ‘force a reconception of its central canon’ (Wilson-Tagoe
[1997] 2017, 13).
Flora Nwapa reflected on the negligence of African female
writers in various interviews. For instance, in the Norwegian
documentary film, when asked if female writers in Nigeria had
the same status as male writers, she responded (NRK TV 1987,
25:25–26:59):
I am afraid not and this is what we keep saying when we attend

conferences, even in Nigeria: that the men seem to ignore us.
Critics, the male critics, don’t bother to study our works.
[Interviewer: To write about you, or what?] To write about us.
And we keep telling them that where they come from, there were
women and therefore, they should take us into account. Creative
writing is something that not everybody can have. But the writers,
many writers, thrive on controversy. If you don’t write about my
work, how could I know that people appreciate what I am doing?
It’s when you criticize some people that they come out with their
best. You are willing a writer to die if you don’t talk about her
writing. This is what Ama Ata Aidoo, Buchi Emecheta, and myself,
this is what we keep hampering on, that Nigerian male writers are
not helping us at all.
Despite her pioneering role, Flora Nwapa’s marginalization in lit-

erary canon formation constrained her literary career, even killing
her voice globally. In addition to being ignored by Nigerian writ-
ers and critics, her international publisher did little to promote her.
As an African woman writer, she experienced ‘multiple marginali-
ty’ from Heinemann, since the publisher did not bother promoting
or distributing her books (Umeh 1995, 22). Even in the retrospec-
tive Africa Writes Back, Flora Nwapa is recognized as a ‘skilled
story-teller’ and ‘the first writer to put women at the centre’, yet
her work is belittled by the comment ‘although her early heroines
tend to emerge as “worshipful servant-wives to e rring husbands,”
as The Companion [to African Literature] put it’ (Currey 2008,

43). This discrimination had dire consequences for her literary
career: ‘According to Nwapa, Heinemann’s placing her in the lit-
erary backwaters resulted in the piracy of her books locally and
the death of her voice globally’ (Umeh 1995, 22). Rather than
accepting this structural marginalization, Flora Nwapa set up her
own publishing house, as discussed in Chapter 4. Even so, before
Efuru@50, Flora Nwapa’s works had ‘partially gone into deep
freeze on the world scale’ (Salami-Boukari 2012, 8).
The marginalization of women in literary history is compara-
ble to how women have been rendered invisible in academic can-
ons in general, as exemplified by anthropology. In 1995, feminist
anthropologists published Women Writing Culture (Behar and
Gordon 1995), in response to the crisis in anthropology follow-
ing Writing Culture (Clifford and Marcus 1986). Focusing on the
politics and poetics of anthropological writing, Writing Culture
stirred vigorous debate on the question of cultural representation,
calling for more innovative and experimental forms of writing,
to ‘decolonize the power relations inherent in the representation
of the Other’ (Behar 1995, 4). The glaring omission of women’s
contributions to anthropological writing was not taken lightly
by feminist anthropologists. Women Writing Culture offered an-
other history and another canon for anthropology, bringing forth
women’s writings, while challenging the discipline’s ‘prestige hier-
archy’ and its ‘(male) canon’ (Behar 1995, 9).
Interestingly, these feminist anthropologists referred to criti-
cal debates on literary canons in the United States. They noted
how anthropologists stayed silent in the debates, even though
‘the literary critic, with “his” reading list of the great books of
Western civilization, is a symbolic antithesis’ (Behar 1995, 10).
Meanwhile, they acknowledged that ‘the continued lack of critical
reflection about our own canon suggests that anthropology has
yet to carry out the radical kind of self-examination that would
bring its multicultural quest home’ (Behar 1995, 11). Sadly, there
is a reason why I cite these words two and a half decades later,
given the current state of decolonization in anthropology, which
at best can be described as work in progress (Allen and Jobson
2016; Mogstad and Tse 2018; Todd 2018; Tuhiwai Smith 2012).
The persistence of gender imbalance in world literary canons is

disturbingly palpable. As Stefan Helgesson has noted, ‘The male
dominance in just about any version of a world literary canon
is plain to see’ (Helgesson and Rosendahl Thomsen 2020, 162).
Ironically, Rosendahl Thomsen notes that this gender bias persists
despite a mostly female readership: ‘research shows that many
more women read fiction than men, but we have yet to see if that
spills over into changing the canon’ (Helgesson and Rosendahl
Thomsen 2020, 163). The world literature canon privileges
male-authored novels, while undervaluing other forms like folklore
and children’s literature, as well as stories depicting everyday life,
which are common features in women’s writings (Higonnet 2009,
138–40). This hierarchical ordering is also evident in how gender
tends to be categorized alongside indigenous and non-Western,
thus asserting the masculinity of literary history (Castillo 2012,
394). The persistence of male-dominated literary canons can be
related to how a ‘masculine bias of the canon exemplifies a wider
process by which hegemonic discourses—especially on gender and
race—are established’, a ‘process of devaluation’ that is clearly
at work in ‘domains of high culture’ (Lutz 1995, 250). Research
has shown devaluation and re-evaluation of the novel in Britain,
which until the mid-nineteenth century was dominated by women
writers: ‘when women wrote them, they were low-prestige cultur-
al items. Once men dominated the field, the novel was lauded as
high art’ (Lutz 1995, 250). While the ‘canons of taste in cultural
objects’ have been challenged in many places (Lutz 1995, 260),
world literary canons still remain to be revised and revalued.
A more gender-sensitive appraisal of world literature is clearly
needed. Scholars have argued that gender-sensitive and feminist
analyses offer effective tools for revealing the gendered power
structures and ideological parameters operating in literary history
and canon formation processes (Edfeldt 2019; Leppänen 2018).
Such work can for instance show ‘the importance of gender as a
mediating category in the circulation of literature’ (Edfeldt 2018,
369), while rectifying the ‘absence of gender both theoretically and
numerically’ (Bergenmar and Leppänen 2017, 237). Since theory
is gendered, raced and classed (Lutz 1995, 251), such e fforts can
clearly enrich scholarship, while decentring the masculist bias in
literary theory (Spivak 1988, 1998). Learning from anthropolo-

gy, gender-sensitive analyses should also recognize that feminism
may have its limitations. In the writing culture debate mentioned
above, feminist anthropologists responded to not only the crisis
in anthropology but also the crisis in feminism, especially the
‘critiques of white middle-class feminism’ vocalized by women of
colour (Behar 1995, 3).
Nwapa’s This Is Lagos and writing across genres

Although Flora Nwapa started her literary career writing nov-
els, she also wrote short stories, poems and plays, as well as chil-
dren’s books. In my research on women writers in Tanzania and
Nigeria, I have found that women writers are often inclined to
write across genres, expressing their storytelling through different
forms. The creative impulse seems more important than literary
prestige. Writing across genres demands a more multifaceted lit-
erary talent, a gift for storytelling that is not limited to the format
of the novel.
Nwapa’s first collection of short stories was This Is Lagos and
Other Stories (Nwapa [1971] 1986). First published in 1971, the
book was reprinted four times. The 1986 edition, which I bought
at the Efuru@50 event, was published by Tana Press Ltd in Enugu,
Flora Nwapa’s own publishing house. The front cover depicts a
colour photograph of a young woman in a short-sleeved white
dress with red prints, a large grey shoulder bag in nylon hanging
loosely at her hip. The image of the woman is superimposed on
a photograph of downtown Lagos, with high-rise buildings and
tree-lined streets with cars and pedestrians. The cover conveys
femininity and urban modernity, a theme that runs through the
nine short stories.
The short stories in This Is Lagos deal with various aspects
of urban life, primarily from a woman’s perspective. In six out of
nine stories, the main character is a modern urban woman who
tackles the joys and demands of city life. Changing gender roles
is a recurring theme, as women try to cope with demands of mar-
riage and motherhood, while exploring new ground as urban pro-
fessionals and modern spouses. They challenge established norms
in various ways, not least when it comes to love relations with
men. The lead characters are generally well educated and well
travelled; some have been to Europe; all of them originate from
other parts of Nigeria, oftentimes the East, thus capturing internal
migration and urbanization.
In ‘The Loss of Eze’, romantic relationships are explored
through the young sophisticated Amede. At the beginning of the
story, Amede drives to an embassy party, where she meets Tunde,
a gentleman who catches her interest. Amede is still upset about
having lost Eze to another woman, a passionate consuming rela-
tionship that she describes as ‘It was an affair that took everything
out of me’ (Nwapa 1986, 92). Amede’s sophistication is depicted
through her posh house with a steward, her fancy car and her
subtle manners, while her strength as an independent woman un-
derwrites her social polish.
So after six months of losing Eze I said to hell with him. To hell
with all I held dear, I must live my own life the way I wanted it. Eze
or no Eze, I must live my life fully and usefully. That week, I got
an invitation from one of the embassies. I was on their list. That
meant that any time there was a party or something I was invited
to it. One of them had even told me once when an invitation for
me came late, and I was not at the party, that I did not need to wait
to receive invitations. When I heard of anything, I should jump
into my car and come. It was kind and well meaning, I knew, but
how many people would do that without embarrassment of a sort?
(Nwapa 1986, 93)
At the party, Amede chats politely with her boss, sipping gin and
tonic, lamenting the overbearing manners of Mr Bright, a brazen
urbanite, while being intrigued by the neat appearance and gen-
tle wittiness of Tendu. Unlike Mr Bright, Tendu is knowledgeable
about the country beyond Lagos.
‘Have you been to the East?’ I asked Tunde.

‘Not since I returned from Britain not quite eighteen months
ago. I shall go to the East again when I have my leave.’
‘So you have been to the East before?’ Mr. Bright said.
‘I went to the East when I was at school. I had an uncle in Port
Harcourt, a goldsmith. I took a very old boat from Apapa to
Port Harcourt. I spent a week in Port Harcourt. Then I took a train
to Enugu, from there back to Lagos. I would very much like to
visit Onitsha. I have heard to [sic] much about it from my friends

in the D.T.C. and even when I was abroad,’ Tunde concluded. My
estimation of him rose high. Here is someone who is different from
the others. Here is someone who did not think that Lagos was the
centre of the universe. (Nwapa 1986, 98)
Amede’s appreciation of Tunde’s familiarity with the eastern part

of the country exposes some of the internal divides that have
plagued Nigeria. Limited interaction with and exposure to other
parts of the country have reinforced ethnic divides inherited from
the colonial era. Some elite urbanites have been oriented to met-
ropolitan centres in the West, while maintaining a condescending
attitude toward the rest of the country, thus internalizing colonial
mindsets, as portrayed in Mr Bright. Amede’s objection to such be-
haviour offers an alternative to urban sophistication and cultured
manners, one that appreciates rather than rejects local culture.
By contrast, in the story ‘This Is Lagos’, a young woman, Soha,
has just arrived in Lagos. Before leaving her home, her mother
cautions her: ‘They say Lagos men do not just chase women, they
snatch them’ (Nwapa 1986, 10). Soha lives with her aunt, who
she calls Mama Eze, after the aunt’s first son. They live in the
outskirts of the city and Soha teaches at a nearby primary school.
Soha does not like teaching, but considers the job a stepping stone.
Soha is courted by a man in a car – a brand-new car, on top
of that. While she plays hard to get, using her femininity to lure
him, the man seduces her with shopping and outings. Her aunt
warns her against Lagos men, but to no avail. Soha keeps her love
affair secret, but Mama Eze understands that she is hiding some-
thing from her. When Soha wants to move to a hostel, she forbids
her, but soon enough Soha moves out secretly. She then reappears
with her gentleman and finds her family and neighbour at a loss
for words, as they announce that they have married.
The phrase ‘This is Lagos. Anything can happen here’ (Nwapa
1986, 19) captures urbanization and social change, especially in
relation to women and morality. Soha is representative of young
women seeking prosperity in the city, initially through a job that
earns her a salary but very soon through a man who can p rovide
her with modern conveniences and comforts. Her femininity
is her primary asset, not least her sexuality, but it also c hallenges
social norms. Soha is pregnant when she marries her suitor,

Mr Ibikunle. While the marriage saves her from the shame of be-
ing a single mother, the fact that she has eloped with her secret
lover goes against traditional procedures, which involve family. In
the story, Lagos is blamed for these lapses in morality, along with
its Western cultural influences, thus raising critique against some
aspects of metropolitan modernity.
In her analysis of This Is Lagos and Other Stories, Naana
Banyiwa Horne argues that the collection is distinguished by the
valorization of female voices (Horne 1998). In the female-centred
worlds of Nwapa’s authorship, the collection of stories ‘constitutes
a wealthy tapestry of the contemporary Nigerian world in general
and of intimate female portraits in particular’ (Horne 1998, 443).
From her feminist perspective, Horne underlines that the voices of
women imbue the characters with female agency, cast as agents
of action and change, as they combat patriarchy to regain control of
their lives. Horne emphasizes the significance of upward mobili-
ty, women trying to improve their social position, as when Soha
who turns to a man wealthy enough to own a car as a means of
self-improvement. Meanwhile, Amede’s efforts to e nsure that she
looks good at the party is interpreted as an ‘assertion of Nwapa’s
feminism, one that valorizes those distinct attributes of African
womanhood and femininity’, namely the pleasures and well-being
of looking good (Horne 1998, 457).
Horne recognizes the ‘tangle of entrapments’ of city life (Horne
1998, 474), a tangle that has transnational dimensions. She notes
that urban life lures women with Western bourgeois ideals of
womanhood, which coexist with African norms and practices.
In her analysis, this constitutes a ‘conflation of the Western and
African underpinnings of patriarchy’, as women are commodified
as sexual creatures as well as reproductive breeders (Horne 1998,
460–61). I would argue that, rather than representing a conflation
of patriarchal ideals, the stories exemplify the cultural entangle-
ments in the literary work of African women writers like Flora
Nwapa. Far from being a conflictual encounter between clear-cut
binaries, i.e. urban/rural, modern/traditional, African/Western,
it is illustrative of the intricate complexities of intertwining so-
cial worlds. Through the creolized aesthetics we can get a more
uanced reading of Nwapa’s literary worldmaking, as will be dis-

n
cussed below, but first let me acquaint you with Eugenia Abu.
Eugenia Abu and the power of female storytelling

I think if more writers are women, we can stabilize the continent,
because we speak truth to power, a lot more than I think the
men do.
I think we feel the pain of a war, more than the men can ever
understand. Because when the men decide to go to war, the peo-
ple who are left to carry the can are the women and the children.
Women writers are more able to express this, better than the men.
Because I don’t think there is a man who can express it, he doesn’t
know what it means. It is difficult for a man to express hunger
better than a woman. A woman knows because she eats last you
see, and because she gives everybody the food, and then she has to
go look for the food. It’s pretty much like the animal kingdom, a
female lion goes hunting for the food and brings it, and then the
men eat first. Very much the same thing here. A lot of women are
becoming, a lot of African families are becoming female-headed
households, because the men are either working in the cities or
they are at war. And so women are tending to become the fathers
and the mothers and socializing the children. So it’s much harder.
And so I think women are able from the position of how we are
created biologically to tell the stories better. When a woman is di-
vorced or when a woman is abused, sexually, physically, emotion-
ally, she expresses it better than the male writer can ever do. And
these are most of the issues that our societies are facing, domestic
violence. The weaker, the more vulnerable sex is the one that is put
out there to suffer untold hardships when there is a war. She is the
one when there is an illness, who at a very young age doesn’t go
to school, because she has to look after a sick mother, the boys are
not made to do that.
So I think women tell the African story better. And they tell the
world’s stories better, all over the world, really. Because they have
what it takes, they have the intuition that only women can do.
And I think women, like I said, can speak truth to power. I’ve said
it all. And we tend to be the ones that tell the next generation of
children, we have the folktales, more than the men have, so can
transpire it better. (Eugenia Abu)
Eugenia Abu’s eloquent reflection on the role of women writers

offers a powerful vision of women’s storytelling. A well-known
media personality who lives in Abuja, Eugenia Abu has worked as
a news anchor for many years, and when we met she was execu-
tive director of programmes at the Nigerian Television Authority
(NTA). Although known as a broadcaster, she considers herself
to be a writer – a jollof writer, to be more precise, as will be ex-
plained below.
I met Eugenia Abu in her office at NTA in Abuja on 13 December
2016, feeling lucky to get a 30-minute interview, which stretched
to 40 minutes. I arrived a bit early; she apologized for being a few
minutes late, a surprisingly punctual time awareness, undoubt-
edly shaped by years in broadcasting. It was clear that she had a
hectic schedule, as befits a senior executive. Her spacious office
was furnished with executive desks and chairs, as well as a sitting
area. We sat next to each other on comfortable armchairs, my
voice recorder near her arm rest. Eugenia was strikingly elegant,
embodying the ideals of good-looking femininity, with flawless
complexion, well-manicured hands and a fashionable gown. As
a senior media professional, she carried herself with confidence
and authority, eloquently answering my questions with concise
precision and powerful vision, reading them off my printout as
the interview progressed.
Eugenia was born in 1962 in Kaduna, northern Nigeria. Her
father was a civil servant, permanent secretary of the state, and
her mother was a hospital matron. Her ethnic group is Igala and her
religion is Catholic. Eugenia attended both public and private
schools, and she underlined that the former were very good when
she was a child. She went to a federal government-supported uni-
versity, Ahmadu Bello University (1981). Eugenia has two master’s
degrees, both from universities in the UK, the first in communica-
tion policy (1991), the second in creative writing (2011). Gifted in
languages, Eugenia speaks seven languages in addition to English:
her mother tongue is Igala, and she also speaks some French,
Hausa, Yoruba, Igbira (her mother’s language), Tiv and a little bit
of Swahili, after living with some East Africans in London. Her
spouse is a media consultant. In response to my question on how
many children she has, Eugenia asked me, ‘Did you know it was
not African to say how many children you have?’ As I awkwardly

burst out, ‘Oh, really!?’ she explained: ‘Children are given by God
and you shouldn’t count them.’ Feeling a bit stupid, I suggested
she could skip the question, but she volunteered a response: six
birth children, and many more young people she has mentored,
who she also considers to be her children.
‘Nigeria is a nation of storytellers,’ Eugenia remarked, as she
reflected on storytelling in her family to contextualize her own
writing career. She recalled her grandfather, who was a merchant,
with so many stories from his travels and how she used to sit at
his feet and wonder if the stories were fables or true. Those stories
became part of her life. Her mother told stories as well, espe-
cially about traditional institutions like royalty, storytelling that
could go on for days. They also had a lot of folktales from their
grandmother. Eugenia started writing at the age of seven. She used
to draw stick people, name them as characters and create stories
around them. Her father was excited, which encouraged her to
start story writing. So writing ‘just sort of came to me,’ she con-
cluded, adding, ‘if you read a lot, writing tends to come to you.’
Jollof writer is how Eugenia is referred to, because she writes in
‘all the genres’. ‘I am gifted,’ she reflected, in short stories, column
writing, essay writing, short fiction, long fiction, screen play and
poetry. ‘Jollof is a Nigerian meal, which I’m sure you tried, which
is a mix of everything,’ she explained, so, ‘I am a writer who writes
all the mixes, and all of it in English.’
At the time, Eugenia had published two books, In the Blink
of an Eye and Don’t Look at Me Like That, in addition to es-
says, columns and poems. In the Blink of an Eye (Abu 2007) is
a collection of essays she wrote for The Guardian newspaper
over a period of 23 years. It won the ANA/NDDC Flora Nwapa
Prize in 2008 for women’s writing. Some of her poems and essays
have also won prizes. Her second book, Don’t Look at Me Like
That (Abu 2009), is a collection of poems, ‘poetry of love and
consciousness,’ Eugenia reflected. The books were published by
Nigerian publishers, Spectrum Books and Kraft Books Limited,
both based in Ibadan, although Spectrum is a transnational pub-
lisher with offices in London and Addis. Eugenia also wrote two
weekly columns in newspapers: ‘Tales from the Main Road’ in
Business Day and ‘Five Favourite Books with Eugenia Abu’ in

The Sunday Trust. She also had a novel under way when we met.
‘Life in Nigeria is a story,’ Eugenia responded, when I asked
about the main opportunities and challenges for writers in
Nigeria. ‘The storytelling is everywhere; Nigeria has a rich trope
of f olktales.’ As for challenges, she singled out publishing: ‘Maybe
not enough publishing opportunities, not enough publishing
houses.’ She also brought up the challenge of power, as in elec-
tricity: ‘Because, when the muse gets you, you have to write, and
if you don’t have a generator and there is no power, then that’s
hard.’ She added, ‘And not enough libraries,’ thus underlining yet
another infrastructural inadequacy.
Her vision of what she hoped to achieve through her w riting
was geared towards societal improvement and intercultural
understanding:
A writer many years ago said that writing is about seeing, entering
into another person’s community and getting to understand them.
And when I teach writing to small groups, I say one of the things
about entering another person’s community is, if you meet people
who are walking backwards, and you’ve never been to their cul-
ture, their community and seen that that’s the way they walk and
they are nice people, they walk backwards anyway, you never un-
derstand it. You are likely to begin to either be abusive or rude to
people who are walking backwards, because we’re not from that
culture. So, until you understand another person’s community, you
can’t really understand the people completely, can you?
And to make community and the world and humanity a better
place, to avoid the wars in Syria, we need to enter each other’s
communities. We need to understand Nigeria better than the in-
ternational media is trying to portray, and they portrayed us in
such a bad light that people don’t even want to come here. If I
can achieve making two persons come to Nigeria, to see how rich
and beautiful my culture is, if I can tell stories of my childhood,
if I can tell stories of violence against women, if I can tell stories
on rape, if I can tell stories to make another person understand
that rape is not acceptable in whatever form, if I can tell a sto-
ry that gives somebody else pleasure, then I think I would have
achieved my aim in writing. Keeping two columns, writing about
lifestyle and fashion and fabric and motives in Business Day, and
writing about books [in The Sunday Trust], means that I’m getting
people to read. I get text every time: ‘Can I find this book, where?’
Then I have made my own contribution to national development,
I want to believe, beyond which I hope my writing gives pleasure,
above everything else.
Creolized aesthetics in a pluriverse of literary worlds

By invoking Flora Nwapa, I wish to explore Nigerian women writ-
ers’ literature through the lens of creolized aesthetics, to help us
rethink world literature along the lines of a pluriverse of literary
worlds. Eugenia’s jollof writing exemplifies a creolized aesthetic,
a literary style that readily mixes cultural elements of different
spatiotemporal origin, within the political economy of world lit-
erature. Rather than representing an imported art form, literature
is seen as another version of storytelling, which is both universal
and culturally specific, both cosmopolitan and vernacular. Like
Flora Nwapa and many other women writers, Eugenia expresses
her stories through a variety of genres, novels, short stories, plays,
poetry, essays and columns, thus broadening the parameters of
literary production, well beyond novels. The creolized aesthetic
captures writing across genres, genders and generations as well as
across social, natural and spiritual worlds, as discussed through-
out this monograph. But global inequalities hamper Nigeria’s
literary scene, especially infrastructural inadequacies, from pro-
duction (electricity, publishing houses) to circulation (libraries,
reading culture). While these shortcomings are indicative of the
uneven development of the world-literature system (WReC 2015),
the situation is further compounded by aesthetic hierarchies in
world literature (Thiong’o 2014).
Nigerian women writers privilege storytelling, thus embrac-
ing orature. Recall Eugenia’s remarks: ‘Life in Nigeria is a story’
and ‘the storytelling is everywhere; Nigeria has a rich trope of
folktales’. Her emphasis on storytelling recognizes orature as a
‘living tradition’ that ‘is always at the cutting edge of the new
and the experimental in words and experience’ (Thiong’o 2014,
83). A telling example of such aesthetic innovation is the digital-
ly mediated performance poetry of Zuhura Seng’enge, a young
Tanzanian poet who combines orature, literature, music and the-
atre (Uimonen 2018). Contrary to the logic of world literature,
which places orature and literature in a hierarchy of value, the

creolized aesthetic accommodates both forms and therefore it sets
‘free the richness of the aesthetic, oral or literary’ (Thiong’o 2014,
85). Freed from the constraints of aesthetic hierarchies, female
writers can draw on a rich tradition of orature, while experi-
menting with modern literary forms to capture the entanglements
of life.
By valorizing storytelling, women writers can defy the market
logic of the world-literature system. Notions of the extroverted
orientation of African literature (Julien 2006, 2018) build on
assumptions that African writers ‘desire to achieve recognition’,
thus directing their literary production toward the global market
(Huggan 2001, 35). But such generalizations do not hold. While
some writers dream of international publication, not all do: ‘for
many writers in Nigeria, it is not the case that all literary roads
lead through London or New York’ (Suhr-Sytsma 2018, 344).
Rather than obsessing with market value, many female writers
just want to tell their stories. Privileging the story, the status of the
genre is secondary, even for writers of great repute. As mentioned
above, Flora Nwapa unassumingly reflected: ‘I write because
I have a story to tell’ (Flora Nwapa, cited in Umeh 1995, 26).
Similarly, the Mozambican female writer Paulina Chiziane states
on her book covers: ‘They say that I am a novelist and that I was
the first Mozambican woman to write a novel, but I say: I am a
storyteller and not a novelist […] I am inspired by the tales of the
bonfire’ (Paulina Chiziane, cited in Edfeldt 2018, 380).
Women writers also resist and counter patriarchal and post/
neo-colonial power structures, which makes the creolized aes-
thetic an exemplary aesthetic of decolonization. Similarly to male
writers like Chinua Achebe, they reject Western narratives of
their history, insisting on telling their own stories, thus express-
ing ‘aesthetics of resistance’ (Thiong’o 2014, 41). But, by insisting
on a space for women’s storytelling, they also counter masculin-
ist literature systems. African women’s writing can thus be ap-
preciated as a creative contribution to both ‘changing the terms
of the conversation’ associated with decoloniality and ‘changes
to the content of the conversation’ linked to de-Westernization
(Mignolo 2018b, 112–13). As Ogunyemi has asserted, ‘decoloni-
zation becomes complete with palava sauce’ (1996, 105).
From a womanist perspective, women’s literary storytelling

holds tremendous transformative power, since ‘women writers
usually exhibit a sense of social responsibility in their writing. They
believe in change for the sake of progress’ (Ogunyemi 1996, 2).
Similarly to the traditional griot, the woman writer can be appre-
ciated as a ‘master of the word’, valued for ‘the art of speaking
well and of speaking truth’, a ‘(re)builder of cultural identities’
and ‘social morals’ (Ouattara 2018, 154). Compared to male gri-
ots and writers, women can be even more progressive: ‘As griottes,
the women writers cause imperceptible shifts in established dis-
courses’, through their ‘counternarratives’ they reveal ‘the politics
of oppression’ and ‘attempt to provoke wo/men into reassessing
their position in society’ (Ogunyemi 1996, 3–4). As Eugenia stat-
ed, ‘women writers speak truth to power, a lot more than I think
the men do’.
These literary interventions can be appreciated as transition
discourses that craft other possible worlds (Escobar 2018, 2020).
Escobar suggests that ‘the most imaginative TDs [transition
discourses] link together aspects of reality that have remained
separate in previous imaginings of social transformation: on-
tological, cultural, politico-economic, ecological, and spiritual’
(Escobar 2018, 68). These transition discourses often build on
cosmovisions that recognize the ‘radical interdependence’ of all
existence, like ‘the great ancestral civilizations’, or ‘matriztic on-
tologies’ that predate patriarchy (Escobar 2020, 14). He also out-
lines three principles for transition strategies: depatriarchalization
and decolonization, the liberation of Mother Earth, and the flour-
ishing of the pluriverse (Escobar 2020, 30).
I would suggest that progressive cosmovisions are also to be
found in African women’s literature, transition discourses that
build on a long history of socially engaged storytelling, addressing
various forms of oppression, while offering creative alternatives
for social change. For Nigerian women writers, their ‘constituency
is all oppressed people’, their ideology is ‘collectivism as opposed
to individualism’, their literary sphere of ‘interlingual and inter-
cultural celebration’ enriches ‘postcolonial counterdiscourse’ with
a ‘womanist ideal’, addressing problems affecting the oppressed,
with ‘maternal grace’ (Ogunyemi 1996, 103–5).
When it comes to designs for the pluriverse, Flora Nwapa

comes across as an inspirational foremother, not least through
the relational ontologies of her literary worldmaking. In Latin
America, underlying ‘many of the mobilizations of indigenous,
Afro-descendant, women’s, land-based and popular groups are
relational worldviews’, which offer ‘viable alternatives to modern
social and political arrangements’ (Escobar 2018, 80). For exam-
ple, feminismo comunitario, conceptualized by a feminist group
in La Paz, offers a ‘reinterpretation of gender (including gender
complementarity) along relational, communal lines’ (Escobar
2018, 80). With its critique of ‘neoliberal capitalism, patriarchal-
ism, and liberal feminisms’ (Escobar 2018, 80), this communitar-
ian feminism has interesting resemblances to African womanism,
which has always emphasized gender complementarity, cooper-
ation and community (Ogunyemi 1996), while its groundings in
spirituality and environmental balance is central in womanism in
general (Phillips 2006). Escobar argues convincingly that transi-
tion discourses and relational ontologies are important elements
in the design for a pluriverse, which he conceptualizes in terms of
‘ontological design’, that is, ‘the design of worlds and knowledges
otherwise (decolonial thought)’ (Escobar 2018, 83).
Returning to world literature, conceptualizing it as a pluriverse
of aesthetic worlds opens up productive ways of appraising
literary worldmaking. In his most recent work, Escobar under-
lines that ‘The pluriverse refers to the idea of multiple worlds
but also to the idea of life as limitless flow’ (Escobar 2020, 26).
Comparatively, focusing on ontogenesis in the pluriverse, Ingold
elaborates on a world in movement, always becoming, describing
the world as conversation, noting that ‘to join the conversation,
then, is to inhabit the world’ (Ingold 2018, 158). Similarly, in
world literary theory, Cheah elaborates that ‘we conceive of
the world as an ongoing, dynamic process of becoming, some-
thing continually made and remade’ and world literature as ‘a
fundamental force in the ongoing cartography and creation of
the world instead of a body of timeless aesthetic objects’ (Cheah
2008, 30–31). Given this emphasis on narrative creation and
incessant flow, the pluriverse comes across as a very suitable con-
cept for world literature.
While the notion of a pluriverse accommodates the cultural di-

versity of aesthetic worlds, the ontogenesis of literary worldmak-
ing begs for a more processual approach, to ‘think of difference in
terms of differentiation rather than diversity’ (Ingold 2018, 161,
emphasis in original). This is a critical distinction, since it captures
the way in which parts are related to the whole, as something
that emerges from within, according to the ‘principle of interstitial
differentiation’ (Ingold 2018, 166). It also captures the perpetual
movement of the world, since diversity refers to being different,
while differentiation refers to becoming different.
The principle of interstitial differentiation allows us to think
along the lines of one world literature as a pluriverse of aesthet-
ic worlds. Although Escobar argues for relational ontology and
pluriversal design as a counterforce to a hegemonic One World
– a globalized capitalist, patriarchal and colonial world (Escobar
2020, 9), Ingold insists on seeing the world as one (Ingold 2018,
158). Since world literature offers insights into the ontogenesis of
the world, even constituting a force in the making of the world, I
find it productive to think along the lines of one world literature.
One world literature speaks to the cosmopolitan aspirations of
scholarship in world literature and anthropology (Hannerz 2007,
2016; Uimonen 2019a) but it also captures the cosmopolitan ori-
entation of the creolized aesthetics and the transformative am-
bitions of womanism. Even so, we should not lose sight of the
world-literature system of uneven development (WReC 2015),
acknowledging that the pluriverse also captures how ‘worlds are
interlinked, though under unequal relations of power’ (Escobar
2020, 27).
When it comes to literary worldmaking, it is worth exploring
the ‘ontological status’ of literature (Cheah 2008, 35), by way
of anthropological theory on creativity as cultural improvisa-
tion. Life is ‘unscriptable’ because it is ‘a movement through a
world that is crescent’ (Hallam and Ingold 2007, 12). If life is
unscriptable, what happens to literary worldmaking? The notion
that the world is in constant flux, always becoming rather than
ready-made, points to the fluidity of cultural imagination, as peo-
ple continuously imagine and re-imagine the world. If we think
of the world in terms of ‘ontological flux’, we can appreciate how
we ‘perform a world into being’ and how we ‘may even speak the
world into occurring’ (Hastrup 2007, 198–9). In terms of world-
making, we can see that ‘[i]magination and agency are two sides
of the same coin’, since it is only through imagination that we can
grasp a social whole, be it the world, society or community, and
act upon it in a meaningful way (Hastrup 2007, 202).
Literature provides a privileged venue for worldmaking, since
it fixes the ontological flux through entextualization, thus offering
a more stable form of collaborative improvisation (Barber 2007).
Noting that the word text originates in the Latin texere, which
means to weave, to join together, Barber argues that text has to
do with ‘weaving or fabricating with words’ (Barber 2016, 1). She
looks at texts as social facts as well as commentaries on social
facts, emphasizing the reflexive dimension of text in relation to
social reality (Barber 2016, 4).
If we rethink world literature in terms of a pluriverse of a esthetic
worlds, we can open up new ways of capturing the existential
value of literary worldmaking. Following Thiong’o, in order to
‘release the worldliness’ in literature, we should ‘read literature,
any literature, through a globalectic vision’ (Thiong’o 2014, 60).
Globalectics demands openness to different ways of worldmaking,
without hierarchical ordering, as poetically expressed by Thiong’o:
‘It is to read a text with the eyes of the world; it is to see the
world with the eyes of the text’ (2014, 60). The lens of creolized
aesthetics can hopefully help us read the texts of Nigerian women
writers with the eyes of the pluriverse and see the world of many
worlds with the eyes of their texts.
2. Feminist Controversies in Maiduguri
Military escort, new moon and endless sky

A military police officer sat next to the bus driver and an open
van with two armed military police drove in front of us, escorting
us from the airport to the University of Maiduguri (UNIMAID)
campus. At the airport there were several Westerners, wearing
vests with logos of the World Food Program and United Nations
Humanitarian Air Services. An immigration officer approached us
when we waited for our luggage, insisting that I deliver my docu-
ments in their office. After seeing my passport, with the visa and
entry stamp from Lagos, they filled in my details in a large regis-
ter. ‘Please make sure to pass here when you leave,’ they insisted.
What first came across as unnecessary hassle (my international
arrival had been in Lagos, not Maiduguri) was actually a good
security measure, I soon realized. If anything happened, at least
the authorities would know that I had arrived in town. As we
left the airport, we had to pass a gate that was secured with road
obstacles that the bus had to zigzag through.
As we drove through the streets of Maiduguri, I marvelled at
the greenery. The State House in particular was surrounded by
lush forest, in a contrast to the flat arid landscape I had observed
from the plane. The streets were lined with stylish streetlamps
in iron; on campus the streetlights were solar-powered. There
were some military around, and almost every wall we passed had
barbed wire on top. Maiduguri was fortified. But who was the
enemy? It soon became clear that it was not just Boko Haram that
was creating trouble.

University Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.16993/bbe.c. License: CC-BY 4.0.
‘NGOs are taking over this place,’ Razinat lamented in the bus.
‘They are occupying most hotel rooms and hiking up prices, es-
pecially rentals, distorting our economy.’ It turned out that the
campus guesthouse did not have enough rooms for us, despite
her advance booking. Local administrators had simply taken over
some rooms for guests for an event in town. But it was the NGOs
that upset Razinat. Tope and I were driven to a nearby hotel that
would have rooms, but after a while it turned out that all rooms
were full. ‘See, it is the NGOs, they just take over everything,’
Razinat said as we sat in the reception, watching some young
Westerners check in. There was a summit dealing with the situ-
ation in the region, I was told, thus many guests. The situation
reminded me of Phnom Penh, Cambodia, in 1994, when I was
doing fieldwork for my master’s thesis on social memory among
Khmer peasants, documenting how they remembered the Pol Pot
regime. At the time, Phnom Penh was a destitute city, with a large
presence of NGOs, running various pet projects to ‘help’ rebuild
post-conflict Cambodia. The contrast between NGOs and the lo-
cal population was marked, in socio-economic and not to men-
tion cultural terms. NGO workers enjoyed the comfort of villas,
their everyday contacts with locals often limited to their house
maids, drivers and office staff.
‘My colleagues got worried when they learned that a for-
eigner was going to stay on campus, one of those people who
wear shorts and run around all over the place,’ Razinat had
confessed in the bus. She was quite relieved when I showed up
in a loose ankle-length black skirt, a long-sleeved blouse and
my hair neatly tied back, well within the parameters of socially
acceptable attire.
The insurgency in northern Nigeria had been going on for
seven years. In Western media Boko Haram was featured as
violent terrorists who captured women for forced marriages. But
I realized that I knew very little about the conflict, its root causes
and the impact it had on people living in this area, a remote part
of Nigeria that was so far away from the rest of the country, let
alone its distance from Western metropolises. The media narrative
sounded a bit too simple, too much of a single story, to borrow
Adichie’s words.
Feminist Controversies in Maiduguri 63
In the end, Tope and I were given rooms in the UNIMAID

commercial guesthouse, along with the men in the team. We
were housed in spacious rooms in cottages, while the men got
smaller rooms in the back. I appreciated the privileges awarded
to us ladies. The room was built and decorated with visible am-
bition: heavy curtains in the windows on decorative curtain rods
and a large carpet on the floor. The spacious bathroom had a
shower that did not work, but I could use the bucket on the floor
and scoop out water for my bath. There were no towels, but my
wrapper from Tanzania worked just as well, doubling as a sheet
at night.
The campus was quiet and peaceful, with lush gardens. The sky
was clear with bright stars and the sliver of a new moon. I was
imagining how magic the night must be in the nearby desert, vast
plains under an endless sky.
Maiduguri had beckoned me, enticed me to travel to Nigeria and

experience the country first hand. It was Maiduguri in particular
that had fuelled my fears as well as strengthened my resolve to
overcome my prejudices. When I googled Maiduguri before my
departure, I mostly found images of conflict and armed struggle.
I knew that it was a partial picture, and I wanted to at least get a
glimpse of what was omitted in media reporting. After all, people
lived in Maiduguri, presumably in the pursuit of happiness just
like anywhere else in the world, and armed conflicts were always
complex, Boko Haram being no exception.
Razinat had become a sister even before we met, welcoming me
with warm and spirited emails. Wale had connected us by email
on 23 November, confirming that I would present my paper in
Maiduguri:
I have copied the mail to Dr Razinat Mohammed the Chairman of

the Local Organizing Committee in Maiduguri. She is also one
of our well known female writers whom you will be interviewing
in Maiduguri. Razinat, Paula is a Senior Lecturer (like you) from
the Stockholm University in Sweden. She will reach you shortly
regarding her research interests.
I followed up by briefly introducing my research and attaching my

paper. Razinat promptly replied:
I hope this message meets you well. Thank you for your mail. I read
through with peaked interest because you could not be coming at
a better time and place. You will meet with not just my humble
self but with Prof Zaynab Alkali, the foremost female writer from
the North. Looking forward to seeing you next week. Welcome to
Nigeria and indeed, Maiduguri.
Over the next few days, we exchanged several emails and Razinat’s
friendly tone made me feel ever so welcome. As I waited for my
visa at the Nigerian Embassy in Stockholm, I googled her name
and found an impressive record of scholarly and literary publica-
tions. Before my departure, she kindly advised me: ‘Please, come
with summer wears as the temperature may be a little warm for
you even though, in actual fact, it is cooling down for us. Do take
care of yourself and safe journey.’ When we finally met in per-
son at the airport in Maiduguri, we hugged each other warmly.
Razinat was visibly excited about our arrival and as the chair of
the local organizing committee she attended to every detail.
At the time of my visit, UNIMAID had never been attacked,
something that our hosts emphasized with great pride. They made
jokes about Boko Haram in the bus, undoubtedly to make us
feel at ease, creating a distance between our being there and the
media images we carried with us. A few of us wanted to visit
a camp for internally displaced people, but we were told that it
would require authorization from higher up. Our security was of
utmost concern. In addition, the faculty discouraged the camps
from becoming some kind of tourist trap. One of the writers ar-
ranged a visit to a camp after the event, since she was researching
for a book.
In January 2017, UNIMAID was attacked by Boko Haram
for the first time, followed by several attacks by suicide bombers,
some of them female. Seeing that boko haram means ‘Western
education is a sin’ in Hausa, it was perhaps not surprising that the
university was targeted. UNIMAID’s location on the outskirts of
town, not far from the Sambisa Forest that has provided a sanc-
tuary for Boko Haram, and the size of the campus made security
quite porous.
UNIMAID was almost the size of a small town, I noted when

taken on a tour around campus. The university was spread out
on a huge tract of land, much of it uninhabited. The entrances
were well guarded, with large concrete boulders making sure no
unauthorized vehicles could pass. But, with several kilometres of
border, it was clearly impossible to keep the place secure. I was
also surprised that Boko Haram had not attacked the university
previously, seeing that it was a symbol of Western education. But,
shortly after our visit, the attacks unfortunately began.
Efuru@50 and African womanhood

‘Some people always think we don’t matter here in the north, but
when given a chance we show them that we can do events just
as well, if not better,’ Razinat responded when I remarked how
well-organized and well attended the Maiduguri event was, far
surpassing what Lagos had delivered. ‘The warmth was incred-
ible,’ Flora Nwapa’s daughter Ejine reflected. Indeed, Efuru@50
in Maiduguri was a great success, with UNIMAID going out of
its way in hosting the event. The warm hospitality of the north,
coupled with the personal connections of the family, made for
an impressive event, concluded with spectacular cultural perfor-
mances. The spacious hall was beautifully decorated with rows of
metal framed chairs with blue and red cushions, large sofas at the
front row for VIPs, long blue curtains covering the windows, and
a large stage framed by stone-like tiles. The sound system worked
exquisitely well and the A/C units and fans ensured a pleasant
temperature throughout the day. The audience was numerous
from the outset, reaching over 500 in total, mostly students but
also many faculty members. The programme started a bit late,
but great efforts were made to keep time.
The programme started with elaborate welcoming remarks,
led by none less than the vice-chancellor, followed by the key-
note speaker, Professor Zaynab Alkali, introduced by Razinat.
Razinat welcomed and thanked the dignitaries as well as the au-
dience, adding, ‘I stand on existing protocol.’ This elaborate ritual
was repeated by all speakers, often referring to existing proto-
col, thus positioning the speaker in the event’s social hierarchy.
Razinat then elucidated the cultural significance of the event: a
Figure 4. Audience at University of Maiduguri. Photograph by author.
dual c elebration of womanhood and Flora Nwapa. When she

mentioned the presence of Flora Nwapa’s biological children, the
audience applauded.
Razinat underlined how Flora Nwapa, whose name was al-
ready immortalized through her writings, was now being immor-
talized by the event: ‘As great writers like Shakespeare had said
in their times, “when you write, you immortalize your name”,
and, although today it is Efuru we are celebrating, for reaching
the golden jubilee of 50 years, we are also celebrating the writer.’
The notion of writers immortalizing their name through their
writing offers an insightful example of the expansion of inter-
subjective spacetime through fame. As Munn ascertains, fame is
a mobile, circulating dimension of a person, as a name travels
apart from his/her physical presence (Munn 1986, 105). Literary
fame is particularly poignant, since fame is a ‘virtual form of in-
fluence’ that works ‘at the level of discourse by significant others’
(Munn 1986, 117). In the case of writers, it is not only their names
that circulate in the minds of distant others but also their written
words, thus making them ‘available in other times and places’. At
Efuru@50, Flora Nwapa’s name travelled widely, decades after

her own passing on, thus expanding the intersubjective spacetime
of her person.
Razinat proceeded excitedly: ‘I have the singular honour to in-
troduce our first; just like Flora Nwapa is the first female writer
in the whole of Africa, Zaynab Alkali is our own first northern
Nigeria female writer!’ With a big smile on her face, Razinat put
her hands together and the audience joined her in a warm, wel-
coming applause.
Professor Zaynab Alkali walked up to the stage, where she
gracefully greeted the audience. She positioned herself behind the
shiny white podium, with a microphone bent to her size. Dressed
in a grey-and-black striped gown with matching headscarf, her
golden-framed glasses matching her gold rings and bracelets,
Zaynab Alkali embodied subtle beauty. Having personally known
Flora Nwapa since 1989, when she was offered a visiting pro-
fessorship at UNIMAID, Zaynab Alkali combined thoughtful
analysis of Efuru with personal anecdotes of their time together.
In her keynote, entitled ‘Nwapa’s Efuru: The Bridge Builder and
Defender of the Values of African Womanhood’ (Alkali 2016, 3),
she elaborated:
Today we celebrate not only Flora Nwapa the author and

Efuru the book, but we celebrate an occasion larger than the
two. Efuru is not just a novel, and a character in a novel; Efuru
stands for the values of African womanhood. The African woman,
who was here at the beginning of times, here today and shall be
here tomorrow.
Nwapa created a timeless African Woman whose values tran-
scend time. In Efuru we see ourselves, our mothers and several
generations of mothers before us. In Efuru we see our daughters
and generations of daughters after us. The creation of the wom-
an Efuru is immortal, and the message for women defies time. I
see the author as a bridge builder and a defender of the values of
African womanhood.
Zaynab Alkali expanded Flora Nwapa’s fame even further, ac-

crediting her for creating a timeless African woman, thereby ex-
tending her virtual influence to African femininity. In ascertaining
that the ‘creation of the woman Efuru is immortal’, Zaynab Alkali
performed the role of an external source who reflected the writer’s

influential acts back to herself (Munn 1986, 117). Emphasizing
that Efuru was not just a character in a novel but a representation
of the values of African womanhood, she used a cultural mod-
el of framing that portrayed a fictitious character as a reference
point for everyday experience (Turner 1987, 140). In praising a
woman for the creation of a woman who represented the timeless
values of African womanhood, Zaynab Alkali’s reflections under-
scored the encompassing frame of femininity, while her appeals
to their timeless immortality underlined the spirituality of this sa-
cred drama.
Having emphasized African womanhood, immortalized
in Efuru, Zaynab Alkali proceeded with challenging radical
feminism, noting how critics had readily branded Nwapa as a
pioneer radical feminist in African women’s writing, although
Nwapa herself refused the label. Quoting an interview with Flora
Nwapa in a text by Marie Umeh (1995), Zaynab Alkali pointed
out what Nwapa had said when asked about feminism: ‘I don’t
think that I am radical feminist. I don’t even accept that I am
a feminist. I accept that I’m an ordinary woman who is writing
about what she knows.’ She added, ‘I hasten to agree with the
author’ (Alkali 2016, 5). Zaynab Alkali then shared stories of rad-
ical feminists she and Flora Nwapa had encountered in Europe,
women who looked like and behaved like men, women who even
married other women. They had travelled together to the Fifth
Feminist Book Fair in Amsterdam 1991, where Zaynab Alkali had
her ‘first shocking encounter’ with radical feminists. The agitated
and wildly gesticulating man seated near her turned out to be a
woman. Her second culture shock was in response to how the
audience booed and screamed at the lady minister’s remark that
the fair was not ‘an avenue to propagate unwholesome ideologies
like same-sex marriages’ but an event for ‘respectable and respon-
sible, decent looking women’. Some ‘manly looking women’ even
advanced toward the podium, Alkali recollected, demanding a
public apology. ‘Aunty Flora was later to explain to me that many
women at the fair were either married to women, or living togeth-
er. “Only few of us here are married to men,” and indeed she was
quickly proved right’ (Alkali 2016, 9).
Alkali underlined complementarity in Flora Nwapa’s work,

emphasizing that men were never excluded and that women’s ful-
filment was closely linked to that of men, concluding:
The author advocates and seeks for the African Woman the im-
portance of being guided right, of complementary in relationships,
not only in marriage but in the family unit. What Nwapa seeks es-
pecially for the educated woman is what Efuru embodies: respect
honour, decorum and dignity, attributes that modernity seeks to
erode in today’s women. (Alkali 2016, 11–12)
It was not easy to present my paper on cosmopolitan feminism af-

ter the keynote. Luckily there was an interlude after Alkali’s pres-
entation, a short drama performance. ‘You will present your pa-
per when the performance is finished,’ one of the organizers told
me. The slight change in programming suited me just fine, but,
knowing that the organizers were showing off their excellent time
management skills, I had to improvise, making sure I would say
what needed to be said in the short time span of 15 minutes, with-
out the benefit of a projector (which could have been arranged,
the organizers assured me, but it was not requested in advance). I
walked up the tiled steps to the stage with great care, making sure
I did not stumble on my long dress or drop the laptop I carried.
The small podium was large enough for my laptop, with two mi-
crophones amplifying my voice. I had bought a new dress for the
occasion, a flattering foot-length gown that was very comfortable.
The dress gave me confidence.
I opened my PowerPoint presentation and picked some high-
lights from my paper, while relating to what the keynote had said.
I made sure to articulate how privileged I felt to be part of such a
great occasion, while confessing how intimidating it felt to be on
stage. In front of me were rows of stern-looking middle-aged men,
who did not at all seemed convinced by what I said, and behind
them rows of young students who perhaps had a more positive
response. But I learned that, in this cultural context, quietly listen-
ing to the presenter was the order of the day, not interaction or
interruption, making it difficult to gauge the audience’s response.
It was only afterwards that I realized how significant my pres-
ence (and possibly talk) had been, as students flocked to have
their photograph taken with me on their mobile phones. They

took pictures in groups and individually, sometimes as selfies.
I was astonished to see that some of the female students posed
according to the social media trend of the duck face, with pouting
mouth and angle from above. Students in Maiduguri were clear-
ly in tune with global trends. Being the only foreigner (and the
only white person) awarded me an elevated status, a symbol of
metropolitan power, which I was not altogether comfortable
with. But I tried to live up to expectations, smiling and pos-
ing with the students. A young lady suddenly appeared with a
microphone in her hand, from University of Maiduguri Radio.
She wanted to interview me and I gladly complied. She asked what
I thought of the event, what was important about women
writers, and what I thought of feminism. ‘Yes, I am a feminist,’
I responded with confidence, when she asked, adding, ‘I think
everyone should be.’
After tea break, during which local snacks were served, the pro-
gramme continued with paper presentations by leading Nigerian
female academics and a quiz for students. The papers were well
prepared and expertly delivered, highlighting various aspects of
Efuru, in the context of literary production in Nigeria. The student
competition was a delight: pairs of students from six competing
secondary schools and colleges sat on chairs on the stage, confi-
dently responding to the questions posed. They had memorized
an impressive amount of detail from Efuru: names, relationships
and events, along with a solid understanding of the plot. The
UNIMAID school team had loud supporters cheering them on.
The score turned out to be even: two teams shared first place and
four shared second place. Prizes were stored in a Ghana Must Go
bag, a large zipped carrying bag that got its name from the expul-
sion of Ghanaians from Nigeria in the 1980s.11 Unfortunately, the
name had stuck. The prizes of books were ceremoniously award-
ed by senior faculty and members of Flora Nwapa’s family.
The programme ended with prayers, thus affirming the encom-
passing cultural frame of spirituality. Unlike the Christian domi-
nance of other events, in Maiduguri prayers catered to Muslims
11
The name for the bag should not be confused with Selasie’s debut novel
Ghana Must Go (Selasie 2013).
as well as Christians. The Muslim prayer was delivered in Arabic,

the Christian one in English, both invoking God as a witness
to the event.
Flora Nwapa’s eldest daughter, Ejine, concluded the event with
a heartfelt thank you. She spoke with a confident voice, her warm
words overflowing with deep gratitude, while reminiscing about
her mother’s connection to Maiduguri. Her brother and sister
walked near the stage and took pictures of her with their mobile
phones, as she continued her remarks.
We were also particularly glad, my brother, sister and I that we

were able to meet people we had not been connected with in a
very long time. Back in 1989, our mother introduced us to a new
auntie, an auntie from the north of Nigeria, Auntie Zaynab Alkali.
And so seeing her today, after such a long time, was such a delight
for us. And we say thank you again that it was because you invited
us that we were able to see her.
Our mother’s stay in Maiduguri was an important turn in her
life. She was very serious about it. In those days there were no
direct flights to Maiduguri, but she would come all the way from
Enugu to this place because it meant so much to her. And it is
therefore easy for us to say, because we know that the time she
spent in Maiduguri were some of the most peaceful times in her
life. [applause]
Today we celebrate Efuru and a lot of people just know the
word Efuru. Efuru is an Igbo name and the full name is Nwa ane
funi efuni [applause]; it means the child that everybody loves, the
child that everybody is obsessed about.
But for us, her children, and seeing Professor Zaynab Alkali af-
ter such a long time, we also want to give you an Oguta word.
And that Oguta word, I’ll say it in Oguta and I’ll translate, it says
nwanyibuife. It means woman is something. And so, ladies and
gentlemen, we thank you for being here to honour Flora Nwapa,
as pure in her own personality and her own person. But for us, a
mother that we did not realize was so famous. Thank you very
much. [loud applause]
In the evening, we were treated to spectacular cultural perfor-

mances and a sumptuous dinner, true to the warm hospitality of
northern Nigeria. Everyone had dressed up for the evening, ladies
in beautiful embroidered and glittery gowns, men in colourful
printed shirts or long robes.
A master drummer beat the rhythm for the dancers, creating

magic with his four drums, while directing the younger drummers
next to him. He was announced to be one of the best drummers in
the country, and I had no doubt he was.
The dancers were dressed in beautiful costumes, elegantly mov-
ing to the rhythm of the music, the male dancers using their long
robes in black and purple to create visual effects, as shown in
the film Efuru@50. The first was a romantic dance from north-
ern Nigeria, often performed at weddings. It was danced in pairs
of men and women and in the end the men lay down, resting
their heads on their female partners’ laps, a very intimate pose. ‘I
danced this at a friend’s wedding,’ Salamatu whispered to me. The
music and dance evoked sounds and images of the arid plains and
desert, a region unknown to many of us, with its own mystique.
Nwapa’s Women Are Different, feminism and womanism

Zaynab Alkali’s keynote captured some of the controversies of
feminism in African literary contexts. As noted in the paper I pre-
sented in Maiduguri (Uimonen 2016), feminism has often been
attacked as a Western ideology, typically portrayed as ‘anti-male,
anti-culture and anti-religion’ (Nkealah 2006, 134). Alkali’s por-
trayal of radical feminists in Europe illustrated how feminists have
often been equated with ‘aggressive women who try to be like
men, dress carelessly and abandon essential feminine attributes’
(Adimora-Ezeigbo, cited in Arndt 2002, 27). Overall, the n egative
stereotypification of feminism has included: hatred of men, re-
jection of African traditions, denunciation of marriage as well as
motherhood, and promotion of lesbian love (Arndt 2002, 27). By
contrast, scholars have suggested African feminism to be ‘distinctly
heterosexual, pro-natal and concerned with many “bread, butter,
culture, and power” issues’ (Mikell 1997, 4). Reflecting their am-
bivalence about feminism, African women have crafted a plethora
of alternatives, such as womanism, Africana womanism, stivanism,
motherism and negofeminism (Arndt 2002, 59). Some of these al-
ternatives have been conceptualized by members of the African di-
aspora, often African-Americans, but, while movements like black
feminism may come across as cross-cultural, they are not neces-
sarily welcomed in African contexts (Arndt 2002, 61–3). Instead,
African women have insisted on cultural self-representation

(Oyěwùmi 2003). When it comes to gender relationships, there has
been an emphasis on the complementarity of men and women, as
exemplified by Alkali’s keynote.
In literary studies, feminism has been particularly problematic,
since many feminist scholars categorize all works by women writ-
ers as feminist, regardless of the author’s own standpoint. Most
women writers I have interviewed identify with feminism and/
or womanism, but they insist on (re)defining feminism in a way
that is compatible with their own values. In an interview in 2009,
Razinat Mohammed referred to feminism as ‘a large masquerade
that provides cover for many bad dancers’, because:
many so-called critics hide under the cover of feminism and all they
seem to be doing is classifying every work written by a woman as
feminist work. It is really getting out of hand. I think that there are
other parts to the lives of women (even in African Literature) other
than woman fighting to get free of man’s holds.12
Similarly, Obioma Nnaemeka has highlighted the ‘blatant distor-

tions of the works of African women writers by feminist critics in
the name of “feminist criticism”’ (1995, 81).
These ambivalences about feminism point to challenges when
addressing gender in world literature. Feminist scholars have
been at the forefront of making African women’s invisible liter-
ary histories more visible, critiquing their canonical marginali-
zation and bringing forth their voices (e.g. Arndt 2002; Stratton
1994; Sutherland-Addy and Diaw 2005). In some cases, this
scholarship has superimposed Western feminist theory on African
women’s literature, which has been rebutted by African feminist
scholars (e.g. Nkealah 2006; Nnaemeka 1995, 1997; Ogunyemi
1996), thus highlighting the challenges of feminism in relation
to African literature. Female scholars have also discussed gen-
der in African literature from the perspective of women writers,
paying closer attention to their cultural contexts (e.g. James 1990;
12
‘The Challenges of Being a Writer – Razinat (Interview)’, published on 7
March 2009 in New Nigerian newspaper, posted online on 2 June 2009,
http://everythinliterature.blogspot.com/2009/06/challenges-of-being
-writer-razinat.html, last accessed on 29 June 2020.
Newell [1997] 2017; Makuchi 1997; Ogunyemi 1996; Salami-

Boukari 2012), some using vernacular gender theories to bring
forth a more culturally anchored understanding of gender r elations
(e.g. Makuchi 1997; Ogunyemi 1996). The sheer diversity of this
gender focused scholarship illustrates the limitations of dominant
world literature theory, which tends to ignore gender altogether
(Bergenmar and Leppänen 2017; Castillo 2012; Higonnet 2009).
But it also shows that greater attention to gender requires more
critical theory, beyond feminist theory.
While Alkali quoted Flora Nwapa for refusing to be labelled
a feminist, she has actually been cited for both rejecting the term
as well as espousing it. When interviewed by Alison Perry in
1984, Flora Nwapa was quoted as saying: ‘Just because I write
about women, people accuse me of being feminist!’, a remark she
was described as having expressed ‘somewhat indignantly’, and
it was clarified that ‘Ms. Nwapa dislikes the term because it im-
plies division between men and women’, and preferred the term
‘womanist’ (Perry 1984, 1262). In the interview cited by Alkali,
Flora Nwapa was asked by Marie Umeh: ‘The critic Katherine
Frank, in an article entitled “Women Without Men: The Feminist
Novel in Africa,” describes you as a radical feminist. What is your
opinion of this assessment?’ to which Flora Nwapa answered, ‘I
don’t think that I’m a radical feminist. I don’t even accept that I’m
a feminist’ (Umeh 1995, 27). Similarly to Perry, Umeh underlined
that Flora Nwapa ‘preferred to be identified with Alice Walker’s
term “womanist”’ (Umeh 1995, 22). This was in December 1992,
in Marie Umeh’s last conversation with Flora Nwapa. Even so,
a few months earlier, at an international conference on ‘Women
in Africa and the African Diaspora: Bridges Across Activism and
the Academy’, held in Nsukka, Nigeria, in July 1992, where Ama
Ata Aidoo delivered a keynote, Flora Nwapa had said:
Having heard Obioma [Nnaemeka] on Monday, having heard

Ama [Ata Aidoo] today, I think that I will go all out and say that
I am a feminist with a big ‘f’ because Obioma said on Monday
that feminism is about possibilities: there are possibilities, there
are choices. Let us not be afraid to say that we are feminists. We
need one another, we really need one another. Globally, we need
one another. (Flora Nwapa, cited in Nnaemeka 1995, 83)
Nnaemeka has noted that, while Nwapa has been criticized for
her ‘inconsistency’ on feminism, ‘what is inconsistent is the lo-
cation (physical and ideological) from where she is hounded for
an answer’ (Nnaemeka 1995, 84). Nwapa refused to be labelled
as a feminist when the term was used in ways that differed from
her culturally situated perspective, but ‘[i]f the way we frame
feminism corresponds to “what she knows,” she would definitely
claim feminism.’
Flora Nwapa’s ambivalence about feminism and identification
with womanism can be appreciated in relation to her situated-
ness as an African woman writer. In an interview in 1985, Flora
Nwapa was asked if she was concerned about the fate of the
black woman and responded affirmatively, underlining that
‘the black woman, whether she is in Africa, North America or the
Caribbean. She faces many problems. I think the crux of these
problems is economic’ (Flora Nwapa, cited in James 1990, 112).
While she thought that the notion of being a black woman was
not a ‘double ill-fate’ in America and Europe, she found that ‘in
Nigeria that statement is relevant’, since women were oppressed
at home and at work: ‘Your husband oppresses you, your em-
ployer oppresses you and then your society piles upon you dou-
ble, if not treble suffering’ (Nwapa, cited in James 1990, 114).
While reflecting on her professional situation as an African writer
in terms of ‘the reality of being an under-dog’, she noted that, ‘[s]
piritually, it does not affect my work, but physically the question
of getting the tools that I need to my work affects me.’ While
clarifying that the ‘problems we face in Nigeria are not unique
to us, they are problems of nation-building’, she also appreciated
the challenges of underdevelopment in more than material terms:
‘Development is not merely in the physical structures, it is mental’
(Nwapa, cited in James 1990, 113). Reflecting on the develop-
ment of her own civilization, she underlined how ‘In certain areas
it was developed’, as exemplified by kingships in Yoruba culture
and parts of Igboland, yet colonialism created a serious rupture:
‘It is the problem of the “Oyinbo” [Western civilization] that has
overwhelmed us’ (Nwapa, cited in James 1990, 113). Noting
that she was a ‘very strong woman’, when James asked where
she derived her strength from, Flora Nwapa responded, ‘Maybe
from God who gave me the physical strength and the opportuni-
ties that I have had’, as well as ‘From my stars, for making me a
Capricorn’, while also acknowledging her parents, who brought
her up ‘in the best traditions’ (Nwapa, cited in James 1990, 116).
Reflecting on her own everyday experiences, Flora Nwapa pin-
pointed how oppression of women can be traced to the domestic
setting of family life:
The oppression of women starts in the home. In our homes today,

we treat girls differently, and we treat boys as if they are kings. I
remember the problem I have in my own home when I make my
only son go to the kitchen and cook, wash the plates and so on. He
does it. But then my mother-in-law comes in and says in a raised
voice, ‘Why are you allowing this boy to do this, he is a man, he is
not supposed to be in the kitchen.’ That is where the trouble stems
from, the double standard we use in bringing up our children.
There was another encounter that I was very happy about because
my son was then only about five years old. Grandmother told him
that he was not supposed to be in the kitchen. Then he replied,
‘Grandmother, but Amos is our cook and Amos is a man.’ If you
can educate a boy at an early age he will grow up to appreciate
women, and to appreciate his wife. You see this is very very impor-
tant. A woman who says she is oppressed and then has a son and
treats him like a king, such a woman is perpetuating the problems
we are complaining about. (Nwapa, cited in James 1990, 113–14)
Flora Nwapa’s preoccupation with different forms of oppression

can be related to womanist concerns. As an African woman, she
identified with black women around the world, thus emulating
Alice Walker’s womanism, with its focus on women of colour.
But womanism is not only concerned with gender or race; it is a
‘social change perspective’ that is ‘rooted in Black women’s and
other women of colour’s everyday experiences’, yet ‘extended to
the problem of ending all forms of oppression for all people, re-
storing the balance between people and the environment/nature,
and reconciling human life with the spiritual dimension’ (Phillips
2006, xx). This holistic appraisal of human existence is evident in
Nwapa’s reflections cited above, from her concern with structur-
al oppression and global inequality to her endorsement of God
and spiritual power. While her preoccupation with gender equal-
ity overlaps with feminism, her situated perspective is that of an
African womanist; who confronts the ‘multifarious, third-world

challenges’, from the position of ‘African women’s inclusive,
mother-centered ideology, with its focus on caring’ (Ogunyemi
1996, 114–16). In Flora Nwapa’s case, caring for her family was
inseparable from her womanist appraisal of how to overcome op-
pression, as exemplified in her account of raising children, espe-
cially her male child, as cited above.13
The ways in which Nwapa addressed women and social trans-
formation in marital relationships is illustrative of her woman-
ist perspective, as exemplified by the novel Women Are Different
(Nwapa [1986] 1992). The title captures how women are differ-
ent from men, but also how women are different from one anoth-
er. In the novel, the life stories of a group of women are interwo-
ven with societal transformations, from their schooldays in late
colonial times to adulthood in post-independent Nigeria. As the
women chart out their lives, they navigate various aspects of mod-
ern life, from career and financial independence to marriage and
relationships with men. Nwapa’s womanist ambition is spelled
out when one of the heroines divorces her husband to live her life
independently, socially and financially:
Chinwe had done the right thing. Her generation was doing
better than her mother’s own. Her generation was telling the men,
that there are different ways of living one’s life fully and fruitfully.
They are saying that women have options. Their lives cannot be
ruined because of a bad marriage. They have a choice, a choice to
set up a business of their own, a choice to marry and have children,
a choice to marry or divorce their husbands. Marriage is NOT the
only way. (Nwapa 1992, 118–19)
Through literary portrayals of marriage, Flora Nwapa could ad-

dress the politics of domestic life, while voicing critique against
social institutions that hampered gender equality, such as polyg-
amy. While recognizing that traditional Igbo society regarded
gender relations as ‘complementary and balanced’, rather than
‘conflictual or competing’, Akachi Ezeigbo has discussed how
13
Many years later, Adichie made a similar point in We Should All Be
Feminists: ‘And this is how to start: we must raise our daughters diffe-
rently. We must also raise our sons differently’ (Adichie 2014, 25).
Flora Nwapa addressed ‘gender conflict’ in her novels ([1997]

2017, 95). She underlines that ‘the majority of modern Nigerian
women reject the institution of polygyny’, which she describes as
an ‘instrument of oppression wielded by men to subjugate and
dominate women’, a marital arrangement that ‘introduces conflict
into the home and encourages rivalry among co-wives’ (Ezeigbo
2017, 100–101). The subject is often brought forward in liter-
ary portrayals of polygyny, as exemplified by Chinwe moving out
when her husband brings in a younger, second wife in Nwapa’s
Women Are Different (Ezeigbo 2017, 100). As described below,
Razinat Mohammed’s novel The Travails of a First Wife (2015)
also addressed the tensions and ordeals of polygamy. Ezeigbo
has noted that ‘[d]uring a writing career spanning nearly thirty
years of Nigeria’s history, Nwapa maintained a consistent attitude
towards polygynous men’, depicting how ‘conflicts engulf poly
gynous marriages’ (Ezeigbo 2017, 101). In her first novel, Efuru
accepted her husband taking another wife, to show that she was
not selfish. But in her second novel, Idu, Nwapa showed that ‘suc-
cessful marriages are possible’ when they are ‘founded on love,
mutual respect, trust and moral probity’ (Ezeigbo 2017, 102).
While Efuru turned to the Woman of the Lake after disappointing
marriages, the story of Idu ended on a very different note, as she
followed her husband to death: ‘Come, let’s prepare for the funer-
al, don’t you see she is dead? She kept her word. She has followed
her husband to the land of the dead. Come let’s prepare her prop-
erly for the journey’ (Nwapa 1970, 218).
Flora Nwapa had personal experience of some of the contra-
dictions and paradoxes she wrote about, not least the tensions
of a polygamous marriage. Flora Nwapa was the first wife of in-
dustrialist Gogo Nwakuche, yet, rather than divorce him when
he married his second and third wives, she remained for the sake
of their two children, as she reflected in the documentary film
Forfatterinne idag: Flora Nwapa (NRK TV 1987, 34:29–37:07):
No woman wants to be in a polygamous family, if she can help

it. If a woman tells you that it is alright by her, she is not telling
you the truth. […] I think the men are enjoying the situation. I
think they are, because if they are not, they would have tried to do
something about it. I was telling you the other day in Enugu that
my own husband has three wives [raises three fingers to illustrate].
Me and two others. I am the first one. [Interviewer: How do you
feel about it?] I don’t feel good about it. At first I couldn’t take
it. But I thought to myself, I said ‘I have a son, I have a daughter.
If I go, these children are going to suffer. They would not have
my motherly care.’ [Why not?] Because I would have to leave the
home, and the children would stay with their father. Let’s not talk
about taking the man to court, your husband to court. I don’t
think any woman has done that with success. One thing, if you say
you are taking your husband to court, because he committed big-
amy, Nigerian society will laugh at you. They’ll say ‘Who is going
to be the judge, who is going to be your lawyer, who hasn’t also
committed bigamy?’
Writing at the crossroads of cultural change, Flora Nwapa’s

aesthetic worldmaking captured the multifaceted ambivalences of
social life. Similarly to other African women writers, her female
characters were ‘victims of multiple oppressions that are internally
generated by oppressive customs and practices and externally
induced by an equally oppressive, inegalitarian world order’
(Nnaemeka 1997, 21). Since she identified as a womanist, Flora
Nwapa’s literary work conveyed the ambition to ‘criticize grossly
unfair gender arrangements’, which partially ‘coincides with the
feminist agenda’, yet it was rooted in ‘Nigerian cultural history,’
which from a womanist perspective forms the basis of a ‘modern
political theory and praxis’ with ideological groundings ‘centered
on collaboration and complementarity’ (Ogunyemi 1996, 117).
Flora Nwapa addressed social transformations without super-
imposing Western gender models on the social worlds she wrote
about. By depicting women in different roles, not least in relation
to marriage, motherhood and professional careers, Flora Nwapa
thus offered ‘role-models to her readership’ through her literary
heroines. (Ezeigbo [1997] 2017, 101)
Razinat Mohammed and women in the north

I interviewed Razinat in the morning after the event, in the garden
of the UNIMAID guesthouse where I was staying. Busy teaching
creative writing at UNIMAID, Razinat had lectured early in the
morning at 7 am, but still managed to meet with me just after 9 am.
We pulled some chairs under the trees in the open yard to create
a shady spot. Razinat brought me three of her books as gifts: The
Travails of a First Wife (Mohammed 2015), Habiba (Mohammed
2013) and the award-winning A Love Like a Woman’s and Other

Stories (Mohammed 2006). Each was carefully signed, with
heart-warming dedications to her best friend Paula. She also gave
me a pair of beautiful slippers, decorated with flowers. I was over-
whelmed by her generosity; she was bubbling with joy, as usual.
Dr Razinat Mohammed was born in 1966 in Maiduguri. Like
most people in northern Nigeria, she is Muslim. Her father was
a land surveyor and contractor, her mother was a housewife;
both were late. Razinat has four children, three girls and one boy.
She had been widowed 12 months earlier, she explained with a
tone of sadness in her voice. Her late husband was a lecturer at
UNIMAID, as food scientist in the Engineering Department. In
response to my question on what languages she speaks and what
her mother tongue is, Razinat reflected: ‘Because I come from a
polygamous family with four wives all speaking different languag-
es, my father thought it was best we all communicated in Hausa,’
and concluded, ‘so if there is a mother tongue then Hausa has
to be my mother tongue.’ In addition to Hausa and English, the
latter spoken with a pronounced northern accent, Razinat speaks
Yoruba and a little bit of Kanuri. Razinat was educated in public
government schools, in Maiduguri as well as at Ido-Ani, Ondo
State, in Yorubaland, western Nigeria. She holds a PhD (2004)
in feminist literary criticism, gender studies, from University of
Maiduguri. Her PhD dissertation analysed how women oppress
women in novels by Buchi Emecheta and Nawal El Saadawi.
Similarly to other women writers, Razinat started writing at an
early age:
As a secondary school student, I started scribbling poetry. But

why? To answer the why question, I would say interest. Because
first, when I gained admission to the university here, I was given
history to read. And then I rejected history; I objected vehemently.
Hmmm, at that time I wanted to read law, but, when the admis-
sion list came, they said I had to wait for a second reshuffling.
Then I was given history and I didn’t feel like reading history, so
I protested, I complained. I wrote a letter of complaint. And then
the explanation they gave me then was because I had an ‘A’ grade
in history. Then I said ‘Yes but I also have A in English. So, because
I don’t want to read history, let me read English.’ So then I came
to English. I preferred the literature, because I love reading novels.
I started reading novels very young, at a very young age. So I am

very at home, very comfortable with reading. Because sometimes I
am a loner and you find companionship with reading. When you
are alone and you delve into reading you don’t feel alone a nymore.
So that is actually the pleasure and maybe that is the reason I
started scribbling things and apart from the interest, of course
I have interest in writing.
Because in my place here we have lots of issues and we don’t
have many writers especially, women writers. The stories of wom-
en are not told correctly by men. And for that reason of course I
needed to also start to present issues that affect women from my
own point of view.
Razinat’s desire to tell the stories of women resonates with Flora

Nwapa’s aim to give a more accurate portrayal of women, but
Razinat also draws inspiration from other women writers. Her
role models are: Zaynab Alkali, who she is ‘close to’, Nawal El
Saadawi, her ‘all-time favourite novelist’, and Buchi Emecheta,
‘another woman writer that impresses me’.
When telling the stories of women in northern Nigeria, Razinat
focuses on challenging issues in what she defines as ‘a typically
patriarchal society’:
I write essentially about the plight of women in my society here,

Borno. I write because women in the patriarchal society are often
subjected to some kind of experiences that shouldn’t be lived. You
see we still have problems of early marriage, some parts of my
region, you have 12-year old married out to 60-year old men. Yes,
of course. And we have children being withdrawn from schools,
girls, girl children especially, being withdrawn from schools, for
purposes or reasons of being given out in marriages. We have the
problem of women handling polygamy. Polygamy, although reli-
giously permissible, women never accept the practice, the plight
of women in such kind of setup, which is what my third work is
about. Yes. So those are the issues that I try to look at, experiences
of women in a typically patriarchal society like mine.
Polygamy is a theme that Razinat has dealt with in her novel The
Travails of a First Wife (2015). In the novel, we can follow
the ordeals of Zarah, who finds that her husband of many years
suddenly marries not only one but two more wives. Far from be-
ing an equilibrious polygamous household, the relations between
the three wives remain poisoned by jealousy, suspicion and ha-

tred. Despite her aversion to her increasingly abusive husband,
Zarah decides to remain in the household. The story is told with
great insight and purposefully provocative.
If Ibrahim wanted to carry hot charcoal on his head, who was she
to advise him against it? He was the man so let him play manhood.
She was going to be a character in the theatricals that was about
to unfold in the house, why should she shy away from playing
her own roles? She felt a little ashamed that she wasted her tears
on the matter when he had told her of the planned marriage. She,
however, reassured herself that the news of one’s husband intend-
ing to take a wife was capable of upsetting any woman but when
one woman turned two, she saw no need to worry herself further,
it had become a joke and she was ready for it to unravel before her
eyes. (Mohammed 2015, 58–9)
Razinat writes for both women and men, hoping to encourage

social change, not least the docility of women. In her own words,
‘I want the men to see, to read and see the way they treat women.
Then I want the women to read and see in what ways they need
to change their behaviours and their docility. Because our women
are very docile. So I write for both sexes.’
To Razinat, women writers can serve as mind-changers,
thus contributing to development, a path that Flora Nwapa
first pioneered:
The woman writer, you know, the woman is the mother of the
whole universe and there can be no successful society without
responsible women taking their rightful positions [we shift our
chairs into a shadier place since the sun is hitting us]. So, if women
delve into creative writing, certainly you know that they are going
to be writing about issues that affects other women, mostly. And
now, if women are given this opportunity or they seize this kind of
opportunity to elevate themselves in society, certainly they can be
mind-changers, they can change attitudes of other women towards
public employment, or self-empowerment. And, if that happens,
certainly then, they can bring development into their societies.
In Nigeria, Flora Nwapa, for instance, you know she really
opened her own publishing company, because of the frustration
that I’m sure she had from publishing houses. So with a publish-
ing house like that she was interested in developing young talents
through children’s literature. And women’s writing, as I have said,

would to a larger extent influence the behaviours of other wom-
en in society. Because, when we see a woman, and we are very
proud that a Nigerian woman writer was actually the first woman
to have been published in Africa, because the status of even just
her occupying that position alone is enough to develop the man-
nerism and characters and talent of other women, in Nigeria and
then in Africa.
When it comes to feminism, Razinat makes sure to define

feminism from her own perspective, while identifying as
a feminist/womanist.
Paula: Now, as you know I am theoretically interested in femi-

nism and Pan-Africanism, so what do you think of femi-
nism and do you identify as a feminist?
Razinat: Feminist? Well, if by the simple definition of feminism
that states that anybody, whether man or woman, that
is interested in seeing that the shackles and oppressive
mechanisms of society that suppresses the potentials of a
woman are removed, if anybody is interested in that, then
that person is automatically a feminist, whether he or she
accepts it or not. In that sense and respect I am a feminist.
Because I enjoy to pursue the cause of women and I enjoy
to pursue the cause of women that would help women
rise above the subservience of society. Yes. Aah, in that
respect yes I can be, I am a feminist. But you know fem-
inism has many branches. Nawal El Saadawi has been
termed revolutionary feminist. I can’t tend to be a revo-
lutionarist, because, ehh, she was a lone voice in Egypt,
or is a lone voice, since she is still around. Hmm, in my
place, although I don’t write fiery literature as Nawal El
Saadawi, I don’t, maybe I can’t dare. I don’t know, but
nothing is restricting me from doing that really. I can! If I
want to, I can! But somehow I haven’t.
I am a feminist/womanist. I love the cause of woman-
hood. I love to see that women are better empowered.
You know, we have been clamouring for a 23% of women
representation in g overnment in Nigeria, even in political
positions, to be voted for and so on. And as I’ve always
said, even in my thesis, that in every society that you go,
and let me say not in every society, most societies, the
population of women exceeds that of the men. But if that

is the situation, how come Africa or Nigeria has not pro-
duced a female candidate that would go and stand for
election? It is only in the primaries and then they will
eliminate the woman. How come? Because certainly in
Nigeria we women outnumber the men, but women will
not vote for women. I don’t know why. I don’t know
why. It is a problem that needs some attention. It is a
problem that really needs looking into again, that is, so-
ciologically. I don’t know if anthropologically you can
look at the trends from time past to see if this is the nat-
ural behaviour of women. Why is it that we do not stand
for our own gender? We pay lip services to them.
Sometimes I even think that these feminist movements
are fake! I think they are not sincere. Because they will
preach one thing and tomorrow they turn around. If a
woman comes up it is the woman that would begin to
throw the pebbles at her fellow woman. Like in my area
of research, you know, if you would read many of my
works, many people see that I keep derailing to the same
issue, I keep it. When I’m writing these works, I don’t go
all out with a theme in my mind to execute. At the end of
the day the work turns out, when you look at it, it turns
out that women are the problems that women face in
the text. Which, actually, points to the reality around us,
if literature really mirrors the society, it means that our
society is like that! That women are really the enemies of
other women. We are not sincere to ourselves. We’ll say,
yes, we are trying to show women empowerment, but
when that woman empowerment comes, it is the same
woman that will abuse it. I don’t know!
Razinat’s critique of the feminist movement speaks to the bigger

picture of female agency. It would be inaccurate to view women
as mere victims of male oppression in patriarchal society, thus ig-
noring their agency. But, far from constituting some kind of global
sisterhood, the agency of women can be both positive and nega-
tive towards other women. As Razinat underscored, ‘[w]omen are
really the enemies of other women’.
In her analyses of Buchi Echemeta’s and Flora Nwapa’s
work, Razinat has emphasized how women oppress women. In
the m eticulously researched article ‘Maternal Oppression of the
irl-Child in Selected Novels by Buchi Echemeta’ (Mohammed

G
2010), Razinat examines the oppressive power of mothers in re-
lation to their daughters. Citing Flora Nwapa, she emphasizes
that oppression of women starts in the home (Mohammed 2010,
466), often at the hands of mothers. In the paper she presented
at Efuru@50, Razinat analysed the female deity Uhamiri (also
known as the Lake Goddess) in Efuru as a victimizer of wom-
en, in her denial of motherhood to women like Efuru. She not-
ed: ‘Uhamiri who is aware of the importance that patriarchy at-
taches to procreation should have blessed her worshippers with
children’ (Mohammed 2016, 6). Razinat concluded that, since
Uhamiri herself is barren, she is vindictive, and in patriarchal so-
cieties that hold fertility in high regard it is often women who
victimize other women for their barrenness (Mohammed 2016,
8). While Razinat’s analysis offers an interesting perspective on
female oppression, Flora Nwapa’s portrayal of Uhamiri was quite
fictitious, as she used the female deity to problematize the ideals
of motherhood, as will be further discussed below.
Tope Olaifa on women and violence

Tope Olaifa joined us on the plane from Abuja to Maiduguri and
we sat together on the bus from the airport. Razinat was delight-
ed to see Tope and the three of us had our picture taken in the
restaurant where we stopped for lunch, which I later posted in
Facebook. Tope and I bonded over lunch when she started joking
about staying under a tree at night, with the stars staring at us,
thus revealing her sense of humour and romantic bent. Tall and
slender in a white cotton dress with embroidered sleeves, her neck
and earlobes adorned with glittering costume jewellery, Tope per-
sonified feminine elegance. Despite being tired from our travel, we
decided to do an interview after dinner, in the canteen UNIMAID’s
guesthouse, on 30 November 2016. Tope had managed to have
a short rest and felt refreshed after a shower. This was my first
interview in Nigeria and Tope gracefully acknowledged that she
felt privileged. Experienced in qualitative research methods, Tope
assumed I wanted to use a voice recorder, which I did, and kindly
pointed out the interfering noise from the ceiling fan and TV set,
which the manager promptly switched off. We were the only peo-
ple left in the restaurant, seated on straight-backed chairs around
a glass-top table in the corner. Tope spoke with a warm voice,

carefully articulating her thoughts and clearly enunciating her
words. With a flair for drama, she used vivid body language each
time she described a poem or short story she had written.
Dr Tope Olaifa was born in Ota, in Ogun State, in 1960, laugh-
ingly adding she was ‘five days older than Nigeria’. Her ethnici-
ty is Yoruba and her religion is Christianity. Her late father was
a teacher and headmaster, and her late mother was a cook for
secondary schools. Tope attended public schools throughout her
schooling. She holds a PhD in peace and conflict studies from
the University of Ibadan (2013), a master’s in the same subject
(2004) and a BA in English language (1992). Her mother tongue
is Yoruba and in addition to English she aspires to speak French.
Her husband is a broadcaster with a radio station. They have
three children, one male and two females. The family lives in
Abeokuta, Ogun State, where Tope works as senior lecturer at the
Federal University of Agriculture, Department of Communication
and General Studies.
Tope started writing poetry in her late teens, and later dra-
ma. She had been inspired by poetry since secondary school, not
least thanks to her ‘fantastic literature teacher’ who encouraged
her to write verse and later on by a ‘very good poetry teacher’ at
college. She also developed an interest in drama. Her first dra-
ma manuscript (1984, unpublished) focused on corruption in
the government and was staged by students. One Cut Too Deep
(Olaifa [2000] 2015a) was her first published play. Her second
published play, Echo of the Desolate (Olaifa [2000] 2015b), fo-
cused on street youth and child neglect. In addition to many other
unpublished plays, Tope has also published some of her poetry.
The ‘Keats’ in Me (Olaifa [2011] 2014) is a collection of roman-
tic poems, inspired by 17th-century English romantic poets and
adapted to African contexts. Tope has also written some short
stories, but had not yet published them.
The play One Cut Too Deep (Olaifa [2000] 2015a) deals with
traditional practices of naming, facial marking and circumcision
rites for female infants. It was staged at a writers’ resort at Ijoko-
Ota in 1988, directed by Dr Daniel Ayo, and has been published
in numerous editions since 2000. Tope was inspired to address the
topic after an argument with colleagues about female circumcision
and tradition versus civilization, following which she ‘got home

and started writing’. A great deal of the play centres on dialogue
between husband (Ladele) and wife (Deke) as his relatives put
pressure on him to have their infant girl child (Bola) marked and
circumcised, following customary practice (Olaifa [2000] 2015a,
10–13):
Ladele: (Sighs) Deke, there [is] something important that we

never discussed before and even after we got married.
Deke: What is it?
Ladele: It is one of the customs in the part of the world that I
come from that every first child should be marked on
the face.
Deke: (Detaching) So…
Ladele: Bola is going to be marked…
Deke: You must be joking (Cutting in)
Ladele: And circumcised too.
Deke: (Plugging her ears with her fingers) stop saying it! (She
screams and starts to run out of the room).
Ladele: (He rushes after and gets hold of her) Deke, Deke,
remember you promised.
Deke: Promised what? (Hysterical)
Ladele: Take it easy.
Deke: No, you don’t mean it (Grinning) you are only joking.
Ladele: (Pulling her to bed beside him) Deke, I know how you
feel about it; I know this is shocking to you but I want
you to relax.
Deke: I don’t want to hear about it.
Ladele: But you must. Bola is your child and mine too. You see,
we need to deliberate on this issue.
Deke: (Sarcastic) Okay, I am listening.
Ladele: Deke, it’s been an age-long custom in the family.
Deke: W hich civilization has not meddled with
(Cutting in).
Ladele: Of course, it has Deke (moving close to her). In the past,
every female child was circumcised and marked.
Deke: (Grinning) Hun hun.
Ladele: But with civilization, the custom is being relaxed.
The moral of the play is conveyed in the last scene, bringing

forth the perils of tradition as well as issues of masculinity.
The child is cut against the mother’s will, but perishes shortly
thereafter from the unsterilized instrument used. ‘That was one

cut too deep,’ the doctor concludes. Distraught, Deke runs away
from her husband. The narrator asks whether Ladele has learned
his lessons, e mphasizing the point: ‘A man should be man enough
to man his manliness in a manly manner.’ Additionally, the haz-
ards of customary practices are pointed out: ‘Tradition is like a
smear of chameleon faeces, when you clean it, it does not go to-
tally’ (Olaifa 2015a, 80).
While female circumcision constitutes a form of violence
against women, Tope has not hesitated to address women as per-
petrators of violence. In the paper she presented at Efuru@50,
‘Women Writers and Peacebuilding in Africa’, Tope discussed ‘the
power of the female writer to harness her natural instincts to build
structures of peace thereby preventing violent conflict in Africa
through her writings’ (Olaifa 2016, 1). Recognizing the power
and potential of women in peacebuilding, Tope also dwelled on
women taking an active part in conflict, from covert participation
as spies and couriers to more overt participation as suicide bomb-
ers in ISIS and Boko Haram. She also brought up domestic vio-
lence, spousal violence against men, which is rarely discussed ow-
ing to the social stigma involved. She underlined that, ‘[a]lthough
women are not expected to be docile, they are not expected to
be violent, wild or deadly either’, concluding that women writers
had a role to play in peacebuilding: ‘Essentially women’s writings
should aim at orientating children and youths on values which
edify and can uplift their future, enhance social development and
global peace’ (Olaifa 2016, 10).
Tope’s analysis of women as violent is comparable with
Razinat’s emphasis on women as oppressors, both addressing fe-
male agency. While both recognize the victimization of women,
not least as daughters, they also address the power of women to
oppress and violate, even harm and kill others. Both highlight the
docility of women as a problem, urging women to recognize their
own role in overcoming patriarchal structures of oppression, in-
cluding the various ways in which women themselves perpetuate
oppressive norms and practices.
Even motherhood is critically scrutinized, a pillar in African
womanhood. In Tope’s play One Cut Too Deep, it is not only
Deke’s husband who fails to protect and care for his wife and
daughter; even Deke’s mother goes along with his relatives’

customary practice, trying to convince her daughter that ‘you have
to conform to the values of your in-laws’ and that, barbaric as the
cutting may seem, she should just ‘relax’ since ‘it is one of the bitter
pills of life that you must swallow’ (Olaifa [2000] 2015a, 48–9).
She even points to her own cheeks, noting ‘I also have the marks
and your father still considered me beautiful enough to be his
wife’ (Olaifa 2015a, 48). By siding with her son-in-law’s relatives,
the mother reproduces patriarchal structures that violate women.
This is yet another case of the maternal oppression that Razinat
has discussed in detail based on Buchi Echemeta’s work, oppres-
sive practices ranging from preference for boys and negligence
of girls’ education to lack of bonds with daughters and denial of
their marital happiness (Mohammed 2010). To challenge the ide-
als of motherhood points to a critical sense of gender awareness,
even though the writers differ in their views on feminism.
‘I don’t know,’ Tope responded when I asked if she identified as
a feminist. ‘I see myself as a bundle of contradictions.’ Tope does
not like oppression from any angle, including oppression of wom-
en, but not because she is a woman herself or feels that women are
marginalized but because ‘first of all I see a woman as a human
being’. ‘But then, whether you like it or not, each gender has its
roles,’ she added, ‘the biological rules are there,’ along with their
‘social responsibilities.’ Tope used pregnancy and breastfeeding
as examples of biologically driven social responsibilities. ‘At the
same time, I do not want the woman to be oppressed, because she
is a woman.’ She used professional roles and hierarchies in the
workplace as an example. ‘So that is where I align with feminism,
which on biological grounds and social responsibility grounds
I do not align with.’ Laughing at herself being a contradiction,
which I suggested was complexity rather than contradiction, she
concluded, ‘that is how I view feminism,’ emphasizing that, ‘we
must be realistic in the drive for equality, equity.’
Womanist worldmaking and literary ontology

By invoking Flora Nwapa, I wish to probe literary worldmaking by
way of womanist worldmaking, to exemplify the ontological
force of literature. As Hayot suggests, ‘focusing on the ontology
of composed works, can bring “world” differently into the scene’

(Hayot 2012, 41). When exploring literary worldmaking, we
should keep in mind that aesthetic worlds are ‘relations to and
theories of the lived world’ (Hayot 2011, 137). Literature can thus
be read as ‘fictionalized theory or as theorized fiction’, in other
words in relation to ‘teleological, ontological, and epistemological
insights and praxes relevant to the specific histories and politics
that preceded the fictional texts’ (Makuchi 1997, 20). The notion
of literary worldmaking corroborates the anthropological notion
that ‘creativity is a profoundly social fact’ since writers, like all
humans, are ‘social to the core’ (Hastrup 2007, 193, emphasis in
original). Similarly, humans are cultural, with enormous variation
in ‘local models of being-in-society’ (Barber 2007, 26). These cul-
tural models are ontological; they provide conceptualizations of
the world as well as scripts for social life. Through their creative
agency, writers engage with these cultural models, offering ‘alter-
native ways of seeing things and acting on them’ (Hastrup 2007,
204). Since writers straddle both real and imaginary worlds, liter-
ature offers a privileged space for worldmaking, especially when
it comes to exploring different notions of the real/possible in the
pluriverse through relational ontologies and transition discourses
(Escobar 2020).
In the case of Flora Nwapa, her aesthetic worldmaking both
drew upon and departed from existing cultural models, aesthet-
ically capturing as well as influencing social transformation by
way of her womanist agenda. As anthropologist Jell-Bahlsen has
pointed out, ‘A novel is a work of art’ and therefore ‘must not
be taken literally’ but requires a careful reading to distinguish
‘a meta-text critical of the author’s own culture, as illustrated
by Flora Nwapa’ (2016, 7). She has affirmed that, while Flora
Nwapa ‘remained grounded and at home in Oguta culture and
society, she was also a womanist, who featured women’s issues
in her writing and promoted women’s rights as a writer’ (Jell-
Bahlsen 2016, 8). Ogunyemi recounts how early female writers
like Flora Nwapa, who ‘descended from generations of raconteus-
es’, especially the tradition of women’s storytelling at night, could
now tell ‘fictional and autobiographical stories her predecessors
did not dare to voice to an unknown audience’, thus using the
novel for ‘transforming herself into a spokeswoman’ (Ogunyemi
1996, 120). For African womanists, it was important to devel-

op ‘a philosophy of life acceptable to both men and women’,
which Ogunyemi describes as an ‘inclusionary and very African
stance [that] demands strategies in reading the novels and some-
times necessitates probing on several levels to reach the subtexts’
(Ogunyemi 1996, 121). She refers to the concept ‘double-voiced
discourse’, which, similarly to Jell-Bahlsen’s ‘meta-text’, alerts the
reader to the importance of probing beyond the story as it is told.
The ways in which Flora Nwapa portrayed the Lake Goddess
is an interesting example of her womanist worldmaking. In her
analysis of Mammy Water myths, Jell-Bahlsen notes ‘an amazing
coherence between the testimonies of local informants, and the
literary works of prominent members of Igbo culture: Chinua
Achebe, Chinwe Achebe, Flora Nwapa’ (Jell-Bahlsen 1997,
106). She discusses how ‘Ogbuide features prominently in local
life, as Flora Nwapa attests in her novels’ (Jell-Bahlsen 1997, 121),
noting how ‘Flora Nwapa describes the Goddess’ special impor-
tance to women’ (Jell-Bahlsen 1997, 119). Similarly, Ezeigbo re-
counts that the ‘myth of Uhamiri constitutes an important symbol
in practically all Nwapa’s major writing’ (Ezeigbo 1998a, 54).
Reflecting on her women-centred storytelling, Ezeigbo refers to
Nwapa as a historical novelist, arguing that, ‘[a]part from her use
of a mythic framework to deepen the portrayal of her major fe-
male characters, Nwapa also adopts a historical perspective in
exploring female experience in her society,’ her historical imagina-
tion complementing what writers like Chinua Achebe have writ-
ten from a male perspective (Ezeigbo 1998a, 57).
While the close correspondence between Flora Nwapa’s aes-
thetic worlds and Oguta cosmology attests to the relational on-
tology of her literary worlding, we should not lose sight of Flora
Nwapa’s womanist worldmaking. As Jell-Bahlsen has clarified
in her comparison of artistic liberty and ethnography: ‘while in-
spired by local Oguta beliefs and lore, Nwapa also deconstructs
the myth of the goddess,’ and she ‘re-constructs the myth of the
idealized divine woman and voices her own concerns and ideals
of womanhood’ (Jell-Bahlsen 2007, 32). Likewise, Ezeigbo un-
derlines how the author uses the ‘resources of her imagination’
to breathe life into a myth from her own culture, describing how
Nwapa ‘reinvents the Uhamiri myth and claims the female dei-
ty for womanhood’; in other words, ‘Nwapa modifies the myth
to suit her purpose of empowering women and uplifting them’
(Ezeigbo 1998a, 54–5).
A concrete example of how Nwapa diverted from local be-
liefs and practices is the ways in which she fictionalized the Lake
Goddess to problematize motherhood. As you may recall, Razinat
Mohammed discussed Uhamiri in Nwapa’s Efuru in terms of fe-
male oppression, due to her denial of motherhood for her wor-
shippers (Mohammed 2016). By contrast, Ogunyemi has dis-
cussed Efuru’s worship of the Goddess in terms of how ‘Uhamiri,
as the mother dwelling within, frees Efuru from sexism and co-
lonialism’, and that the ‘most important message’ of the novel
is that ‘motherhood is not limited to the biological but extends
to the social where it better serves woman, gender/politics, and
community/nation’ (Ogunyemi 1996, 156). While both analyses
are interesting, Nwapa’s portrayal of the barrenness of Uhamiri
and her worshippers was completely fictitious. In actual practice,
Uhamiri does not deny women children; quite the opposite, she
is ‘recognized as the mother water goddess’ and known as ‘our
mother’ in Oguta, valued as ‘the one to whom we owe our lives on
earth’ (Jell-Bahlsen 2008, 37). Since she was fully aware of local
beliefs and practices, it should become clear that ‘Flora Nwapa’s
statements on the “childlessness” of Oguta’s Lake Goddess are
one example of the author’s insider’s critique of her own people’s
obsession with female fecundity’ (Jell-Bahlsen 2016, 7).
In terms of cultural context, we should keep in mind that Nwapa’s
depictions of the Lake Goddess in her aesthetic w orldmaking was
far from controversial, given the religious conflicts in her own
community. As you may recall, Ogunyemi listed religious funda-
mentalism as one of the sites of oppression that African wom-
en struggle with (Ogunyemi 1996, 114). In Oguta, Christianity
has wreaked havoc with local belief systems, as detailed in Jell-
Bahlsen’s ethnography, and ‘[f]emale leadership, both secular and
sacred’, is ‘still being assaulted by religious colonialism’ (Jell-
Bahlsen 2008, 25). Over the years, this onslaught has if anything
gotten worse, as fanatic ‘church people’ have destroyed shrines
and sculptures for water deities, while overzealous Christians
have targeted female priestesses in particular (Jell-Bahlsen 2011,

203; see also Jell-Bahlsen 2016). The tragic fate of the priestess
Eze Mmiri, Madame Martha Mberekpe, shows how even step-
children have turned against their mother, in this case Roman
Catholics joining hands with charismatic Christians in a brutal
assault: beating the priestess, destroying her shrine, chasing her
from her home, and making her convert to Christianity, shortly
after which she tragically died (Jell-Bahlsen 2011). But assaults
by Christian fanatics have not always been successful, while the
effects of such sacrilegious acts have sometimes backfired. Flora
Nwapa’s son, Uzoma Nwakuche, recounts how a born-again
Christian tried to burn down the Akpatakuma shrine in his vil-
lage Umunsoha in Oguta around 2009/2010, but was stopped
by villagers who protected the shrine, and, interestingly enough,
the man who tried to destroy the shrine died less than six months
later (Uzoma Nwakuche, pers. comm., 3 June 2020).14
Despite such religious conflicts, Flora Nwapa narrated the
worldviews of the Lake People, and the interconnectedness of
their natural and spiritual worlds. As much as she was brought
up as a Christian with modern education, Nwapa kept her Oguta
community close to her heart. Jell-Bahlsen has described how
‘Flora Nwapa struggled with certain aspects of local custom in
her earlier novels’ but, ‘towards the end of her life, Nwapa clearly
acknowledged her people’s beliefs in their heartfelt indebtness to
their mother water goddess’ (Jell-Bahlsen 2008, 37). Through her
fiction, Flora Nwapa conveyed how the lives of Oguta people are
intertwined with the lake and its Goddess. In The Lake Goddess,
Nwapa made explicit reference to the Lake People: ‘We are the
Lake People,’ which she described as ‘We live on the Lake. We call
the Lake Goddess Uhamiri or Ogbuide. We sometimes call her
Mother. She is the Mother of all of us’ (Nwapa 2017, 186–7). But
even in her first novel, Efuru, the Lake People’s identification with
14
In his study of traditional Igbo political systems, Nzimiro describes
Akpatakuma as a male cult, which had the main function of giving
strength to all Oguta people during war and protect the fighters against
bullets and machete wounds (Nzimiro 1972, 139).
and reverence of the Lake Goddess is portrayed in a warm, even

humorous style:
There were some white people swimming. Some of them were fish-
ing in their noisy boats. Nwosu and the fisherman stared at them
for a long time, shook their heads, and paddled on.
‘Are they not a queer lot? To come all the way to swim and
fish here.’
‘They are strange people. They come every time to fish, but they
catch nothing.’
‘How can they catch anything when they do not observe the rules
of the woman of the lake. And look at their boats, how can they
catch anything in such noisy boats. Fish swim away from them,
and besides they disturb the woman of the lake with their boats.’
‘It is a wonder she does not capsize their offensive boats and
drown them all,’ said the fisherman in annoyance.
‘You forget, my friend, that our woman of the lake is the kindest
of women, kinder to strangers than to her own people. She is very
understanding. She knows that the white people are strangers to
our land, that’s why she is lenient with them. We, her people, dare
not be so disrespectful.’
Why do the white women wear tight dresses for swimming? Why
don’t they use wrappas as our women do? They have no shame;
they do not know that they are naked.’
‘You are right. But what beats me is their idleness. How can
they leave the comfort of their homes in the big towns and come
to swim all day in the lake?’
The two men paddled on. They reached the shrine of the wom-
an of the lake.
‘We have returned, the great woman of the lake; the most beau-
tiful of women; the kindest of women; your children have returned
safely.’ Having thus paid their respects, they moved on. (Nwapa
2016, 202)
Through her aesthetic worlds, Nwapa narrated a relational on-

tology of sacralized nature, spiritual interconnectedness and
collective being. Similarly to how the aquatic epistemologies of
black communities in the river basins in the Pacific Coast region
in Colombia can be seen as ‘constituting a relational ontology’
(Oslender 2018, 137), so can the life worlds of the Lake People
in Oguta. Escobar recognizes that ‘lifeways based on radical
interdependence’ are common in the ‘cosmovisions of the orig-

inal peoples in many parts of the world’; they are ‘embodied in
practices centered on territory, kinship, spirituality, ritual, the arts,
and relationships with the environment’ (Escobar 2020, 15–16).
He ascertains that these places are ‘experienced and constructed
on a profoundly relational ontology’, which is ‘based on the idea
that territories are living beings with memories, spaces in which
the sacred and the everyday are lived experiences’ (Escobar 2020,
16). In Oguta, as Sabine Jell-Bahlsen has described in ethno-
graphic detail, ‘[a]ll of the indigenous deities and particularly the
ever-present lake goddess are reflected in the people’s daily con-
duct, their cosmology, spirituality, aesthetics, and perception of
the universe’ (Jell-Bahlsen 2014, 5). And, as recounted by Akuzor
Anozia, current chief priestess of the Oguta Lake Goddess, in the
documentary film House of Nwapa, ‘whoever is serving Ogbuide
will also serve the other gods and goddesses’ (Nwelue 2016, 1:03).
The reverence of water and earth spirits, as well as the
coexistence of ancestral spirits and other spiritual forces, points
to a relational ontology par excellence. It is a cosmovision of radi-
cal interdependence between human, natural and spiritual worlds.
In addition to capturing the relational ontologies of the Lake
People, Flora Nwapa also engaged in womanist worldmaking.
In his emphasis on radical interdependence, Escobar valorizes
‘matriztic ontologies’, describing how ‘matriztic cultures’ were
‘historically characterized by conversations emphasizing inclu-
sion, participation, collaboration, coinspiration, respect and mu-
tual acceptance, sacredness, and the recurrent, cyclical renewal
of life’ (Escobar 2020, 17). While modern society is dominated
by patriarchal culture, he notes that some ‘matriztic practices
persist in contemporary modern cultures’ (Escobar 2020, 17).
Since the notion of matriztic culture offers a more nuanced un-
derstanding of gendered social orders than matriarchy, empha-
sizing interdependence instead of domination, it has interesting
resemblances with womanism (Ogunyemi 1996; Phillips 2006).
But to avoid earlier fallacies of reading matriarchy into god-
dess worship (Silverstein and Lewin 2016, 11), which has also
been the case in feminist analyses of Nwapa’s work (e.g. Stratton
1994), it is worth paying attention to the centrality of gender
c omplementarity in African womanism as well as Igbo/Oguta cos-

mology (Ogunyemi 1996; Jell-Bahlsen 2014). As much as Nwapa
focused on Ogbuide, the Lake Goddess is but one part of a divine
pair; her husband, River God Urashi, is of equal significance. Yet
Flora Nwapa’s ‘womanist ideology causes her to gravitate toward
female characters’, not least to show that men and women are
‘mutually dependent’ (Ogunyemi 1996, 135).
Nwapa’s womanist worldmaking can thus be appreciated as
a transition discourse that invoked sacred powers to depict oth-
er possible worlds. In his search for tools for rethinking reali-
ty and the possible, Escobar draws attention to the ‘spaces that
might reveal the existence of other worlds—other forms of
knowing~doing~being’ (Escobar 2020, 13). Literature clearly of-
fers such a space, providing inspiring narratives of other worlds,
while creating possible worlds in the ongoing conversation of
worldmaking. From this perspective, we should be able to start
grasping the ontological potency of Flora Nwapa’s aesthetic
worldmaking. For now, let me just allude to the force of her lit-
erary worldmaking, acknowledging that her writing at the cross-
roads conveyed ‘the complexity, ambiguities, and contradictions
of her environment as they are embodied in the force that lies on
the bottom of the lake, Uhamiri, the goddess of the crossroads’
(Nnaemeka 1995, 104).
3. Celebrating Children in Abuja
Swimming pool, art galleries and TV interview

Abuja was what I had expected from Lagos: a modern city with
smooth highways and modern buildings. It was also what I had
not expected from Lagos: neat and orderly. ‘Abuja is boring;
Lagos is so much fun,’ a friend of Salamatu’s reflected as he drove
us back to my hotel, repeating a common stereotype image of the
two cities, exciting Lagos as opposed to dull Abuja. I had been in
Abuja a few days already, enjoying the sheer comfort of things
working well. The hotel was fabulous: power cuts were rapid-
ly dealt with through generators, the shower had hot water and
marvellous water pressure, and the spacious room had a sitting
area as well as desk. Never mind that the wallpaper was stained
from humidity or that the door had to be pulled hard to lock. I
was enjoying the creature comforts of the hotel. The best of it all:
a pool! A clean, outdoor pool that I had all to myself. It was a
luxurious way to wake up.
Savannah Suites and Hotel in Area 3 became my home for a few
days, and I settled into a very comfortable routine. Early-morning
swimming, followed by a scrumptious breakfast of my choice,
with coffee. Laptop and phone always charged, allowing me to
take notes, upload photos on Facebook and check my email, any
time. Laundry service, my clothes neatly packaged in thin plastic
bags when delivered. Food and drinks in the hotel restaurant, a bit
pricy but a menu with everything from club sandwich to Indian
curry with jollof rice. In the evenings I treated myself to cold Star
beer by the pool side, while typing my notes and chatting with
friends through Facebook or calling Mom and friends through
Skype on my phone.

University Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.16993/bbe.d. License: CC-BY 4.0.
Salamatu was in charge of me in Abuja and she took her job

seriously. She called on me at least once a day and phoned me
from time to time. She was young and energetic, busy establishing
herself as Nigeria’s first female literary agent. Salamatu had a vast
network of contacts that she handled very well, making connec-
tions when suitable, and, not shy, she could call upon anyone,
regardless of status. Salamatu always covered her head with a
scarf, her dresses long and typically quite loose, not only because
she was thin but also as a mark of modesty befitting a young
urban Muslim woman. The scar on her cheek gave character to
her pretty face, a dramatic twist to her gentle features, while her
measured accent augmented her femininity.
In her efforts to expose me to Abuja’s cultural scene, Salamatu
took me to the Thought Pyramid Art Gallery on Libreville Street
in a middle-class neighbourhood. She had picked the place for
our interview for its quietness. The building itself was impressive:
stone walls, large decorated wooden doors, and life-size sculp-
tures. The art on the walls was equally inspiring: paintings of var-
ious sizes as well as sculptures in wood and metal, rendered with
exquisite creative talent. I was awestruck by a painting of a city
street in dusky rain; could barely tear my eyes off it. Photographs
were not allowed, only selfies. Amused by the restriction, I took
a few selfies in front of some of the paintings that I liked the
most. We were the only people upstairs, but Salamatu’s phone
kept ringing. The conference scheduled for the following day,
3 December, was not being prepared as planned. The local chair
was not reachable and another university colleague had stepped
in. Meanwhile, Salamatu was trying to assist from a distance.
After a while I suggested we simply reschedule the interview.
Having observed the elegance of Nigerian women, I realized
I needed some more dresses and Salamatu took me to a friend
who was a designer. We met up in her office and she drove us
to her workshop on the outskirts of town, a room with racks of
clothes and a small fitting area, drawn with a curtain. Dresses
of varying styles, all of them long, showed that the designer was
a Muslim lady. I picked a few dresses with their help and tried
them on. They all fit very nicely and were comfortable to wear.
The design was unlike any other dress I had, but I felt inspired by
Celebrating Children in Abuja 99
the feminine cut. In the end I picked three dresses, for the total
cost of 32,000 naira. I was still unsure of the exchange rate, but
figured they cost around US$70. I did not have enough cash with
me, but the designer agreed that Salamatu could transfer money
to her as soon as I had changed some dollars.
On 6 December the conference took place at the University of
Abuja, which turned out to be quite far away. The campus was
enormous and it took us a while to find the English Department.
The departments were scattered around campus, with few signs
to lead the way. ‘How on earth do students move between build-
ings?’ I thought to myself. Well, some of them simply walked by
the roadside, I soon noticed.
The event was reasonably well attended, with some 100–150
people, mostly students, who had been encouraged to attend in
the last minute. Several dignitaries gave welcoming and opening
remarks, including Leslye Obiora, former minister of mines and
professor of law at Arizona State University, as well as cousin to
Flora Nwapa’s children. Obiora underlined the celebration of cre-
ativity in her eloquent remarks. The conference tone was academ-
ic, with lots of paper presentations by established scholars. The
quality was remarkably high and many presenters used critical
feminist theories in their analysis of Efuru and Flora Nwapa. I
was particularly impressed by young male scholars using feminist
theory, a progressive move in male-dominated academia.
After the conference I went to the Nigerian Television Authority
(NTA), for my first ever television interview. An NTA represent-
ative had approached me during the children’s carnival a few
days earlier, asking for an interview for their morning show. They
had also scheduled TV interviews with Flora Nwapa’s children.
Salamatu accompanied me to the NTA, which helped me feel a bit
less nervous, since she knew the place and many of the staff. We
were greeted by the programme host and she led us to the studio.
The studio had a sitting area by the wall, with a small sofa and
armchair around a low table. Two large film cameras mounted
on tripods were positioned a few metres away. The host asked
me to sit on the sofa while they prepared the microphone, which
she asked me to slip under my dress. The sound check took a
while – someone had to find batteries – but eventually we were
set to go. While waiting, the host asked me a few questions, which
she used in the interview. She had googled me and found some
data that she used as a basis: research topics, publications, argu-
ments I had made.
During the interview, I answered as clearly as I could. She
slipped in some lifestyle questions (my house in Tanzania that I
had just told her about; some words in Swahili), my favourite
Nigerian food (jollof rice), what I did to relax (walks in nature;
she quickly moved on, seemingly unimpressed). She also asked me
about Efuru@50 and what I thought of the event. At last she asked
if I was a bookworm, which took me aback. I simply responded
that I loved books since books allow you to travel. She concluded
by noting that, unlike what one would expect from an academic
(someone who sits inside reading books), I came across as quite
extroverted. I realized that our worlds were quite far apart. The
whole thing was over in just half an hour, to my relief. Salamatu
assured me it had gone very well and showed all the pictures she
had taken. I posted one on Facebook, feeling rather excited about
this ‘first’ TV interview ever.
On our way back to the hotel, we stopped at a corner and
Salamatu bought some local delicacies: suya (barbecued meat)
and masa (rice cake). We ate it straight from the newspaper it
was wrapped in, using our fingers. It was absolutely delicious.
The beef had been marinated and gently barbecued, cut into small
pieces covered by succulent spices. It was a popular snack, and I
could see why: one of the best barbecued meats I had ever tasted.
I was thoroughly enjoying Nigerian food culture and I could see
why eating was a recurring topic in conversations. Considerable
care went into the selection of food during meals, since there was
always great variety. Pepper (chilli) was commonly used to add
flavour. Food was served in large portions and I rarely managed
to finish a plate. Not that eating a lot was in any way badly seen:
quite the contrary. As one man announced during a meal, ‘It is
good when the woman eats a lot; it shows that her husband has
strong capacity.’

‘Life in Europe is not all that great; you have to do everything by

yourself!’ a young woman sitting at our table exclaimed. I was
having some drinks with Uzoma and his friends at a local beer
garden and the kitchen had just whipped out a delicious snack:
a large fish cooked in its entirety, wrapped in foil with aromatic
spices and tender vegetables. We all dug in, taking small p ieces
of fish with our hands, washing them down with cold beer. A
testimony to Nigerian food culture, I thought to myself; even lo-
cal beer joints serve excellent food. The discussion had steered
towards complaints about how certain things were not working
in Nigeria and how much better life was in the West. The woman
recalled a good friend of hers who was living in Europe. Before
she left, she had been beautiful and healthy; nowadays she looked
thin and haggard. The reason was that she was overwhelmed with
all household duties she had to perform, in addition to working
long hours. In Nigeria, she would have had a house girl and a
cook to help her out, even someone to look after the children.
I readily agreed with the woman. Unlike Nigeria, where house
help was quite common, and taken for granted among the urban
middle class, in Europe few could afford such luxuries. Instead,
people had to take care of household duties themselves.
Life in Nigeria was obviously quite pleasant, for the privileged.
In Abuja, I had seen some of the mansions of the very rich, but
there was also a numerous middle class that enjoyed comfortable
housing, with affordable services provided by the less well-to-do.
Roads were well kept and most of the cars were in good condi-
tion, many of them large SUVs or pickup trucks. Abuja also had
a sophisticated culture scene, with bookshops and art galleries.
Salamatu took me to The Booksellers Ltd, a well-stocked book-
shop in a small compound, with a cafeteria in the inner courtyard.
Next to the entrance door was a large roll-up poster advertising a
new book, and the shop sign above the door promised the place
to be ‘Nigeria’s Favourite Bookshop’. It was Salamatu’s favourite
bookshop and she knew the owners well, warmly greeting them
as we entered. She sometimes arranged readings in the book-
shop, she explained to me. I was impressed by the rows and rows
of bookshelves, and the tall shelves lining the walls. Hundreds of
books were on display, not least textbooks on everything from

media and management to medical science and mathematics.
There were also shelves dedicated to children’s books as well as
secondary school books. And a whole bookcase devoted to moti-
vational books, a very popular genre in Tanzania as well.
What impressed me the most were the many shelves of litera-
ture, from classics to bestsellers. The bestsellers included spy nov-
els and thrillers by writers like Ian Fleming, Colin Forbes and
Clive Cussler. By contrast, the classics were predominantly the
works of African writers, especially Nigerian writers. The 50th
anniversary edition of Efuru was prominently displayed. The
newly released and much-talked-about A Conspiracy of Ravens
(2016) by Othuke Ominiabohs was also shown on the top shelf,
and on the shelf underneath was a large collection of the African
Writers Series. Near the counter were biographies of famous
Nigerians, like the politician Tony Anenih’s My Life and Nigerian
Politics and Audacity on the Bound: A Diplomatic Odyssey by
Ambassador Olusola Sanu. Biography is another popular genre,
often commissioned by established writers, sometimes as anon-
ymous ghostwriters. Bolanle Awe’s newly released Nigerian
Women Pioneers & Icons (2016) was also featured on the shelf.
On a low table near the counter I spotted A Treasury of African
Folktales (2016), compiled by Ikeogu Oke, Helon Habila and
Wale Okediran. Next to it was the latest issue of Ebedi Review, a
publication of the Ebedi International Writers Residency, run by
Wale Okediran, containing stories and pictures of recent writers
in residence, along with poems, tributes and reviews. Little did I
know that I would have a poem published in Ebedi Review a year
later (Uimonen 2017).
Children’s carnival at Efuru@50

The children’s carnival took place on Saturday, 3rd December, at
the NTA Arena, in the NTA compound. The arena was a large
open ground paved with bricks, with an elevated stage at the
front. The stage was decorated with green and white banners
of cloth suspended from the flat roof and a large plastic post-
er at the back, carrying the Efuru@50 logo and announcing the
event: NATIONAL CELEBRATION OF FLORA NWAPA’S
EFURU@50; PIONEER OF AFRICAN WOMEN LITERATURE,

along with the date (SATURDAY 3rd DECEMBER 2016), venue
(NTA ARENA) and time (10 am PROMPT). Names of the nation-
al and local organizers were printed at the bottom of the poster.
The open ground was surrounded by auditoriums, eight levels of
wide concrete steps, covered with aluminium roofing. Rows
of upholstered chairs had been placed on the steps, plastic chairs
on the topmost ones. At the entrance was a table with Flora
Nwapa’s books on display.
The event started around 11:30, somewhat later than sched-
uled. Chinyere was the MC and stood in the middle of the ground,
asking students to explain what the celebration was all about.
She then called on individuals for the high table, starting with
the guest of honour, the representative for the director general
of the National Council for Arts and Culture. She then called the
children of Flora Nwapa; Elizabeth Ben-Iheanacho, director of
the National Council for Arts and Culture; and Professor Vicky
Sylvester, University of Abuja. To my great surprise, she also called
me to the high table. I was not all that pleased, since I had planned
to walk around the arena to take pictures and video footage, but
had to respect protocol and comply. Chinyere then introduced
the eight schools that were present. More than 200 students were
seated on the rows of chairs, neatly dressed in their school uni-
forms, their teachers sitting next to them. In the VIP section, some
20 guests were seated, many of them family friends.
The event was kicked off with the national anthem, accompa-
nied by a young man playing the flute. Everyone stood up and
many sang along. The representative of the director general deliv-
ered brief and concise welcoming remarks, encouraging the chil-
dren to develop their talent, noting how the creative industries
contributed to national development. She used Michael Jackson
as an example of international success from an early age.
The student quiz followed, with eight competing schools, each
represented by three students, male and female. The students were
seated on upholstered chairs at the bottom of the auditorium, with
the judges and moderator sitting at a table in the opposite audito-
rium. Students got to choose questions by number. The questions
focused on characters and relations in Efuru, along with critical
events. Some of the questions had multiple-choice answers. The
sound system was not altogether clear and students struggled to

hear the questions. One question led to vivid discussion. The stu-
dents had answered it correctly, contrary to the judge’s response,
and, following heated argument, the question was excluded. The
competition was clearly taken very seriously. Similarly to the oth-
er venues, the winning teams were awarded with gifts of books.
A drama competition came next, with four competing groups,
each allotted 20 minutes. The groups ranged from four to 20 per-
forming students. Each group gave their own rendering of Efuru,
often focusing on dramatic turns like her initial elopement after
falling in love, marriage negotiations with her father, the painful
delivery and later tragic death of her child. The students used local
wrappers for costumes, female students often wearing two pieces,
a short skirt and another wrapper around their chest, their bellies
exposed. Some wore beads in their hair and around their necks,
their faces marked with make-up. Male students wore wrappers
around their shoulders and T-shirts underneath, and those who
acted fathers and senior men had white beards drawn on their fac-
es. Props like clay pots, baskets and walking sticks were also used.
The student actors were barefoot, thus accentuating the village
setting.
It had already reached afternoon and the sun was blazing
on the open ground. I was struggling to get some footage from
the high table, but the light settings were not adequate for the
contrasts between bright open ground and shaded auditoriums.
Rapidly whirling ceiling fans offered some respite from the heat
that was building up, and the bottles of water and soft drink that
were placed at the high table offered some welcome refreshment.
TV crew from the NTA filmed the event, expertly moving
around with their film cameras. They also interviewed people
from the high table, including myself, asking us to comment the
event. The programme was concluded with music performances
by some students, who rapped to soundtracks blasting from the
loudspeakers, their body language copied from American hip-hop.
The cultural framing of the children’s carnival emphasized
learning. Here the process of heightened reflexivity used the ficti-
tious character of Efuru for educational purposes, students cram-
ming details of the novel in preparation of the quiz. The novel
was thus used as images and symbols of a social world outside
the event that could be scrutinized, assessed and revalued (Turner

1987, 117). The social world of Efuru was also ‘remodelled and
rearranged’ through dramatizations (Turner 1987, 117). Similarly
to the performance of ethnography in anthropology classes
(Turner 1987, 152–3), the dramatizations enabled students to im-
merse themselves in another cultural world, familiarizing them-
selves with Igbo cultural practices, using props and costumes to
visualize the material culture of a traditional village. The compet-
itive edge of quizzes and dramas framed the carnival in a contem-
porary educational mode, forming children as neoliberal subjects
rather than members of close-knit communities. The nationalistic
framing of the carnival also positioned the students as citizens of
the imagined community of Nigeria.
Through the student carnival, Flora Nwapa’s sphere of virtu-
al influence was extended to future generations. At the carnival,
students served as the distant others who witness the value trans-
formation of fame, separated from the social life of Flora Nwapa
by several decades, thus showing how her influence had ‘become
available in other times and places’ (Munn 1986, 117). As par-
ticipants in the Efuru@50 celebration, students were made aware
Figure 5. Student dramatizations of Efuru. Photograph by author.

of Flora Nwapa’s fame, while their own enactment of Efuru in-

ternalized the writer’s literary legacy. The children’s carnival thus
played a catalytic role in the expansion of intersubjective space-
time, carrying Flora Nwapa’s fame into the future through com-
ing generations.
The mediatized carnival extended Flora Nwapa’s fame even
further, reaching thousands if not millions of TV viewers. Hosted
by NTA, the broadcasting of the children’s carnival broadened the
outreach, bringing in TV audiences as complementary witnesses.
Meanwhile, the broadcast of the event meant that it was audio
visually recorded, archived for an unspecified time, thus expand-
ing the intersubjective spacetime into an unspecified future.
Flora Nwapa’s children’s literature and Mammywater

A pioneer at many levels, Flora Nwapa wrote literature for
children and she was also ‘the first female publisher of children’s
books in Nigeria’ (Okoye 1998, 583). At the time, few Nigerian
writers wrote books for children. If anything, in his introduction
to a collection of academic essays on Nwapa’s children’s litera-
ture, Emenyonu starts by noting: ‘Children’s literature in Nigeria
has over the years suffered abysmal neglect by writers, publish-
ers, literary critics and even by educators and policy makers in
education’ (Emenyonu 1998a, 567). Early writers, most of
whom were male, seemed more preoccupied with ‘telling the
ugly stories of colonialism with its heinous extensions of cultural
alienation and neo-colonial outrages’, while ‘they ignored cre-
ating literature for the young minds’ (Emenyonu 1998b, 590).
Meanwhile, publishers paid ‘the least attention’ to children’s
literature, partly because it could be imported from abroad
(Emenyonu 1998a, 567). Indeed, the middle-aged women writers
I interviewed for this study all grew up with Western children’s
literature, typically fairy tales like Aladdin, Cinderella and Snow
White. Most of them only started reading African literature in
secondary school.
Flora Nwapa could draw on her various social roles in the crea-
tion of children’s literature, not only as a woman writer but also as
a mother, teacher, educator and social worker (Emenyonu 1998b,
605–6). While she wrote for her own children, she was also mo-
tivated by the ‘socio-cultural crusade’ of writing ‘appropriately
and effectively for children in the Nigerian situation’ (Emenyonu

1998b, 590). Her children’s books conveyed her ability to see the
world from a children’s perspective, while offering social, cultural
and moral guidance for their development. As Brooks concluded,
‘Nwapa aids them [children] in the socialization process, and at
the same time gives them the joy of reading a good story’ (Brooks
1998, 624).
The style and content of Flora Nwapa’s children’s literature
offers yet another example of creolized aesthetics. Similarly to
Eugenia’s jollof writing, Flora Nwapa’s children’s books com-
bined the creative impetus of orature and literature, drawing on a
rich tradition of folktales as well as modern illustrated children’s
books. In a Nigerian context, traditional orature has often been
designed for acculturation and socialization, not least of children,
through myths, folktales and riddles (Emenyonu 1998a, 567–8).
Indeed, it has been argued that the close relationship between
traditional orature and modern literature is particularly poign-
ant in African children’s literature, which often contains discern-
ible elements of folktales to instil traditional norms and world-
views (Agbasiere 1998, 571). This didactic orientation is common
in children’s books, which tend to both educate and entertain,
through words and images. Well educated and exposed to Western
culture, Flora Nwapa was quite familiar with Western children’s
books and could thus create her own combination of Western
and African literature for children. But, to distribute her works,
she had to establish her own publishing house to get around the
political economy of children’s literature dominated by Western
publishers, as discussed further in Chapter 4.
In terms of literary worldmaking, Flora Nwapa created worlds
from a children’s perspective and made children heroes in these
imaginary worlds. In this sense, she also departed from tradition-
al orature, positioning the child not only as a receiver but also
as producer of knowledge, thus conveying a modern perspective
on childhood. The ‘literary revolutionary’ aspect of her children’s
literature has been acknowledged by scholars, her child-heroes
paving the way for ‘children-empowerment’, in fiction as well as
real life (Emenyonu 1998a, 569). Similarly, calling Nwapa’s fic-
tional children explorers in the universe, Agbasiere has noted how
Nwapa encouraged children to be creative and independent:
To her [Flora Nwapa], children should be given ample opportu-

nity to assume responsible positions as early as possible. In her
children’s stories, most of the child-characters are bold, intelli-
gent and possess a high sense of responsibility. They are actors
whose actions make a positive impact on their immediate environ-
ment and on their own personality. They are hero-voyagers and
the world is seen from the perspective of the child. (Agbasiere
1998, 572)
Flora Nwapa also engaged her own children when writing chil-
dren’s books. I asked Ejine, Nwapa’s first-born child, about her
experiences of children’s literature when growing up. She re-
sponded as follows by email on 28 July 2017:
Paula: Did your mother involve you in the writing of her chil-
dren’s books?
Ejine: Yes she did. I had the opportunity to read everything she
wrote before it was published. The stories usually came
out of things my brother Uzoma and Sister Amede experi-
enced growing up. I would read and give her my opinion.
Sometimes she would edit based on what I said and other
times she would explain why she had written it that way
and would leave it.
Paula: Which was your favourite among her children’s books?
Ejine: Journey to Space.
In Journey to Space (Nwapa [1980] 1988), Eze and his sister

Ngozi play in a lift, which shoots up through the roof into the air.
The lift takes off when the children disobey an older man who
warns them about playing in lifts, so the man casts a spell on
them. During their space journey they meet a dog and two fair-
ies. The dog is on a mission to get a precious stone for animals
from the moon, so that they can live forever, having lost their im-
mortality when they were forced into the animal world on earth.
The fairies have been alerted to the children needing some help.
After some time, the children find their journey dangerous and re-
turn home to their parents. The story is illustrated with drawings,
printed in black and white. After giving me a copy of the book,
Ejine’s brother Uzoma told me that they used to play in lifts, often
jumping, which seems to have inspired their mother’s story, who
always warned them not to play in lifts.
While Flora Nwapa’s fictional children played centre stage, she

also imbued their imaginary worlds with Nigerian/African cultural
values. Far from being representations of cultural transformation
towards Westernized individualization, her children were cast as
modern Africans. Just like Flora Nwapa herself, her child-characters
straddled different worlds, African, Western and imaginary. The
creolized aesthetic thus played out in her construction of cultural
identities, which combined modern and traditional, Western and
African norms and values. At a time of profound social transfor-
mation, she imbued her characters with cultural identities that
could enhance their agency, without the risks of cultural loss.
Flora Nwapa imparted elements of Igbo culture in particular.
Not only did she use Igbo names for many of her characters, but
she also drew upon Igbo folktales and traditional beliefs, in some
cases adjusting or correcting cultural practices that she did not
entirely endorse. For example, her first children’s book, Emeka-
Driver’s Guard (1972), challenged the traditional taboo of twins,
thus addressing ‘cultural issues of gender and multiple births’
(Brooks 1998, 612). Rather than letting her baby girl die, as vil-
lagers advise her, the mother sends the twins, a boy and a girl, to
the town to stay with their aunt. While the girl is industrious and
prospers, the boy behaves immaturely and fails in school, thus
learning from experience that discipline and hard work is neces-
sary for success and happiness (Brooks 1998, 614). Brooks under-
lines that the social relations Nwapa describes build on the Igbo
moral value system, especially the extended family and kinship
system (Brooks 1998, 613). But Nwapa also challenged tradition-
al practices.
In Mammywater (1979), Flora Nwapa drew on Oguta cosmol-
ogy. It was her second published children’s book, and it offered
an adjusted version of the mythical Lake Goddess. In her liter-
ary portrayal of the Lake Goddess, Nwapa could draw on wom-
en’s stories. Similarly to many other African women writers, she
had ‘listened to and learned from their foremothers’ storytelling’
(Nnaemeka 1997, 13). In an interview with Sabine Jell-Bahlsen
in 1988, Flora Nwapa reflected on how she grew up with stories
about Mammywater, despite her parents’ objection to such sup-
posedly pagan beliefs (Jell-Bahlsen 1998, 644):
S[abine]: Why are you so interested in Mammywater?

N[wapa]: That is what I was talking about. It is because
I have been told these fantastic stories about
Mammywater and lots and lots of things about her
building under the water. Then there was some-
thing about her palm tree that attracted my atten-
tion and how she came out and met with human
beings. These are the stories that you believed as a
child, as you believe in father Christmas. My chil-
dren do. So that was the sort of thing I believed in.
But I would have thought that I would really have
been a worshipper […]
S: Because you have eventually found peace?
N: [Laughs] I should have been a worshipper. But
maybe it is my Western education that prevented
me from being a worshipper. If I did not receive this
kind of education…
E [Chief
Francis Ebiri]: Then you could have been a worshipper, but
then…
N: […] But then my Christian background […] be-
cause my parents were the children of the first con-
verts. My two grandmothers were Christians. They
baptised us almost at the same time. Then they
were fanatics about Christianity. We were exposed
to so many things. We children were not allowed to
do certain things, like talking about Mammywater.
My [parents] called her worship ‘paganism’; they
talked of ‘heathens’ […] But then I was lucky be-
cause I went to live with my grandmother at a very
early age in a huge compound. Not only my moth-
er, but there were so many women who were not
Christians. That was a more relaxed atmosphere.
There I was able to listen to all those stories of
Mammywater, Okita, and all those things.
In an anthology on African children’s literature, Flora Nwapa re-

counted how she completed Mammywater in ‘two days of inten-
sive writing’, a few days after visiting Oguta together with the
late Michael Crowder, a historian who wanted to visit the town
(Nwapa 1997, 268). They had paddled a canoe to the confluence
of the lake and Urashi river, and down the river. ‘As we went along,
I pointed out to Michael Crowder the landmarks of the lake, the

shrine and the abode of the woman of the lake, where the blue
waters were deepest. I told him the stories a ssociated with her and
how she is held in awe until this day’ (Nwapa 1997, 268).
In her recollection, Flora Nwapa clarified that ‘Mammywater
is not a folktale, but it is rather a story based on the beliefs and
traditions of the people of Oguta. The Goddess of the Lake per-
vades the lives of the lake people, both men and women. She is
mysterious, and this mystery moves in every sentence for most
of the book’ (Nwapa 1997, 268). In her story, Nwapa made a
child a protagonist, thus depicting the spirit world from a child’s
perspective (Agbasiere 1998, 574). She also demystified the Lake
Goddess to make her accessible to children, while retaining her
supernatural powers (Emenyonu 1998b, 596).
Mammywater offers yet another example of Flora Nwapa’s
womanist worldmaking, emphasizing gender complementari-
ty and environmentally anchored spirituality (Ogunyemi 1996;
Phillips 2006). The story of Mammywater is told together with
the story of her husband Urashi, linked to their different domains,
the clear lake and the muddy river respectively, thus bringing forth
gender complementarity, along with environmental and spiritual
coexistence. Throughout the story, the line between human and
spiritual worlds are blurred, as Deke and his family enter and exit
the spiritual realm, while the water spirits also engage in human
activities. In one of the dialogues between Deke and Mammywater,
the existential essence of spiritual life is spelled out:
‘Do you know how old I am?’

‘No.’
‘I have lived here since the beginning of the world.’
‘True. You look younger than my mother. I don’t believe you.’
Mammywater laughs again showing her white teeth. She is so
beautiful. ‘I have lived here since the beginning of the world’ she
tells Deke.
‘You will not die?’
‘Die, no. I am a spirit. Spirits don’t die. We live for ever.’ (Nwapa
1979, 14)
In Flora Nwapa’s Mammywater the creolized aesthetic works at

several levels, from narrative structure to religious beliefs and
c ultural practices. Scholars have noted that the use of questions

and answers in the narrative dialogue corresponds to an Igbo
proverb: one who asks questions never gets lost (Emenyonu
1998b, 596). Through question-and-answer techniques (Okoye
1998, 588), Flora Nwapa thus combined Igbo cultural norms and
practices with modern writing. She also used the literary form to
impart certain cultural practices, like the breaking of a kola nut in
Igbo rites of hospitality (Brooks 1998, 616).
More significantly, in writing a book about Mammywater,
Flora Nwapa acknowledged the existence of the Lake Goddess,
not just as a mythical being but as a significant deity in Oguta
cosmology. Through her literary work, Nwapa could thus portray
creolized religious beliefs that combined traditional religion and
Christianity, a theme she pursued throughout her writing career,
especially in her last novel. In so doing, she challenged the dom-
inance of Christianity, writing against the political economy of
leading religious institutions and religious colonialism (see also
Sabine 2008). Even today, there is considerable tension between
Christians and worshippers of Ogbuide and other local deities
in Oguta, as discussed in the previous chapter. Far from rejecting
Oguta cosmology, Flora Nwapa imparted the norms and values
of local value systems to future generations, following the cos-
mopolitan orientation of her creolized aesthetics, while nurturing
children with the relational worldview of other possible worlds.
Elizabeth Ben-Iheanacho and African Tales for Children

I first met Lizi at the children’s carnival, where she was one of the
guests of honour at the high table. Strikingly beautiful, with high
cheekbones, her features highlighted with carefully applied make-
up and a full African figure, her tailored batik dress accentuating
her curves, Lizi was the elegant embodiment of African femininity.
Smiling and laughing, while peering through her g lasses with a
twinkle in the eye, Lizi’s creative intelligence shone through her
charismatic personality. When she delivered her paper at the
Efuru@50 literary conference at the University of Abuja on 6
December, she spoke with a clear and confident voice, vividly ges-
ticulating for emphasis. I interviewed Lizi on 12 December in the
restaurant of my hotel. We have also been Facebook friends ever
since. After the interview I jotted in my notebook: ‘Lizi is a pow-

erful woman, full of life, bursting with creative energy. Confident,
eloquent, insightful.’ I should add: with a great sense of humor, as
we laughed throughout the interview.
Dr Elizabeth Ben-Iheanacho works as director of research
and documentation at the National Council for Art and Culture
in Abuja. Born in 1965, she is ethnically Igbo (she checked
my spelling as I jotted it down in my notebook) and Christian
by persuasion. Her late father was a banker and writer, her moth-
er a nurse, a caregiver. She went to a community-owned primary
school and a Catholic missionary secondary school that was then
run by the government, both public. The language of instruction
was English and she recalled pupils being fined if caught speaking
their native language. In church, however, they were encouraged
to read the Bible and sing hymns in Igbo. Lizi holds a PhD in
literature from Ahmadu Bello University Zaria (1995) and a BA
from the University of Benin (1986). Her mother tongue is Igbo
and she also speaks English. She was married ‘very well’, to a
media practitioner, and they separated ‘very well’, she remarked
laughingly. She has three children, including a boy and a girl who
are twins.
As a child, Lizi read ‘everything that I could lay my hands on’.
From the Ladybird stories to the Andersen tales, in the languages
she could read, that is, English and Igbo. There was literature
available in Igbo language too, she reflected, ‘because there was
this deliberate effort to generate reading material for students in
Igbo language’. So her reading was ‘diverse’. Her dad was her
greatest supplier of reading materials: ‘the guy was in love with
words’ and bought her books, not least for her birthday. Her
father bequeathed her a ‘fantastic library’, including every single
book from the original African Writers Series. With access to her
father’s library, she also read books that were not meant for
her age: classics, street literature and magazines. Literacy was
highly valued in the community where she grew up. Nowadays
she reads ‘everything too’. She reads academic texts for work, but
also literature, ‘for the love of it’. She reads a lot of contemporary
Nigerian writers. As for non-Nigerian literature, she reads what
is available in the bookshop, depending on her interests as well
as affordability. She does not read electronic books but prefers to

leaf through a book, appreciating its materiality.
Lizi started writing shortly after leaving secondary school in
1980 and at the time there was an ‘interesting development in the
Nigerian literary scene’. This was the Pacesetter books, published
by Macmillan. They made ‘street literature, young adult litera-
ture available more regularly’, as opposed to what they were used
to reading, namely European texts sent to Africa. By contrast,
the Pacesetter books were ‘written by Nigerians, our stories told
for us, by us, and capturing the things that were of interest to
the growing child’. After reading a couple of them, Lizi figured
she could also write; she could even tell better stories. She wrote
something, but ‘went shy’ and did not understand the dynamics of
publishing. Given her love of literature, it was ‘inevitable’ that she
would write, but it was above all her mum who challenged her.
Being a hard-headed, practical woman, the mother had remarked
on the large quantity of books in the house, suggesting Lizi should
just write her own stories.
Lizi sees herself as a folklorist, ‘a beneficiary of the twilight
zone of the folktale, and its role in the agrarian communities
of Nigeria where they flourished’. When growing up, that was
the form of ‘entertainment’, the norm for ‘value transmission’,
and ‘training’ in the ability to recount tales and tweak them to
make them interesting. When she started writing, she was trying
to pass the same message to her readers.
Most of Lizi’s published works are for children and young
adults, in the folkloric genre, and she also writes short stories
as well as some prose and poetry. In terms of content, she aims
for mass appeal, beyond the children’s focus, but her writing is
still guided by the moral of the story, its lesson, the value it passes
on. ‘I don’t know how to do art for art’s sake,’ Lizi reflected; ‘for
me, art must speak to its chosen audience.’ In addition to children
and young adults, she writes for the wider reading public, if they
have time to read. She writes foremost for Africans, and does not
really have a non-African audience in mind: ‘I tell our story to
resonate with those who can first identify with it before the uni-
versal thing.’
Lizi has published four works of fiction, under her maiden

name Lizi Ashimole. Her first publication was the poetic novel
The Groundnut Child (Ashimole 2004), followed by Just in Case
(Ashimole 2005), a collection of short stories for young adults.
In 2007, she published Tales by the Fluorescent (Ashimole 2007),
thus updating the cultural practice of storytelling by moonlight.
It won the 2007 ANA/Atiku Abubakar Children’s Literature
Prize. After that came African Tales for Children (Ashimole
2009), with two stories and hand-drawn colour illustrations by
Amulu Onyeka Alexander. True to her aims to entertain and edu-
cate, the stories explore moral values like selfless sacrifice for the
community and the anxieties that money can bring. In the story
‘Olekanma and the Famine’, the little girl Kanma, who has lost
her whole family to the famine, sacrifices her only possession, a
doll, to appease the Guardian Spirit of the land, as advised by the
wise men of the village. Unlike the queen and the king, who do
not want to part with their treasures, Olekanma sees no problem
in figuring out a valuable sacrifice, since ‘she only had her doll to
give’ (Ashimole 2009, 37–9):
She thought of her grandpa

who carved the doll.
She thought of her daddy
who painted it bright.
She thought of her mommy
who sang to the doll.
She thought of her grandma
Who tied it to her back.
And Kanma went to the village square
and left her doll at the Guardian Spirit’s house.
The next day when the village woke up,

Behold the wosh! Wosh!! of the rain.
It fell in drops, it filled the streets
and Kanma smiled at the fresh green grass.
When Kanma, beloved of all,

died of good old age,
The Guardian Spirit took
her up to the skies with Him.

And now some evenings bright and clear
you’ll see Kanma smiling her sweet smile
Up in the moon which is her new home.
Lizi’s writing for children is comparable with that of Flora Nwapa,

both combining folktales and storytelling techniques with modern
literary forms, through a creolized aesthetic. In the context of chil-
dren’s literature, the creolized aesthetic enables writers to write
across cultures as well as across generations. They can tell stories
that speak to children in their particular cultural context, while
passing on historically shaped norms and values, reconfigured for
the present.
The political economy of the creolized aesthetic becomes par-
ticularly poignant in the challenges of publishing children’s lit-
erature, which have been dominated by international publishing
houses. As noted above, one of the reasons why Flora Nwapa
established her own publishing company was to publish chil-
dren’s books. As scholars have pointed out, children’s literature
has ‘suffered abysmal neglect’ by the various literary actors in-
volved (Emenyonu 1998a, 567). These days, children’s literature
continues to be marginalized.
Like most other writers, Lizi singles out publishing as a main
challenge for writers in Nigeria. It is difficult to get a publisher
interested, so writers often self-publish or pay a publishing house
for the imprint and market the book themselves. When it comes
to children’s books, the challenge is even greater. Unless a book
is listed in the approved reading list of the educational system,
parents will not buy the book. Lizi has pitched her books at book
fairs, and children are instantly drawn to the colourful covers.
Lizi uses colour to attract children, knowing that she is competing
with television for their attention, similarly to how Flora Nwapa
was well aware of the need to publish visually appealing chil-
dren’s book in ‘the era of the television’ (Ezenwa-Ohaeto 1998,
193). Lizi also produces her books in a small, portable format.
But, even though children and their parents find the books at-
tractive, the parents do not purchase them, preferring instead the
officially listed textbooks. The affordability of books is an issue,
Lizi reflected, since the choice stands between a book and a meal.
‘The children love the books at first sight, but the parents are not
going to buy it because it is not a prescribed school text.’ Unable
to recover the costly investment, writers tend to simply ‘hawk’
their books, or give them away as gifts.
Similarly to many other women writers, Lizi is very much
involved in activities to promote reading and writing, especial-
ly among children and youth. She was active in the Reading
Association of Nigeria (RAN); she is a member of the Association
of Nigerian Authors (ANA) and a trustee of the Abuja Literary
Society. Through her workplace, the National Council for Art
and Culture, Lizi has been able to establish an active children’s
programme, and she insists that their awards include books by
Nigerian authors, to encourage children to read. They have also
initiated essay writing competitions to groom children’s writing
abilities and talents.
Vicky Sylvester and female role models

Academic teaching and writing is a common occupation among
women writers, as exemplified by Professor Mnguember Vicky
Sylvester, who teaches literature and gender studies at the
Department of English at University of Abuja. Focusing on
the forgotten and invisible writers in Nigerian literary history,
Vicky interviewed Nigerian women writers for her PhD disserta-
tion, A Literary History of Nigerian Women Writers 1950–1990,
while her MA thesis focused on Buchi Emecheta. Her choice of
topics was often questioned: why write about unknown writ-
ers like Buchi Emecheta and Flora Nwapa, when there are bet-
ter-known writers like Chinua Achebe and Wole Soyinka? If an-
ything, such reservations strengthened her resolve to focus on
women writers. Vicky completed her PhD at the University of Jos
in 1995, having also carried out research at SOAS in London. In
2008 she was promoted to professor and is currently working as
the head of department. When she was doing her research, it was
unusual to write about gender and she encountered negative prej-
udices. Vicky was even described as a ‘frustrated spinster’, which
could not be further from the truth.
Similarly to other middle-aged women writers, Vicky has man-
aged to combine her professional career with family life. She
arried young and her three children are now grown-ups, in their
m
early twenties and thirties. Vicky’s now-late spouse was a retired
lawyer and banker. Vicky speaks three languages: her mother
tongue, Tiv, as well as Hausa and English. She was born in Gboko,
Benue State, but her family moved to Jos when she was an infant.
Her parents were civil servants and could afford to send her to
Catholic private schools.
Vicky grew up reading children’s books by British writers, since
the Catholic mission school had British and Irish literature, and in
secondary school she was exposed to literature and story books
by British, Irish and American writers. She reflected, ‘I knew more
about Britain than I knew about Nigeria, because I read all of
Charles Dickens’s works.’ The first time she went to London, she
felt like she had been there all her life: ‘everything was just so
familiar’.
One of the reasons Vicky decided to study African literature
was because she only got to read Nigerian books once she got to
university. As she discovered Nigerian literature, she went out of
her way to look for them and she read them ‘comparatively’, not-
ing differences in cultural contexts. The absence of ‘Nigerianness’
or ‘Africanness’ in American and British literature became palpa-
ble and she did not expect that ‘young people’ around her would
‘find themselves in those works’. She was encouraged ‘to read
more of our own writers’. In her search for African literature, she
also found women writers, who were quite invisible in the univer-
sity syllabus, yet who inspired her own storytelling. Vicky’s search
for literature that spoke to her own experiences is comparable
with the literary scholar Safoura Salami-Boukari, who teaches
African literature in the United States. In her textbook on African
literature, she reflects how, as ‘a women reader’, reading canoni-
cal novels like Things Fall Apart left her ‘thirsty for information
about women’s experiences’ (Salami-Boukari 2012, 7). Similarly
to Safoura, Vicky made research on women writers a priority in
her own professional career.
Like many other women writers, Vicky started writing early,
as of secondary school. She wrote for a local newspaper, not as
a ‘wordsmith’ but as a ‘reporter’, earning some money through
her writing while at the university. Her articles focused on gender
issues, her stories inspired by situations she had witnessed,

especially the abuse of women. As a student and later as research-
er, she wrote academic texts, while teachers in creative writing
encouraged her to develop her literary skills. Over time she pro-
gressed from reporting to writing fiction.
In addition to her academic publications, Vicky has published
in multiple literary genres: a play, a novel, a collection of poetry
and a collection of short stories. Her debut novel Long Shadows
(Sylvester 2015) centres on the Tiv uprising of the early 1960s.
Vicky kindly gave me a copy of the novel when we first met in
Kampala in July 2016, a neatly printed paperback edition with
an artistic rendering of a rural landscape on the cover. The en-
dorsements on the back cover are written by eminent writers and
scholars in Nigeria:
Long Shadows is a superb recreation of Tiv history at a time of

crises, highlighting the internal cleavages, ethnic tensions and re-
criminations and colonial subjugations of a free, courageous and
enterprising people. Mnguember Vicky Sylvester has written an
impressive first novel.
The eloquent endorsement by Akachi Adimora-Ezeigbo, a prolific

icon and multiple award winner, adds value to the novel, as do the
commendations by senior scholars in the US and Nigeria.
When I met Vicky at the children’s carnival, before our interview
on 4 December, she was happily welcoming the event’s two inter-
national guests: me and Juliet Kushaba from Uganda, writer and
member of FEMRITE, the Uganda Women Writers’ Association.
Vicky and Juliet knew each other well; both had attended the
Ebedi Writers Residence in October to November 2015. They met
again at the FEMRITE@20 event in Kampala in July 2016, which
is where I first met Vicky. Juliet attended the Efuru@50 celebra-
tion, presenting a paper at the University of Abuja conference on
6 December. After the carnival, Vicky treated us to a scrumptious
lunch at a golf club, a posh establishment with well-kept golf
courses and a subtle atmosphere of whispering wealth.
At the Efuru@50 conference at Abuja university, Vicky
presented a paper on Efuru in a literary history context, entitled
‘Speaking with the Voice of a Woman: Efuru and Its Intertextual
Songs of Processing Generations’ (Sylvester 2016). She introduced

her abstract with: ‘Flora Nwapa repeatedly said she wrote Efuru
(1966) because Chinua Achebe wrote Things Fall Apart (1958).
Since Efuru, African women have written their lives and the lives
of other women voicing revolutionary potentials in their make-
up.’ Referring to Flora Nwapa as ‘an emancipated role model’, she
brought forward the works of other women writers (Emecheta,
Ogundipe-Leslie and Adichie) to show how their ‘characters voice
difficult but attainable life issues and ideals’, underlining that ‘[t]
heir liberation is bound up with the overall struggle of human
society’. Acutely aware of how women’s literature is often belit-
tled as domestic, concerned with mundane everyday life instead
of greater societal concerns, Vicky made sure to underscore that
the ‘character portraitures go beyond the sitting room, the kitchen
and the other room to abiding concerns of education, national
development, cosmopolitanism and globalization’.
Specialized in gender and women’s literature, Vicky identifies as
a feminist. Similarly to Lizi Ben-Iheanacho, she did not hesitate to
say so during our interview. ‘I do identify myself as a feminist, be-
cause there are certain things you talk about because they are gen-
der-related and nobody can really talk about them in the way you
would,’ is how she responded to my question on feminism. She
used the example of young women coming to her for advice to
illustrate her feminist perspective, how she would respond to their
tales of violence and harassment by encouraging their strength to
control or get out of abusive situations.
As a scholar, Vicky mentors young students, developing their
creative writing skills and inquisitive abilities. In so doing, she can
encourage them to develop a critical feminist perspective, whether
the students are female or male. Through her writing, she reach-
es many more people, her stories shedding light on social issues,
especially from a gender perspective.
As a writer, Vicky is also involved in various literary associa-
tions that promote reading and writing. She is an engaged m ember
of the ANA and the Abuja Literary Society, and was an adviser
to an Association of Women Writers, which is no longer active.
‘There you have young people coming to you with materials and
say, oh please, can you read this for me, and can you talk to me
about, I want to write, but I don’t know how to go about it,’ she
reflected, ‘so all the time you are advising and encouraging and
trying to inspire people by what you say and what you write.’
Similarly to Lizi and other Nigerian female writers, Vicky
thus follows the social ethics of art for society’s sake, using
her creative talent to address pertinent social issues, while building
creative talent in young people. Despite a hectic working sched-
ule, Vicky makes time to share her talent with others, encourag-
ing young people to express themselves through literature. Her
reflections on the role of women writers capture this ethics, their
role being ‘educative, informative, inspirational and encouraging’,
serving as role models for young girls in particular.
Multitasking careers and literary mothering

By invoking Flora Nwapa, I wish to draw attention to the liter-
ary mothering of Nigerian women writers, which attests to the
social ethics of creolized aesthetics. Similarly to how orature in-
terlinks different art forms to express the interdependence of all
existence (Thiong’o 2014), so does the moral imperative of the
creolized aesthetic position literature in the middle of society, as
a creative force for social progress. In their role as female gri-
ottes (Ogunyemi 1996), women writers emulate the griot’s po-
sition as ‘spokesperson for collective values’, an oral tradition in
which ‘[t]here is no art for art’s sake, because the word of the
griot is a lesson, a truth that restores the past while simultane-
ously committing society to its future’ (Ouattara 2018, 165). As
Lizi reflected, she does not pursue art for art’s sake, but values
her social and moral obligations as a storyteller, especially for fu-
ture generations. Her moral orientation resonates with the social
ethics of Flora Nwapa: ‘[n]othing belies “art for art’s sake” more
than Flora Nwapa’s fiction for children’ (Emenyonu 1998b, 605).
In the Nigerian literary complex, the moral value of literature is
well established. The history of literacy in the region shows that
literature has enjoyed an elevated status, as ‘the principal repos-
itory of civilized values’ (Barber 2006, 13). From early on, book
clubs were formed, their members having a pronounced ‘sense of
public responsibility’, using their reading skills for self-improve-
ment and societal progress (Barber 2006, 13). By comparison, in
world literature scholarship, the autonomy of literature is often

upheld, an aesthetic ideal related to the claim that ‘art and litera-
ture should serve no other purposes than itself’, although scholars
recognize that the ‘intersection between ethics and aesthetics is
extremely meaningful’ (Helgesson and Rosendahl Thomsen 2020,
157–8). Unlike the Western aesthetic ideal of ‘art for art’s sake’,
in African art contexts the aesthetics of ‘art for society’s sake’ is
quite common (Uimonen 2012).
When it comes to Nigerian women writers, their literary moth-
ering draws on the moral value of motherhood and mothering,
which can be appreciated through the lens of African womanism.
As Ogunyemi has argued, ‘the Nigerian woman writer, as mother,
uses her text more functionally as she zeroes in on the problems
that face her constituency — the oppressed women, men, and
children who must somehow survive under her care’ (Ogunyemi
1996, 113). It has been argued that perceptions of motherhood
have differentiated African feminists from dominant feminist
theorizing (Nnaemeka 1997). While Western feminists have chal-
lenged the patriarchal institution of motherhood, African feminist
scholars have underlined the cultural significance of mothering
as an experience in African women’s literature (Nnaemeka 1997,
5). Ogunyemi has referred to Flora Nwapa as the ‘foremother’ of
a literary tradition that captures the ‘matricentricity in Nigerian
culture’ (1996, 43–4). She positions women’s literature in the con-
text of the country’s postcolonial healing process, emphasizing
that the ‘main textual ingredient is the maternal input’ (Ogunyemi
1996, 102). The centrality of mothering is by no means limited to
biological motherhood but encompasses different forms of social
mothering, while emphasizing the creative and life-affirming di-
mensions of motherly power (Ogunyemi 1996, 60–61). Although
female power is considered different from male power, both are
equally important for social progress. Given the flexibility of shift-
ing gender roles in Igbo culture, which do not necessarily coincide
with biological sex (Amadiume [1987] 2015; Nzegwu 2005), my
use of the term ‘literary mothering’ is therefore by no means lim-
ited to women.
For Nigerian women writers, their literary mothering trans-
lates into multitasking writing careers, a path pioneered by
Flora Nwapa. In addition to being a pioneer female writer and

publisher, Flora Nwapa had an illustrious professional career in
administration and education. She was ‘a woman who combined
creative writing, motherhood, business acumen, government du-
ties, and social work’ (Ezenwa-Ohaeto 1998, 197). In so doing,
she served as a role model for women writers, showing a path of
modern careerism combined with family life. Given her various
obligations, her writing time was of course limited. Flora Nwapa
recounted her preferences for writing in early mornings: ‘I do
not write at night at all, I prefer to get up at 5 o’clock in the
morning, write for two or three hours and then go to work at
8 o’clock. But then I must go to bed between 8.30 and 9.30’ (Flora
Nwapa, cited in James 1990, 117). Contemporary Nigerian wom-
en writers also combine literary production with professional ca-
reers and social responsibilities. Their multitasking lifestyles can
be strenuous, leaving little time to pursue their literary talent, but
it also provides a rich source of life experiences that can inspire
their writing.
Most of the women writers I encountered in Nigeria worked
as university lecturers, often in literature, creative writing and/
or gender studies. This is similar to the literary scene in Ireland,
where ‘[m]any prominent writers have doctoral or master’s de-
grees in creative writing and frequently find themselves teaching
this subject’ (Wulff 2017, 1). In Nigeria, writers cannot live off
their writing, so teaching is often a full-time job (see also Griswold
2000). Lecturers typically hold PhD degrees, acquired at local uni-
versities, occasionally overseas. Advanced university degrees can
also qualify a person for high positions in administration, as ex-
emplified by Dr Elizabeth Ben-Iheanacho, who works as director
of research and documentation at the National Council for Art
and Culture, or in media and communication, as exemplified by
Eugenia Abu, who worked as executive director of Programmes
at the NTA.
These professional occupations are demanding full-time jobs
that leave little spare time for writing. Similarly to Flora Nwapa, it
is not unusual that women write late at night or early in the morn-
ing, using quiet off-hours for their creative outlet. For instance,
Vicky Sylvester is an early riser who often writes at 2–3 am. If
she is waiting somewhere, or stuck in traffic, she also scribbles.

Similarly, Lizi Ben-Iheanacho scribbles on bits of paper whenever
‘the muse grips’ her, and she also writes on Facebook, creative
thoughts as well as prose (Uimonen 2019b).
Women writers are often mothers, thus combining their careers
with family life. As noted by Wulff in her anthropology of Irish
writers, ‘it was mostly women writers who talked about their
writing career in relation to family life’ (Wulff 2017, 17). It is not
that men do not have families, but, similarly, to other professions,
men’s family obligations tend not to get in the way of their ca-
reers. The middle-aged women writers I interviewed are or have
been married with children, their spouses holding professional
positions. In Nigeria, the roles of wife and mother are demanding,
full of social expectations and cultural obligations, as featured in
women’s literature. Although middle-class families in Nigeria en-
joy the benefits of hired domestic labour, women are still expected
to be in charge of the household. This explains the odd hours for
writing, a quiet time when the rest of the family is asleep.
Their professional careers point to the elite position of women
writers, a creative class emanating from a privileged urban mid-
dle class, a growing social class in Africa (see also Melber 2016).
Almost all women writers I have interviewed have a middle-class
background, one or both of their parents having held professional
positions, often as civil servants. Reflecting the middle-class em-
phasis on education as a sign of social status and a mode of social
mobility, these women have enjoyed parental support for their
educational advancement. They have also benefited from parental
support for reading and writing, from the availability of books at
home to encouragement to write. Whether at home or at school,
they have thus grown up in cultural contexts that value and can
afford literacy as well as creative talent. As writers and profes-
sionals, they belong to the small social stratum of artists and in-
tellectuals, a creative class that is part of yet also distinct from the
urban middle class.
‘Writing, a lot of people consider it elitist,’ Vicky reflected on
the opportunities of writing, adding, ‘sometimes you make some
money out of it, but you can’t depend on writing in Nigeria.’
Once in a while she gets large orders for books, like 500 copies,
but it does not happen often, typically only when teachers use
a book for academic purposes. Among challenges, Vicky noted

‘not having a steady market’, comparing the situation to other
countries, remarking how, unlike in Western countries, people in
Nigeria do not pick up books to read. The elitist status of writ-
ing is thus not about financial capital but cultural capital, writers
enjoying an elevated social status thanks to their creative talent,
without necessarily making any money out of it.
Although taxing, their professional careers offer women val-
uable skills and insights for literary production, which are often
digitally mediated (see also Uimonen 2019b). Trained in research
through their university education, women use their investigative
skills when researching for their writing, which is often done on
the Internet. For instance, Vicky Sylvester uses the Internet when
researching for a book, through Google or chat, downloading
relevant materials to her computer. Similarly, Eugenia Abu does
research online.
Their professional careers give writers insights into various
social worlds, which they can use when creating fictional plots,
characters and milieus. It has been noted that dilemmas of so-
cial transformation for modern women has been a recurring topic
in the works of women writers: ‘symptomatic of the situation in
which Nigeria women (the educated, middle-class, elite women
of Nwapa’s fiction, as well as those of Ifeoma Okoye’s, Zaynab
Alkali’s, Buchi Emecheta’s, Helen Ovbiagele’s etc) find themselves
in’ (Bryce 1998, 405). Women writers thus use their literary works
to reflect on their own social experiences.
The women writers I interviewed are all members of the ANA,
the country’s foremost association for writers. Established in
1981, the ANA is headquartered at the National Theatre Complex
in Lagos, with local chapters in 30 states. The association hands
out annual awards in six categories: poetry, prose, drama, literary
criticism, fiction (short stories) and children’s literature. Before the
overhaul of prizes in 2011–13, the association had awards in 14
categories, including the Flora Nwapa Prize for Women (Creative)
Writing. The ANA organizes an annual convention, along with a
variety of other literary activities.15 In addition to being members
15
See https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_of_Nigerian_Authors, last
accessed on 29 June 2020.
of the ANA, some women I interviewed are also members of the

RAN, as well as literary societies, book clubs and poetry clubs.
The women writers presented in this monograph are passionate
about improving reading culture in Nigeria, and they are equally
committed to encouraging writing. Through various literary ac-
tivities, they engage in the development of writing and promotion
of reading. The sharing of skills points to an open-minded ap-
proach to literary production, emphasizing collaboration instead
of competition, which is also a central tenet in womanism.
Efforts to mentor young people constitute an important aspect
of literary mothering, channelling the combined experiences of
creative writing and motherhood. As you may recall, when asked
how many children she has, Eugenia Abu noted the many young-
sters she has mentored, counting them among her offspring.
The production of children’s literature is another form of liter-
ary mothering, nurturing the minds of future generations. In her
diary, Flora Nwapa reflected: ‘We write to leave a legacy to our
children’ (Umeh 2010, 92). Writing for children requires consid-
erable skill, as the writer must be attuned to how children think
and communicate. As Flora Nwapa pointed out,
Writing for children is a serious commitment. Writing for children

is not easy. It is a work that must be done with a great sense of
understanding and appreciation of the world of children. It must
be approached with the same excitement and enthusiasm that the
child himself feels about his world which is progressively unfold-
ing and exciting. (Nwapa 1997, 275)
When it comes to literary production in general, there is also

something to say for literary mothering through books, which
can be viewed as children. For instance, when asked what her
favourite creative work was, Flora Nwapa responded: ‘Similar
to Buchi Emecheta, I too feel that books are like your children’
(Flora Nwapa, cited in Umeh 1995, 25). The notion that books
are like children resonates with many writers, creative as well as
academic, adding yet another dimension to the norms and prac-
tices of literary mothering.
This womanist analysis of literary mothering can hopeful-
ly go some way in rectifying the neglect of women writers and
children’s literature in world literature studies. As Higonnet has
ointed out, one important factor in world literature canon for-

p
mation has been ‘the distinction between major and minor forms
and the tacit segregation of folklore or children’s literature from
elite literary forms’ (2009, 139). Rather than focusing on such
structural marginalization in the world-literature system (WReC
2015), a decentred approach can help us ‘rethink marginality’ and
‘see knowledge, power, and agency in the margins’ (Nnaemeka
1997, 2). By foregrounding women’s storytelling, including their
stories for children, we can ‘locate storytelling at the heart of
knowledge construction while recognising the gender politics that
often banishes storytelling to the periphery of “real knowledge”’
(Nnaemeka 1997, 7). How could the norms and values transmit-
ted to future generations be anything but real knowledge?
Although undervalued in world literature and literary history,
the social significance of children’s literature cannot be overstated.
It is a form of aesthetic worldmaking that interlinks generations,
a future-oriented genre that accommodates and extends different
worlds, thus constituting a form of transition discourse by default.
While literature in general offers a privileged space for exploring
possible worlds, children’s literature offers a very special space for
rethinking the real and the possible, especially since little people
have an openness for other possible worlds that is often lost in
transition to adulthood.
4. Post-War Publishing in Enugu
Code switching, check points and chi

It took a whole day to travel from Abuja to Enugu by car, a dis-
tance of some 400 kilometres. The roads were good most of the
time, as we made our way from central to south-eastern Nigeria.
It was only the children of Flora Nwapa who travelled; the rest of
the organizing committee were unable to make the trip, owing to
lack of funding and other duties. I had planned to use the time in
the car to interview the family, but I was too tired and it felt better
to just let the conversation flow. We chatted about various topics,
buying snacks from vendors along the way.
The landscape was incredible; thick forest, rolling hills and
graceful palm trees. I was astonished by how green it was. Unlike
the more arid landscape in many parts of Tanzania, Nigerian soil
was fertile. There was no shortage of food, Uzoma assured me, al-
though most agricultural production was small scale. Nigeria had
started to export cassava to the United States, he told me. There
is growing demand for gluten-free flour and cassava is naturally
gluten free. ‘Is it exported as processed flour?’ I asked. No, only
half processed, although, if it could be processed in Nigeria, earn-
ings would easily triple or quadruple. So typical: Africa selling
raw materials that are in high demand, yet owing to the under-
developed industrial sector most of the value added is reaped by
Western importers. Even so, food processing held potential.
We passed the confluence of Niger and Benin rivers, so wide
that it looked more like a lake than the meeting of two rivers.
The water was brownish, like the colour of the earth, flowing
majestically. The river sides were lined with trees and bushes, with

University Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.16993/bbe.e. License: CC-BY 4.0.
occasional houses. Fish seemed abundant, caught with nets, a tra-

ditional method that is gentle on the environment.
We were in Igboland, and a new language was spoken. Not
that I had come close to hearing the difference between Nigeria’s
largest languages, Yoruba, Hausa and Igbo. Hausa confounded
me since some of the words resembled Swahili, both drawing on
Arabic. Once, at the university guesthouse in Maiduguri, I had
even thought that the drivers I overheard in the parking lot were
from East Africa, as I could hear some Swahili-sounding words.
But it was Hausa. Most of the time I simply tuned out when peo-
ple spoke in local languages. Meanwhile, I thoroughly enjoyed
that English was spoken so much of the time, by most people I
encountered. Some had heavy accents, and, unless I articulated
words very clearly, they would not immediately understand me,
and vice versa. But most of the time, communication flowed easily.
Code switching was common, people alternating between dif-
ferent languages. Scholars have written extensively about code
switching, a common practice in many multilingual contexts. In
Nigeria, people often spoke English, but from time to time they
would throw in words or expressions in another language, or
speak in another language, then switching back to English. There
were plenty of police check points along the road and I noticed
that Uzoma spoke pidgin to the officers. ‘Well done!’ was a com-
mon greeting. For a while I got my hopes up, perhaps I could learn
pidgin, which was a lingua franca spoken all over the country.
But then I realized that it was a language often used by police and
military, which deterred me.
The numerous police checkpoints slowed down our travel.
Usually we had to stop the car and the officers expected some
money, some even asked for it. Uzoma kept some small change in
the car, handing it out whenever needed, which was most of the
time. Traffic police are notoriously corrupt, a well-known phe-
nomenon not just in Nigeria but in various parts of the continent.
I was quite used to it from Tanzania, but in Nigeria it seemed
more blatant. The traffic police did not even pretend to look for
faults with the car, nor were they equipped with cameras to catch
speeding vehicles. Here they just stopped the car and asked for
money. Straightforward. Some checkpoints had concrete blocks
Post-War Publishing in Enugu 131
as security measures, but it was unclear what kind of security the

police enforced, since they only seemed to check passing cars to
get some money. I had been warned of the checkpoints by my taxi
driver before leaving Abuja. ‘Depends on how many checkpoints
there are,’ he replied when I asked how long the trip would take.
As we came closer to Enugu, passing through some very rural
areas, the earth turned a deep reddish brown. I love that colour, its
warmth! I excitedly took photos of houses that we passed through
the car window, small houses made of brick or clay, warmly red-
dish brown. Trying to imagine what kind of lives people lived in
these villages.
‘What is chi?’ I asked. It was a recurring word in Efuru, and I
had understood it to be a religious/spiritual phenomenon of sorts.
Efuru was always advised to follow her chi, and when things were
not going well in her life it was said that her chi was perhaps
upset and needed to be appeased. ‘It is your personal god,’ Ejine
responded, clarifying: ‘the god manifested within you.’ A personal
god? I was intrigued. Months later I learned more about Igbo
cosmology, especially through Jell-Bahlsen’s detailed ethnography.
Enugu turned out to be a neat city, seemingly orderly, with no
traffic jams and more consistent power supply. It is the state cap-
ital of Enugu State, formerly the capital of the Eastern Region.
Enugu was also declared the capital of the Republic of Biafra
during the war, thus known as the capital of Igboland. With a
population approaching a million people, Enugu is a vibrant cen-
tre in the south-east, often featured in Flora Nwapa’s literature.
Flora Nwapa lived and worked in Enugu for several years, and
her eldest daughter, Ejine, was born here, when Flora Nwapa was
teaching at Queen’s School Enugu.
In trying to work out when the family had lived in Enugu, Ejine
used the war as a reference. Born in 1969, Uzoma had been born
during the war, while Amede had been born after the war, in 1971.
Nwapa had married the industrialist Gogo Nwakuche in 1967,
and during the war the family had sought refuge in Oguta; after
the war they lived in Enugu.
I updated myself about the war through Wikipedia that
evening and posted the following on my Facebook page on
7 December 2016:
Have now arrived in Enugu, Igboland. In 1975 Flora Nwapa pub-

lished the novel ‘Never Again’ about the Biafran War (1967–1970).
The war is also the subject of Adichie’s Half of a Yellow Sun. It is
estimated that up to 2 million Biafran civilians died of starvation
(war strategy by Nigerian military) during the war. Tanzania was
one of the few countries in Africa that recognized Biafra. Map of
the Republic of Biafra in June 1967: [image of map].
As a child, I had heard about Biafra, a word that conjured images

of starving children. In Sweden and other Western countries,
media reporting on the war made an impact on popular under-
standings of war, poverty and starvation in Africa. It was an image
of Africa in humanitarian crisis that has stuck in many minds. In
Sweden, a new expression was coined, Biafrabarn (Biafra chil-
dren), used to denote undernourished children with swollen bel-
lies. Later in life, I read Adichie’s Half of a Yellow Sun (Adichie
2006), but the book had faded in my memory by the time I arrived
in Nigeria. During Efuru@50 I learned that memories of the war
were still very much alive, particularly among Igbo people who
had lived through it.
‘This is the best hotel I have stayed in so far!’ I happily ex-
claimed to Amede when she came to see if I was ok in my room.
We had checked into a mid-range hotel, which had all the com-
forts I could ask for. The room was spacious, clean and well main-
tained. The walls were painted in a bright lime-green colour, the
window covered with heavy yellow curtains matching the yellow
bedspread. The bed even had some decorative cushions, with
golden printed covers. The bathroom was tiled from floor to ceil-
ing. The white wall tiles were patterned with curvy lines, comple-
mented by a decorative line in black with white wavy lines. There
was even a bathtub and a shower with two shower heads, a tall
round one and a handheld one.
While Uzoma, Ejine and Amede had a meeting in the lobby,
I went for dinner in the hotel restaurant. They met with Prince
Paschal Mebuge, the chair of the local organizing committee, and
some friends to complete preparations for the event the next day.
They sat on large upholstered sofas and armchairs around a low
table, taking excitedly about the event. After inquiring in the bar,
I found the restaurant upstairs. I was the only guest in a large,
deserted dining room. Having eaten Nigerian food for the last
few days, I ordered a club sandwich. It took almost an hour for
the kitchen to prepare it, so I used the time to write some notes.
The following morning we prepared the car as usual, packing
the open back of the pickup with books and event bags. For safety,
all materials had been removed from the car and kept in the hotel
room overnight. It was an arduous routine, but spirits were high.
When we travelled, our suitcases were also stored at the back of
the pickup. Both Ejine and Amede had large heavy suitcases, filled
with different gowns, a new one for each event. Amede wore her
own design every day and so did Ejine. Amédé, as her design was
known, combined the latest in international fashion with fabrics
of locally made hand-dyed chiffon, beautiful creations that flat-
tered the figure. Both women wore high heels, but, when trav-
elling to the venues, they wore flat shoes in the car, which they
changed upon arrival. Looking good is clearly a highly valued
aspect of Nigerian femininity, far more important than comfort.
Unveiling Efuru@50 and awarding the First Daughter

We arrived early at the venue, the International Conference Centre
of the Institute of Management and Technology. We parked the
car in the large parking lot and the bags of books in the trunk
were carried to the lobby, where Amede and Ejine prepared a ta-
ble with books and event bags on display. They covered the table
with a large white tablecloth, before carefully arranging the books
in a visually pleasing display: stacks of books propping up the
various titles and the Efuru 50th anniversary edition prominently
exposed. Some two dozen event bags were lined up next to the
books, gifts for selected guests and awards for students.
There was an art exhibition in the spacious lobby, the 10th
anniversary of the Life in My City art festival, as announced on
a large colourful banner hanging over the entrance. I slowly me-
andered through the spacious lobby and adjoining side rooms,
all filled with marvellous artworks. Large paintings hung on the
walls, oil or acrylic on canvas, along with some textile wall hang-
ings. I was mesmerized by a tall sculpture on one of the walls,
a life-size woman with children, ingeniously made from plastic
ottle caps in different colours. Some of the paintings used mul-

b
tiple materials, an oil painting of a woman wearing a long skirt
made of textile, a painting of men digging garbage with newspa-
per articles pasted as background and some scrunched-up cans,
and a black and white abstract of a foetus with strings of red yarn,
collected onto a white fabric on the floor. Sculptures were also dis-
played on tables and stands: a bronze sculpture of a woman cook-
ing food in a large pot on stones, a wooden tray that spilled red
stones into a woven basket, and abstract wooden heads placed
on glass bottles sitting on wooden stands. The creative talent on
display was truly remarkable.
The auditorium was splendid, with a wide entrance from the
back of the lobby leading upwards into a grandiose hall. Rows and
rows of comfortable seats with black backs, red cushions and arm-
rests lined the gently slanting auditorium, with a seating capacity
of some 700 people. On top of the auditorium was a small plat-
form with more artwork on display. The elevated front stage was
spacious, with a shiny floor of white tiles. A dozen armchairs, large
loungers in white faux leather, were lined up against the back wall,
the customary high table. At the front of the stage was a tall white
podium. The MC, a young male professional, smartly dressed in
black jeans and a black shirt under his grey suit jacket, kicked
off the event by inviting dignitaries to the armchairs on stage,
while announcing the presence of other esteemed guests with the
words ‘I want to recognize’, followed by title (Professor, Doctor,
Engineer, Mr, Mrs), name, position and institute, adding a few wit-
ty yet respectful remarks. To my surprise, the MC r ecognized my
presence with the words ‘white person/woman’, to which everyone
laughed. It was the first time my whiteness was said out loud in the
Efuru@50 celebrations and Ejine and Amede looked at me some-
what alarmed. I smiled at them reassuringly, showing that I had
not been offended. After all, I was used to being the whitey.
Shortly after the programme started, the auditorium filled up
to the last seat, over 700 people in total. The majority were stu-
dents, but there was also a high number of dignitaries, as well as
relatives and friends of the family. Even the patriarch of the Flora
Nwapa family, Chief Christopher Nwapa, a distinguished gentle-
man, attended the event.
After opening and welcoming remarks by the vice-chancellor,

the guest of honour arrived, none less than the deputy governor
of Enugu State, the Honorable Mrs Cecilia Ezeilo. The dignitar-
ies from the stage stepped outside to greet her at the car by the
side entrance, where she arrived with armed guards, including a
female uniformed bodyguard who stayed by her side throughout
her attendance. After she took her seat on the stage, along with
the other dignitaries and Flora Nwapa’s children, it was time for
an Igbo welcoming ritual. A kola nut was broken and offered on
a tray to all high-level guests on stage.
The Honorable Cecilia Ezeilo addressed the audience from the
podium with an eloquent tribute to Flora Nwapa, who ‘opened
the horizon for women to start thriving through personal efforts
and dedication’. She was ‘sentimentally thrilled’ to recall that ‘this
world-renowned professor worked as an educational instructor in
one of our prestigious schools, the Queen’s High School Enugu’.
She emphasized that she aligned herself with the celebration of
this icon, ‘not because she was a literary icon’ and ‘not because
she achieved world fame’ but because the benefits women were
reaping today could be traced to the inspiration from Professor
Flora Nwapa. She cited Flora Nwapa’s statements on writing a
positive picture of women and her encouragement to women to
survive in a world dominated by men. She reiterated her support
for the celebration, while giving Flora Nwapa her accolade, albeit
posthumously, ‘because her books inspired me as a young student
in my youthful days’. She concluded by citing the legendary Jorge
Luis Borges: ‘When writers die they become books, which is, af-
ter all, not too bad an incarnation.’ Waiting for the applause to
subside, she added with tears in her eyes, ‘Professor Flora Nwapa
leaves a not too bad an incarnation so let us celebrate her. Thank
you and God bless you!’
An unveiling ceremony followed the deputy governor’s heart-
felt words, a ritualized homage to the immortalized Flora Nwapa
and one of her incarnations, Efuru. All dignitaries from the stage
stepped down to the floor, where a table had been prepared, dec-
orated with white tablecloth, holding stacks of Efuru, covered
in white cloth. To capture the moment, I had positioned myself
on the steps in front of the table, together with a handful of
Figure 6. Unveiling Efuru. Photograph by author.
hotographers and television crew, as I alternated between filming

p
and taking photographs.
‘We have reached the great moment and that’s the unveiling
of Efuru, after 50 years of its first publication,’ Cecilia Ezeilo
announced, with a microphone in her hand. Turning to her left,
where Uzoma, Ejine and Amede were standing, she said, ‘I can’t
thank the family members enough.’ She then turned to her right.
‘I can’t thank the organizers enough.’ She looked straight ahead,
adding, ‘And to the women here, she’s a good role model; we
should all of us here use her as our mentor.’ She then moved for-
ward, lifting the edge of the tablecloth: ‘In the name of the Father,
and the Son and the Holy Spirit, I unveil this, to the glory of
God’. The men on her right and Ejine helped her lift the cloth,
as she continued: ‘To the movement of Nigeria and then to in-
crease our reading value.’ She lifted a copy of Efuru, turning it
in all directions, while everyone applauded. Group photographs
were taken, the smiling dignitaries lined up behind the table. Then
the national anthem was played and everyone was standing erect,
some placing their hands on their hearts, while many sang along,
including the deputy governor and the children of Flora Nwapa,

with Ejine’s clear voice rising through the collective singing.
The unveiling ceremony framed the event politically, reflecting
women writers’ contributions to national development, while af-
firming Flora Nwapa’s fame as a role model for women. Although
a highly politicized ritual, the deputy governor’s personal praise
and emotional enunciations ascertained a feminine touch to the
expression of patriotism, while her religious discourse positioned
the nation in a larger imagined community, in a universe of hu-
man and spiritual coexistence. The ritual of patriotism was thus
culturally framed within the encompassing frame of femininity
and spirituality. As for the expansion of her cultural influence,
by emphasizing Flora Nwapa as a role model for women, and
her continued presence through her literary incarnations, Flora
Nwapa’s fame was expanded into feminine eternity.
After an inspiring poetry performance in Igbo, it was time for
the keynote, delivered by Professor Theodora Akachi Ezeigbo. ‘If
you love your mother, I want you to show her some love!’ the MC
announced when introducing Professor Ezeigbo, the audience ap-
plauding while she approached the podium, to the cheerful tunes
of ‘We Wish You a Merry Christmas’ blasting from the loud-
speakers. On her website, Professor Ezeigbo describes herself as
a lecturer, writer, novelist, critic, essayist, journalist and adminis-
trator.16 Having taught at University of Lagos for many years, she
relocated to Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ikwo, Ebonyi State,
in south-east Nigeria, in 2015. Well known to the audience at
Efuru@50, and highly respected by the family, Professor Ezeigbo
has also published literary analyses of Flora Nwapa’s work.
Before reading her keynote address, Ezeigbo greeted the audience,
encouraging them to repeat some phrases after her, ending with
‘I am Igbo, I am proud’. She then explained that the ‘great Flora
Nwapa’ they were celebrating was a ‘wonderful, strong woman’
and ‘a true Igbo woman’, adding, ‘we’re very proud of her’. She re-
called being introduced to Flora Nwapa through a mutual friend
and how she became friends with her as well, noting that ‘she was
a very kind-hearted woman’.
16
http://akachiezeigbo.org, last accessed on 29 June 2020.
Akachi Ezeigbo contextualized Flora Nwapa’s work in relation

to traditional society, where women were great storytellers. When
the Europeans came, they introduced Western education, which
was first made available to men. Women were marginalized and
it was mostly men who got university education, ‘and that was
why, initially, most writers in Africa were men’. She recounted
names like Chinua Achebe and Wole Soyinka. ‘But when Flora
came, the story changed,’ she noted with a smile, while putting on
her reading glasses. She recounted Flora Nwapa’s background, un-
derlining that she was a ‘pathfinder’, ‘trailblazer’ and ‘glass ceiling
crusher’, while emphasizing her privileged ‘family and education-
al background’, accentuating her quality education in the most
prestigious schools at the time, in Nigeria and later in Europe.
She analysed Nwapa’s pioneering role in literary production,
mentioning other Nigerian women writers since that time, from
Buchi Emecheta and Zaynab Alkali to Sefi Atta and Chimamanda
Ngozi Adichie.
When Flora Nwapa published her trailblazing novel Efuru

the battle to describe the African woman in fiction and balance the
gender equation began in earnest. She was the first Nigerian writer
to give women characters positive and significant roles in litera-
ture. […]
In telling Efuru’s story, Nwapa subverts the stereotypical por-
trayal of women by male writers. Throughout the novel, Efuru
displays her prowess as an astute businesswoman, a responsible
member of community who helps others readily, a faithful and
devoted wife as well as a reliable friend and ardent worshipper of
Uhamiri, the local deity.
Ajanupu, one of the women characters in the novel, calls her ‘a
woman among women.’ And that is what I call Flora Nwapa,
a woman among women. [applause]
The cultural framing of Flora Nwapa as a woman among women

ascertained the encompassing frame of femininity, while Efuru’s
worship of Uhamiri deepened the spiritual framing of the event.
Similarly to other tributes at Efuru@50, the character Efuru was
praised as if she had been a living character, a woman who em-
bodied cultural ideals. By using the praise of Efuru in the novel
to characterize the author herself, as a woman among women,
Ezeigbo cast both as role models, thus affirming the values of fem-
ininity. In terms of spirituality, by highlighting Efuru as an ardent
worshipper of Uhamiri, Ezeigbo centred the spiritual framing of
the event on the female deity that also served as Flora Nwapa’s
muse. Ezeigbo’s authority as a renowned Igbo scholar validated
the expansion of Flora Nwapa’s fame, articulating the central-
ity of femininity and spirituality from a historical and cultural
perspective. Welcomed as a mother, Ezeigbo herself embodied the
value placed on motherhood in this cultural context.
An Igbo women’s organization then gave a posthumous
First Daughter Award to Flora Nwapa, a ritual that evoked
the ‘mothering/daughtering ideology’ of African womanism
(Ogunyemi 1996, 102). Flora Nwapa’s daughter Ejine received the
award on her late mother’s behalf in an elaborate ceremony. Ten
women entered the stage, all dressed in red gowns, with the em-
blems UMUADA IGBO NIGERIA printed in yellow on their skirts
and tops and the same printed fabric wrapped on their heads. The
spokeswoman of the First Daughters (Umuada) of Enugu State
recounted Flora Nwapa’s many achievements, reading from sheets
of paper in her hand, the microphone in the other hand. The other
women were standing in a line behind her, listening attentively, one
of them taking pictures with her mobile phone. Ejine was called
to the stage and, while seated on a chair, she was given the award
and a placard, as well as a red beaded banner hung around her
neck, with the words NWADA IGBO GARA UZO OMA in yel-
low. Visibly touched, Ejine used carefully selected words and ex-
pressions in Igbo to thank the women’s society for the award, the
audience responding with loud cheers and applause. The award,
Nwada Igbo Gara Uzo Oma, was later translated to me by Ejine as
a First Daughter of Igbo Land Who Travelled on a Good Journey, a
lifetime award that immortalized Flora Nwapa’s achievements as
an Igbo woman, now elevated to First Daughter, thus anchoring
her fame in Igbo women’s cultural context.
The programme continued with poetry recitals, dramatizations
and a student quiz. Many of the poems were written for the occa-
sion, tributes to Flora Nwapa and Efuru, with titles like Virtuous
Woman and The Inner Strength of a Strong Woman. Elaborate
costumes and props were used in a dramatization of Efuru, thus
paying tribute to traditional Igbo culture, while reinterpreting the

story for the 50th anniversary, for example a daughter winning an
award to study in the US. Some drinks and snacks were served, in-
cluding an alcohol-free malt drink that seemed a popular beverage
during festive occasions, as well as garden eggs and groundnuts.
For the student quiz, students in school uniforms, most of them
female, sat on two rows near the stage, the judges at a table near-
by. Uzoma handed out event bags with books to the winners.
Suddenly the stage turned into a catwalk for a fashion show,
to the soundtrack of popular music. Female and male students
trotted down the stage in rhythm with the music, solemnly staring
straight ahead, stopping a few times to pose for the audience.
Showing off youthful designs, the female models femininely
swung their hips, confidently balancing on their high heels, while
the male models walked with a masculine swagger. Amede was
delighted.
Before the programme ended, a minute of silence was declared,
to honour the funeral of Dr Wale Okediran’s wife. The prayer was
timed with the burial of Wale’s wife in London, who had passed on
a few days earlier. Wale had left Abuja abruptly on the day of the
children’s carnival, after receiving alarming news from London.
By the time he changed planes in Cairo, he was informed that his
wife had passed on. Most of us had no idea that his wife had been
critically ill and we were all saddened by the news. Having played
a key role in the Efuru@50 preparations, Wale regretted not being
able to see the event to its conclusion, but he called us regularly
from London, inquiring how everything was going.
The programme drew to a close in the late afternoon, much
to the dismay of the scholars who had come to present their pa-
pers. The politically significant attendance of the deputy governor
had delayed the programme, and at 16:30 there was no time left
for paper presentations. The scholars were quite upset; some had
already left in anger. One scholar approached me to inquire what
to do about her paper. I assured her that all papers would be pub-
lished in the conference proceedings; at least, that was what the
organizers had planned.
As we stepped outside the venue, students flocked to have
their picture taken. Amede was treated like a celebrity, a fashion
designer who clearly served as a source of inspiration. She was

interviewed by several students, one of them reading questions
off a notebook, the others recording and taking pictures on their
mobile phones. I photographed the interview and caught Amede
at an angle where she reminded me of Tyra Banks, with her long,
thin braids framing her beautiful features. When I shared some
pictures with Amede later in the evening, she was delighted by my
Tyra Banks comparison and burst out in a joyful giggle.
Flora Nwapa’s Never Again and women’s war stories

Flora Nwapa had first-hand experience of the Nigerian Civil War
and its aftermath, and she also wrote about it in the novel Never
Again (Nwapa [1975] 1986) and several short stories in the col-
lections Wives at War (Nwapa [1980] 1984) and This Is Lagos
(Nwapa [1971] 1986). With Never Again, Nwapa reached yet
‘another landmark in Nigerian women’s writing’, namely ‘the first
war narrative written by an African woman’ (Ogunyemi 1996,
164). In her thorough analysis of Nwapa’s war writings, Ezeigbo
(1998b, 483–5) has underlined that the most prominent theme
was survival, especially women’s survival strategies, in a war that was
cast as needless and futile. Rather than aggrandizing war, Nwapa
articulated a critical perspective on war as ‘destructive and
dehumanizing’, something ‘bizarre and tragic, without heroes or
heroines’, bringing out ‘the worst forms of sadism, selfishness,
hypocrisy, and dishonesty in people’ (Ezeigbo 1998b, 492). Nwapa
thus engaged in a revisionary process of telling the stories of war
from women’s perspective, which set her apart from male au-
thors (Ezeigbo 1998b, 477–8). As you may recall from Chapter 1,
Eugenia Abu suggested that women writers are better able to ex-
press ‘the pain of war’ because they are left to carry the burdens
of war, a literary claim that is corroborated by Flora Nwapa’s
aesthetic worlding of the civil war.
In Never Again (Nwapa [1975] 1986), the Biafran War is told
through the eyes of the woman Kate, whose first-person narrative
covers a wide range of issues, from international and national pol-
itics to community and family relations. Ogunyemi notes that it is
the first time Nwapa writes ‘the self into the text’, using ‘I’, which
she interprets as the author’s ‘maternal’ purpose: ‘to teach the
ernicious nature of war in order to save rather than destroy lives’

p
(1996, 165). Influenced by her own experiences, Never Again fo-
cuses on ‘women as mothers in a society devastated by war’, in-
cluding ‘Uhamiri, the mother of all’ (Ogunyemi 1996, 165–7).
The story starts with how Kate and her husband, Chudi, have
fled from Port Harcourt, as Nigerian troops have taken over
the town. They have taken refuge with their children in their
hometown, Ugwuta (Oguta), where their parents and other rela-
tives are still enjoying peace. Having experienced the fall of Port
Harcourt, Kate is worried, sensing that Ugwuta is also under im-
minent threat, but saying so brands her as a saboteur. Rumours
and false news abound, as political and military representatives of
the Biafran side try to keep up morale by withholding advances
by Nigerian troops, while maintaining pretences of strength, even
victory. Far from buying into the propaganda, Kate remains scep-
tical of local elites and intellectuals.
International geopolitics is woven into the narrative, along
with international newscasts. Kate and her family listen to BBC
radio for news about the war, although it is not the most reliable
source and some accuse the BBC of simply lying. More signifi-
cantly, foreign intervention in the civil war is brought up from
the outset. A pro-Biafran fanatic who later becomes a military of-
ficer, r apidly ascending to major, shares the ‘good news’ of Biafran
troops h aving ‘received sophisticated weapons from Europe’, from
a ‘top secret’ donor (Nwapa [1975] 1986, 3). Meanwhile, the re-
alities of powerful alliances are made known, as one of ‘the elites’
suggests: ‘The war would have ended long ago but for the British,
who are supplying arms to Nigeria. If it had been between us and
Nigeria, the war would have ended years ago’ (Nwapa 1986, 17).
When Kate expresses scepticism about compulsory training for
all able-bodied men, noting the lack of arms and ammunition that
rendered them unable to fight, ‘an intellectual’ angrily responds:
‘We are going to defend our fatherland, all right? Look at Vietnam.
They have been at war for the past thirty-five years. Thirty-five
years, and they are still fighting. […] Still fighting to free their fa-
therland from American imperialism’ (Nwapa 1986, 24).
Using Oguta as a ‘microcosm of Biafra’, Ezeigbo has noted that,
‘by being truly local, her vision attains universal applicability’
(Ezeigbo 1998b, 482), which points to the creolized aesthetics of

Flora Nwapa’s literary worldmaking. Just like the war in Biafra is
a conflict between different layers of power, from the local elite to
national and international agents of political and military power,
so is the cultural orientation of the novel’s main character, Kate,
who listens to BBC radio, prays to God and acknowledges the
Goddess of the Lake. Through Kate’s scepticism, the local is prob-
lematized as place of belonging as well as a disputed site of power,
as exemplified by how local beliefs are both maintained through
and dislodged from social relations. The messiness of the war cuts
through the narrative, unravelling a reality where survival is in-
tricately entangled with human, natural and spiritual dimensions
of social life. Yet, in this war story, the local social world and its
spiritual world supersede the political economy of the postcoloni-
al world order, its military power notwithstanding.
Kate remains sceptical and pragmatic throughout the turmoil
of war, focusing on the well-being and safety of her family, while
reflecting on the evils of war. She attends to her family and in-
laws, and, when the time comes to escape from Oguta, she busies
herself preparing food for her children and the means to secure
their food in their place of refuge. ‘Hunger was paramount in my
thoughts. Hunger. I have never known hunger all my life. Now I
was going to be faced with hunger. My children would be faced
with hunger’ (Nwapa 1986, 50). Since there was no room in their
car for yams, Kate packed some uncut wrappers that she could
sell to buy food. Nwapa thus showed how women carried on their
roles as ‘providers, nurturers, and caretakers’ (Ezeigbo 1998b,
483), that is, their maternal roles (Ogunyemi 1996).
It was upon leaving Oguta that Kate saw her first dead person,
symbolically a pregnant woman (Nwapa 1986, 58). The woman
had started labour when she suddenly dropped dead. As Nwapa
narrates her children’s reactions, the pain of the death is brought
home: ‘At first they did not understand. It was the eldest who first
realised what had happened. She threw herself on the ground and
yelled and yelled’ (Nwapa 1986, 58). Through Kate’s reflection,
the deadly outcome of war is spelled out: ‘That was the first dead
body I saw during the war. The woman who had spoken a few
minutes ago was a corpse. Was death so quick? Was it as quick as
it was cruel? What was the cause of death?’ Ezeigbo has suggested
that the death of the pregnant women who is about to deliver her
baby ‘symbolizes the demise of the new nation, Biafra, which is
destined not to survive’ (1998b, 494, fn 9). Ogunyemi makes a
similar analysis, postulating that the death alludes to ‘the waste
of Nigeria’s human and material potential, especially the death of
the newborn nation, Biafra, an extension or replica of Nigeria’
(Ogunyemi 1995, 8). But this scene of death, where the dying
mother calls out to her own mother, who has already joined the
ancestors, while lamenting the absence of her husband, can also
be interpreted as ‘the people’s spiritual death’ and, as the story
unfolds, ‘a new beginning’ (Ogunyemi 1996, 168).
Indicative of her womanist worldmaking, Nwapa’s women
characters are not mere victims; some also assist with the war
effort, even propagating the war. Through the woman politician,
Madam Agafa, the reader is introduced to the lies and propagan-
da of warmongering women. At a meeting in the school hall, Kate
notes the presence of some ‘old politicians’, asserting, ‘I did not like
them. To my way of thinking they caused the war. And they were
now in the forefront again directing the war. The women espe-
cially were very active, more active than the men in fact’ (Nwapa
1986, 7). Nwapa mentions some of the tasks these women
carried out: making uniforms for the soldiers, cooking for them,
giving expensive presents to the officers, and organizing women
to pray for Biafra every Wednesday. ‘In return for these services,’
Kate notes cynically, ‘they were rewarded with special war reports
exclusive to them and them alone.’
Meanwhile, as the war tears apart the community, Nwapa fo-
cuses on the family, especially mothers, thus asserting ‘woman’s
role in society as central and maternal, not in the narrow sense
but in a universal role to ensure order’ (Ogunyemi 1996, 167).
Suspicion abounds and any utterance of scepticism is met with ac-
cusations of treason, sometimes even punished with death. When
she discusses the sound of shelling with her mother, suggesting
that the Nigerian troops are near, her mother warns her to be
careful with what she says: ‘You are not the most sensible person
in Ugwuta today’ (Nwapa 1986, 26). Kate realizes that even her
mother has been affected by the propaganda, which leaves
her feeling quite helpless: ‘If my own mother handed me over to

the Army, then the world had come to an end’ (Nwapa 1986,
27). Ogunyemi argues that the use of mother in this passage has
a ‘double meaning’, referring to ‘her biological mother or her
spiritual mother Uhamiri’, as Kate fears that ‘these mothers will
not or cannot perform their maternal functions-to protect, guide,
and guard their people’ (Ogunyemi 1996, 167).
When the family escapes their hometown, all of them squeezed
into a small car, and Oguta is left ‘desolate and empty’, Nwapa
spells out the horrors of war through Kate’s reflection on how
cruelty, death and immorality severe social relations (Nwapa
1986, 73):
Where was everybody? What folly! What arrogance, what stupid-

ity led to this war, to this death? When this cruel war was over,
there will be no more war. It will not happen again, never again.
NEVER AGAIN, never again.
Why, we were all brothers, we were all colleagues, all friends,
all contemporaries, then, without warning, they began to shoot,
without warning, they began to plunder and to loot and to rape
and to desecrate and more, to lie, to lie against one another. What
was secret was proclaimed on the house tops. What was holy was
desecrated and abused. NEVER AGAIN.
‘What was holy was desecrated and abused. NEVER AGAIN’

brings forth the spiritual dimension of war, as the fate of Oguta is
intertwined with the Lake Goddess (Nwapa 1986, 73). Nwapa’s
novel even carries the dedication ‘For the mysterious and
beautiful…Uhamiri’, thus accentuating femininity and spirituality
in the telling of war stories. At the beginning of the war, peo-
ple sacrifice a white ram to the Lake Goddess, and throughout
the novel Kate and other members of the community place their
hopes on the Woman of the Lake. As the people of Oguta finally
have to leave, the Lake Goddess is implored:
I sat down near the road. People were passing. Children were cry-
ing: Women were crying: ‘Uhamiri, why have you treated us this
way? The Woman of the Lake, the thunderer, the hairy woman.
The most beautiful woman in the world. The ageless woman. Why,
why have you done this to your children? Did we not sacrifice
to you? Did we not keep holy your holy day? Did we not worship
you with our whole heart? Why have you brought this death on
us?’ (Nwapa 1986, 56)
As Kate and her husband return to Oguta, they stand gazing at the
lake, the only undisturbed place in a desolate environment m
arked
by the battle of war, surrounded by burned houses, emptied barns,
bullet holes and mass graves. All this destruction after a battle
that only lasted 10 hours. Yet the novel ends by showing that the
life-giving powers of the Goddess of the Lake are greater than
the destructive power of war (Nwapa 1986, 84):
The only thing that stood undisturbed, unmolested, dignified and

solid was the Lake. The Lake owned by the great Woman of the
Lake. It deified war. It was calm, pure, peaceful and ageless. It
sparkled in the sunlight, turning now blue, now green as the sun
shone on it.
My husband and I stood gazing at it. Far in the distance was
the gun-boat, sunk as the people thought not by artillery fire but
by the Woman of the Lake. She in her depth sank it with her huge
fan, for daring to disturb her peace with her people. She sank it for
daring to carry war to her own beloved people.
Uhamiri heard the pleadings of her people. She did not turn a
deaf ear. She heard them. And she had acted according to the belief
of the people. No invader coming by water had ever succeeded
in Ugwuta. Uhamiri was the people’s hope and strength. Uhamiri
be praised.
Nwapa ends her war story with the restoration of the social world,
paying due homage to its guardian spiritual power in her closing
words (Nwapa 1986, 83):
We turned our back to the Lake, and made for home. On our way
home we met women, middle aged women in white. There was a
little boy who dragged an unwilling white ram behind them. They
were Uhamiri worshippers. They were going to the shrine of the
Great Spirit to sacrifice to her for delivering them from the furies
of the Vandals.
Never Again signals an important progression in Flora Nwapa’s

womanist worldmaking, embracing the sacred powers of the
Lake Goddess as a source of healing, while addressing patriarchal
warmongering as well as religious wars. Ogunyemi has under-

lined that, while Nwapa emphasized ‘the central role of women
as mothers in a society devastated by war, a patriarchal preoccu-
pation’, she also used war to ‘demonstrate the mutual dependen-
cy of the sexes’ (Ogunyemi 1996, 165). Addressing patriarchal
relations in a more holistic fashion, she discusses the ‘religious
war that serves as a subtext’, namely between the patriarchal fa-
ther, the Christian God, and the divine mother, Uhamiri (Ogunyemi
1996, 166). These sacred dimensions of human existence are
embodied in the natural environment. As Ezeigbo notes, while ‘the
abomination in the land alienates the powerful and ubiquitous
“Woman of the Lake”’, suggesting a ‘confusion in codes of reli-
gion’, Nwapa’s concluding description of the calm, peaceful and
ageless lake ‘seems to symbolize that the evils human beings visit
upon one another are not allowed to taint or unbalance nature
or the powers that control nature’ (Ezeigbo 1998b, 492). Indeed,
while this confusion in religious codes is evident in the ‘spiritual
war between the Ugwuta people and their mother Uhamiri’, it is
through Uhamiri, the divine mother, that ‘salvation finally comes’
(Ogunyemi 1996, 166).
The resurrection of Uhamiri is highly significant, conveying
a relational ontology of human, environmental and spiritual
interconnectedness, while insisting on peaceful coexistence and
gender complementarity. Ogunyemi underlines that Flora Nwapa’s
war narrative is ‘both therapeutic and womanist’ (Ogunyemi 1996,
167), which makes the author comes across as a literary foremoth-
er to what has later been described as ‘womanist methods, which
‘seek to heal wounds and imbalances’ in three relationships: the
relationships between people from different groups, between peo-
ple and the environment, and between people and the spiritual
realms (Phillips 2006, xxvi). By invoking Uhamiri, Flora Nwapa
engages with sacred powers to reconcile all these relationships
and to heal the wounds of war. She brings forth Uhamiri to show
‘the firmness, strength, order, and mystical power in a world con-
trolled by a female deity’, as a peaceful alternative to ‘the disorder
of a patriarchal society that thrives on the subjugation of people
and controlled by the impotent, male, Christian God’ (Ogunyemi
1996, 169). In so doing, Nwapa expresses her ‘womanist vision’
of how ‘female power for good becomes openly acknowledged by
men and women’ (Ogunyemi 1996, 169). Through her aesthetic

worldmaking Flora Nwapa thus engages in literary peacemaking,
while invoking sacred powers to heal the wounds of war and to
restore balance in social and natural worlds.
Tana Press and Nwapa’s post-war publishing

After the civil war, Flora Nwapa recreated herself as a publish-
er. Before the war she had served as assistant registrar at the
University of Lagos; after the war she was appointed commission-
er of health and social welfare for the Executive Council of East
Central State in 1970, and one of her tasks was to reunite children
who had been displaced during the war (Umeh 1998a, 674–5).
After this position she was politically appointed as commissioner
of lands survey and urban development in 1971 and then com-
missioner of establishment in 1974, both in East Central State.
When General Yakubu Gowon’s regime came to an end in a mili-
tary coup in 1975, so did Nwapa’s political appointment. Having
lost her job, Nwapa recollected, ‘Overnight I became once more
an ordinary housewife’ but ‘found it difficult to write at home or
to combine wifely duties with writing’ and realized she ‘needed
a job’ (Ezenwa-Ohaeto 1998, 193). The book industry seemed a
viable business option, while offering more opportunities for liter-
ary mothering, not least by creating a platform for women writers
and children’s literature.
Flora Nwapa started running her publishing companies, Tana
Press Limited and Flora Nwapa Books & Company in Enugu in
1977 (Umeh 2010, 106). Through commercial printing for local
companies, using state-of-the-art German equipment, Nwapa
ensured a steady income. She also worked with a network of pro-
fessional editors to publish literature. In addition to her children’s
books, she published some of her own novels, short stories and
plays, along with works of upcoming writers, mostly women writ-
ers, as well as well-known women writers like Ama Ata Aidoo. In
total, her company published some 25 titles (Umeh 1998b, 11).
Flora Nwapa also played an active role in distributing, promoting
and selling books at various book fairs around the world, w hile
her literary transnational network helped promote Tana Press

books throughout Africa, America and Europe (Umeh 2010, 115).
Through Tana Press, Flora Nwapa could break through some
of the structural challenges she faced as an African woman writer.
As discussed in Chapter 2, the canonical African Writers Series
was dominated by male writers and editors. Although Heinemann
published her first two novels, they regarded her as a ‘minor writ-
er’, a ‘Third World writer’, and therefore ‘did not bother to print
and distribute her books locally and internationally when they
were in demand’ (Umeh 1995, 22). At the time, the publishing
industry in Nigeria was dominated by international publishers
Heinemann, Longman and Macmillan, which according to Flora
Nwapa seemed to resent and feel threatened by her small pub-
lishing venture (Ezenwa-Ohaeto 1998, 195). Indeed, until the
structural adjustment programmes in the 1980s and 1990s, inter-
national publishers were making handsome profits from the lucra-
tive African market (Currey 2008, 296; see also Davis 2013). As
a female African writer and publisher, Nwapa thus had to break
through masculinist as well as imperialist power structures. In so
doing, she set up a small press of her own, thus building on the
practice of artisanal presses, following the ‘do-it-yourself ethos’
that has characterized literary development in Nigeria (Barber
2006, 16).
Government policies and market limitations compounded the
structural challenges of publishing. Children and adolescents
would primarily read books listed in the school system, which
meant that publishers had to lobby ministries to have their books
recognized. To a large extent, this is still the case, as noted by
Lizi in the previous chapter. Indeed, the publishing industry in
Africa continues to be dominated by educational textbooks,
while literature remains a high-risk low-gain venture (Kamau and
Mitambo 2016). Even so, over the years numerous women have
ventured into publishing (e.g. Jay and Kelly 2002), and publishing
in Nigeria has seen something of an upswing since the early 2000s
(Suhr-Sytsma 2018).
Despite the various challenges she faced, Flora Nwapa proved
to be a successful publisher, her entrepreneurial skills and trans
national positioning enabling her to expand her literary fame
while earning financial capital. While she printed most children’s

books through her own printing press, she also printed novels in
London and Taiwan, getting a higher quality at a lower cost. She
was also successful in soliciting grants from Nigerian Ministries
for Education for the production of books for children in primary
and secondary schools (Umeh 2010, 113). Through Tana Press,
Nwapa could thus use her transnational exposure and experience
for the benefit of local literary production, promoting the work
of her compatriots, while increasing their income. When it comes
to her own success, it appears that Flora Nwapa’s fourth novel,
One Is Enough (1982), sold in over 50,000 copies in two years,
affording her to buy a flat in St John’s Wood, a posh area of
London (Umeh 2010, 115).
Through Tana Press, Flora Nwapa could self-publish her books,
while targeting local and global markets. Bryce has argued that
Nwapa’s self-published novels, like One Is Enough and Women
Are Different, differ somewhat in style from her first, internation-
ally published novels Efuru and Idu. Building on Barber’s discus-
sion of popular style, Bryce suggests that Nwapa’s writing style
evolved toward popular literature, catering to readers at home,
taking their literacy levels and language competence into con-
sideration (Bryce 1998, 400–401). But, while Nwapa may have
targeted Nigerian readers, she did not ignore the global market.
In 1992, she republished five of her locally self-published works in
the United States with Africa World Press Inc (Umeh 1998a, 678).
Thus, rather than writing for either local or international audienc-
es, Nwapa wrote for both, her creolized aesthetic and cosmopoli-
tan orientation enabling her works to move across vernacular and
cosmopolitan literary circuits.
Social media-savvy Salamatu Sule

Salamatu Sule is a talented young writer devoted to the promo-
tion of literature who has the ambition to be Nigeria’s first female
literary agent. Born in 1982 in Kogi State in the central region,
Salamatu is Muslim. Her father is a farmer, her mother a trader,
and she lives in Abuja with her sister, who is an entrepreneur.
Salamatu went to public schools and holds a BA in English and
literature studies and a diploma in law, from Kogi State University.
Her mother tongue is Igala, and she also speaks English and
Hausa. When we first met, Salamatu was not yet married, but, by
the time we met again in July 2018, she was engaged.
Salamatu has read ‘a little of everything’, from the Hausa
translation of Arabian Nights to Orwell’s Animal Farm, as well
as African classics. Nowadays she reads contemporary African
writers, as well as classics and poetry from other parts of the
world. Salamatu has been greatly inspired by Zaynab Alkali. She
appreciates the way Alkali writes, in a simple and straightforward
manner, just like Flora Nwapa. Salamatu started to scribble at a
very tender age, mostly for herself. Friends who read her writ-
ings found them very good and encouraged her. Salamatu writes
poetry, to express her feelings and thoughts, without offending an-
yone. She also writes children’s stories and has tried writing short
stories, although she did not have enough patience. Salamatu also
writes reviews and articles. Some of her poems have been pub-
lished on social media and in newspapers, but at the time we met
she had not yet published a full compilation. In the future, she
would like to explore all genres, to see where she fits in. She writes
in English but tries to bring in elements of her mother tongue
Igala in her poetry.
The distribution of her works through social media (blogs) and
print media (newspapers) laid the foundations for Salamatu’s lit-
erary agency. In 2015, the Embassy of Germany invited her for
the annual book fair in Frankfurt, an exciting experience that she
wrote about in a blog, comparing the book fair to a ‘big book’.17
She was surprised that they knew of her, but they had found her
online. Having spent considerable time and effort on reviews of
new releases, and often marking editorial mistakes in manuscripts
she read, Salamatu decided to quit her job at an NGO to de-
vote her time to literature. Editing manuscripts, writing reviews,
organizing readings and promoting new literary works through
online and print media were tasks that she was already familiar
with and loved to do. So she turned herself into a literary agent.
One of the reasons Salamatu wants to promote literature is
the common perception among aspiring writers that, unless you
17
https://www.blueprint.ng/my-blast-moments-at-the-2015-frankfurt-
book-fair-sule, last accessed on 29 July 2020.
make yourself a name internationally (like Chimamanda Adichie),

it is very difficult to become established in Nigeria. ‘I wanted to
change that perception, so I said, that cannot be true. You have
to put in extra effort to put yourself out there.’ Having successful-
ly established her name, she reflected: ‘You do not have to travel
miles to make a certain impact. All you have to do is do work that
is unique, and do it in a way that people benefit from it,’ noting,
‘there is so much out there, which people are not talking about
and there are so many books out there, which people don’t even
know about.’ So Salamatu writes reviews: ‘I read the book, not
to critique it per se, but to give a holistic angle of what I think
about the universe of the book.’ After reading her reviews, people
contact her asking where they can get hold of the book, the review
thus functioning as ‘public disclosure’.
Salamatu uses social media to promote writers, literature and
literary events. She is active on Facebook, Twitter, YouTube,
LinkedIn and blogs. In addition to organizing literary events, she
writes about them in local media, for instance newspaper articles
that are redistributed on blogs. On YouTube, she appears in re-
corded interviews and through LinkedIn, she develops profession-
al networks for her literary agency. On Facebook, Salamatu has
over 1,100 friends and she uses her page to promote events like
book readings, ANA events and World Book Day, as well as to
share her poems and other writings.
Salamatu recognizes digitally mediated interaction to be a
key aspect of her success in literary self-making: ‘For me, I think
one of my biggest successes has been using the digital platform
to showcase myself and also to promote authors.’ She reflected
how social media had broadened her outreach: ‘Now a lot of peo-
ple ask me on my different social media platforms: “please let us
know when your book comes out, we are very much interested
and would like to read it.” If I can use this platform to showcase
myself then one really can go far in terms of outreach.’ For a lit-
erary agent, digital media is clearly a critical tool for networking
and promotion, thus underlining the importance of digital infra-
structure for creative self-making in world literature (Uimonen
2019b). This is not to say that digital media has replaced previous
infrastructures, just like the printed book has not yet been re-
placed by e-books. Rather, digital infrastructure is used alongside
print and broadcast media, as well as networking, literary events

and face to face meetings, forming part of a wider infrastructure
of world literature.
Similarly to Lizi and other writers, Salamatu is driven by the
ethics of art for society’s sake, which is a distinguishing charac-
teristic of the creolized aesthetics of Nigerian women writers.
She writes across genres, thus mixing traditional and modern
forms of storytelling. She also uses different platforms to express
herself, from printed books to social media. And she is an avid
reader of literature from near and afar, from classic novels to po-
etry. Concerned with her country’s development, Salamatu writes
poetry to register her disenchantment with the state of things,
while promoting literature that offer alternative universes for
readers’ imaginaries.
In 2017, Salamatu published her first book, Oma, The
Drummer Queen (Sule 2017). It is a children’s book, published
in the Children’s Literature Series of the Nigerian Writers Series
by the Association of Nigerian Authors (ANA). When evaluating
her book, the publishers were enthusiastic, and one editor con-
cluded: ‘This has all the elements of a good story. […] The story
is free from moralizing and yet has a strong moral woven into it.
It shows that there are no limits for the girl-child even in a tradi-
tional, patriarchal setting.’
Beautifully illustrated with colour drawings, Oma, The
Drummer Queen tells the story of a young girl who inherits a
magic drum from her father, Aremu. Aremu was a hunter who
ventured into the forest on a forbidden day. A spirit appeared,
demanding that the hunter clear the bush to atone for his tres-
passing. Having worked hard until sunset, Aremu was awarded
with a dirty old drum. The next day, he played the drum at a royal
wedding, and, to everyone’s surprise, the sound was enthralling.
The hunter became known as Olori Onilu, head drummer. While
his wife was pregnant with Oma, Aremu died, after having asked
her to pass on his drum to his child, if it were a boy. But the child
turned out to be a girl. Although Oma showed great interest in
drumming, her mother did not take her seriously; after all, drum-
ming was for boys. But Oma insisted. When the king fell ill, she
went to the palace, dressed up like a boy. Various drummers tried
to cure the king, but they all failed. But when little Oma started
drumming on her late father’s drum, the king recovered from his
illness. Oma was recognized as Drummer Queen. The story ends
with the words: ‘The young drummer queen grew up to become a
very beautiful woman. Spectators would travel to watch her drum
on invitation during important occasions from one kingdom to
another, spreading her pleasant rhythm’ (Sule 2017, 43).
Digital revival of Tana Press

By invoking Flora Nwapa, I wish to bring attention to publish-
ing, in recognition of her path-breaking accomplishments as the
first female publisher in Africa. As discussed in this chapter, pub-
lishing in Africa is beset with numerous structural challenges,
which are instructive of the uneven development of the world-
literature system. Even so, it would be erroneous to assume that
‘a situation persists in which African writers must largely look
to the West for their audiences’ (Krishnan 2014, 133). As docu-
mented elsewhere, African literary markets have attracted both lo-
cal and international publishers, despite structural challenges such
as underdeveloped infrastructure, limited book reading cultures
and education-oriented consumer priorities (e.g. Currey 2008;
Davis 2013; Jay and Kelly 2002; Kamau and Mitambo 2016;
Suhr-Sytsma 2018). As exemplified by Flora Nwapa, publish-
ers have often been transnational, catering to local as well as
international audiences. Indeed, the creolized aesthetic can also
be gleaned in the local publishing industry, which has dexterously
adapted to both internal and external influences, despite the po-
litical economy of the world-literature system, including the dev-
astations of structural adjustment programmes (see Davis 2013;
Jay and Kelly 2002). These days Nigeria is home to some of the
most innovative publishers in the global market, such as Cassava
Republic and Okada Books, which use digital and mobile media
to publish and distribute a growing corpus of literature (Suhr-
Sytsma 2018). Although it remains to be seen if the Internet is
creating a new aesthetic form, as in cyborature (Thiong’o 2014,
85), similarly to elsewhere in the world, digital media is c ertainly
influencing literary practices in Africa, from digitally mediat-
ed performance poetry (Uimonen 2018) to online publishing
(Uimonen 2019b).
The 50th anniversary edition of Efuru marked the revival of

Tana Press, under the management of Flora Nwapa’s son, Uzoma
Nwakuche. In preparation of the event, he prepared the manuscript,
involving several people in editing and proofreading, including
Salamatu Sule, who also helped out with the new cover, designed by
Akila Jibrin. The front cover displays the portrait of a woman, gaz-
ing into the distance, her face framed by a voluminous head wrap,
ears adorned with jewellery, eyes and lips accentuated by make-up.
The colours are discreet tones of mauve and grey, the title Efuru
in large emboldened capital letters in white on top and the name
Flora Nwapa at the bottom. A small gold coloured emblem on the
cover: 50th Anniversary Edition. On the back cover is the Efuru@50
logo on white background and a long text summarizing the life of
Flora Nwapa and the story of Efuru. The text ends with: ‘A trail-
blazer of women’s literature and issues in Africa and beyond, the
author and her classic, pioneering work is as relevant today as ever,
a must for contemporary readers and future generations.’
The new edition has a foreword by Sabine Jell-Bahlsen,
noting earlier editions of Efuru, while underlining Nwapa’s pio-
neering work:
Efuru is the first novel by a female African author published in-

ternationally; a trailblazer, an inspiration and a ‘first’ in many
ways: Flora Nwapa was posthumously recognized in New York
as Nigeria’s First Lady of Letters; she has presented the first narra-
tion of an African village woman’s life and plight from an insider’s
female perspective; she has protected women throughout her life
and career; she is an icon and a role model for women in Nigeria,
Africa and beyond.
She concludes with an anthropological observation informed

by her deep understanding of the cultural context of Efuru and
Flora Nwapa:
Efuru and her dreams provoke the understanding that water/the

Lake Goddess/woman (of the lake) must be valued by herself, as
an asset to society even without a child. Nwapa’s dialectical oppo-
sition creates a dynamic that vindicates womanhood and projects
female powers and potentials on several levels from the deep past
into the far flung future.
This eloquent introduction by a distinguished European female

scholar positions the book in an international circuit of literary
fame, while ethnographically anchoring it in local culture. In ad-
dition to contextualizing Flora Nwapa and Efuru in Oguta cul-
ture, Jell-Bahlsen’s foreword asserts the fame of Flora Nwapa, a
cultural framing that validates the temporal expansion of her cul-
tural influence, ‘from the deep past into the far flung future’.
The 50th anniversary edition of Efuru was printed in 500
copies at a commercial printing press in Abuja. The cost of print
was supported by a grant from the Ford Foundation, one of the
sponsors of Efuru@50. Uzoma Nwakuche aimed for a reasonably
high-quality print, using thicker paper on the cover and pages.
Although the quality of the printed pages varied, the printed cover
was of high quality, as was the binding.
Most of the copies were distributed for free to secondary
schools participating in the event. Students received copies in
advance so they could prepare the quizzes and dramatizations
organized during the celebrations. Some copies were also sold
during the event.
A digital version of the 50th anniversary edition of Efuru was
also made available through Kindle, the electronic reader of the
online bookshop Amazon.com. The Kindle edition was published
on Amazon on 20 December 2016, shortly after the Efuru@50
event. Product details list Tana Press as publisher, while the book
is sold by Amazon Digital Services LLC.
This was the first digital edition of Flora Nwapa’s books by
Tana Press, signalling the revival of her publishing company in the
age of digital publishing. No longer constrained by the material-
ity of print, Tana Press could distribute the new edition of Efuru
to readers around the world, using the established platform of
Amazon. Unlike the printed version of Efuru, the Kindle edition
was born to travel, a mobile literary object moved by digital infra-
structure. At the same time, the book remained firmly embedded
in global literary infrastructure, in this case the world’s leading
online bookstore.
On Amazon, Efuru is available in two different print versions
and two digital ones. One is the Heinemann African Writers Series
edition of 1966, available as paperback through various relat-
ed sites as used or new copies, priced from US$6.27 (used) to
US$176.11 and even higher (new). A second version is the reissue

edition of 2013, published by Waveland Press, Inc. The edition
is available as hardcover (US$49.95), paperback (US$13.85 to
15.95) and Kindle (US$9.57). The paperback version has three re-
views by scholars at universities in the US and UK, enthusiastical-
ly endorsing the reprint. The third version is the 50th anniversary
edition, which is only available as Kindle.
These different editions show the dynamics of literary pro-
duction, as books are reconfigured in different forms. From the
original first edition, through the reissue edition, to the 50th anni-
versary edition, Efuru has been repackaged and recirculated. The
cover is different for all three versions, although a lone woman
appears on all of them, a form of visual intertextuality that un-
derlines the book’s female focus. Over time, we can note a pro-
gression from material to digital objects, accentuating the book’s
global mobility.
Targeting digital distribution, Tana Press has recently re-
leased more e-books. Over the last few years, Tana Press has
collaborated with Worldreader, an ambitious initiative that

promotes reading culture in Africa, through the provision of a
mobile reading application and a digital library. According to
their web site, they have distributed over 32,000 e-readers and
5.5 million digital books to 551 schools and libraries in Africa.18
Tana Press has made available eight novels by Flora Nwapa
through Worldreader. In return, Tana Press received digital ver-
sions of the novels, which it started distributing through Amazon
and other online book stores in July 2020.
Tana Press also aims to reprint Flora Nwapa’s books and sell
them at a price that can reduce the circulation of pirated cop-
ies. Similarly to other culture industries in Nigeria, piracy poses a
considerable challenge to writers and publishers (see also Larkin
2008). Books in demand are often pirated, printed in low quali-
ty and sold cheaply. For instance, pirated copies of Efuru, which
is on the reading list at some higher learning institutes, are sold
at 400 naira. It is a much lower price than the 3,000 naira for
the 50th anniversary edition, and students are unlikely to buy the
more expensive version. Although piracy can strengthen reading
18
https://www.worldreader.org, last accessed on 29 June 2020.
culture through the distribution of low-cost books, it is highly

problematic for commercial publishers.
In 2017, Tana Press published The Lake Goddess, Flora
Nwapa’s last novel. In 1992, Flora Nwapa had given the manu-
script to colleagues in the US for editing, computing, printing and
publishing (Umeh 1998a, 678). But since Flora Nwapa passed
on the following year, the manuscript was left untouched. The
posthumous publication of The Lake Goddess was timed with the
annual conference for the African Literature Association (ALA)
at Yale University in June 2017. The first batch was printed in
hardback and shipped to the US, followed by a paperback version
a few months later. A Kindle edition will follow.
In April 2018, Uzoma Nwakuche presented The Lake Goddess
at the Stockholm Literary Fair and the Stockholm City Library
in Sweden. The event programme was a collaborative project be-
tween Stockholm University and the International Library at the
Stockholm City Library. At the Literature Fair, Uzoma Nwakuche
and myself engaged in a conversation with Professor Stefan
Helgesson in a panel entitled Flora Nwapa and African Women in
World Literature. We also organized a display table in the exhibi-
tion, featuring The Lake Goddess and Efuru, along with a selec-
tion of the International Library’s collection of books by African
women writers, many in Swedish translation. Two days later,
Uzoma Nwakuche and I held a public talk at the International
Library on ‘Flora Nwapa’s Literary Legacy’.
These international connections underscore the significance of
social networking for literary production and circulation. As not-
ed by Wulff, networking is a critical aspect of writers’ careers,
for publication as well as promotion (Wulff 2017). Flora Nwapa
herself led a busy life, attending book fairs, conferences, seminars
and other literary events in Africa, Europe and the US, especially
after the establishment of Tana Press in 1977. If anything, her
networking accelerated over time, culminating in numerous inter-
national (Dutch, Kenyan, Swedish and US) and national (Owerri,
Nsukka) engagements in 1992, the year before she passed on
(Umeh 1998a, 675–9). Similarly to contemporary women writ-
ers, Nwapa presented, exhibited and sold her books through such
channels, while establishing valuable contacts in literary circles.
Digital infrastructure is clearly opening up new opportunities

for publishers, thus contributing to the decentring of world lit-
erature, as exemplified by the revival of Tana Press.19 No longer
constrained by costly printing equipment or analogue marketing,
even small publishing houses can enter the global book market, ca-
tering to local as well as global readers. Although m
alfunctioning
digital infrastructure poses new challenges (Uimonen 2019b), in-
dicating that structural and material inequalities are not so easi-
ly overcome in the world-literature system, digital media is also
creating new opportunities for literary agents like Salamatu Sule,
as discussed above. Meanwhile, digital media is already influenc-
ing the very essence of literature, as new styles of reading and
writing are developing, blurring the lines between the written and
the orally transmitted and pointing towards some kind of ‘cybo-
rature’ (Thiong’o 2014, 85). Seeing that new forms of online cul-
tural expression also engage other sense, especially watching and
listening, it would appear that cyborature will be a multimodal,
multisensorial and multilingual aesthetic form.
19
http://www.tanapressltd.com, last accessed on 29 June 2020.
5. Culture and Relationality in Owerri
Celebrity children, deep culture and keynote debut

We left the hotel in Enugu early in the morning, after quickly
loading our suitcases and bags of books on the back of the pick-
up. There was no time for breakfast, so we bought some snacks
along the way. It was a short drive to Owerri and the road was
in good condition. Uzoma was driving as usual; we stayed mostly
quiet in the car, still sleepy after the early wake-up.
Owerri, the state capital of Imo State, was the final destination
of Efuru@50. While Enugu was politically significant, as symbol-
ized by the attendance of the deputy governor and her ceremonial
unveiling of Efuru, the Owerri event turned out to be steeped in
Igbo/Oguta culture.
We made our way to the Alvan Ikoku Federal College of
Education, the host of the Owerri event. We drove into the cam-
pus and asked for directions, eventually reaching the Department
of English Language and Literature in the School of Languages.
A large yellow signpost, suspended between heavy metal poles,
marked the entrance to the department, proudly announcing its
motto in bold capital letters: CREATIVITY IN DEVELOPMENT.
A few cars were parked outside and notice boards hung on
the exterior walls downstairs. On a nearby building, a sign for the
Department of Nigerian Languages caught my eye. It was an
impressive school of languages, encompassing English as well
as Nigerian languages. I also noted a manifestation of sorts at
the other end of the campus yard, near what seemed a large au-
ditorium. A large group of people, accompanied by uniformed
guards, were getting ready for an event. They carried a very
large poster banner with UNDP and UN logos, announcing

University Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.16993/bbe.f. License: CC-BY 4.0.
INTERNATIONAL ANTI-CORRUPTION DAY and UNITED

AGAINST CORRUPTION. Fighting corruption in Nigeria: what
a tall task, I thought to myself as we entered our building.20
A courtesy call to the head of department was the first item on
our agenda and we were ushered into her office, seated on blue
cushioned sofas, with a low glass-top table between. At the back of
the office was a metal filing cabinet and a small TV on top, at the
front a large desk filled with stacks of paper and files. The head of
department and her colleagues were thrilled to meet the children
of Flora Nwapa. We had group photos taken to mark the visit.
It was clear that the children of Flora Nwapa had celebrity
status, the offspring of a highly esteemed writer. One of the lec-
turers talked about her course on female writers in Africa and ex-
plained that Efuru had been taught for many years. Ejine recalled
how her mom had taught creative writing at the department for
a year, somewhere around 1975/76. Uzoma discussed possibilities
for future collaboration with the Flora Nwapa Foundation. His
plan was to publish a commercial version of the 50th anniversary
edition of Efuru to be sold at a lower price, so students did not
need to buy pirated copies, which were sold at 400 naira. I had
seen a pirated copy in Enugu; it was the size and appearance of
the original, even the same cover image.
We were led to a small lecture room near the office, which served
as the venue for the event. The room had four rows of wooden
desks and white plastic chairs and two long wooden desks at the
front. The space only had a seating capacity of around 50 peo-
ple and got overfilled very quickly, students sitting on top of the
tables to make room for more people. The head of department
apologized; she had not been notified in advance, otherwise they
would have organized a much more suitable venue. Uzoma later
told me that they almost cancelled the Owerri event. They had
expected to involve the governor, but the plan fell through. In the
printed programme Owerri was announced as the grand finale,
with an honourable minister as chairman and the Imo State gov-
ernor as chief host, but the event turned out more low key.
20
Corruption in Nigeria is dealt with in great detail in Smith’s monograph
A Culture of Corruption (2007).
Culture and Relationality in Owerri 163
Amede and Ejine prepared a table of books and event bags

near the front desks and the event poster was pinned on the front
wall. The book table doubled as a speaker’s podium. The room
was quite warm, despite the ceiling fans and open windows. Some
floor fans were added near the front desks, but they were mainly
whisking around the tepid air.
I was quite relieved by the venue, since I was the keynote pre-
senter, which was a big first for me. Wale and Uzoma had come
up with the idea in Abuja. Apparently word had got around that a
European associate professor was attending the event, so organiz-
ers in Owerri had asked if she could deliver a keynote, since they
did not have a keynote speaker. I felt awkward at first, not coming
close to the stature of the keynote speakers in Lagos, Maiduguri,
Abuja and Enugu. ‘Would it help you if I do it?’ I asked Wale,
and he answered in the affirmative. So I accepted the kind offer. I
had spent a few evenings in Abuja writing a brief keynote, sum-
marizing and reflecting on the Efuru@50 celebrations, citing the
keynotes in Lagos and Maiduguri, and briefly summarizing my
paper. Since I was not an expert on Flora Nwapa, or Nigerian lit-
erature, I thought a keynote expressing my reflections on the event
was the best I could do. I also made sure to mention my intellec-
tual mentor Professor Ulf Hannerz, who had supervised my PhD
years earlier and who had done research in Nigeria in the 1970s.
It felt correct to acknowledge him in my first keynote, especially
since it was delivered in Nigeria, one of his early field sites. I also
added some reflections on my initial worries and the hospitality
I had enjoyed, especially in Maiduguri, along with appreciative
words of Flora Nwapa’s children.
At the end of the day, several participants remarked on how
hard I had worked, which was a great compliment. By then I had
learned that Igbo women are very hard-working, so my anthropo-
logical immersion had paid off. People had seen me paying close
attention throughout the day, taking notes and photographs, and
filming. While some participants had walked in and out of the
room, others briefly dozing off, I had remained alert.
I was tired, but satisfied that I had managed to follow the
Efuru@50 event to its conclusion, together with the children of
Flora Nwapa. Amede’s husband joined us for the last day, and
they were sitting together at the high table. This was my last day
with Amede, as she returned to Lagos with her husband. Ejine and
Uzoma still had a trip to make.
Little did I know that the highlight of my journey was just
around the corner: Oguta. In that sense, Owerri was just a prelude
to an even deeper cultural encounter as I got a chance to briefly
immerse myself in the hometown of Flora Nwapa and experience
the lake of the Goddess. But, as we concluded the Owerri event
with a very late lunch at a posh restaurant, all I felt was relief that
the Efuru@50 event had come to a successful completion.
Concluding Efuru@50 with mighty swords and

God’s blessings
‘Okoma! Okoma!’ the titled members of Igbu society exclaimed
as they walked into the room, ritually greeting each other by
clashing their ceremonial swords four times. Okoma, mighty
sword, was a greeting evoking the tradition of using swords to
hunt leopards. A short, elderly man blew a horn to accentuate the
greetings; another beat a small drum. The titled men were mid-
dle-aged and older, dressed in knee-long shirts and long wraps.
They all wore hats with two long feathers; some also wore long
beaded necklaces and wristbands, made of pinkish coral. Uzoma
greeted all of them, having added feathers to the dark grey felt
hat he had worn since morning. ‘They must be titled men,’ the
lecturer sitting next to me whispered, ‘traditional leaders.’ Uzoma
directed the men to the chairs at the high table. After a while some
more titled men appeared, including Flora Nwapa’s brother, Chief
Christopher Nwapa, and the greetings resumed. The titled men
had travelled all the way from Oguta to honour Flora Nwapa, an
unusual rite, I was later told, since they rarely travel outside the
hometown for such purposes.
The titled men took turns making brief comments about Efuru
in the context of Oguta culture, using her prestigious title: Ogbuefi
(Killer of Cow) Flora Nwapa. In writing the novel, Flora Nwapa
was ‘showing how Oguta was and how it was growing’, an elderly
man remarked, not least ‘the palm produce market’, which was
centred in Oguta. ‘Our women, Oguta women, played very, very
important roles in the market,’ he underlined. The women used
Figure 7. Titled members of Igbu society paying homage to Ogbuefi Flora

Nwapa. Photograph by author.
the money to help their families and their husbands, he noted,

and at the same time they were very obedient. Thus, Efuru was
an average Oguta woman, who helped her husband and family
by trading. She struggled and struggled, but unable to lift up her
family, she focused on her own self. ‘Efuru decided on her own,
to follow her chi’, thus demonstrating that she was a hard-work-
ing woman, even though her husband did not lend her a hand as
he was supposed to. In traditional Oguta society, husbands and
wives worked together for the family, he concluded.
‘Igbo kwenu! Oguta kwenu!’ Ernest Nwapa greeted the au-
dience, raising his fist as he articulated the words, his greetings
accentuated by the fellow blowing the horn. ‘Today is a great day,
and, when you see us here, we’re all here to honour our sister.’
He spoke with a big smile on his face. After his greetings, Ernest
remarked, ‘I think this is all part of our cultural background that
we try to revive,’ adding, ‘Efuru the novel was also something
that collected and kind of chronicled the Oguta culture and be-
yond that Igbo culture as a whole.’ Now an in-law of the Flora
Nwapa family, Ernest recollected how his schoolmates used to
think he was Flora Nwapa’s child, since they had the same sur-
name, a misconception that he readily played along with. After
all, she was the first female commissioner in East Central State,
so his status was augmented by affiliation to the honourable
Flora Nwapa. When he eventually married the daughter of Flora
Nwapa’s younger brother, he had to set the records straight, since
people thought he was marrying his sister. His remarks met with
laughter from the audience. Ernest then proceeded with a eulogy
to Flora Nwapa:
We value Auntie Flora, not as an Oguta woman, not as a Nigerian

woman, as an African woman, as a woman that belongs to the
whole world. And we are so happy that this community of writers,
these people that have given us the food from which we have nur-
tured our intellect over the years, have remembered Flora Nwapa
and her works. Those works would never die. In fact, the more
they stay, the more we value them. The children that we have,
who can’t pick up some of the things that started with our culture,
because we don’t do those things again, but those things are still
relevant in life.
I’ll tell you that, whatever we are doing today, the value is not
in the number of governors that are here or in the number of other
dignitaries, it’s not in the comfort of this venue, but it is in the
power of the intellect that is assembled here. And I want to con-
gratulate you.
We came to represent the Igbu society here [points at his fel-
lows at the high table], because Flora belonged to us, we claim her
from every angle, we yearn for her, we wanted her to live forever.
But today, she is still alive. Thank you very much. [sound of horn
and applause]
This tribute framed Flora Nwapa in local culture, while spatially

expanding her fame to the whole world and temporally into eter-
nity. By claiming Flora Nwapa on behalf of the titled Igbu society,
Ernest anchored Flora Nwapa in Oguta culture, while valorizing
her as a woman that belongs to the whole world, thus affirming her
sphere of cultural influence from the very local to the global, from
the very particular to the universal. By emphasizing immortality,
acknowledging that her books never die and that the author is still
alive, he also extended Flora Nwapa’s value into infinity, while
forecasting that the value of books increase with time.
Chief Christopher Nwapa, the patriarch of the Flora Nwapa

family, spoke at some length, sharing anecdotes of his older sister
Flora. Dressed up for the occasion in a long white shirt and a
black top hat, a string of coral beads tied around one wrist and
a loosely hanging watch around the other, the chief peered through
his dark-rimmed glasses, his eyes bright with excitement. After
greeting everyone in Oguta dialect, he switched to English, which
he spoke fluently and eloquently, with old-school polish. ‘I had to
rush down from US in order to be present for this gathering.’ His
words met with applause and blowing of the horn, after which
he continued, ‘That shows what importance I attach to it.’ Chief
Nwapa recalled the ‘wonderful’ event in Enugu the day before, a
‘very, very, very successful celebration in honour of my late sister
Flora.’ He underlined that Flora was two years his senior and
would have been 85 if she had still been alive, as the chief was ‘al-
ready 83’, to which the audience applauded. He recollected how
his life was ‘intertwined’ with his sister’s, until death separated
them. He had encouraged Flora to apply to the University College
Ibadan in the 1950s, and she became the first student admitted by
direct admission. During that time the queen of England visited
Nigeria and Flora received the queen on behalf of the University
College Ibadan. ‘We are a family of teachers, my parents were
teachers, I retired as a teacher,’ he noted, recalling how, when he
was teaching at a grammar school in Onitsha and Flora was at
Queen’s School in Enugu, she told him she was coming to be his
guest in Onitsha.
Flora drove from Enugu to my house. Immediately she got to my

house, she started writing this Efuru [points to the table of books].
And this was in 1960. That is when she started writing. I did not
know that Efuru would be internationally recognized. I thank
everyone here for this purpose.
He then talked about the book he had recently written about

Nigeria’s political leadership, which would be published the fol-
lowing year. In the book, he had written that ‘Nigeria is a country
where talent is neither recognized nor rewarded’, which was ‘a
very serious failure on the part of Nigerian political leaders’. The
publication of his book had been postponed due to the sudden
death of his wife, who was buried in Oguta in June 2016. Chief
Nwapa’s children had advised him to wait for a year before pro-
ceeding with publication. ‘I was trying to follow the footsteps of
my sister in writing, but her book is for literature; mine is for
politics,’ he remarked and the audience laughed.
Chief Nwapa shared some of Flora’s family history, recogniz-
ing the ‘products’ of her marriages: the children. He mentioned
Flora’s relationship with Gogo Nzeribe, noting, ‘they have a
product and that product is here, Ejine Nzeribe.’ The audience
applauded. ‘Then the war broke out, and when it broke out it
was a problem.’ Chief Nwapa sent a telegram to his sister, urging
her to ‘Proceed to the east; the situation is critical in this country.’
At the time she was assistant registrar at University of Lagos. ‘So
Flora came down, drove down to Oguta, and said “what am I
to do?” I did not know what to tell her, but she told me that one
young man wanted to marry her.’ The man was Gogo Nwakuche
and Flora married him. ‘Let me tell you. I am proud to be with
Flora’s son by Gogo Nwakuche; he is here [turns to Uzoma sit-
ting by his side].’ The audience applauded and he added excitedly,
‘and Flora’s daughter by Gogo Nwakuche, she is here,’ as his eyes
searched the room for Amede.
He then remarked that the future was unpredictable to man;
only God could predict the future, adding ‘If we knew, there
would be no war, I can assure you.’ He mentioned the unpredict-
ability of Trump’s victory in the last US election and Brexit as
points of comparison. ‘So, none of us can predict the future and
that is why I am particularly happy that I am able to take part
in this ceremony.’ He concluded by profusely thanking everyone
for the ‘recognition’ of his late sister. ‘I love everybody here. Again,
to give honour to my sister, I appreciate it. God will bless all of
you and God will bless all of us. And most of us here will live up
to next year to give glory to God and to hope that this country
will be a better place. Thank you!’ The musician blew the horn
and the chief was warmly applauded as he returned the micro
phone to the MC. The titled elders stood up and, after greeting
each other with their swords, they left the room.
Through God’s blessings, Chief Nwapa ascertained the cultur-
al framing of spirituality, while grounding Flora Nwapa’s fame
in her family. The religious dimension of Efuru@50 was again
manifest through prayers and invocations of God, whose ulti-

mate power over human destiny was taken for granted, validat-
ed through sacred engagements. Chief Nwapa also brought forth
Flora Nwapa’s family relations, especially her children, thus val-
orizing her motherhood. By telling the story of how Flora Nwapa
started writing Efuru in his house, Chief Nwapa also established
a birthplace for his sister’s literary career, a literary family home,
so to speak. Having traced Flora Nwapa’s literary origins, while
contextualizing her lifework in lineages that both preceded and
succeeded her life on earth, he channelled the expansion of inter-
subjective spacetime through family and kinship.
The chairman, an elderly man dressed in a colourful shirt of
traditional design proceeded with the kola breaking welcoming
ritual. At the high table, the titled elders had been replaced by
the head of department, the children of Flora Nwapa and some
eminent scholars. The chairperson held one of the eight kola nuts
and explained its cultural symbolism, emphasizing the value of
complementary binaries and duality. An Owerri man was called
upon to bless the kola nuts, which he did in Igbo. The kola nuts
were broken and pieces distributed according to social status. To
my great delight, I received a piece of kola nut as ‘the ultimate
expression of hospitality’. I asked the lecturer next to me what to
do with it. ‘Take it home with you,’ he advised, so I slipped it into
my bag. Everyone else ate their kola nuts, which I was told have
a bitter taste.
A student dramatization of Efuru followed, incorporating
traditional dance, performed with exquisite precision. The stu-
dents wore traditional garments, the boys in singlets and wrap-
pers with long knitted caps, the girls in wrappers and batik
dresses, with chalk markings on their legs, arms and faces. Some
girls wore plastic beads, artificial versions of the traditional coral
beaded necklaces. The dramatization was staged in front of the
high table, in a squeezed space of only a few square metres. The
dance was performed by half a dozen female students, rhythmi-
cally swinging their arms and hips in synchronized union, while
two male students beat the rhythm on traditional instruments,
a wooden uko and a large metal bell. The dancers wore strings
of small bells around their ankles, the sound of their movements
e nhancing the rhythmic sound of the instruments. The male stu-

dent actors sat on plastic chairs around the dancers, some giving
notes of money to the girls as a token of appreciation. A female
teacher led the dance, her rhythmic swaying accentuated by the
tightly wrapped batik cloth around her hips.
The paper session started with my keynote, followed by five
papers presented by one male and five female scholars. The first
scholar presented a paper on an absent professor’s behalf, discuss-
ing Efuru as a proto-feminist. The presenter added that she herself
refuted feminism, on cultural grounds. Two young female schol-
ars were next, and they articulated their disagreement with the
previous speaker, underlining that cultures change. Their paper
emphasized the independence of women in Flora Nwapa’s work,
from a womanist perspective. The male lecturer offered a compar-
ison of Flora Nwapa and Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie, arguing
that feminism was a lack of wisdom and that women were the
problem. A young female scholar followed, with a critical analy-
sis of patriarchal assumptions in Efuru, using feminist and wom-
anist theoretical frameworks. The last presenter interrogated the
aesthetics of pain in the literature of the third-generation African
women writers, referring to them as the granddaughters of Flora
Nwapa.
Heated discussion erupted during the paper presentations,
especially on feminism and the position of women in society. One
young male participant launched out against -isms, like femi-
nism or womanism. ‘These -isms came from the west,’ he argued;
‘academics just use them to promote their careers.’ Other male
participants argued that the fault was with women, because of
the choices they made. But one of the male participants stood up
for women, emphasizing how they were oppressed in different
ways. Many of the female scholars argued vehemently, insisting
that patriarchal structures limited women from developing their
full potential. At one point, one of the female presenters brought
up female genital mutilation (FGM) as an example of a negative
cultural practice. To her (and my) surprise, the chairman defended
the practice, arguing that it helped women control themselves and
reduced the risk of infections. The women refused to back down,
challenging their male colleagues and arguing for cultural change
to liberate women in society, using Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie’s

example of how the practice of killing twins was a thing of the
past (Adichie 2014).
The chairman emphasized complementary binaries between
the sexes. Confident in his cultural expertise, he acted as a cultural
gatekeeper, staunchly defending traditional beliefs and practices.
In pre-colonial culture women had a strong position in society, he
emphasized. But women were degraded through the influence of
Arabic and European cultures, he argued. Throughout the heated
discussions on gender, the chairman kept insisting on complemen-
tarity as a cultural core value, encouraging people to think along
the lines of natural feminism.
As the programme drew to an end, Ejine Njeribe, Flora Nwapa’s
eldest daughter, made an eloquent statement, thanking everyone
for keeping her mother’s legacy alive:
Thank you very much for seeing the Nwapa family to the end of
the celebration of Efuru@50 2016. For us it is a great joy that we
have ended the celebration in Alvan Ikoku College of Education.
And I say that on behalf of my family with all pride, for the simple
reason that sometime in 1977/78, Flora Nwapa came to this same
institution as a visiting lecturer in the Department of English for
one year to teach. So it is befitting that we are here today. We would
like to thank the Dean of the Faculty, we would like to thank the
provost of the school, we would like to thank the head of depart-
ment, we would like to thank our Igbo chairman, we would like to
thank all the speakers, all the students, all the performers, all the
entertainers, for being here with us today. As I’ve said in the past,
it started from Lagos, through Maiduguri, to Abuja, to Enugu and
now Owerri. And we are delighted that indeed Flora Nwapa’s leg-
acy lives on. Thank you very much! God bless you as you go back
to your different destinations. Thank you!
Flora Nwapa’s sister, Mrs Bee Emeni, who had arrived in the
afternoon, was asked to say a prayer, thus reasserting the femi-
nine and spiritual framing of Efuru@50. She stood up, holding
the microphone in her right hand, and, after clearing her throat,
she prayed:
In Jesus’ name, Father, we thank you for this time. We say thank you
for keeping us here, for bringing us here. Now we are preparing to
go home, lead us back home safely. And we pray to God Almighty

that you bless everyone who came for this occasion, that you bless
them and bless them. Father, thank you for everything you have
done this day in Jesus’ name. [amen]
We gathered for a group photo, which a photographer captured

from a bird’s-eye angle, standing on a desk. Those who remained
were Flora Nwapa’s children, the head of department, the chair-
man, the MC, paper presenters, some performers and a few stu-
dents. One of the performers held an event bag in his hand, a
visual symbol of the Efuru@50 celebrations that had now come
to an end, a sacred object in a sacred drama that was culturally
framed in femininity and spirituality.
Flora Nwapa’s social worlds and spiritual relations

While world literature scholarship tends to focus on texts and
their circulation, as an anthropologist I am drawn to writers,
their cultural context and social relations, to better appreciate the
intricacies of literary worldmaking. Recognizing the social agen-
cy of art objects, Gell has defined the anthropology of art as the
study of ‘social relations in the vicinity of objects mediating agen-
cy’ (Gell 1998, 7). This relational theory of art is quite applicable
to literature, since books are embedded in social relations and
mediate the social agency of worldmaking. By comparison, liter-
ary scholars have underlined that aesthetic worlds always have
a relation to the lived world, ‘whether as a largely preconscious
normative construct, a rearticulation, or even an active refusal
of the world-norms of their age’, and in this sense they are ‘so-
cial and conceptual constructs, as well as formal and affective
ones’ (Hayot 2012, 45). To tease out some of the relations in Flora
Nwapa’s literary production, we need to keep in mind her wom-
anist perspective. But let us start with Flora Nwapa’s social self,
seeing that ‘any one social individual is the sum of their relations
(distributed over biographical time and space) with other per-
sons’ (Gell 1998, 222). As an African woman writer, Flora Nwapa
clearly embodied the notion that everything exists in ‘meshworks
of relations’ (Escobar 2020, 4).
It has been suggested that Flora Nwapa’s writings were auto-
biographical, drawing on personal experiences, while offering an
outlet for personal frustrations, although Flora Nwapa herself

has denied such connections. When asked by Umeh ‘Are there
any autobiographical elements in your writing?’ she responded,
‘None! I am not like Efuru, neither am I like Idu, neither am I
Amaka in any way’ (Umeh 1995, 26). Even so, Marie Umeh, the
author of Flora Nwapa’s biography (Umeh 2010), has insisted on
the ‘intermingling’ of the personal and the public in her works,
arguing that ‘the ability to write implied a measure of autonomy’
and ‘enabled Nwapa to exercise some control over the circum-
stances in her life’ (Umeh 2001, 343). Using the self-in-hiding con-
cept of a literary critic, Umeh argues that ‘Nwapa used the power
of the pen not only, to extol Ugwuta women for their industry,
intelligence, magnanimity, and strength but also, to explore, ana-
lyze, and explain the emotional turmoil in her own life, the lives
of her female kith and kin, and Ugwuta women generally’ (Umeh
2001, 344).
Building on anthropological theory, the ways in which Nwapa’s
social worlds intertwined with her literary worlds can be ap-
proached in terms of cultural creativity instead of individual auto-
biography. In anthropological theory, creativity is a social rather
than individual phenomenon, a process of cultural improvisation
rather than innovation, which is relational, temporal and gener-
ative (Hallam and Ingold 2007). The relationality of art connects
literature to social life, regardless of how fictitious it may be ren-
dered, since writers cannot fully detach themselves from their so-
cial selves. As Gell has argued, our inner personhood is related to
and replicates our external (collective) social being, which is why
personhood is spread around in time and space (1998, 222–3).
Comparatively, Hayot notes that ‘Aesthetic worldedness is the
form of the relation a work establishes between the world inside
and the world outside the work’ (Hayot 2012, 45). Thus, rather
than assessing Flora Nwapa’s literary products as autobiograph-
ical reflections of her individual self, we can appreciate her crea-
tivity in relation to her social self, since creativity ‘cannot totally
cut loose from the social whole’ (Hallam and Ingold 2007, 7). In
a rapidly changing society, Flora Nwapa’s creativity agency was
embedded in ‘an entire field of relationships’ that were similarly
‘entangled and mutually responsive’ in the cultural improvisation
of everyday social life (Hallam and Ingold 2007, 7). This social
analysis seems to resonate with what Flora Nwapa herself stated:
‘I’m an ordinary woman who is writing about what she knows’
(Flora Nwapa, cited in Umeh 1995, 27).
A closer look at dedications in Flora Nwapa’s published works
is instructive of the social relations surrounding her literary pro-
duction, especially the centrality of family, friends and colleagues.
Her first novel, Efuru (1966), was dedicated to her uncle: ‘To the
memory of A.C. Nwapa’, and her second novel, Idu (1970), paid
tribute to her parents: ‘For Papa and Mama.’ Her children’s book
Mammywater (1979) was ‘Dedicated to my Children: Amede,
Uzoma & Ejine’. The collection of short stories Wives at War
(1980) expresses her gratitude: ‘For my husband Gogo, whose
generosity made the establishment of Tana Press Limited possible.’
Cassava Song & Rice Song (1986), Flora Nwapa’s only poetry
collection, was published ‘To the memory of Ma Ukebia’, her ma-
ternal grandmother. These family relations were clearly important
to Flora Nwapa, as recognized throughout her literary career. But
friendship and professional relations were also significant, linked
to different people and places in her academic and administrative
career. This Is Lagos (1971) was ‘For Clara & A.Y’, while her two
plays Conversations (1993) and The First Lady (1993) were dedi-
cated to ‘For Zaynab, Kujara, Anthonia and others who made my
stay in the University of Maiduguri a most memorable one’ and
‘For Ajie & Azumdialo’, respectively.21
Interestingly enough, two books were dedicated to women,
thus conveying her womanist perspective. The novel Women Are
Different ([1992] 1986) was dedicated to women in general, ‘For
women…who are different’ and the novel One Is Enough ([1992]
1986) to women around the world: ‘For all women of the world,
I repeat an Hausa proverb: A woman who holds her husband as
21
Chief A.Y. Eke and his wife Clara were Flora Nwapa’s long-time friends.
A.Y. was her boss as the chief registrar at the University of Lagos; Zaynab
Alkali and others were lecturers at the University of Maiduguri, where
Flora served as a creative writing lecturer; and Ajie Upkabi Asika and
his wife Chinyere Asika were Flora Nwapa’s long-time friends. Ajie was
the administrator of East Central State (1970–75), while Flora served as
a commissioner in his cabinet. Source: Uzoma Nwakuche, pers. comm.,
13–14 May 2020.
a father, dies an orphan.’ The emphasis on women being different

is instructive of appraisals of gender difference in African wom-
anism, which recognizes that ‘Female power is and should always
be different from male power; it is needed for world progress’
(Ogunyemi 1996, 61). This difference is by no means an excuse
for gender inequality but an affirmation of gender complementa-
rity, since both are required for societal progress. By addressing
women in general, these dedications also illustrate the cosmopol-
itan orientation of Flora Nwapa’s creolized aesthetics, as does the
sharing of a Hausa proverb with readers around the world.
Significantly, Flora Nwapa’s Never Again ([1975] 1986) was
dedicated to the Lake Goddess: ‘For the mysterious and beauti-
ful…Uhamiri.’ Published almost a decade after Efuru, and being
the first war novel written by an African woman, this dedication is
by all means remarkable. Not only did Flora Nwapa take a clear
political stand against the war, but in her fictitious rendering of
the horrors of civil war, she also invoked the powers of the Lake
Goddess as the ultimate saviour of life, as discussed in Chapter 4.
Interestingly enough, Never Again is often read as the most
autobiographical of Flora Nwapa’s novels. In her analysis of
Never Again, Ogunyemi argues that the lead character, Kate, is
Flora Nwapa’s ‘alter ego’ because, ‘for the first time in her writ-
ing career, the writer is dealing with firsthand experiences rath-
er than retelling communal rememories’ (Ogunyemi 1996, 166).
Similarly, noting that is the first and only time that Nwapa ‘uses
the auto-biographical mode’, and ‘imbues it with authenticity and
clarity’, Ezeigbo argues that ‘There is every indication that Nwapa
assumes the identity of author, narrator and heroine in the novel’
(Ezeigbo 1998b, 478–9). She even refers to Flora Nwapa’s daugh-
ter Ejine Nzeribe’s unpublished article ‘Remembrances of the War
Period’ to substantiate her claim, noting instances of intertextuali-
ty and concluding that ‘Ejine has “recorded” the events of the war
while Nwapa has “recreated” and “transmuted” it into fiction’
(Ezeigbo 1998b, 479–80). Seeing that Flora Nwapa was pregnant
and gave birth to her only son, Uzoma Nwakuche, during the war,
the interlinkages with her own life come across as quite intricate,
pointing to the relationality of creative agency, literary worldmak-
ing and social life. But, since her own parents, children of the
first Christian converts in Oguta, abhorred what they considered

to be pagan worship of Uhamiri, Nwapa’s literary engagements
with the divine mother also speak to the politics of her literary
worldmaking.
As indicated in these dedications, Flora Nwapa’s social worlds
constituted a meshwork of social relations, and the dedications
are instructive of the value she placed on these relationships,
from her family in Oguta to friends and colleagues in places like
Lagos and Maiduguri. These nodes in her social networks were
in turn enmeshed in other social webs, some of them intertwined
with her social worlds, others expanding well beyond them. At
the core of her social world was the Oguta community she grew
up in, a social collective that traces its history to migration from
the Benin kingdom in pre-colonial times, with an intricate social
organization of patrilineages (clans), and social constellations
like age groups and (traditionally) polygamous, intergeneration-
al households (Jell-Bahlsen 2008, 2014). While Flora Nwapa
herself came from one of Oguta’s most prominent families,
and her acquisition of the title of Ogbuefi testified to her influ-
ence and accomplishments (Umeh 2010), her social life inter-
sected with people of different ages, classes and genders, which
she depicted in her aesthetic worlds. Ezeigbo has underlined the
aesthetic value of ‘Nwapa’s perfect control of local color, tonal
inflections in dialogue, and rhythms of rural lifestyle in all their
complexities’, especially the ‘speech rhythms and mannerisms of
Igbo rural women’ (1998b, 68). She has concluded that it was
‘her creative delineation of these characters that largely defines
her significant linguistic and stylistic contribution to African
fiction’ (Ezeigbo 1998a, 68). But, in addition to capturing her
experiences of everyday life in Oguta as well as the many sto-
ries she heard while growing up, Flora Nwapa’s aesthetic worlds
also depicted the many social worlds she immersed in throughout
her life long professional career, not to mention the social worlds
she got acquainted with through her social relations as well as
events unfolding in Nigeria, as well as the world at large. All these
social relations formed her social self as an African woman, a col-
lective identity that included her sacred relation with the Lake
Goddess Uhamiri.
I have dwelled on these dedications to reiterate the relational

ontology of Nwapa’s aesthetic worldmaking, encompassing the
many worlds that intertwined in her social worlds, especially
spiritual worlds, which are often overlooked in materialist-
oriented scholarship. Focusing on the production of art objects,
Gell viewed art as a technical system, which he defined as a
technology of enchantment, to capture ‘the power that technical
processes have of casting a spell over us so that we see the real
world in an enchanted form’ (Gell 1992, 44). While enchantment
could open up interesting analyses of aesthetic worldmaking, Gell
moved in the opposite direction, insisting on methodological phil-
istinism, which he argued to be as important for the study of art
as methodological atheism was for the study of religion, since the
problem with aestheticism was that ‘we have sacralized art: art is
really our religion’ (Gell 1992, 42). Unfortunately, his materialist
conceptualization of art was no less ethnocentric than the aes-
theticism he critiqued, while his appraisal of technical virtuosity
was disturbingly masculinist. By contrast, Hayot charts out an
alternative to the materialist obsession in world literature studies
(see also Cheah 2008, 2014), focusing on ‘human imagination’
(Hayot 2012, 41). Unfortunately, Hayot is silent on religion and
spirituality. Meanwhile, even though Sansi’s analysis has the en-
chanting title The Idle Goddess (Sansi 2018), there is no mention
of spirituality in his discussion on relationality in contemporary
art, which traces the ontological turn in anthropology to relation-
al anthropology (e.g. Strathern 1988, 1998). Paying attention to
Hayot’s focus on cultural imagination, perhaps African woman-
ism can help us activate Sansi’s idle goddess.
Flora Nwapa’s literary works mediated female agency as well
as sacred power, thus conveying a liberating cosmovision of wom-
anist worldmaking. In his discussion of relational ontologies and
cosmovisions, Escobar valorizes ‘a cosmology of liberation that
is attuned to a kind of spirituality appropriate to current plane-
tary conjectures’, noting that the ‘consideration of spirituality in
many TDs [transition discourses] is a reminder of the systemat-
ic exclusion of this important area from our secular academies’
(Escobar 2018, 70–71). Spiritualized cosmovisions have a direct
bearing on ways of knowing, since approaching ‘the spiritual as
e pistemological’ brings forth the process of ‘knowing self through

Spirit’ (Alexander 2005, 293). Focusing on ‘spiritual work’, we
can also appreciate ‘the personal as spiritual’, while acknowledg-
ing that ‘the spiritual is no less social than the political’ (Alexander
2005, 295–6). Womanism is a case in point, a social change per-
spective that is explicitly ‘spiritualized’, its acknowledgement of
the intertwinement of the spiritual realm, human life and the ma-
terial world resembling the ‘spiritualized politics’ of some social
justice movements (Phillips 2006, xxvi).
From the perspective of African womanism, we can thus ap-
preciate the spiritual work and spiritualized politics in Flora
Nwapa’s literary worldmaking, from cosmologies of divine com-
plexity and storytelling that draws on oracular powers to ma-
tricentric articulations of communal solidarity and gender com-
plementarity, inspired and guided by ancestral spirits and other
spiritual forces that are intertwined with the natural environment
(Ogunyemi 1996). This meshwork of relations makes the lasting
value of Flora Nwapa’s literary work quite remarkable:
Similar to Efuru, who dedicated her life as a priestess to Ogbuide,

the Lake Goddess, Flora Nwapa too, devoted her life to honoring
Ogbuide and her children, especially the women, by putting their
lives in print, thus ensuring their posterity beyond Ugwuta and
into the annals of world literary history (Umeh 2001, 347).
Digital incarnations and infinite fame

By invoking Flora Nwapa, I also wish to show how digital me-
dia expands fame into the online realm, mediating immortality
through digital incarnations. By conceptualizing Flora Nwapa’s
online presence in terms of digital incarnations, I hope to illus-
trate how ‘cyberture’, as in digitally mediated virtual reality, can
‘enhance or disrupt the wealth of human spirituality’ (Thiong’o
2014, 77). In conjunction with the Efuru@50 event, Flora Nwapa’s
name spread online, through the event website, the media cover-
age, the online distribution of presentations, and the digital re-
lease of the 50th anniversary edition of Efuru. On 21 April 2016,
Ejine Nzeribe published an entry in the Dangerous Women pro-
ject, entitled ‘Flora Nwapa. Pioneering Nigerian Administrator,
Academic and Author’ (Nzeribe and Okereke 2016).22 In addition,

the Nigerian writer and filmmaker Onyeka Nwelue made a doc-
umentary film about Flora Nwapa, The House of Nwapa (2016),
which was promoted in social media and a trailer on YouTube.23
The film was shortlisted for the prestigious African Movie Awards
in 2016, in the documentary film category. In October 2017, I also
released the documentary film Efuru@50 on YouTube.24
On 13 January 2017, Flora Nwapa was honoured with a Google
Doodle, Flora Nwapa’s 86th Birthday, which expanded her online
fame even further. The date marked what would have been Flora
Nwapa’s 86th birthday, and the doodle on Google’s search page
was illustrated with an image of an African woman handing out
books with untitled blue covers in a savannah-like field of books,
her head wrap matching her long-sleeved dress and earrings. The
descriptive doodle text ascertained Flora Nwapa’s fame, spread-
ing her name to millions of Google users worldwide: ‘Today’s
Doodle pays homage to Nwapa, known as the “mother of modern
African literature,” on what would be her 86th birthday.’25
On 5 May 2020, the online article ‘Flora Nwapa: Mother of
Modern African Literature’ was published on the Deutsche Welle
website, along with an animation of Flora Nwapa’s lifework.26
Written by Sam Olukoya, the article summarized Flora Nwapa’s
life, the themes of her novels, her most notable novels and her
legacy, while querying her perspective on feminism and women’s
rights. The article also featured a short computer animation, The
Mother of Modern African Literature by Gwendolin Hilse, which
22
http://dangerouswomenproject.org/2016/04/21/flora-nwapa,
last accessed on 29 June 2020.
23
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c7nbS4et_dU, last accessed on 29
June 2020.
24
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EndOXak9ESQ, last accessed on 29
June 2020.
25
https://www.google.com/doodles/flora-nwapas-86th-birthday, last acces-
sed on 18 May 2020
26
https://www.dw.com/en/flora-nwapa-mother-of-modern-african
-literature/a-53197517?fbclid=IwAR3EOGDaNrb5iXYfc1SAfaU
_UnXy0pDnFKRftzB5zCCx4Ch6OjYmN8rPqMk, last accessed on 18
May 2020.
was published on the site a few weeks earlier, on 21 April 2020.27

The animation portrays Flora Nwapa at different stages of her
life, visually illustrating her lifework and achievements, with
short subtitles capturing essential aspects of her life story, to the
soundtrack of music. The animation concludes with words evok-
ing Flora Nwapa’s immortality: ‘She remains an inspiration for
many female African writers.’
Flora Nwapa also has her own online presence through a
Facebook page.28 Flora Nwapa’s son, Uzoma Nwakuche, set
up the page in August 2016, in preparation for the Efuru@50
event. Currently (May 2020), the page has 2,076 likes and 2,082
followers. The profile photo is the same portrait photo that was
used for the Efuru@50 logo, a smiling Flora Nwapa with a raised
cup in her hand, her alert eyes peering through cat-eye framed
glasses, and her dimpled face framed by a stylish head wrap. The
page also displays portrait photos of Flora Nwapa at different
ages and covers of new releases of Efuru and The Lake Goddess,
thus portraying her visual identity as a female writer (Uimonen
2013). Photos of events are also posted, from the Efuru@50 cele-
bration in Nigeria and the African Literature Association confer-
ence in the US to the Stockholm Literary Fair in Sweden, along
with citations from Flora Nwapa and descriptions of her work.
‘Mama You Are Living,’ a person commented on Flora Nwapa’s
Facebook page in August 2016, shortly after the page was set
up. The comment captures how digitally mediated sociality
ascertains Flora Nwapa’s immortality, in seemingly everlasting
online worlds.
Research has shown that it is quite common that people com-
municate with the dead through social media, especially Facebook
(Moreman and Lewis 2014; Lagerkvist 2015; Staley 2014). Such
practices have been discussed in terms of ‘techno-spirituality’ or
‘digital religion’, to denote ‘the integration of offline and online
religious practices’, including beliefs about afterlife, typically in
relation to Christian theological imagination (Staley 2014, 14).
27
https://www.dw.com/en/the-mother-of-modern-african-literature
/av-53197359, last accessed on 18 May 2020.
28
https://www.facebook.com/floranwapa, last accessed on 18 May 2020.
Lagerkvist focuses on experiential and existential dimensions of

digital memory, viewing these ‘socio-technological entanglements
as breeding notions of a transcendent reality and of a posthumous
existence’ (2015, 192). While noting that digital memory cultures
derive from ‘diverse (and mixed) religious discourses’, they ‘tend
to reaffirm beliefs about an afterlife’ (Lagerkvist 2015, 192).
She forwards the concept netlore of the infinite to capture
notions of forever among digital media users, while recognizing
that the infinite has many variations (Lagerkvist 2015, 193). As
a digital anthropologist, I would like to add some cultural vari-
ation to this emerging scholarship on digitality and (im)mortal-
ity, which is a topic I have touched upon elsewhere in relation
to digital visuality and mourning rituals (Uimonen 2015). Since
netlore is a digital version of folklore, and by extension can be
seen as a genre of cyberture (Thiong’o 2014, 85), we can turn to
Nigerian female storytellers to explore variations in digital infin-
ity, capturing cultural perspectives that encompass reincarnation
and cyclical time.
Drawing on Igbo/Oguta cosmology, I interpret Flora Nwapa’s
digital afterlife in terms of digital incarnations. You may recall
Cecilia Ezeilo’s words at the Efuru@50 celebration in Enugu,
citing the writer Jorge Luis Borges: ‘when writers die they become
books, which is, after all, not too bad an incarnation.’ This expres-
sion captures the embodiment of a spirit in earthly form, in this
case the spirit of a writer in material literary objects, thus putting
an artistic spin on Christian theology. But, since Flora Nwapa also
embodied Igbo/Oguta cosmology, as expressed in her writings,
there is something to be said for other forms of incarnation. As
noted by Jell-Bahlsen,
Contrary to Christian beliefs and Western thinking, many African

worldviews including the Igbo perceive the soul as indestructi-
ble, moving in an eternal cycle of life through circular time and
reincarnation. An individual may eventually be reborn, when the
departed chi returns to earth in another human body. (2014, 31)
From this cultural perspective, the comment ‘Mama You Are

Living’ captures Flora Nwapa’s indestructible soul, years after she
joined her ancestors.
From a womanist perspective, Flora Nwapa’s chi, her individ-

ual quintessence, is also the ‘mother within’, a ‘feminine force
[that] determines the important phases of each individual’s life’
(Ogunyemi 1996, 35–6). And, since Flora Nwapa was a female
writer who grew up with stories told by generations of women, her
chi was exceptionally powerful: ‘Each storyteller, having learned
by listening as a member of different audiences, is inspired by
her Chi/Ori to tell a story’ (Ogunyemi 1996, 42). Flora Nwapa’s
stories centred on women and female divinity, myths and beliefs
reconfigured in literary form. In Ogunyemi’s analysis, this form
of storytelling constitutes an incarnation of female divinity: ‘the
myths not only serve as paradigms for fiction by Nigerian women;
the writer also incarnates Mammywata’ (Ogunyemi 1996, 34). As
a gifted storyteller who incarnated female divinity through her
books, Flora Nwapa can thus be seen as a life-giving ‘foremother’,
a ‘pathfinder or Chinedu (Chi who guides)’ for succeeding gener-
ations (Ogunyemi 1996, 43).
Building on Igbo cosmology, I suggest that through digital in-
carnations, Flora Nwapa’s chi becomes distributed in bits and
bytes, digital reconfigurations of Africa’s literary foremother.
The Google Doodle ensures that the track record of the moth-
er of modern African literature is digitally archived, inscribed in
the world history of famous artists and pioneers. Through her
Facebook page Flora Nwapa lives on in the online world, moth-
ering her online community, while her books are reproduced and
circulated in digital form.
In terms of the cultural framing of fame, Flora Nwapa’s digital
incarnations bring forth a whole new dimension to value transfor-
mation, expanding intersubjective spacetime into digital domains.
As discussed throughout this monograph, Efuru@50 revived
Flora Nwapa’s literary legacy, a positive value transformation
that circumvented the contraction of Flora Nwapa’s fame by a
world-literature system, which at the time of her pioneering ac-
complishments undervalued African female writers. The negative
value transformations of the world-literature system could thus
be countered, curtailed and overcome. Through her digital incar-
nations, the structural constraints are circumvented even further,
assuring the infinite expansion of Flora Nwapa’s fame.
In memoriam Cecilia Kato

A poetess must never pass unsung. Fare thee well Cecilia Kato.
You were the first female I proudly featured on Abuja Poetry
Society way back then. You left us the refrain of love as a burden
for the woman. Hmmm, we were to co-author an anthology, co-
write a journal article, co-edit a volume of young female voices
[…] Dreams stilled by time; entombed in eternity. Rest on; fel-
low creative spirit, sister of the pen and UniAbuja intellectual of
repute. (Lizi Ben-Iheanacho, Facebook, 23 March 2018)
It was upon reading Lizi’s Facebook posting on 23 March 2018

that I learned of the sudden passing of Cecilia Kato, a poet I had
interviewed in Abuja on 14 December 2016. Lizi posted the text
above, accompanied by two images, one of a red rose, blighted and
withered into blackness, the other one a photograph of Cecilia Kato,
in an elegant outfit with a laced top, a long wrapped skirt in white,
golden sandals, and her face framed by an elaborate head wrap.
On the same day, the National Wire featured the news: ‘Dr.
Cecilia Kato, Prominent UNIABUJA Lecturer Dies at 59.’ The ar-
ticle displayed a large portrait photo of Cecilia Kato, gently smil-
ing at the camera, dressed in an embroidered purple gown and a
matching head wrap. The short text announced:
The University of Abuja (UNIABUJA) community in Gwagwalada,

FCT was on Monday thrown into mourning by the sudden death
of one of its longest serving lecturers, Dr. (Mrs). Cecilia Kato. Dr.
Kato, 59, was a lecturer in the English and African Literature and
Gender Studies departments.
According to a statement from her family, the late Kato was
a well-known writer and gender advocate, Christian leader and
respected mentor to generations of her students past and present.
Notably, Kato published collections of poems, including Desires,
and Victims of Love in which she lamented the state of Nigerian,
nay African women.
She was equally renown as an impassioned and outspoken
speaker in her various public appearances at religious and circular
[sic; read: secular] gatherings.
Kato obtained degrees in English and Literary Studies from the
University of Calabar and started her lecturing job at UNIABUJA
(from where she also obtained her PhD) until her death.
Dr. (Mrs.) Kato died on the morning of March 19 after a brief

asthmatic attack.
Reacting to Mrs. Kato’s sudden passing, one of her children,
Miss Ndi Kato, a social activist, founder of the Dinidari Foundation
and an upcoming politician, said ‘My mother was my heartbeat,
my pillar, my rock. She taught me everything I knew and she was my
role model.’
‘It’s a colossal loss,’ said journalist and activist, Betty Abah, a
younger friend of the deceased.
‘Mrs. Kato was the liveliest, the friendliest and most generous
person you can find in any gathering. Her laughter and enthusiasm
were quite infectious. And she was quite brilliant. As a fellow men-
tee of Prof. Ebele Eko, our former lecturer at UNICAL, I formed
an enriching friendship with her which lasted more than 15 years.
I will certainly miss her. Our world is certainly diminished with the
sudden and untimely passing of this wonderful soul,’ she added.
Kagoro, Kaduna State-born Mrs. Kato will be buried on
March 28.
She was survived by four children and nine grandchildren.
(National Wire, 23 March 2018)29
Cecilia Kato was the last female writer I interviewed, so it seems

befitting that her story concludes my expose of contemporary
Nigerian women writers. Cecilia came to my hotel in Abuja on
14 December, and in my reflections I jotted ‘outspoken, energetic
lady’. When I first contacted Cecilia by email on 25 November,
prior to my travel to Nigeria, she responded apologetically 10
days later, explaining, ‘I am currently at the Writers’ Residency
Program on invitation by Dr Okediran. It is an exciting experi-
ence,’ adding ‘I will be in Abuja between 13–15 Dec. Welcome to
Nigeria.’ We arranged our meeting by texting over the phone, her
warm and caring tone evident in her messages ‘I should be back to
Abuja by Sunday by God’s grace’ and ‘Do have a beautiful night
rest from the stress of travelling.’ When we met, Cecilia kindly
brought some gifts: garden eggs and a bottle of groundnuts, lo-
cal snacks often served to guests, as well as her poetry collection
Desires (Kato 1999). She had written a personal note inside the
29
https://nationalwire.com.ng/dr-cecelia-kato-prominent-uniabuja-lecturer
-dies-59, last accessed on 29 June 2020.
cover: ‘So fortunate to have met you, Paula. Remain blessed. The
Author, [signature].’
Born in Kagoro, Kaduna State, Cecilia Kato was ethnically
Kagoro, Christian by faith. She explained that Kagoro was indig-
enously known as Gorok, but Hausa colonization renamed them
Kagoro. In addition to her mother tongue, Gorok, she also spoke
English and Hausa. Cecilia married young and had ‘a good line
up’ of four children and eight grandchildren when we met. Her
late husband, who passed away in 2014, was a senior accountant.
Her parents were farmers of grain, cattle and honey. Cecilia went
to public school, a type of school called Native Authority, for
children whose parents could not afford missionary school, with
Hausa and English as medium of instruction. In 1994, Cecilia got
an MA in African poetry from the University of Calabar. When
we met she was in the process of completing her PhD on African
poetry at the University of Abuja. Cecilia had taken a step back
from her PhD to support her children’s schooling and mentioned
proudly that her son was now a university lecturer.
Cecilia Kato was a poet and writer. She wrote mostly in English,
poetry and some short stories; she had no stamina for novels, she
explained. She wrote ‘as a woman’ and her content was ‘problem-
atic’, she reflected. In her collection Victims of Love (Kato 1999),
she wrote about women as victims of ‘I love you’:
It is not any man in the street that will slap you or maltreat you;
any man that makes you angry was first of all invited by you. So
all of us are victims of ‘I love you’ and by telling somebody ‘I love
you,’ it is like you have surrendered your self to the person […]
and they take advantage of the fact that once a woman says ‘I love
you’ she gives everything for that ‘I love you’ and the man takes
it and wraps it up around him and does whatever he wants to do
with it, because you first of all told him ‘I love you.’
Cecilia laughed a bit to take the edge off her words, adding, ‘This
is also my attempt at expressing. A lot of these poems are very,
very personal. There is no poem here that I cannot trace to a
particular situation’ – she lowered her voice – ‘because I went
through a turbulent marriage.’ She made sure to add: ‘I appreciate
my husband. When I talk about these things it is not in dishonour
of him in any way, not at all. We were all very young.’ She was
also ‘very politically conscious’ in her writing, as exemplified by

some of the very sensitive topics she addressed in Desires (Kato
1999). When Victims of Love came out, it did not create a stir,
since it was ‘woman’s talk’, but when Desires followed people
said ‘Oh, she writes like a man!’ ‘Are you serious?’ Cecilia reflect-
ed rhetorically. ‘Are you expecting that as a woman I should not
know what is happening around me? That the only thing I should
know is my kitchen, my bedroom and the other room, like my
president said?’ Some of the poems in Desires are very sensitive
political statements, others address social problems. During our
interview Cecilia read one of the poems in Desires, ‘The Burukutu
Song’, her voice rhythmically enunciating each word. ‘It’s a criti-
cism of getting drunk, or doing anything in excess,’ she reflected
when she was done, with laughter in her voice.
In Other People’s Children and Other Stories (Kato 2014),
a collection of short stories, she wrote about children born out
of wedlock during the civil war and other thorny issues. Self-
published through AuthorHouse, Cecilia was hoping to repub-
lish the book locally. The book is featured on the Amazon online
bookstore, where it is summarized as follows:
The Nigerian Civil War left behind unsung heroes-women and

children. Some of them had befriended soldiers to ensure the sur-
vival of their families. These children and others born out of wed-
lock constitute a community of people who have identity crises
rocking their lives. Also, veterans of the war, abandoned by the
authorities, were left as ordinary individuals to contend with
the war’s destructive impact. This is the focus of the title story,
‘Other People’s Children.’ ‘Homeless’ captures the helplessness of
isolated communities that are ill-prepared to battle the insurgency
in northern Nigeria. ‘Habiba’s Triumph’ tells of the phenomenon
of forced marriages, even in literate families. Literacy, however, of-
fers a victim the freedom of choice, which people of previous gen-
erations did not enjoy. ‘Broken Lives’ exposes the pain of broken
relationships on college campuses. While a young man walks away
unscathed to enter another relationship, a young woman is left to
nurse the wounds for a lifetime. ‘The People’s Court’ is a reflection
of people’s rush to Nigeria’s capital city, Abuja, in search of green-
er pastures. Some leave home only to compete with rodents in set-
tlements that are constantly demolished without adequate notice
or compensation by the authorities so as to ensure conformity to

the city’s master plan.30
‘What informed my poetic background?’ Cecilia laughingly re-

plied in response to my last question.
‘What else would you like me to ask you?’
‘I come from a very poetic environment,’ she proceeded to
explain. ‘I was born very close to the hills, the plateau hills, the
range pass through Kagoro.’ She painted a vivid picture of the
‘very lovely’ boundary of hills, remembering how ‘you wake up in
the morning, the first thing you think about is to go to the stream’,
‘a very natural environment’ with ‘water as cold as [snaps the
glass on the table]’, with lots of forest and fruits and vegetables in
abundance. The environment grooms you naturally, she reflected.
‘Those are the things I look at and I feel really grateful that from
that background I can speak to the world and about the world,’
merrily adding, ‘I feel I am a little fortunate.’
As I listen to the recording of our interview, I hear a voice from
the past, speaking in the present and sounding into the future.
Cecilia’s warm and confident voice, her accented pronunciation,
her recurring laughter and characteristic giggle stream out of the
speakers on my laptop. It is emotionally taxing to write this part
of the book, yet it also feels particularly meaningful. By sharing
Cecilia’s story, I can contribute to her immortality, our relational-
ity carrying her voice forward, thus expanding her cultural influ-
ence to future generations.
Let me conclude with one of Cecilia’s poems in Desires, the
‘Burukutu Song’, to convey her creative spirit (Kato 1999, 34–6):
Burukutu Song
The other song in Sozato

Is the BKT song
BKT burukutu, barkatai, banza
BKT blocking our knowledge together
BKT young
BKT old
30
https://www.amazon.com/Other-Peoples-Children-Stories-Collection
/dp/1496997093, last accessed on 29 June 2020.
BKT burukutu morning and noon

BKT burukutu evening and night
BKT Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday
BKT Thursday and Friday and Saturday
BKT burukutu even on Sunday
BKT men
BKT women
Turning the giant into a dwarf

Making the villain into a coward
And snailing the swift
To swim in his vomit
BKT boys
BKT girls
Summoning the brain into a bowl
And leaving positions for other to mind
BKT burukutu barkatai banza

Draining the barns
Starving the soils
Weakening the heart
Of a man in a man
Breaking the homes
And stealing the peace
BKT literate
BKT illiterate
Taking the school
Off man that has schooled
Making Professors of men without letters
Displaying their folly
That others may see

Cowing the men
Boot-licking in yes-sir
Slaving the women in order to feed
Wooing the girls for babies at home
Testing hypothesis
Boy – fathering too soon

Helping to drive
Driving to death
Befriending an enemy in order to drink
Signing his document
With eyes on the blues
So much for friendship
So much for drink
BKT
Battering our knowledge together
BKT ruler
BKT ruled
Lets drink they say
To forget our problems
Drink and drink
The problems are waiting
Lets drink they say

To keep our tradition
Drink and drink
Tradition has gone
Gone to the cities
Gone with the west
Lets drink they say

It makes us feel good
Good you may feel
For only a moment
Sooner or later
The bad overtakes
Lets drink they say

Its never a sin
Drink and drink
With moral decaying
Of prayers unsaid
And children untrained
Lets drink they say

For what can we do
The rich get richer

The poor get poorer
Drink and drink
The sooner you die
Neither a poorer
Nor richer, nor living
Lets drink they say

We can’t buy the bottles
So much the better
The bottles are dearer
Drink and drink
The pockets are drier
The liver decaying
And chemist a wonder
But what can we do

We never can stop
Colour your lips
With salt and pepper
And sap from a cactus
Or better with acid
If never you may
Then sure may you stop
Basketing your knowledge
Together away
With BKT
Burukutu barkatai banza
6. Sacred Waters in Oguta
Urashi river, writers’ residence and chewy snails

The river flowed gently, curving its way through the lush
vegetation of palm trees and thick bush. I asked the young man
driving the small boat to cut the engine for a while so we could
appreciate the silence, as the boat floated gently on the river. The
only sounds surrounding us were the chirping of birds and buzz-
ing of insects, hidden in the forest. Tree branches dipped into the
river and clusters of pretty purple water lilies floated gently on
the surface. The water was brown, pleasantly warm to the touch.
I shifted to the front of the boat, curling up on the small sitting
area under the railing. My travel companions sat on the wooden
benches, some water splashing under their feet, the driver at the
back, expertly steering the boat.
Urashi river was a magical experience, and as we slowly made
our way down the river my spirit filled with joy, feeling more alive
than I had in quite a while. One of the most beautiful sceneries I
had experienced unfolded around me and I was taking it all in,
embracing life with all my being. The serenity of the river and the
lushness of the riverbanks stirred something deep inside of me,
a spiritual well-being. I said a quiet thank you to my loved ones
who had passed on; I could feel their presence and appreciation,
sharing my exultation.
‘That is a gunboat; it has remained here since the war.’ Uzoma
pointed to the flat top of a sunken boat, lined with water lil-
ies. ‘See: peace will always prevail over war,’ I responded, while
taking pictures of the rusty remains of the war machine, now
overtaken by the powers of nature. Little did I know at the time

University Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.16993/bbe.g. License: CC-BY 4.0.
what the gunboat signified, as told in the story of how Ogbuide

saved Oguta during the civil war by sinking the enemy’s gunboat in
the river.31
At the confluence of Oguta lake and Urashi river the brown
water mixed with clearer blue water. There is a shrine at that
place, I was told later on, but I did not see it as we passed, my eyes
focused on the vegetation and the occasional canoe passing by,
loaded with fire wood and paddled by men and women.
The lake was divine; no wonder people worshipped the Lake
Goddess. I was immersed in a natural setting that invoked a
supernatural presence; the beauty of the lake and its adjoining
rivers, the richness of the water flowing through, the luxuriance
of the vegetation along the lakeside. It was a magic place, a tactile
expression of spirituality.
We slowly made our way back to the lake, crossing to the oth-
er side of town, passing small villages along the lake shore. Low
houses along unpaved roads leading down to the lake, sadly with
heaps of garbage. Uzoma had made an effort to clean the garbage
in his village, he told me. It was all really nice for a year, but the
villagers did not maintain it. He was hoping for funding at some
point to continue the effort until the villagers could sustain it.
Our boat went down another river, passing some children play-
ing in the water, splashing and waving their arms when they saw
us. Women were washing clothes in the river, while keeping an eye
on their children. We passed a small plot of land that belonged to
Flora Nwapa’s heirs, nestled along the riverbanks, overlooking
the lake, a perfect place for a house.
We returned to the pier, now teeming with activity: a small
ferry loaded with passengers and vehicles heading to the other
side of the lake. We disembarked from our little boat and took off
our shoes so we could take the few steps in shallow water to reach
the shore. I looked back, taking in the lake, before we headed
back to the car.
31
The story of how Ogbuide sunk the gunboat is well known among
members of the Oguta community; it is also well documented in anthro-
pological accounts and featured in Flora Nwapa’s Never Again (e.g.
Jell-Bahlsen 1998; Nwapa [1975] 1986).
Sacred Waters in Oguta 193
‘Paula, you are glowing!’ Ejine remarked when we entered the

sitting room, ‘I have just fallen in love’ I replied, adding ‘must be
the Goddess in the lake.’ We had returned to Chief Christopher
Nwapa’s house, a magnificent two-storey building with a large ve-
randa upstairs. We had met Ejine at the house in the morning over
a sumptuous breakfast, the uncle gracefully serving us coffee in
dainty porcelain cups, while the sound of classical music s treamed
through the open windows. I had marvelled at the view, think-
ing how it must have inspired Flora Nwapa at the time, such a
tranquil setting near the lake. Beyond the large compound I could
observe some women moving around their houses, smoke from
their cooking gently drifting in the air, the kind of everyday scene
that Nwapa described in her writings. We had driven through the
Nwapa family plantation to get to the house, acres of palm oil
trees. The large family house, with its tall pillars at the entrance,
whispered the wealth of old money, a visual manifestation of the
sophistication of one of Oguta’s elite families.
Chief Christopher Nwapa was in high spirits, excitedly talking
about the book he was writing, on political leadership in Nigeria
(C. Nwapa 2017). He spoke of historical events and political fig-
ures with great familiarity, revealing insights gleaned from prox-
imity to power. When I mentioned the importance of writing
the history of nation-building, he remarked that it had already
been written and showed me Chinua Achebe’s book There Was a
Country. His own book had been delayed due to the passing of
his wife. His children had advised him to wait for a year before
publishing it, thus giving him time to mourn. Large portraits of
his late wife were on display throughout the house, and a large
commemorative poster was hanging at the entrance gate. It was
clear that the loss of his wife was still a heavy burden; he had men-
tioned her passing in his public statements in Enugu and Owerri,
and again in this small family gathering.
As we drove around town, Ejine showed us the writer’s resi-
dence she was building, in honour of her mother. It was a spacious
house, built on a small plot of land in town. Most of the walls
had been erected, along with a tiled roof and aluminium-framed
arched windows. The tiled entrance with two pillars led into
a well-designed interior, with spacious sitting and dining areas,
a library and work areas. There were seven bedrooms of vary-

ing size, all of them with bathrooms. As we walked through the
house, Ejine explained she was going to decorate the walls with
covers of her mother’s books and name the rooms after them. The
house would serve as a writer’s residence, especially for women
writers, thus keeping up the legacy of Flora Nwapa. Upstairs Ejine
was constructing a small apartment with a kitchenette and bath-
room that she and her siblings could use when visiting Oguta. The
house was not yet completed due to financial constraints. Even so,
I was impressed by the investment Ejine had made, all out of her
own pocket, without any financial sponsorship. What a selfless
tribute to her mother.
While Uzoma and his friend Udom drove me through the streets
of Oguta, they made sure to pass Amede Court, the matrimonial
home where Flora Nwapa was buried. The riverside house was
locked up and thus inaccessible. But I could see the grave in the
courtyard, and, as I paused for a moment of reflection at the fence,
my thoughts went to Flora Nwapa, a remarkable woman whom I
felt I was getting to know better.
Flora Nwapa was not the only internationally known talent
from Oguta and I was soon to discover an unexpected connec-
tion to Sweden, Dr Alaban. As we drove through a residential
area, Uzoma and Udom drove to a large house overlooking the
river. From the outside, I could see a spacious veranda facing
the river and a huge arched window in the upstairs wall. ‘This is
Dr. Alban’s house!’ Udom exclaimed excitedly. ‘He lives in your
country.’ I was astonished. I had no idea that Dr. Alban, known
for international hits like ‘Hello Afrika’, ‘It’s My Life’ and ‘Sing
Hallelujah’, came from Oguta! What a small world indeed. Later
on I found out that Dr. Alban’s full name is Alban Uzoma Nwapa,
a name that clearly roots him in Oguta.32
32
On 14 April 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic, Dr. Alban shared
‘Hello Sverige’ on YouTube. It became an instant hit, with over 340,000
views within four days of release. ‘Dr. Alban – Hello Sverige’ is a new
version of Dr. Alban’s song ‘10 små moppepojkar’ (1990). This song was
made with regard to the current coronavirus pandemic. https://www
.youtube.com/watch?v=vE-dIBOl3iQ, last accessed on 18 May 2020.
In the afternoon, Uzoma’s relative Florence brought us a local

delicacy: snails. She had explained the evening before how care-
fully she prepared snails, cleaning them thoroughly before cook-
ing them with hot pepper. She had brought us peppered fish soup
for supper after our arrival in Oguta, a delicious soup that we
had enjoyed under the canopy of a mango tree in the courtyard
of uncle’s guesthouse, where we were hosted. Curious about local
delicacies, I had agreed to try snails. I washed down the chewy
snails with gulps of cold Hero beer. I did not particularly enjoy
the taste or texture, but it made for a good Facebook posting.
Chief Christopher Nwapa joined us in the open bar of the guest-
house. I was delighted by his conversation; he spoke old-school
English, with humorous expressions thrown in. Before returning
to his house he remarked, ‘Good company is what you need in
life.’ Right he was.
In the evening we made a courtesy call to Ernest Nwapa,
Uzoma’s in-law. In the afternoon we had passed the building site
of his hotel, a large complex with modern facilities and fittings:
lots of glass, tiles and chrome. Located right by the lakeside, it had
a private sandy beach. The compound was quite large and Ernest
drove me around in a golf cart. Ernest’s private residence was no
less impressive, a four-storey house right by the lake, centrally lo-
cated near the pier. Ernest was clearly a powerful man, his acqui-
sition of a former colonial building attesting to his social position
in Oguta town. We walked up many staircases until we reached
the top floor where Ernest was relaxing in a spacious sitting room,
sitting in a bulky leather armchair, watching a large-screen TV. He
offered a wide selection of drinks; Florence and I opted for cham-
pagne. Although it was night-time, I could imagine the view from
the terrace overlooking the lake. We enjoyed Ernest’s hospitality
for a while, before heading back to the guesthouse for some sleep,
to get ready for our early-morning departure, driving all the way
back to Abuja.
Female divinity in The Lake Goddess

I received The Lake Goddess by express mail from Nigeria, just a
week after Uzoma sent it from Abuja end of November 2017. As
mentioned in Chapter 5, he had printed it for the annual confer-

ence of the Association of African Literature in June 2017. I asked
Uzoma to send me a copy so that I could read it before finaliz-
ing this book. The novel arrived a few days before my departure
from Sweden to Tanzania. It was a hardback version, illustrated
with the portrait of a woman wearing a head wrap, the cover de-
signed by Aquila Brisca, the portrait inspired by Mfoniso Etofia,
a Nigerian model. Uzoma had kindly signed the novel ‘with great
compliments’. As soon as I reached my house in Bagamoyo, I read
The Lake Goddess, carefully taking notes of key aspects. It was
only after completing the novel that I realized it was exactly a year
ago, 10 December, that I had visited Oguta. What a coincidence!
Or maybe not.
As I resumed the writing of this book, The Lake Goddess paved
the way. It had been three months since my last period of writing
and I had reached as far as Owerri. I now resumed my writing,
focusing on Oguta. Even though I only spent two nights in Oguta on
my first visit, the small lakeside town made a deep imprint on me.
Perhaps it was the size; I prefer quaint little towns over bustling
cities and Oguta reminded me of Bagamoyo, my hometown in
Tanzania. Perhaps it was the lake and rivers, I have always been
drawn to water and my house in Bagamoyo overlooks the Indian
Ocean. But I know within my inner self that something else was
going on: Oguta touched me spiritually, through sacred waters.
In The Lake Goddess, Flora Nwapa returned to the cultural core
of the Oguta community, centring on the female deity Ogbuide,
whose powers were professed through the main c haracter, Ona.
It is a captivating story. Flora Nwapa’s narrative voice carries the
power of her ancestors, her cultural heritage amplified by her po-
litical astuteness, feminine insight and sense of humour, while her
womanist gaze is sharper than ever. While her earlier writings on
Uhamiri were mostly based on ‘stories and hearsay rather than
on first-hand ritual or religious experiences’, by the time she wrote
The Lake Goddess Flora Nwapa had experienced her ‘first encoun-
ter with the Eze Mmiri, a renowned priestess of Uhammiri’, who had
felt ‘honored’ by the ‘personal visit from the world-famous writer’
(Jell-Bahlsen 1998, 634). At the time, the worship of Ogbuide and
Urashi was vibrant, with elaborate rituals for the water deities,
and water societies that attracted many followers with their gaiety
and prestige, led by respected priests and priestesses, as shown
in the documentary film Mammy Water (Jell-Bahlsen 1990).
Although many people in Oguta ‘ascribe[d] Nwapa’s profession-
al success to their Lake Goddess’, Flora Nwapa had ‘refused the
priestess’s 1990 request to perform a major sacrifice of a cow to
Ogbuide/Uhammiri, because of her Christian background, up-
bringing, and social standing’, as Nwapa told Jell-Bahlsen during
a visit to New York in 1991 (Jell-Bahlsen 1998, 653, fn 5). But,
through her literary worldmaking, Nwapa told a more deviant
story.
After the opening lines, ‘Mgbada was the first son of his fa-
ther who was a medicine man and a diviner. Tradition demanded
that he would inherit his father’s skills,’ the story of The Lake
Goddess unfolds slowly (Nwapa 2017, 14). As we get acquainted
with Mgbada, we learn that he was baptized Joseph and went to
church and school like others in his age grade, but he continued
to worship the ancestors. When he was 23 years old he married
Maria, who he called Akpe. His mother made arrangements with
the girl’s mother, her namesake Mama Theresa, a devout Catholic
just like her daughter. The couple was married through a tradi-
tional and a church wedding. Mgbada combined his teaching job
with his work as a medicine man and diviner, skills that were
appreciated in his community. Ten months after the wedding, the
couple was ‘blessed with a bouncing baby boy’ (Nwapa 2017,
46). Akpe had two more children. Then Ona arrived, a seemingly
normal girl, but diviners had told Mgbada that the girl would
be different: ‘Your child will be a strange child’ (Nwapa 2017,
64). The pregnancy lasted for 11 months and, when the baby was
born, ‘she seemed displeased with everything around her’, as if she
did not want to enter the world, and her eyes were ‘not the eyes of
a baby born moments ago’ (Nwapa 2017, 67). The father named
her Ona: precious jewel.
Ona grew up different from other children, always drawn
to the lake. Before she was two years old she could swim out
into the deep and her siblings called her a fish. When her mother
warned her about swimming too far, to be careful of the Woman
of the Lake, the spirit named Ogbuide or Uhamiri, Ona declared,
‘I want to live with her’ (Nwapa 2017, 72). As she grew up, Ona
behaved even more strangely, sometimes disappearing, and talk-
ing about meeting with Ogbuide, conveying her messages. The
mother sent Ona to a Catholic convent to force the ‘child of
the devil’ to repent, but ‘Ona hated the convent from the first day’
(Nwapa 2017, 82). She resisted everything she was taught and
did not eat much. After 18 months the father brought her home.
She was sent to school, but spent most of her time fishing, which she
excelled at.
To everyone’s surprise, Ona got married to Mr Sylvester, a well-
to-do trader from another town, thus a ‘foreigner’. Ona was a
young, beautiful woman who tried to please her husband, while
the family kept quiet about her strangeness. The marriage pro-
gressed well and Ona gave her husband ‘three children in nearly
five and a half years. That was a record,’ but she was baffled by all
the fuss people made about the children: ‘she did not care one way
or the other’ and wondered ‘[d]id she not possess the instincts of
a mother?’ (Nwapa 2017, 157).
Over time it became clear that Ona had been called by Ogbuide
and she moved back to her father’s compound, where she built
three huts for herself. Her daily routines were dictated by Ogbuide
and she worked very hard, devoting her life to serving the Lake
Goddess and, through her powers, the community at large.
From the outset, religious clashes between traditional beliefs
and modern Christianity are brought to the fore, but, as expressed
through Ona’s destiny and the insights of her father, the author
takes a stand in defence of local culture. Christian fanaticism is
portrayed in all its folly, through characters like the ‘mean, hard
and evil’ Madam Margaret at the convent, who prays six times a
day and washes a statue of the Virgin Mary at the church every
Saturday, praising Jesus Christ. ‘The ritual amused Ona greatly’
and she ‘wondered why Madam Margaret omitted the name of
Maria, the mother of Jesus’, pondering whether it was ‘a kind
of discrimination’ (Nwapa 2017, 89). By contrast, Ona’s father,
the diviner, maintains both Christian and traditional beliefs, ‘I
handle the two religions well. To me, none clashes with the other’
(Nwapa 2017, 138).
Ogbuide is valorized as the mother of the Oguta community, a
female deity whose spiritual presence is known to all, yet who can
only be seen by a select few. When the father consults the diviners
after Ona has sighted Ogbuide, he explains to the family, ‘There is
nothing we can do,’ adding ‘We cannot fight against Our Mother.’
They ask: ‘Our Mother? Uhamiri? Ogbuide?’ adding ‘Eze nwanyi?
Eze miri?’ ‘She answers to these names,’ Mgbaba responds. ‘She is
one and the same spirit’ (Nwapa 2017, 153).
Ogbuide is described as a kind spirit, whose priestesses are not
allowed to do any harm. When praising her, Ogbuide is called
mother of all mothers, queen mother, good mother, protector of
women and the Lake People. Although reluctant about losing his
wife to the goddess, even her husband recognizes that Ona’s call-
ing is a ‘gift’, not a sign of ‘madness’ (Nwapa 2017, 170), as the
father explains to him that Ona cannot refuse her call, since ‘re-
fusal means disability or death’, while acceptance means ‘security,
power, and peace’ (Nwapa 2017, 191).
The Lake Goddess is visualized in all her splendour through
the eyes of Ona, when she enters the underwater abode of the
Woman of the Lake, who first appears as a tall shadow (Nwapa
2017, 167):
As it approached, it took another form. It was no longer a shadow
but a woman. Yes, a woman. She was naked except for the hundreds
of strings of coral beads around her waist. She had two strings of
coral beads on both wrists, and hundreds around her neck. Down
to her navel, water was dripping from her wet hair, yet she was
not wet. She held a gold staff of office in her right hand. […]
Then she said, ‘It has taken you a very long time to come.’ She
smiled and touched my right shoulder with her staff. ‘Welcome to
my abode,’ she said. She continued, ‘I have waited for a long time
for you to be my priestess. I have chosen you. I want you but I
don’t want to force you nor hurry you. Don’t wait too long. Give
this message to the man who lives with you: Tell him you belong
to me.
As Ona follows her calling, her everyday life as a priestess, now

called Ezemiri, Queen of Water, is described in great detail. She
only wears red or white, and she has to observe a great many rit-
uals and taboos. She sacrifices to Ogbuide, prays, fasts and sings.
Her duty is to help people with their problems, through powers
vested in her by Ogbuide. The novel ends with Ona singing her
praises, invoking the lake Goddess (Nwapa 2017, 206):
Ogbuide, we thank you

Queen of Water, we thank you
Great Mother, we thank you
Good and kind Mother
Come closer
Mother and water are the same
Without water
Who can live?
Without Mother
Who can live?
Our beautiful Mother
Come closer
Creativity and intertextuality in Flora Nwapa’s oeuvre

In The Lake Goddess, Nwapa leaves her testament for posterity,
for here she bares her soul. Flora Nwapa still lives in her works,
and we hear her still. (Helen Chukwuma, preface to The Lake
Goddess).
Flora Nwapa’s ‘womanism’ recognizes firstly that a woman is a

mother that nurtures and provides for her children.
Secondly, a woman could be a wife that supports herself first,
then her husband and children if she has any.
Financial independence is the theme of Flora Nwapa’s
Womanism. She is financially independent whether or not she is
married, single or divorced. (Uzoma Nwakuche, Flora Nwapa’s
son, back cover of The Lake Goddess)
In retrospect, Flora Nwapa’s last novel completes a circle in her

literary work, her oeuvre starting with Efuru and ending with The
Lake Goddess. At the time, Flora Nwapa did not know it would be
her last book and she had indicated to Uzoma that ‘she would like
to write more plays’.33 Indeed, in 1993, the same year she died,
Flora Nwapa published two plays through Tana Press, The First
Lady and Conversations. But The Lake Goddess became her last
novel, published posthumously, 25 years after completion.
Building on anthropological theory of art and creativity,
Nwapa’s oeuvre can be analysed in terms of a cumulative pro-
33
WhatsApp chat with Uzoma Nwakuche, 10 December 2017.
cess of creative agency. Gell has suggested that an artist’s oeuvre

can be viewed as a spatiotemporally distributed object, a lineage
of artworks that form a network of relationships (Gell 1998,
232–5). Early work is often an artistic projection of later work
(protention), which in turn is an artistic retrospection of earlier
work (retention). It is upon the completion of an artist’s oeuvre
that these relationships become clear, since the artwork can be
assessed in its entirety. Gell looked at creative agency in terms of
a cumulative process of modification, suggesting that an ‘artist’s
oeuvre is artistic consciousness (personhood in the cognitive, tem-
poral sense) writ large and rendered public and accessible’ (Gell
1998, 236). This cognitive model of artistic work can be comple-
mented with an approach to creative agency in terms of a social
process of cultural improvisation (Hallam and Ingold 2007). It
is a highly dynamic and interactive process, since ‘the mind’s cre-
ativity is inseparable from that of the total matrix of relations
in which it is embedded and into which it extends, and whose
unfolding is constitutive of the process of social life’ (Hallam and
Ingold 2007, 9).
This emphasis on the relationality of creative agency offers a
productive complement to what literary scholars refer to as inter-
textuality. Scholars have noted that the intertextuality of a world
literature novel like Achebe’s Things Fall Apart is very complex
– ‘the novel’s intertextuality is not restricted to any single tradi-
tion, language, or form’ – and they conclude that ‘not only the
general polysemy of the term “literature” becomes evident, but
also its diverse cultural, geographical and media-technological as-
pects’ (Helgesson and Rosendahl Thomsen 2020, 3). As discussed
throughout this monograph, the multiple meanings of literature
become quite evident in Flora Nwapa’s writings as well, especially
when read through the lens of creolized aesthetics, from a globa-
lectic perspective. When it comes to aesthetic worldmaking, both
writers conveyed the relational ontologies of Igbo culture, while
addressing the politics and cultural entanglements of coloniali-
ty. But Flora Nwapa’s storytelling also diverted somewhat from
Achebe’s, offering a female perspective to complement his male
perspective, while the intertextuality in her works also point to
her womanist worldmaking.
The appearance of Efuru in The Lake Goddess offers an in-

teresting example of creative intertextuality in Nwapa’s oeuvre,
a literary character now recast as a historical figure, whose life
story is intertwined with Ogbuide. It is when two women fish-
sellers, Mgbeke and Ekecha, discuss how the young woman Ona
has been called by Ogbuide to become a priestess that Efuru is
brought in (2017, 123–4):
‘I would like to be called late in life, like Efuru was called,’ said
Mgbeke.
‘Efuru, the good one, the daughter of Nwashike Ogene?’
‘Who else? She was called late in life,’ continued Mgbeke,
‘after suffering indignities from her husbands. What else was left
for her to do than be the priestess of Ogbuide? That’s the time to
be called.’
In establishing Efuru as a virtuous woman, ‘the good one’, she
is also praised for how well she performed as a priestess, serving
Ogbuide and the community:
She gave dignity to the whole cult. She was the leader and every
member of the cult from far and near respected her. She was al-
ways calm; always spoke in a slow and measured tone. She never
raised her voice. She did not claim to do what she had no power to
do. (Nwapa 2017, 124)
In hindsight, we can appreciate the centrality of femininity and
spirituality in Nwapa’s oeuvre, as exemplified by the intertextu-
ality of Efuru and Ogbuide. The retention of Efuru in The Lake
Goddess and the protention of The Lake Goddess in Efuru point
to significant overlaps in Nwapa’s literary production, her earli-
er work almost coming across as a prediction of her later work,
thus validating Gell’s theory on an artist’s oeuvre as a distributed
object (Gell 1998). But there is much more than an artist’s ex-
tended mind at work. By portraying Efuru as a woman who lived
in Oguta, Nwapa historicized her fictional character, embodying
her in a web of social relations that extended across time. Yet
this was not a static recollection of the past but a social commen-
tary on the present, with a view to shaping the future. Through
her creative agency, Flora Nwapa was not just describing Oguta
culture in literary form; her fame also afforded her a position
of cultural influence.
The recurrence of the Lake Goddess throughout Flora

Nwapa’s oeuvre has received considerable scholarly attention
(e.g. Amadiume 1998; Jell-Bahlsen 2007, 2014; Nwankwo 1998;
Ogunyemi 1996, 1995; Umeh 1998a). As discussed in this mono-
graph, in Efuru (1966), the main character becomes a worshipper
of the Woman of the Lake; in Never Again (1975) Uhamiri saves
the Oguta community from military destruction; in Mammywater
(1979) children are introduced to her spiritual world; and in The
Lake Goddess (2017), Ogbuide even inspires the title of the novel.
As noted by Jell-Bahlsen, ‘Nwapa has throughout her oeuvre in-
voked the goddess, Ogbuide’, using the ‘powers and mysteries’ of
the Lake Goddess, ‘to brighten women’s path’ (Jell-Bahlsen 2007,
260). Similarly, Ezeigbo has concluded that it is ‘the goddess who
provides Nwapa’s fiction with structural and thematic unity and
relevance’ (1998b, 69). Describing Flora Nwapa as ‘Uhamiri’s
daughter’, Ogunyemi has emphasized how she ended her writing
career ‘dutifully returning to her religious beginnings with The
Lake Goddess’, which makes for an ‘almost sacred text, a voice
from beyond the grave’ (Ogunyemi 1995, 9).
To capture the dynamics of creative agency, it is worth dwelling
on some of the disjunctures in Nwapa’s literary rendering of
Oguta culture. Scholars familiar with Igbo and Oguta culture
have emphasized that Nwapa’s works portray local practices
and beliefs with considerable accuracy: ‘I find The Lake Goddess
almost anthropological in its narrative on traditional culture and
religion’ (Amadiume 1998, 519). Meanwhile, Nwankwo has as-
serted that ‘The Lake Goddess is a work which looks back and
edits, like a rewritten autobiography the crucial mis-steps in her
creation of the many worlds which remake the Igbo material of
her works’ (Nwankwo 1998, 339). But what comes across as mis-
steps from the perspective of a cultural authority like Nwankwo
are recognized as artistic liberty by another cultural expert. As
Jell-Bahlsen reflected in her paper ‘Efuru@50: the Dialectics of
Flora Nwapa’,
We must acknowledge the veracity of the insider novelist’s insight.

Yet, at the same time, a novelist voices her understanding different-
ly from a historian, economist, political scientist, social scientist,
folklorist, or ethnographer. A novel is a work of art, and the artist
may take more artistic liberties than permissible for a social scien-
tist or an ethnographer. (Jell-Bahlsen 2016, 7)
She also reiterated that ‘ethnic fiction may contain a meta-text

critical of the author’s own culture, as illustrated by Flora Nwapa’
(Jell-Bahlsen 2016, 7).
It is highly significant that Nwapa used her cultural influence
to valorize indigenous African spirituality, which indicates the
spiritualized politics of her womanist worldmaking. Through her
feminine storytelling, Flora Nwapa engaged in gender politics as
well as the politics of religion, especially the conflicts between
Christianity and traditional religious beliefs and practices. By
valorizing Ogbuide, while encouraging religious tolerance, Flora
Nwapa took a stand for female divinity and indigenous cosmol-
ogy that challenged the status quo. Reflecting on the resurrection
of Ogbuide in Nwapa’s The Lake Goddess, Jell-Bahlsen has con-
cluded (2008, 393):
In the changing world of contemporary Oguta, the goddess – and

by extension (African) woman—is constantly pushed back and en-
croached upon by alien ideas, problems, and forces. Nevertheless,
The Lake Goddess resurfaces at the end as a source of healing of
madness, ultimately pointing to the universal values of spirituality
and African culture.
This is why we should appreciate Flora Nwapa’s oeuvre in rela-

tion to ‘the dominant strain, the writer’s concern for the larger
community whose interest is superimposed upon her female poli-
tics’ (Ogunyemi 1996, 134). When viewed from a womanist per-
spective, ‘The “dominant” perspective in Nwapa’s novels is com-
munal/national rehabilitation; this encompasses the liberation of
all the people from attitudes and practices that retard progress
and the use of released energies for social and spiritual develop-
ment’ (Ogunyemi 1996, 134).
Through the lens of creolized aesthetics, we can appreciate that
not only was Nwapa’s story telling a community-oriented tran-
sition discourse but it also followed a social ethics and cosmo-
politan orientation directed at the world at large, her womanist
worldmaking offering inspiring glimpses into other worlds and
other realities for humanity in general.
When it comes to world literature, Nwapa’s literary works

should be recognized as nothing less than revolutionary. When
Flora Nwapa’s oeuvre is analysed from a womanist angle, starting
with her first novel ‘Efuru, more revolutionary than critics care
to think’, to her invocations of Ogbuide/Uhamiri, ‘celebrated as a
revolutionary archetype doubling as Nwapa’s muse’, the radical
dimensions of her worldmaking can be ascertained (Ogunyemi
1996, 135, 140). With some ontological openness, we can also
begin to appreciate the world-shattering dimensions of Flora
Nwapa’s womanist worldmaking. Indigenous researchers have
pointed out that ‘spiritual relationships to the universe’ are not
only ‘difficult arguments for Western systems of knowledge to
deal with or accept’ but they also remain ‘critical sites of resist-
ance’ (Tuhiwai Smith 2012, 143). Creatively tackling the cultural
shackles of patriarchal modernity and religious colonialism, while
showing us another reality of human, natural and spiritual in-
terdependence, it seems that half a century later Flora Nwapa’s
spiritualized storytelling still offers valuable contributions to-
wards a decolonized world literature and the possibility of mak-
ing a more balanced world.
Femininity and spirituality in one world literature

By invoking Flora Nwapa, we can now release some of the elusive
force in world literature. In his efforts to define the reality of the
world, Cheah suggests that ‘a non-negative force that is intimately
linked to literature constitutes the material world’ (Cheah 2008,
34). He elaborates that:
any given or present world, any world that we have received and
that has been historically changed and that we self-consciously
seek to transform through human activity, is driven by a force that
we cannot anticipate but that enables the constitution of reality
and any progressive transformation of the present world by hu-
man action. (Cheah 2008, 35)
He draws on Derrida, who describes this force as ‘analogous to

birth’, explaining that, as much as ‘[f]amilies prepare for a birth’,
there is great uncertainty, since ‘the child that arrives remains un-
predictable; it speaks of itself as from the origin of another world,
or from an-other origin of this world’ (Derrida 2002, cited in

Cheah 2008, 35). Cheah points to how ‘[l]iterature communicates
directly with this force because of its peculiar ontological status’,
and he describes literature in terms of ‘the force of a passage, an
experience, though which we are given and receive any determi-
nable reality’. Thus, much more than just ‘a product of human
imagination or something that is derived from, represents, or du-
plicates material reality’, he assesses the worldmaking power of
world literature as ‘a process that keeps live the force that opens
up another world, a force that is immanent to the existing world’
(Cheah 2008, 35–6). Farfetched as they may seem in their abstrac-
tions, I believe Cheah and Derrida are onto something, but their
seemingly gender-blind theorizing can be enriched through some
womanist insights.
Could it be that the immanent force that literature communi-
cates with is the life-giving force of human worlds, which by all
accounts is a maternal force? It is rather astonishing that scholars
can discuss birth without mentioning mothers, but perhaps such
oversights derive from the kind of discrimination that Ona no-
ticed in Christian worshippers’ omission of Jesus’ mother in The
Lake Goddess (Nwapa 2017, 89). As you may recall, at the out-
set of Efuru@50, Flora Nwapa’s son stressed that ‘when you talk
about born, to be born, to bear; these are all words that are relat-
ed to women. So you cannot talk about life without talking about
woman.’ Throughout her literary career, Flora Nwapa highlighted
the centrality of motherhood and mothering, biologically, socially
and spiritually. As a pioneering female writer, she had to correct
fellow male writers, scholars and critics, who mistakenly under-
valued women in their universalist claims. Over half a century
later, it would seem high time to recognize that, without due con-
sideration of women writers, scholarship will remain trapped in a
rather one-sided mindset.
But there is something beyond the life-giving force of
the mother; it is the divine force that channels the spirit of life
through human bodies. While anthropologists and other social
scientists have enthusiastically asserted that humans are social to
the core, very few would dare to suggest that humans are spiritual
to the core. But denying the spiritual essence of human life is like
denying the reality of the majority of the world population who
‘live the belief that their lives are intimately and tangibly paired to
the world of the invisible’ (Alexander 2005, 327). These

spiritualized worldviews are no less authentic than scientific
explanations of reality; they just have different ontologies, and
therefore different epistemological paths to the truth. By insist-
ing on the spiritual core of humans as an ontological reality, I
espouse the postulation that: ‘The central understanding with-
in an epistemology of the Sacred is that of a core/Spirit that is
immortal, at once linked to the pulse and energy of creation’
(Alexander 2005, 326). Moreover, this epistemological perspec-
tive means that ‘constructs that constitute the praxis of the Sacred
would thus have to be taken as real and the belief structure of its
practitioners as having effects that are real’ (Alexander 2005, 327,
emphasis added). In our search for the force that literature com-
municates with, we should therefore pay far more attention to the
reality of spirituality: ‘Taking the Sacred seriously would mean
coming to wrestle with the dialectic of permanent impermanence’
(Alexander 2005, 327, emphasis added).
To capture these critical aspects of literary worldmaking, let me
return to the notion of one world literature as an emergent pluriv-
erse. As discussed in Chapter 1, in his philosophical deliberations
on one world anthropology, Ingold describes the ontogenesis of
the world as a conversation, emphasizing the world’s incessant
creation in terms of a continually emerging pluriverse (Ingold
2018, 169). He introduces the principle of interstitial differentia-
tion to denote cultural difference as something that emerges from
within, emphasizing becoming different (differentiation) rather
than being different (diversity). Moreover, using the distinction
between ‘and’ and ‘with’, he argues that the parts of the whole are
‘not components that are added to one another but movements
that carry on alongside one another’ (Ingold 2018, 159–60). The
principle of interstitial differentiation ties in well with African
cultural ideals of gender complementarity, recognizing the shared
humanity of men and women, while accommodating the fluidity
of gender as a principle of social organization (see also Amadiume
[1987] 2015; Nzegwu 2005). It also ties in with Igbo cosmology,
which recognizes a supreme god or great spirit of creation and
destiny, Chi-Ukwu/Chukwu, as well as personal chi, an individual
life force or spirit derived from Chi-ukwu (Jell-Bahlsen 2014, 22).
In addition to the gender-neutral great spirit, there is a pantheon
of female and male deities, nature divinities and ancestors, which

are ‘manifestations of the divine forces of nature, human achieve-
ments, and challenges’ (Jell-Bahlsen 2014, 23). Among the forces
of nature, two female deities can be singled out as ‘existential and
spiritual leaders’: the supreme earth goddess (Ani/Ala) and the
supreme water goddess (Nne Mmiri) (Jell-Bahlsen 2014, 23). We
are thus dealing with a cosmovision that comes rather close to
Ingold’s philosophizing on one world as an emergent pluriverse.
More concretely, the image that comes to my mind is the con-
fluence of the Oguta lake and Urashi river, flowing alongside one
another, constituting not only water but also female and male
divinity, the former a maternal life-giving force, the latter her
spiritual husband. The lake and the river are in constant move-
ment, just like the world is in ontological flux, always becoming,
always in the making. Although they comprise different bodies
of water, the lake and the river emerge from within nature, just
like individual biological variation is immanent to humans. And
regardless of how we conceive human worlds, humans com-
municate with the forces of nature, similarly to how literature
communicates with the forces of life.
Figure 8. The confluence of Oguta lake and Urashi river. Photograph

by author.
I am elaborating on Igbo cosmology to reiterate the relational

ontology of Flora Nwapa’s literary worldmaking, aesthetic worlds
in conversation with social, natural and spiritual worlds. Her
storytelling drew on a long tradition of orature, with its ‘central
core of fusion and connections that make up the wholeness’,
an aesthetic reflection of ‘a Weltanschauung that assumes the
normality of the connection between nature, nurture, supernatu-
ral, and supernurtural’ (Thiong’o 2014, 75, emphasis in original).
Yet the wholeness is greater than the parts, because ‘Orature
is more than the fusion of all art forms. […] It is the flow of a
creative spirit’ (Ntuli, cited in Thiong’o 2014, 75). To capture this
flow of creative spirit, we can appreciate why it takes a globalec-
tic vision to ‘release the worldliness in the text’, so as to see ‘the
mutual containment of hereness and thereness in time and space’,
similarly to the ‘Blakean vision of a world in a grain of sand and
eternity in an hour’ (Thiong’o 2014, 60).
Let us now turn to the Goddess of the Crossroads, to ap-
preciate the flow of creative spirit in Flora Nwapa’s aesthetic
worldmaking. ‘The water monarch controls the crossroads and
eternal transitions between life and death,’ Jell-Bahlsen explains,
and refers to Flora Nwapa’s novels as illustrations of the powers
of the lake Goddess (Jell-Bahlsen 2008, 80). In her elaborations
on the crossroads in Igbo cosmology, she describes how indi-
viduals cross a river twice, ‘before entering and before exciting
this world’, highlighting how ‘the notion of watery transitions
at birth and death corresponds to natural science’, as exem-
plified by how the embryo swims in water inside the mother’s
womb (Jell-Bahlsen 2014, 27–8). In Oguta, the Goddess of the
Crossroads and other water deities are associated with nature,
reflecting ‘the environmental challenges and existential impor-
tance of the waters of Ogbuide Lake and her tributaries’ (Jell-
Bahlsen 2014, 29). As Flora Nwapa wrote, mother is life and
water is life. Illustrating the interstitial differentiation and on-
tological flux of a world in the making, in the Igbo universe a
‘human being receives his/her life force, Chi, from the supreme
God Chukwu, the God of Destiny, before birth’, along with his/
her destiny, but ‘an individual’s destiny is challenged and can be
changed, by the supreme water goddess’ (Jell-Bahlsen 2014, 27,
emphasis in original).
You know, Ogbuide doesn’t choose the person who will serve her.
It is destiny. […]
When I got married and was dancing oriri [traditional ritual
dance], a man from Ogbaru came to our place and said, ‘Call
your father.’ My father came out and he said to my father, ‘This
daughter of yours that is dancing oriri is a big native doctor. She
is Mammy Water.’ My father doubted him. After dancing oriri, I
started having children. I kept on having children, until 1978 and
it happened, I fell ill. I was in the hospital for three months. I was
told it was compulsory that I must serve the lake. That was how
we journeyed fully into this. So we started doing the rituals and
all the rituals. When we finished the rituals, I started serving the
lake, but was going to the market. In the early eighties, Ogbuide
stopped me from going to the market altogether. It was automatic.
There was no contemplation. The day it came to me that I must
stop going to the market; I stopped abruptly. We started doing
the work on the worship of the lake. Ask Oguta people, they will
tell you. No one is as powerful as I am in Oguta. […] There is no
day I don’t go to Ogbuide. Even on Orie day, I go. The rule is that
any day I go there, she accepts me; so I go every day, no matter
what. Even when the lake doesn’t accept anyone, I fetch water for
people who can’t go to the lake. (Akuzor Anozia in Nwelue 2016,
1:02–1:06)
Could it be that Ogbuide changed Flora Nwapa’s destiny? Could

it be that, just like Akuzor Anozia was called to serve Ogbuide as
Ezeugegbe One (Queen Mirror One), Flora Nwapa was called to
serve the divine mother of her Lake People? Not as a native doc-
tor, as N’Dr Stella Akuzor Anozia presents herself on her business
card, with the promising slogan ‘For all your progressive prob-
lems’, but as a writer at the crossroads, who served the Goddess
of the Crossroads through the power of storytelling and literary
worldmaking. Could it be that, through divine intervention in
Flora Nwapa’s life force, the supreme Water Goddess wanted to
send a message to humans around the world that another world
is indeed possible?
To release the creative force of aesthetic worldmaking in world
literature, let me conclude with the poetic words of the mother of
modern African literature, Flora Nwapa, describing the coming to
the world of Ona, Ogbuide’s chosen priestess (Nwapa 2017, 64–5):
The journey from the spirit world to our world is long and trying.
Sometimes the unborn children get tired on the way and prefer not
to go further. Your child should have been the first one. She was
not sure whether she wanted to be born to you or not. She kept
waiting, going forward and backward. This time she can no longer
go back. She has a purpose in this world. She cannot postpone her
coming any longer. Make it easy for her.

Flora Nwapa,
Mother of modern African literature,
Mother of African women’s writing and publishing,
Foremother, pathfinder, Chinedu.
Our Mother, we greet you!
Mother of canonical novels Efuru and The Lake Goddess.

And Idu, Never Again, One Is Enough, Women Are Different.
Mother of short stories This Is Lagos and Other Stories, Wives
at War and Other Stories.
Mother of children’s books Emeka-Driver’s Guard,
Mammywater,
My Tana Colouring Book, My Animal Colouring Book,
The Miracle Kittens, Journey to Space, The Adventures of Deke,
My Tana Alphabet Book, My Animal Number Book.
Mother of poetry and plays Cassava Song & Rice Song, The
First Lady: A Play, Conversations
Our Mother, we read you!
Mother of children Ejine Nzeribe, Uzoma Nwakuche,

Amede Nzeribe.
Fiancée of Gogo Nzeribe, first wife of Chief Gogo Nwakuche.
First daughter of Christopher I. Nwapa and Lady Martha
Onyema Nwapa, The Coral Queen.
Eldest sister of four sisters and one brother, Chief Christopher
Nwapa.
Granddaughter of Chief Onumonu Uzoaru and Madam Ruth.
Our Mother, we relate you!
Professor Florence Nwanzuruahu Nkeiru Nwapa

Nigeria’s First Lady of Letters
First female commissioner of East Central State

First Daughter of Igbo Land Who Travelled on a Good Journey.
Our Mother, we respect you!
Ogbuefi Flora Nwapa

Oguta’s famous daughter.
Storyteller of the Lake People.
Messenger of Ogbuide, Uhamiri, Woman of the Lake, Lake
Goddess.
Our Mother, we invoke you!
Your spirit lives on

and we feel you.
Your legacy lives on
and we read you.
Stories are life.

Without stories,
who can live?
Flora Nwapa,
Thank you for your stories.
Mbona!
Epilogue: Revisiting Oguta and
Thanking Ogbuide
Serenity. I slowly make my way to the lakeshore, the lushness of

the palms and trees lining the lake softened by the misty morning
air. Silence; the only sound breaking through the still air is the joy-
ful singing of birds greeting a new day. The water is clear, a brown-
ish greenish shade, reflecting the clouds above. Gentle r ipples in
the water from a fisherman passing in a canoe. Warm humid air
embraces my skin, my sandals sink into the wet sand. I dip my
hand into the water, pleasantly warm to the touch. Ogbuide, I
have come back.
It was dark and raining when Uzoma and I arrived in Oguta
the evening before, this time by car from Owerri airport. The
Crystal Lake Hotel was a mirage of light amidst the dark forest,
its modern polish surreal, air-conditioned comforts powered by a
generator.
‘Welcome, you are warmly welcome,’ Chief Christopher Nwapa
had come to the hotel to receive us and rose to his feet with the
help of his walking cane to warmly embrace us. The manager
treated us to dinner, fish stew with rice. The fresh lake fish was
soft, easily picked off the bones, covered in tasty red peppered
sauce. After the meal we sat in the pool side bar. Music vide-
os were projected on a large screen, images of Fela Kuti filling
the display, afrobeat streaming from loudspeakers. Suddenly the
screen projected I LOVE OGUTA.
I was back in Oguta to write this epilogue and during my in-
tense week of cultural immersion I learned that Flora Nwapa’s
fame extended well beyond her accomplishments as a writer and

University Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.16993/bbe.h. License: CC-BY 4.0.
publisher. In Oguta, Flora Nwapa was revered as a hero, a pow-

erful woman who brought development to her hometown and
her people.
It was the final outing ceremony of Ogbuagu Onyeka Ahanwa, a

newly titled member of Igbu society, on my first day in Oguta, 28
July 2018. I arrived by taxi with Florence Omy Okonya, Uzoma’s
relative. She was lavishly dressed up for the occasion in a white
gown embroidered with shiny studs, a bright orange head wrap
framing her powdered face, silver earrings matching her necklace.
I had done my best with a long flowery dress and a purple head
wrap, tied as a turban, but still fell short of the elegance of Oguta
women. Hundreds of people attended the ceremony, and I felt
privileged to be part of it, the only white person in the gathering.
My video camera gave me a purpose to be present, and people
encouraged me to take footage of the event.
I recalled that Flora Nwapa had the honorary title Ogbuefi,
killer of cow, a prestigious female title. There are currently 68
titled men in Oguta, an aristocracy of wealthy and influential
men. In the past, character and deeds were important in assessing
deserving candidates, but these days it is mostly about money,
Uzoma explained, although he noted that some applicants had
been refused. Titled at an early age with the help of his parents,
Uzoma was the sixth most senior present, even though other
members were more senior in age. Uzoma flew in from Abuja for
the lavish initiation ceremony, which coincided with my visit.
By the time we arrived at noon, many had attended the cere-
mony since the morning, while more people joined throughout
the afternoon. Attendants were seated under large white tents,
grouped according to village or age grade. I sat with Florence
in the tent of her age grade, which was the age grade of the initi-
ate. The group gathered some 40 people, seated on plastic chairs
covered with thin fabric. Crates of beer were stacked near a table
with bottles of wine and spirits, generously served to everyone.
At this ceremonial gathering, Oguta people showed up in their
most beautiful attire. I was impressed by the beautiful garments of
women of all ages: colourful gowns, with intricate embroideries,

often with silvery thread or glittering studs, matching wrappers
tied around their waists. Their head wraps were equally elaborate,
shiny colourful materials with a stiffness that allowed for creative
designs, folded in layers and tied into large bows. Their faces were
powdered and carefully made up, some with fake lashes accentu-
ating their eyes. The men wore long shirts, some with decorative
buttons, and many wore hats. The titled men were donned in long
shirts, hats with two feathers and large ceremonial swords mark-
ing their status.
The atmosphere was festive, with plenty of drinks and food be-
ing served, music streaming through the loudspeakers. Men and
women were drinking beer, generously served throughout the day,
along with wine and liquors. Plates of jollof rice and chunks of
meat were handed out to everyone, followed by snacks of ground
nuts. Nigerian and Western hits were played and sometimes p eople
started dancing. To the great delight of people around me, I swayed
rhythmically to some of the tunes, while seated on my chair.
From time to time the age grade group broke out in song
and dance, the melody rhythmically beaten on traditional instru-
ments, the wooden uko and drums. Everyone sang along, some
got up and danced, enthusiastically swaying their hips to the
rhythmic beat.
I had no idea what was going on at the high table but could
hear the greeting okoma (mighty sword) from time to time, along
with the clang of swords. The titled men were all seated under
a tent at the end of the walkway, their tables aligned in a horse-
shoe shape.
It started raining and the ground got wet and muddy. Florence
and I went to a nearby bar until the rain subsided. ‘The initiate
had asked to “hold the rain”; at least they managed for a while,’
Uzoma later told me. We returned just in time for a ceremony
upstairs, where the initiate was kept in a room with a few titled el-
ders. Some rituals were performed and concluded with loud c heers
by an entourage of women. He was then accompanied back to the
high table downstairs, reunited with the other men.
The titled men came out of their tent in a ceremonious fash-
ion, the initiate greeting everyone with his sword. Offerings were
brought forward, a cow and a few goats. A leopard skin was

hoisted on a pole above the crowd, many taking photos and vide-
os with their smartphones.
The ceremony proceeded with a walk to the market. Florence
and I drove there in our taxi. The marketplace was full of peo-
ple: it was the nkwo market day. Wooden stands with goods on
display and people pushing carts through the crowds, shouting
‘Uzo!’ (make way).
The attendants for the ceremony filled the open space below
a slippery slope, standing around a small, elevated concrete plat-
form where a clay pot was placed, a garland of leaves on the
ground beneath it. It was a sacred site, used to cast off evil. After
a while the titled men appeared, led by Uzoma. They walked cer-
emoniously around the platform, holding the garland. When they
stopped, people waited in eager anticipation. Uzoma, as the most
senior member in the procession, lifted his sword and smashed the
clay pot. A woman rushed forward with an enamel bowl, collect-
ing the reddish liquid that poured out, red oil with salt.
The procession continued to the initiate’s house, a large modern
building with a small courtyard where tents had been set up. The
attendants continued the celebration with more food and drinks. I
opted out and returned to the hotel for a night of rest, fatigued by
a day of ceremonial festivity and participant observation.
‘Ezenwanyi!’ Uzoma called out as we saw a woman resting by

the entrance to her house, having reached the courtyard through
a narrow alley. The woman got up and retied her wrapper as
she beckoned us to come closer, gesturing us to sit at a wood-
en bench at the entrance. Her round face broke out in a gentle
smile as Uzoma introduced us. She was expecting us. Her daugh-
ter Joy appeared, happily greeting us, mentioning she had seen
me the day before taking pictures at the Ogbuagu ceremony in
the market. Ezenwanyi prepared an enamel plate with kola nuts,
garden eggs and alligator pepper corns, placing them in front
of Uzoma, adding a 50-naira note when she learned he was titled.
Uzoma broke the kola nuts and passed the plate around. I took a
piece of kola and chewed it in small bites, by now quite used to

the nutty texture and bitter taste.
Ezenwanyi Madame Akuzor Anozia came across as a friend-
ly old woman, her face resembling my mother’s with her warm
smile. It was my second day in town and I wanted to greet
Madame Akuzor before interviewing her. I had been told she was
a high priestess of Ogbuide, commonly addressed as Ezenwanyi.
Her business card identified her as N’Dr. Stella Akuzor Anozia
(EZEUGEGBE 1). Ezenwanyi and Uzoma spoke in Oguta dialect,
establishing relations they had in common. From time to time,
the Priestess spoke some words in English. She had not met Flora
Nwapa, but she knew of her. She had met Sabine, the anthropolo-
gist, on several occasions, as she visited Oguta every few years. She
had also met a journalist from Lagos, so she was quite used to be-
ing interviewed, she explained to Uzoma. It was Onyeka Nwelue
who first put me in touch with the Priestess, months before my
arrival in Oguta. I had sent an invitation letter for the Priestess
and her daughter Mercy for the screening of Onyeka’s film Island
of Happiness at Stockholm University in September 2018, a film
shot in Oguta, featuring the Priestess. Meeting Ezenwanyi in per-
son was a privilege. I passed on a small gift I had brought for her,
a kanga from Tanzania. She was delighted.
The Priestess got up and asked me to follow her into her shrine.
I entered a large room filled with pots and stacks of herbs and
other materials, red and white fabrics hanging on a string against
the back wall, covering an entrance to a back room. ‘That is
Mammywater’ – the Priestess pointed to a framed painted image
of a woman on the wall – ‘and that is Urashi.’ She pointed at an
image of a man. ‘We find such spirits in all waters, rivers, lakes,
oceans,’ she explained, ‘all around the world.’ She directed my
gaze to a photograph of a beautiful young woman. ‘That is me.’ I
noted a framed certificate on the wall, from the national associa-
tion of traditional healers. After a while I mustered the courage to
greet her ‘Ezeugegbe One’ (Queen Mirror One), as her daughter
Idenu Anozia had taught me in Abuja, and she laughed happily.
‘We will have to drop a goat for you bringing your shoes inside’
Joy told me from the doorway. Realizing my faux pas, I apolo-
gized profusely. ‘I was just joking,’ she laughed. ‘When you come
back we will explain things and we can also visit the shrine on
the lake.’
When we returned to the others, the Priestess called for some
kai kai. A boy filled up a glass bottle, and she placed shot glasses
from the shrine near Uzoma to pour. He took one shot and refilled
the glass. I took a careful sip; the palm wine liquor was sweet
to the taste.
The Priestess and her daughter escorted us to our car parked on
the street outside. We agreed that I would come back during the
coming week for interviews. Having met the Priestess and seen her
shrine, and being welcomed with kola and kai kai, I knew I was
entering cultural depth, well beyond my comfort zone.
The next day was sunny, the first rain-free day since I arrived, and
the lake looked splendid so Uzoma and I decided to take a boat
trip. As we waited for the drivers to settle their loud quarrel on
who was going to take us on a boat, I watched another boat be-
ing loaded with a motorbike, a goat and several passengers with
bags full of goods. Having already agreed with one of the drivers,
someone Uzoma had used before, we helped settle the competitive
dispute by slowly walking away. It did not take many steps before
we were called back. We stepped into the boat, its front pulled on
to the concrete landing, and the driver jumped on board, expertly
balancing on the rail to the back of the boat. He filled the engine
with some fuel he had bought in a large plastic container, pushed
the boat into water with a long oar, and directed it onto the lake.
We travelled fast, the trees along the lakeshore sweeping by.
As we approached the confluence of Oguta lake and Urashi
river, the blue water of the lake met the brown water of the river.
The spectacular confluence is a well-known watermark in Oguta,
a place where the waters meet but never mix, flowing alongside
one another.
We continued down the Urashi river, as spectacular as I remem-
bered it from my first visit. The lushness of the riverside was as-
tounding, a beautiful statement of the power of nature. The earth
was a deep reddish brown, the water a murky shade of the same
colour. The pristine river bore no signs of human activity, save for
the occasional fishermen in dug-out canoes, slowly and quietly

paddling along.
On our way back, I moved to the front of the boat, filming as
much as I could with my video camera. I recalled how excited Yaki
Bozi had been when we edited footage from the Urashi river for the
Efuru@50 documentary. ‘I hope to go there one day,’ he had said.
‘I could make a great film.’ In his absence, I did my best to cap-
ture the river and the lake, knowing I would watch the clips many
times, to remind myself of this magic place that touched my soul.
As we approached the town we turned onto the smaller Obana
river on our left, passing large mansions along the shore. Wealthy
people had constructed houses testifying to their affluence, several
stories high with large verandas facing the lake, imposing pillars
and arched windows. As we rode along, more huge houses ap-
peared, including Dr. Alban’s white mansion, visible from afar. We
could not pass them since a recently built bridge had collapsed,
blocking the waterway. The mansions were such a contrast to the
many derelict buildings in town, ambitious construction projects
that had not been completed, older buildings that had not been
maintained or the many simple houses of ordinary people. The
gap between elite and ordinary people was pronounced. No won-
der that some young men in town turned to crime.
In contrast to its peaceful lake and lush surroundings, the po-
litical economy of Oguta was full of paradoxes, an oil-producing
town without electricity. The infrastructure had deteriorated over
years of neglect: unpaved roads that flooded during rains, run-
down schools and public facilities, and, while electric cables could
be seen throughout town, there had been no supply of electrici-
ty for decades. I was told to avoid certain parts of town, places
where young men had turned to crime and robbery, and, for my
own security, I was advised not to walk around unaccompanied.
‘Whatever remains of infrastructure is thanks to Flora Nwapa
during her time as commissioner,’ a young female writer in Oguta
told me. Years of irresponsible governance and corruption had
taken its toll, a topic insightfully addressed by Flora Nwapa’s
brother Christopher in his book Political Leadership in Nigeria
(C. Nwapa 2017).

The Priestess lived in the older part of town, a village not far
from the lake, her simple house indicating a lack of material
wealth, yet her spiritual power was unmistakable. We visited her in
the afternoon after the boat ride. The Priestess greeted me warmly
as her daughter. She offered us some kai kai and kola. I played
with Joy’s children for a while, entertaining them with video clips
from Tanzania on my phone. ‘How many children do you have?’ I
asked Joy, ‘Only five,’ she replied. ‘Only five!?’ I e xclaimed. ‘Many
women here have a dozen,’ she explained laughingly. I was re-
minded of the centrality of motherhood in Oguta culture.
I went to see the Priestess again the following day, this time
with some books: Flora Nwapa’s The Lake Goddess, Sabine
Jell-Bahlsen’s Mammy Water in Igbo Culture, and my own man-
uscript Invoking Flora Nwapa. I used the books to explain how
I came to Nigeria for Efuru@50, how Nwapa’s stories about
Ogbuide caught my attention, and how easily my work had
flowed, as if Flora Nwapa’s spirit had called me. The Priestess
listened attentively, Joy translating to make sure her mother un-
derstood. They both smiled. I explained that I did not really have
a list of questions for her but hoped she could tell me what she
thought I needed to know.
The Priestess offered me a beer, a Hero. ‘You know everything!’
I exclaimed at the sight of my favourite brand, ‘No, I am not God,’
she humbly replied. She then asked if I would like to taste some
smoked ram and her daughter brought a plate with a large chunk
of blackened meat that she cut up in small pieces, explaining how
she prepared it, slowly over a fire, with spices. The meat was chewy
and tasty. ‘Do you like chicken with pepper sauce?’ she asked, and
brought a plate of pieces of succulent chicken in a red sauce. I
asked if I could use my left hand for the beer, as my right hand was
wet with sauce. ‘Yes; since you are eating, my mother will allow it,’
she responded. At the Ogbuagu initiation I had been reprimanded
for drinking with my left hand, which only those with titles were
allowed to do. The Priestess then told me her story.
‘Before I was born, diviners told my father that I came from
the water and he should make sacrifices for me once I was born,
or I would leave,’ the Priestess narrated in heavily accented
English. ‘But my father forgot to make the sacrifices. When I was
one month old I became sick. He consulted the diviners and they
reminded him of the sacrifice required since I came from water.
As soon as it was performed I became well again.’ Her story re-
minded me of Ona in The Lake Goddess, who was destined to
be a priestess before she was born. ‘I married young at the age
of sixteen,’ she proceeded. ‘I had seven children. But, when I was
pregnant with my eighth child, I got sick with heavy bleedings,
and finally a doctor had to take it out by caesarean’ – she lifted
her shirt to show me the long scar across her belly – ‘but the baby
did not survive. After that I started collecting these things, slowly.’
She swept her hand across the many items in the shrine. ‘I used a
lot of money to get them. It was in 1983 that I began my service,’
she recollected. I looked at Joy and calculated: it was 35 years
ago. ‘More than fourteen water spirits are here: Ogbuide from
the lake, Urashi from the river, the lake co-wife Oshimiri from the
river Niger, the High Sea from Port Harcourt, the Bar Beach from
the ocean in Lagos.’ She listed a few more. ‘I can call upon them
and they will appear to me.’
‘If you have a clean heart, the lake will be good to you.’ She
held her hand over her chest. Joy clarified that people with bad
intentions, greedy and malicious people, were not welcomed by
the lake. But people with a clean heart were treated well. ‘I can
see when a person approaches my house what they are like and I
can even turn them away,’ the Priestess clarified. ‘So many people
come to me, asking for different things, children, wealth, what has
happened and what will happen to them: all such things I can see.’
She pointed to a plate filled with items she used for divination,
adding, ‘People also make sacrifices to thank the lake: fowl, rams
and even cows.’
‘Back in those days many people came to me, nowadays
they come at night’ the Priestess reflected. ‘They show off their
Christianity, saying they don’t believe in oracles, but when it
really matters, they know where to turn and they come to me,
in the dark of the night.’ I was reminded of how Flora Nwapa
exposed Christian fanatics in The Lake Goddess, using Ona’s
father, a community-serving dibia, to voice a more balanced
approach, accepting traditional as well as Christian beliefs. ‘They
are h
ypocritical with their Christianity,’ Joy inflicted, ‘but people
have seen now that the god of the white people has not brought
them what they expected.’ ‘People are now coming back to the old
ways,’ the Priestess reflected.
Sitting on a low wooden bench in her shrine, the Priestess
comfortably leaning against an armchair, I listened intently. Her
narrative summarized so many aspects of what I had learned
about Ogbuide and Oguta culture through Flora Nwapa’s novels,
from Efuru to The Lake Goddess, as well as Sabine Jell-Bahlsen’s
detailed ethnography. Just like Flora Nwapa, the Priestess used
many names for the deity: Ogbuide, Mammywater, water spirit,
the lake. And, to the Priestess, Ogbuide was but one of many wa-
ter spirits, one divinity in a complex spiritual universe of ancestral
spirits and other celestial beings interwoven with social life.
‘Flora Nwapa made Oguta more civilized,’ the Priestess r emarked,

smiling at the fond memories of Oguta’s famous daughter. ‘She
was a wealthy woman,’ the Priestess added, ‘a powerful woman.’
Even the markets were closed the day of her burial, the Priestess
recollected. Indeed, that is how Flora Nwapa is remembered in
Oguta, Uzoma assured me, as someone who brought develop-
ment. In her comments on my manuscript, Ejine highlighted how
‘Oguta people regarded Flora Nwapa as their daughter’, adding
that: ‘A “firing of cannons” preceded Flora Nwapa’s burial re-
served only for great men that pass on in Oguta, (the kind that
Nwashike Ogene in Efuru was given), in attestation to her prow-
ess as a daughter of Oguta. Let this not be lost.’
In Oguta, Flora Nwapa is remembered as a hero. Talking to
various people, I soon realized that Flora Nwapa’s fame extended
well beyond her accomplishments as a pioneering female writ-
er and publisher. To people in her hometown, she was reverently
remembered for her concrete contributions. During her time in
government, Flora Nwapa had laid important foundations for
the development of her hometown, especially infrastructure. She
was credited for the construction of the general hospital, for the
building of tarmac roads and even for connecting the town with
electricity. In the stories of the Lake People, Flora Nwapa was
attributed the characteristics of a mythical hero, a remarkable
woman who lived like a normal Oguta woman yet whose accom-
plishments were interwoven into the town’s historical narrative.
‘No one has come close to doing what she did for us,’ a man
reflected. ‘She was a hero!’ Joy exclaimed. The day Flora Nwapa
was buried, people wept in heartfelt sorrow. Thousands of people
filled the streets, following Oguta’s famous daughter to her last
earthly resting place.
Led by the Priestess dressed up in red and white for the sacred
occasion, our visit to the lake shrine became a joyful family out-
ing on a late afternoon. We were accompanied by her daughter
Joy, three grandchildren and a young nephew. Joy had bought
some things at the local market: a large white rooster and a brown
chicken, soft drinks, a beer and food stuff. The Priestess added
some items from her shrine. By the time we left the house, the
large basket was packed to the brim. We took motorcycle taxis to
the ferry landing. It must have been quite a sight: a white woman
and two girls on an okada, the smaller one in front of the driver,
the other one squeezed between us, accompanied by the ceremo-
niously dressed Priestess and her daughter. We took a motorized
boat across the lake. As we approached a loaded canoe, the driver
slowed down so as not to create waves that could capsize it, Joy
explained, clarifying lakeside manners.
We made our way slowly, passing the confluence, then turning
onto Urashi river, where we entered a small grove. Another boat
was already there, fastened to a tree with a rope. We scrambled
barefoot out of our boat, helping each other keep balance as we
carefully trod the small path leading to the shrine. The shrine was
barely visible and if you did not know where it was you would
not spot it when passing on the river. The shrine was a simple
wooden structure with a tinned roof over a concrete platform
with moulded seating areas. Strips of red and white cloth hung
from the roof and the area facing the river was covered with heaps
of sacrificial items. A dozen young men were in the shrine, a few
‑of them performing rites.
The Priestess sat down near the offerings, placing me next to
her on the concrete seating. She took out various items from the
bag while reciting invocations. She passed on a shot glass of kai

kai to me, which was then passed on to others, and after a while
a bottle of beer, which she instructed me to drink slowly. Our
offerings were carefully handled, the rooster pressed against our
heads and chest, the bowl of food stuffs circled above our heads.
After a while she passed me the white rooster, instructing me to
say my prayers while holding it. When I was done she washed its
beak and feet in a bowl of water, before sacrificing it.
When the Priestess had completed the rituals, she encouraged
me to take pictures and video footage. As soon as I pulled out my
video camera, everyone started dancing and singing. The Priestess
played a traditional flute, happily swaying to the music. I was not
sure if it was for my camera’s benefit, but everyone had a great
time, smiling and laughing while dancing. After a while some of
the young men came close to me, ‘snapping’ me in their selfies.
We proceeded from the Urashi shrine to the Ogbuide shrine,
which was tucked away among trees by the lakeside, barely visi-
ble from the water. Unlike the Urashi shrine, there were no other
people at the Ogbuide shrine, except a boy who lived nearby. The
Priestess explained to me that it was Urashi day, thus there were
many people at that shrine; the following day would be Ogbuide
day. The Ogbuide shrine was similar in structure, a tinned roof on
wooden poles over a concrete platform, strips of red and white
cloth hanging from the roof, as well as some tied ropes hanging
from one side. The Priestess performed similar rituals for Ogbuide
and we sacrificed the chicken.
When we returned to her house, the Priestess invited me into
her shrine. She gave me some sacred items to take with me, pieces
of chalk, one for Urashi and one for Ogbuide.
The whole experience was quite overwhelming, yet my heart
was at peace. It was the first time in my life that I participated in
such kind of spiritual ritual, yet it felt quite natural, as if destined
to happen. The first day I met her, the Priestess had said we could
go to the lake shrine. After a few days in her company I felt it was
right to not only visit the shrine but also give my thanks. So I gave
my thanks to Ogbuide, Flora Nwapa and my Priestess Mother,
along with all others who have helped me in so many ways on this
extraordinary journey. Mbona!
Bibliography
Abu, Eugenia. 2007. In the Blink of an Eye. Ibadan: Spectrum Books.

———. 2009. Don’t Look at me Like That. Ibadan: Kraft Books
Limited.
Achebe, Chinua. (1958) 1962. Things Fall Apart. London: Heinemann.
Adichie, Chimamanda Ngozi. 2006. Half of a Yellow Sun. London:
Fourth Estate.
———. 2014. We Should All be Feminists. London: Fourth Estate.
Agbasiere, Julie. 1998. ‘Conquerors of the Universe: Flora Nwapa’s
Kiddies on the Move.’ In Emerging Perspectives on Flora Nwapa.
Critical and Theoretical Essays, ed. Marie Umeh, 571–82. Trenton,
Asmara: Africa World Press Inc.
Aidoo, Ama Ata. 1988. ‘To Be an African Woman Writer – an
Overview and a Detail.’ In Criticism and Ideology. Second African
Writers’ Conference, Stockholm 1986, ed. Kirsten Holst Petersen,
155–72. Uppsala: Nordiska Afrikainstitutet.
Alexander, M. Jacqui. 2005. Pedagogies of Crossing. Meditations on
Feminism, Sexual Politics, Memory, and the Sacred. Durham, NC,
London: Duke University Press.
Alkali, Zaynab. 1984. The Stillborn. Lagos: Longman (Drumbeats).
———. 2016. ‘Nwapa’s Efuru: The Bridge Builder and Defender of
the Values of African Womanhood.’ Paper presented at Efuru@50,
Maiduguri, 1 December.
Allen, Jafari S., and Ryan Cecil Jobson. 2016. ‘The Decolonizing
Generation: (Race and) Theory in Anthropology Since the Eighties.’
Current Anthropology 57 (2): 129–48. doi:10.1086/685502.
Amadiume, Ifi. (1987) 2015. Male Daughters, Female Husbands.
Gender and Sex in an African Society. London: Zed Books Ltd.
———. 1998. ‘Religion, Sexuality, and Women’s Empowerment in

Nwapa’s The Lake Goddess.’ In Emerging Perspectives on Flora
Nwapa. Critical and Theoretical Essays, ed. Marie Umeh, 515–29.
Asmara, Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press Inc.
Arndt, Susan. 2002. The Dynamics of African Feminism. Defining
and Classifying African Feminist Literatures. Trenton, NJ: Africa
World Press Inc.
Ashimole, Lizi. 2004. The Groundnut Child. Abuja: Heritage 43 Books.
———. 2005. Just in Case. Abuja: Heritage 43 Books.
———. 2007. Tales by the Fluorescent. Ibadan: Kraft Books Ltd.
———. 2009. African Tales for Children. Minna: Gurara Publishing.
Aull Davies, Charlotte. 2007. Reflexive Ethnography. A Guide to
Researching Selves and Others. London: Routledge.
Awe, Bolanle. 2016. Nigerian Women Pioneers & Icons. Ibadan:
Childsplay Books Limited.
Barber, Karin. 2007. ‘Improvisation and the Art of Making Things
Stick.’ In Creativity and Cultural Improvisation, ed. Elizabeth
Hallam and Tim Ingold, 25–41. Oxford: Berg.
———. 2016. The Anthropology of Texts, Persons and Publics.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Barber, Karin, ed. 2006. Africa’s Hidden Histories: Everyday Literacy
and Making the Self. Bloomington, Indianapolis, IN: Indiana
University Press.
Behar, Ruth. 1995. ‘Introduction: Out of Exile.’ In Women Writing
Culture, ed. Ruth Behar and Deborah A. Gordon, 1–29. Berkeley,
CA: University of California Press.
Behar, Ruth, and Deborah A. Gordon, eds. 1995. Women Writing
Culture. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Bergenmar, Jenny, and Katarina Leppänen. 2017. ‘Gender and
Vernaculars in Digital Humanities and World Literature.’ NORA
25 (4): 232–46.
Blaser, Mario, and Marisol de la Cadena. 2018. ‘Pluriverse: Proposal
for a World of Many Worlds.’ In A World of Many Worlds, ed.
Bibliography 227
Marisol de la Cadena and Mario Blaser, 1–22. Durham, NC,

London: Duke University Press.
Brooks, Marvie. 1998. ‘‘Either Pound in the Mortar or Pound on
the Ground’: Didactism in Flora Nwapa’s Children’s Books.’ In
Emerging Perspectives on Flora Nwapa. Critical and Theoretical
Essays, ed. Marie Umeh, 607–27. Trenton, NJ, Asmara: Africa
World Press Inc.
Bryce, Jane. 1998. ‘Evading Canonical Constraints: The “Popular”
as an Alternative Mode-The Case of Flora Nwapa.’ In Emerging
Perspectives on Flora Nwapa. Critical and Theoretical Essays,
ed. Marie Umeh, 391–410. Trenton, NJ, Amsara: Africa World
Press Inc.
Castillo, Debra A. 2012. ‘Gender and Sexuality in World Literature.’
In The Routledge Companion to World Literature, ed. Theo
D’haen, David Damrosch and Djelal Kadir, 393–403. London,
New York: Routledge.
Cheah, Pheng. 2008. ‘What Is a World? On World Literature as
World-Making Activity.’ Daedalus 137 (3): 26–38.
———. 2014. ‘World against Globe: Toward a Normative Conception
of World Literature.’ New Literary History 45 (3): 303–29.
Chinweizu, Jemie, Onwuchekwa and Madubuike, Ihechukwu. 1983.
Toward the Decolonization of African Literature. Washington,
DC: Howard University Press.
Clifford, James, and George E. Marcus, eds. 1986. Writing Culture:
The Poetics and Politics of Ethnography. Berkeley, CA: University
of California Press.
Coleman, Peter, and Simon Collins, eds. 2006a. Locating the Field:
Space, Place and Context in Anthropology. Oxford: Berg.
Coleman, Simon, and Peter Collins. 2006b. ‘Introduction: “Being…
Where?”.’ In Locating the Field. Space, Place and Context in
Anthropology, ed. Simon Coleman and Peter Collins, 1–22.
Oxford: Berg.
Comaroff, Jean, and John L. Comaroff. 2012. Theory from the South:
Or, How Euro-America is Evolving Toward Africa. Boulder, CO:
Paradigm Publishers.
Currey, James. 2008. Africa Writes Back. The African Writers

Series & The Launch of African Literature. Oxford: James
Currey.
Davis, Caroline. 2013. Creating Postcolonial Literature. African
Writers and British Publishers. New York; Basingstoke: Palgrave
Macmillan.
Drewal, Henry John, ed. 2008. Sacred Waters: Arts for Mami Wata
and Other Divinities in Africa and the Diaspora. Bloomington,
Indianapolis, IN: Indiana University Press.
Edfeldt, Chatarina. 2018. ‘Gender and the Circulation of African
Lusophone Literature into the Portuguese Literary System.’ In
World Literatures. Exploring the Cosmopolitan-Vernacular
Exchange, ed. Stefan Helgesson, Annika Mörte Alling, Yvonne
Lindqvist and Helena Wulff, 369–82. Stockholm: Stockholm
University Press.
———. 2019. ‘Early Twentieth-Century Portuguese Feminist Writers
as Transnational Cultural Mediators: Virgínia de Castro e Almeida
and Ana de Castro Osório.’ Portuguese Studies 35 (2): 167–84.
Emenyonu, Ernest N. 1998a. ‘(Re)Configurations of Child
Symbolism.’ In Emerging Perspectives on Flora Nwapa. Critical
and Theoretical Essays, ed. Marie Umeh, 567–69. Trenton,
Asmara: Africa World Press Inc.
———. 1998b. ‘Flora Nwapa’s Writings for Children: Visions
of Innocence and Regeneration.’ In Emerging Perspectives on
Flora Nwapa. Critical and Theoretical Essays, ed. Marie Umeh,
589–606. Trenton, Asmara: Africa World Press Inc.
Eriksen, Thomas Hylland. 2020. ‘Creolisation as a Recipe for
Conviviality.’ In Conviviality at the Crossroads. The Poetics
and Politics of Everyday Encounters, ed. Oscar Hemer, Maja
Povrzanović Frykman and Per-Markku Ristilammi, 43–64.
Palgrave Macmillan.
Escobar, Arturo. 2018. ‘Transition Discourses and the Politics of
Relationality: Toward Designs for the Pluriverse.’ In Constructing
the Pluriverse. The Geopolitics of Knowledge, ed. Bernd Reiter,
63–89. Durham, NC, London: Duke University Press.
———. 2020. Pluriversal Politics: The Real and the Possible. Durham,
NC, London: Duke University Press.
Bibliography 229
Ezeigbo, Theodora Akachi. (1997) 2017. ‘Gender Conflict in Flora

Nwapa’s Novels.’ In Writing African Women. Gender, Popular
Culture and Literature in West Africa, ed. Stephanie Newell,
95–104. London: Zed Books.
———. 1998a. ‘Myth, History, Culture, and Igbo Womanhood in
Flora Nwapa’s Novels.’ In Emerging Perspectives on Flora Nwapa.
NJ, Asmara: Africa World Press Inc.
———. 1998b. ‘Vision and Revision: Flora Nwapa and the Fiction
of War.’ In Emerging Perspectives on Flora Nwapa: Critical and
Theoretical Essays, ed. Marie Umeh, 477–96. Trenton, NJ, Asmara:
Africa World Press Inc.
Ezenwa-Ohaeto. 1998. ‘Breaking Through: The Publishing Enterprise
of Flora Nwapa.’ In Emerging Perspectives on Flora Nwapa.
Fillitz, Thomas. 2018. ‘Concepts of ‘Art World’ and the Particularity
of the Biennale of Dakar.’ In An Anthropology of Contemporary
Art. Practices, Markets and Collectors, ed. Thomas Fillitz and Paul
van der Grijp, 87–101. London: Bloomsbury.
Fillitz, Thomas, and Paul van der Grijp. 2018. ‘Introduction.’ In
An Anthropology of Contemporary Art. Practices, Markets and
Collectors, ed. Thomas Fillitz and Paul van der Grijp, 1–22.
London: Bloomsbury.
Frost, Nicola. 2016. ‘Anthropology and Festivals: Festival Ecologies.’
Ethnos 81 (4): 569–83.
Gell, Alfred. 1992. ‘The Technology of Enchantment and the
Enchantment of Technology.’ In Anthropology, Art and Aesthetics,
ed. Jeremy Coote and Anthony Shelton, 40–63. Oxford: Clarendon
Press.
———. 1998. Art and Agency: An Anthropological Theory. Oxford:
Clarendon Press.
Griswold, Wendy. 2000. Bearing Witness. Readers, Writers, and the
Novel in Nigeria. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Gutiérrez Rodríguez, Encarnación. 2020. ‘Creolising Conviviality:
Thinking Relational Ontology and Decolonial Ethics Through Ivan
Illich and Édouard Glissant.’ In Conviviality at the Crossroads.

The Poetics and Politics of Everyday Encounters, ed. Oscar Hemer,
Maja Povrzanović Frykman and Per-Markku Ristilammi, 105–24.
Palgrave Macmillan.
Hallam, Elizabeth, and Tim Ingold. 2007. Creativity and Cultural
Improvisation. Oxford: Berg.
Hannerz, Ulf. 1987. ‘The World in Creolisation.’ Africa: Journal of
the International African Institute 57 (4): 546–59.
———. 1996. Transnational Connections. Culture, People, Places.
London: Routledge.
———. 2007. ‘Cosmopolitanism.’ In Companion to the Anthropology
of Politics, ed. David Nugent and Joan Vincent, 69–85. Oxford:
Blackwell.
———. 2016. Writing Future Worlds: An Anthropologist Explores
Global Scenarios. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Haraway, Donna. 1988. ‘Situated Knowledges: The Science Question
in Feminism and the Privilege of Partial Perspective.’ Feminist
Studies 14 (3): 575–99.
Hastrup, Kirsten. 2007. ‘Performing the World: Agency, Anticipation
and Creativity.’ In Creativity and Cultural Improvisation, ed.
Elizabeth Hallam and Tim Ingold, 193–206. Oxford: Berg.
Hayot, Eric. 2011. ‘On Literary Worlds.’ Modern Language Quarterly
72 (2): 129–61.
———. 2012. On Literary Worlds. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Helgesson, Stefan. 2009. Transnationalism in African Literature:
Modernists, Realists, and the Inequality of Print Culture. New
York: Routledge.
———. 2018. ‘General Introduction: The Cosmopolitan and the
Vernacular in Interaction.’ In World Literatures. Exploring
the Cosmopolitan-Vernacular Exchange, ed. Stefan Helgesson,
Annika Mörte Alling, Yvonne Lindqvist and Helena Wulff, 1–11.
Stockholm: Stockholm University Press.
Helgesson, Stefan, and Mads Rosendahl Thomsen. 2020. Literature
and the World. London, New York: Routledge.
Bibliography 231
Hemer, Oscar, Maja Povrzanović Frykman and Per-Markku

Ristilammi. 2020. Conviviality at the Crossroads. The Poetics and
Politics of Everyday Encounters. Palgrave Macmillan.
Higonnet, Margaret R. 2009. ‘Editor’s Introduction.’ Comparative
Critical Studies 6 (2): 135–48.
Horne, Naana Banyiwa. 1998. ‘Flora Nwapa’s This Is Lagos:
Valorizing the Female through Narrative Agency.’ In Emerging
Perspectives on Flora Nwapa. Critical and Theoretical Essays,
ed. Marie Umeh, 441–76. Trenton, NJ, Asmara: Africa World
Press Inc.
Huggan, Graham. 2001. The Postcolonial Exotic: Marketing the
Margins. New York: Routledge.
Imbo, Samuel O. 2005. ‘Okot p’Bitek’s Critique of Western Scholarship
on African Religion.’ In A Companion to African Philosophy, ed.
Kwasi Wiredu, 364–73. Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
Ingold, Tim. 2018. ‘One World Anthropology.’ HAU: Journal of
Ethnographic Theory 8 (1/2): 158–71.
James, Adeola. 1990. In Their Own Voices. African Women Writers
Talk. London: James Currey.
Jay, Mary, and Susan Kelly. 2002. Courage and Consequence. Women
Publishing in Africa. Oxford: African Books Collective.
Jell-Bahlsen, Sabine. 1995. ‘The Concept of Mammywater in Flora
Nwapa’s Novels.’ Research in African Literatures 26 (2): 30–41.
———. 1997. ‘Eze Mmiri di Egwu, The Water Monarch is Awesome.
Reconsidering the Mamy Water Myths.’ In Queens, Queen Mother,
Priestesses and Power: Case Studies in African Gender. vol. 810.
ed. Flora Kaplan, 103–34. New York: New York Academy of
Sciences.
———. 1998. ‘An Interview with Flora Nwapa.’ In Emerging
Perspectives on Flora Nwapa. Critical and Theoretical Essays, ed.
Marie Umeh, 633–653. Trenton, NJ, Asmara: Africa World Press
Inc.
———. 2007. ‘Flora Nwapa and Oguta’s Lake Goddess. Artistic
Liberty and Ethnography.’ Dialectical Anthropology 31: 253–62.
———. 2008. The Water Goddess in Igbo Cosmology. Ogbuide of

Oguta Lake. Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press.
———. 2011. ‘Nneka: Is Mother Still Supreme in Igboland?
Reflections on the Biography of Eze Mmiri, Madame Martha
Mberekpe of Orsu-Obodo, 1934–2007.’ In Against All Odds, The
Igbo Expeirence in Postcolonial Nigeria, ed. Apollos Nwauwa and
Chima Korieh, 195–218. Glassboro, NJ: Goldline Publishers.
———. 2014. Mammy Water in Igbo Culture. Ogbuide of Oguta
Lake. Enugu: Ezu Books Ltd.
———. 2016. ‘Efuru at 50; the Dialectics of Flora Nwapa.’ Paper
presented at the 5th Annual Igbo Conference, SOAS, London.
Julien, Eileen. 2006. ‘The Extroverted African Novel.’ In The Novel:
Volume 1: History, Geography, and Culture, ed. F. Moretti,
667–700. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
———. 2015. ‘The Critical Present. Where is “African Literature”?’
In Rethinking African Cultural Production, ed. Frieda Ekotto and
Kenneth Harrow, 17–28. Bloomington, Indianapolis, IN: Indiana
University Press.
———. 2018. ‘The Extroverted African Novel, Revisited: African
Novels at Home, in the World.’ Journal of African Cultural Studies
30 (3): 371–81.
Kamau, Kiarie, and Kirimi Mitambo. 2016. Coming of Age. Strides in
African Publishing. Nairobi: East African Educational Publishers
Ltd.
Kato, Cecilia. 1999. Desires. Ibadan: Stirling-Horden Publishers Ltd.
———. 1999. Victims of Love. Ibadan: Stirling-Horden Publishers
Ltd.
———. 2014. Other People’s Children and Other Stories.
Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse.
Krishnan, Madhu. 2014. Contemporary African Literature in
English: Global Locations, Postcolonial Identifications. Palgrave
Macmillan UK.
Kristmundsdottir, Sigridur Duna. 2006. ‘Far from the Trobriands?’ In
Locating the Field. Space, Place and Context in Anthropology, ed.
Simon Coleman and Peter Collins, 163–78. Oxford: Berg.
Bibliography 233
Lagerkvist, Amanda. 2015. ‘The Netlore of the Infinite: Death

(and Beyond) in the Digital Memory Ecology.’ New Review of
Hypermedia and Multimedia 21 (1–2): 185–95.
Larkin, Brian. 2008. Signal and Noise. Media, Infrastructure and
Urban Culture in Nigeria. Durham, NC, London: Duke University
Press.
Leppänen, Katarina Helena. 2018. ‘Reflections on Gender and
Small Languages in World Literature Scholarship: Methods of
Inclusions and Exclusions.’ In World Literatures. Exploring
Annika Mörte Alling, Yvonne Lindqvist and Helena Wulff, 89–99.
Lutz, Catherine. 1995. ‘The Gender of Theory.’ In Women Writing
Culture, ed. Ruth Behar and Deborah A. Gordon, 249–66.
Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Makuchi, Juliana. 1997. Gender in African Women’s Writing.
Identity, Sexuality, and Difference. Bloomington, IN: Indiana
University Press.
McGranahan, Carole, ed. 2020. Writing Anthropology: Essays on
Craft and Commitment. Durham, NC, London: Duke University
Press.
Melber, Henning, ed. 2016. The Rise of Africa’s Middle Class. Myths,
Realities and Critical Engagements. London: Zed Books and
Uppsala: Nordic Africa Institute.
Mignolo, Walter. 2011. ‘Epistemic Disobedience and the Decolonial
Option: A Manifesto.’ TRANSMODERNITY: Journal of
Peripheral Cultural Production of the Luso-Hispanic World 1 (2):
44–66.
———. 2018a. ‘Foreword. On Pluriversality and Multipolarity.’ In
Constructing the Pluriverse. The Geopolitics of Knowledge, ed.
Bernd Reiter, ix–xv. Durham, NC, London: Duke University Press.
———. 2018b. ‘On Pluriversality and Multipolar World Order:
Decoloniality after Decolonization; Dewesternization after the
Cold War.’ In Constructing the Pluriverse. The Geopolitics of
Knowledge, ed. Bernd Reiter, 90–116. Durham, NC, London:
Duke University Press.
Mikell, Gwendolyn, ed. 1997. African Feminism. The Politics of

Survival in Sub-Saharan Africa. Philadelphia, PA: University
of Pennsylvania Press.
Mills, Chester. 1998. ‘Preface.’ In Emerging Perspectives on Flora
Nwapa: Critical and Theoretical Essays, ed. Marie Umeh,
xvii–xviii. Trenton, NJ, Asmara: Africa World Press Inc.
Mogstad, Heidi, and Lee-Shan Tse. 2018.‘Decolonizing Anthropology:
Reflections from Cambridge.’ Cambridge Journal of Anthropology
36 (2): 53–72.
Mohammed, Razinat. 2006. A Love Like a Woman’s and Other
Stories. Ibadan: Kraft Books Limited.
———. 2010. ‘Maternal Oppression of the Girl-Child in Selected
Novels by Buchi Echemeta.’ African Research Review 4 (2):
462–70.
———. 2013. Habiba. Ibadan: Kraft Books Limited.
———. 2015. The Travails of a First Wife. Lagos: Origami Books.
———. 2016. ‘Uhamiri Deity and Women: A Study of Flora Nwapa’s
Efuru and Idu.’ Paper presented at Efuru@50, Maiduguri, 1
December.
Mojola, Yemi I. 1989. ‘The Works of Flora Nwapa.’ In Nigerian
Female Writers. A Critical Perspective, ed. Henrietta Otokufenor
and Obiageli Nwodo, 19–29. Lagos: Malthouse Press Limited.
Moreman, Christopher, and David Lewis, 2014. eds. Digital Death.
Mortality and Beyond in the Online Age. Santa Barbara, CA:
Praeger.
Mulira, Sanyu Ruth. 2015. ‘Edouard Glissant and the African Roots
of Creolization.’ Ufahamu: A Journal of African Studies 38 (2):
115–28.
Munn, Nancy Dorothy. 1986. The Fame of Gawa: A Symbolic Study
of Value Transformation in a Massim (Papua New Guinea) Society.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Nader, Laura. 2011. ‘Ethnography as Theory.’ HAU 1 (1): 211–19.
Nesbitt-Ahmed, Zahrah. 2017. ‘Reclaiming African Literature in the
Digital Age: An Exploration of Online Literary Platforms.’ Critical
African Studies 9 (3): 377–90.
Bibliography 235
Newell, Stephanie, ed. (1997) 2017. Writing African Women.

Gender, Popular Culture and Literature in West Africa. London:
Zed Books.
Nkealah, Naomi. 2006. ‘Conceptualizing Feminism(s) in Africa: The
Challenges Facing African Women Writers and Critics.’ English
Academy Review: Southern African Journal of English Studies
23 (1): 133–41.
Nnaemeka, Obioma. 1995. ‘Feminism, Rebellious Women,
and Cultural Boundaries: Rereading Flora Nwapa and Her
Compatriots.’ Research in African Literatures 26 (2): 80–113.
———. 1997. ‘Introduction. Imag(in)ing Knowledge, Power and
Subversion in the Margins.’ In The Politics of (M)Othering:
Womanhood, Identity and Resistance in African Literature, ed.
Obioma Nnaemeka, 1–25. London: Routledge.
Nwankwo, Chimalum. 1998. ‘The Lake Goddess: The Roots of
Nwapa’s Word.’ In Emerging Perspectives on Flora Nwapa:
Nwapa, Christopher. 2017. Political Leadership in Nigeria. Enugu:
Museum Piece International.
Nwapa, Flora. 1966. Efuru. London: Heinemann.
———. 1970. Idu. London: Heinemann.
———. (1971) 1986. This Is Lagos and Other Stories. Enugu: Tana
Press Ltd.
———. 1972. Emeka-Driver’s Guard. Enugu: Tana Press Ltd.
———. (1975) 1986. Never Again. Enugu: Tana Press Ltd.
———. 1979. Mammywater. Enugu: Flora Nwapa & Co.
———. (1980) 1988. Journey to Space and Other Stories. Enugu:
Flora Nwapa Books Ltd.
———. (1980) 1984. Wives at War and Other Stories. Enugu: Tana
Press Ltd.
———. 1986. Cassava Song & Rice Song. Enugu: Tana Press Ltd.
———. (1986) 1992. One Is Enough. Trenton, NJ, Asmara: Africa
World Press Inc.
———. (1986) 1992. Women Are Different. Trenton, NJ, Asmara:

Africa World Press Inc.
———. 1993. Conversations. Enugu: Tana Press Ltd.
———. 1993. The First Lady. Enugu: Tana Press Ltd.
———. 1997. ‘Writing and Publishing for Children in Africa.’ In
Preserving the Landscape of Imagination: Children’s Literature
in Africa, ed. Raoul Granqvist and Jürgen Martini, 265–75.
Amsterdam, Atlanta, GA: Rodopi.
———. 2016. Efuru. 50th Anniversary Edition. Oguta: Tana Press
Ltd.
———. 2017. The Lake Goddess. Oguta: Tana Press Ltd.
Nyqvist, Anette. 2018. ‘The Travelling Story of Pettersson in the
Pacific.’ In World Literatures. Exploring the Cosmopolitan-
Vernacular Exchange, ed. Stefan Helgesson, Annika Mörte
Alling, Yvonne Lindqvist and Helena Wulff, 261–74. Stockholm:
Stockholm University Press.
Nzegwu, Nkiru. 2005. ‘Feminism and Africa: Impact and Limits of the
Metaphysics of Gender.’ In A Companion to African Philosophy,
ed. Kwasi Wiredu, 560–69. Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
Nzeribe, Ejine, and Ebere Okereke. 2016. ‘Flora Nwapa. Pioneering
Nigerian Administrator, Academic and Author.’ http://dangerous
womenproject.org, 21 April.
Nzimiro, Ikenna. 1972. Studies in Ibo Political Systems. Chieftaincy
and Politics in Four Niger States. Berkeley, Los Angeles, CA:
University of California Press.
Obioma, Chigozie. 2019. An Orchestra of Minorities. London: Little,
Brown.
Ogunyemi, Chikwenye Okonjo. (1985) 2006. ‘Womanism: The
Dynamics of the Contemporary Black Female Novel in English.’
Reprinted. In The Womanist Reader, ed. Layli Phillips, 21–36.
New York, London: Routledge.
———. 1995. ‘Introduction: The Invalid, Dea(r)th, and the Author:
The Case of Flora Nwapa, aka Professor (Mrs.) Flora Nwanzuruahu
Nwakuche.’ Research in African Literatures 26 (2): 1–16.
Bibliography 237
———. 1996. Africa Wo/Man Palava. The Nigerian Novel by Women.

Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press.
Oke, Ikeogu, Helon Habila and Wale Okediran. 2016. A Treasury of
African Folktales. Abuja: Manila Publishers.
Okoye, Ifeoma. 1998. ‘Flora Nwapa’s Legacy to Children’s Literature.’
In Emerging Perspectives on Flora Nwapa. Critical and Theoretical
Essays, ed. Marie Umeh, 583–88. Trenton, NJ, Asmara: Africa
World Press Inc.
Olaifa, Tope. (2000) 2015a. One Cut Too Deep. Abeokuta: Jacob &
Lydia Publishers.
———. (2000) 2015b. Echo of the Desolate. Abeokuta: Jacob &
Lydia Publishers.
———. (2011) 2014. The ‘Keats’ in Me. Selected Romantic Poems.
Abeokuta: Jacob & Lydia Publishers.
———. 2016. ‘Women Writers and Peacebuilding in Africa.’ Paper
presented at Efuru@50, Maiduguri, 1 December.
Oladipo, Olusegun. 2005. ‘Religion in African Culture: Some
Conceptual Issues.’ In A Companion to African Philosophy, ed.
Kwasi Wiredu, 355–63. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
Ortner, Sherry. 1984. ‘Theory in Anthropology since the Sixties.’
Comparative Studies in Society and History 26 (1): 126–66.
Oslender, Ulrich. 2018. ‘Local Aquatic Epistemologies among Black
Communities on Colombia’s Pacific Coast and Pluriverse.’ In
Constructing the Pluriverse. The Geopolitics of Knowledge, ed.
Bernd Reiter, 137–50. Durham, NC, London: Duke University
Press.
Otokunefor, Henrietta, and Obiageli Nwodo. 1989. Nigerian Female
Writers. A Critical Perspective. Lagos: Malthouse Press Limited.
Ouattara, Issiaka. 2018. ‘The Griots of West Africa: Oral Tradition
and Ancestral Knowledge.’ In Constructing the Pluriverse. The
Geopolitics of Knowledge, ed. Bernd Reiter, 151–67. Durham,
NC, London: Duke University Press.
Oyěwùmi, Oyėrónké. 2003. African Women & Feminism. Reflecting
on the Politics of Sisterhood. Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press Inc.
Perry, Alison. 1984. ‘Meeting Flora Nwapa.’ West Africa, 18 June:

1262.
Phillips, Layli, ed. 2006. The Womanist Reader. New York, London:
Routledge.
Salami-Boukari, Safoura. 2012. African Literature. Gender Discourse,
Religious Values, and the African Worldview. New York: African
Heritage Press.
Sansi, Roger. 2018. ‘The Idle Goddess: Notes about Post-relational
Anthropology and Art.’ In An Anthropology of Contemporary
Art. Practices, Markets and Collectors, ed. Thomas Fillitz and Paul
van der Grijp, 196–210. London: Bloomsbury.
Saro-Wiwa, Noo. 2012. Looking for Transwonderland: Travels in
Nigeria. Berkeley, CA: Soft Skull Press.
Selasie, Taiye. 2013. Ghana Must Go. Penguin Press.
Silverstein, Leni M., and Ellen Lewin. 2016. ‘Introduction.
Anthropologies and Feminisms: Mapping Our Intellectual
Journey.’ In Mapping Feminist Anthropology in the Twenty-First
Century, ed. Ellen Lewin and Leni M. Silverstein, 6–37. New
Brunswick, NJ, London: Tutgers University Press.
Smith, Daniel Jordan. 2007. A Culture of Corruption: Everyday
Deception and Popular Discontent in Nigeria. Princeton, NJ,
Oxford: Princeton University Press.
Smith Bowen, Elenore. (1954) 1964. Return to Laughter. An
Anthropological Novel. New York: Anchor Books Doubleday.
Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty. 1988. ‘Can the Subaltern Speak?’
In Colonial Discourse and Post-Colonial Theory: A Reader,
ed. Patrick Williams and Laura Chrisman, 66–111. New York:
Columbia University Press.
———. 1998. Other Worlds. London, New York: Routledge.
Staley, Erinn. 2014. ‘Messaging the Dead: Social Network Sites and
Theologies of Afterlife.’ In Digital Death. Mortality and Beyond
in the Online Age, ed. Christopher Moreman and David Lewis,
11–19. Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger.
Stoller, Paul. 1989. The Taste of Ethnographic Things. The Senses in
Anthropology. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Bibliography 239
———. 1997. Sensuous Scholarship. Philadelphia, PA: University of

Pennsylvania Press.
Strathern, Marilyn. 1988. The Gender of the Gift. Berkeley, CA:
University of California Press.
———. 1998. The Relation: Issues in Complexity and Scale.
Cambridge: Prickly Pear Press.
Stratton, Florence. 1994. Contemporary African Literature and the
Politics of Gender. New York: Routledge.
Stringer, Roger. 2016. ‘African Publishing in the Digital Age.’ In
Coming of Age: Strides in African Publishing, ed. Kiarie Kamau
and Kirimi Mitambo, 187–200. Nairobi: East African Educational
Publishers Ltd.
Ståhlberg, Per. 2018. ‘Indian Imaginaries in World Literature and
Domestic Popular Culture.’ In World Literatures. Exploring the
Cosmopolitan-Vernacular Exchange, ed. Stefan Helgesson, Annika
Mörte Alling, Yvonne Lindqvist and Helena Wulff, 275–86.
———. 2019. ‘The Jaipur Literature Festival and Its Critics: World
Literature as Social Practice.’ Anthropology and Humanism 44 (1):
54–69.
Suhr-Sytsma, Nathan. 2018. ‘The Extroverted African Novel and
Literary Publishing in the Twenty-First Century.’ Journal of African
Cultural Studies 30 (3): 339–55.
Sule, Salamatu. 2017. Oma, The Drummer Queen. Abuja: NWS
Publishers.
Sutherland-Addy, Esi, and Aminata Diaw. 2005. Women Writing
Africa. West Africa and the Sahel. New York: The Feminist Press
at the City University of New York.
Sylvester, Vicky Mnguember. 2015. Long Shadows. Ibadan: Spectrum
Books Limited.
———. 2016. ‘Speaking with the Voice of a Woman: Efuru and its
Intertextual Songs of Proceeding Generations.’ Paper presented at
Efuru@50, Abuja, 6 December.
Thiong’o, Ngũgĩ wa. 1986. Decolonising the Mind. The Politics of
Language in African Literature. London: James Currey.
———. 2014. Globalectics. Theory and the Politics of Knowing.

New York: Columbia University Press.
Todd, Zed. 2018. ‘Decolonial Turn 2.0.’ Anthrodendum, https://anthro
dendum.org/2018/06/15/the-decolonial-turn-2-0-the-reckoning.
Tuhiwai Smith, Linda. 2012. Decolonizing Methodologies: Research
and Indigenous Peoples. London: Zed Books.
Turner, Victor. 1987. The Anthropology of Performance. New York:
PAJ.
———. (1957) 1996. Schism and Continuity in an African Society. A
Study of Ndembu Village Life. Oxford: Berg.
Uchendu, Victor C. 1965. The Igbo of Southeast Nigeria. New York:
Holt. Rinehart and Winston.
Uimonen, Paula. 2012. Digital Drama. Teaching and Learning Art
and Media in Tanzania. New York: Routledge.
———. 2013. ‘Visual Identity in Facebook.’ Visual Studies 28 (2):
122–35.
———. 2015. ‘Mourning Mandela: Sacred Drama and Digital
Visuality in Cape Town.’ Journal of Aesthetics & Culture 7: 1–11.
———. 2016. ‘Cosmopolitan Feminism. From Flora Nwapa’s Efuru
to Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie’s We Should All Be Feminists.’
Paper presented at Efuru@50, Maiduguri, 1 December.
———. 2017. ‘A Good Journey.’ Ebedi Review (December): 46.
———. 2018. ‘Zuhura the African Lioness. Performance Poetry,
Digital Media and the Transnational Tangle in World Literature.’
In World Literatures. Exploring the Cosmopolitan-Vernacular
Exchange, ed. Stefan Helgesson, Annika Mörte Alling, Yvonne
Lindqvist and Helena Wulff, 129–39. Stockholm: Stockholm
University Press.
———. 2019a. ‘Decolonising Cosmopolitanism. An Anthropological
Reading of Immanuel Kant and Kwame Nkrumah on the World as
One.’ Critique of Anthropology 40 (1): 81–101.
———. 2019b. ‘Muse and Power. African Women Writers and Digital
Infrastructure in World Literature.’ Anthropology and Humanism
44 (1): 20–37.
Bibliography 241
Umeh, Marie. 1995. ‘The Poetics of Economic Independence for

Female Empowerment: An Interview with Flora Nwapa.’ Research
in African Literatures 26 (2): 22–29.
———. ed. 1998a. Emerging Perspectives on Flora Nwapa: Critical
and Theoretical Essays. Trenton, NJ, Asmara: Africa World Press
Inc.
———. 1998b. ‘Introduction. Historicizing Flora Nwapa.’ In
Emerging Perspectives on Flora Nwapa: Critical and Theoretical
Essays, ed. Marie Umeh, 1–24. Trenton, NJ, Asmara: Africa World
Press Inc.
———. 2001. ‘Flora Nwapa as Author, Character, and Omniscient
Narrator on “The Family Romance” in an African Society.’
Dialectical Anthropology 26: 343–55.
———. 2010. Flora Nwapa. A Pen and a Press. New York: Triatlantic
Books of NY.
Viktorin, Mattias. 2018. ‘A World Apart and the World at Large:
Expressing Siberian Exile.’ In World Literatures. Exploring the
Cosmopolitan-Vernacular Exchange, ed. Stefan Helgesson, Annika
Mörte Alling, Yvonne Lindqvist and Helena Wulff, 229–245.
Walker, Alice. 1979. ‘Coming Apart.’ In Take Back the Night, ed.
Laura Lederer, 84–93. New York: Bantam.
Wallerstein, Immanuel. 1990. ‘Culture as the Ideological Battleground
of the Modern World-System.’ Theory, Culture & Society 7: 31–55.
Weber, Millicent. 2018. Literary Festivals and Contemporary Book
Culture. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Wiles, Ellen. 2018. ‘Three Branches of Literary Anthropology:
Sources, Styles, Subject Matter.’ Ethnography 21 (2): 280–95.
Wilson-Tagoe, Nana. (1997) 2017. ‘Reading Towards a Theorization
of African Women’s Writing: African Women Writers Within
Feminist Gynocriticism.’ In Writing African Women. Gender,
Popular Culture and Literature in West Africa, ed. Stephanie
Newell, 11–28. London: Zed Books.
WReC. 2015. Combined and Uneven Development: Towards a New
Theory of World-Literature. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press.
Wulff, Helena, ed. 2016. The Anthropologist as Writer: Genres and

Contexts in the 21st Century. London: Berghahn.
———. 2017. Rhythms of Writing. An Anthropology of Irish
Literature. London: Bloomsbury.
———. 2018. ‘Diasporic Divides: Location and Orientations of
“Home” in Pooneh Rohi’s Araben.’ In World Literatures. Exploring
Annika Mörte Alling, Yvonne Lindqvist and Helena Wulff,
119–28. Stockholm: Stockholm University Press.
Films
Jell-Bahlsen, Sabine. (1990) 2009. Mammy Water. In Search of the
Water Spirits in Nigeria. Documentary Education Resources,
https://vimeo.com/ondemand/mammywater.
NRK TV. 1987. Forfatterinne i dag: Flora Nwapa, https://tv.nrk.no
/serie/forfatterinne-i-dag/1987/FOLA00000687/avspiller.
Nwelue, Onyeka. 2016. The House of Nwapa, https://www.youtube
.com/watch?v=c7nbS4et_dU.
Uimonen. Paula. 2017. Efuru@50, https://www.youtube.com
/watch?v=EndOXak9ESQ.
Flora Nwapa’s Efuru (1966) was the first internationally published
novel in English by a female African writer. Although Flora Nwapa
has been recognized as the Mother of modern African literature,
she is not sufficiently acknowledged in world literary canons or
Nigerian Women Writers, Femininity

world literature studies, which is something this monograph
aspires to redress from an anthropological perspective with the
help of earlier studies, especially by Nigerian scholarship. Draw-
ing on the Efuru@50 celebration in Nigeria in 2016, this book ex- and Spirituality in World Literature
plores the revival of Flora Nwapa’s fame as the pioneer of African
women’s literature.
Paula Uimonen
By exploring experimental ethnographic writing, the author
combines the genres of creative non-fiction, descriptive ethnog-
raphy and scholarly analysis in an effort to make the text more
accessible to academic as well as non-academic readers. Inspired
Paula Uimonen
by the social change perspective of African womanism and critical
decolonial theory, the book makes a contribution to current ef-
forts to explore a more socially just and environmentally sustain-
able world of many worlds.

Invoking Flora Nwapa

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Invoking Flora Nwapa

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Invoking Flora Nwapa

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Invoking Flora Nwapa

Flora Nwapa’s Efuru (1966) was the first internationally published

Nigerian Women Writers, Femininity

Text © Paula Uimonen 2020

Supporting Agency (funding): This monograph is published with support from

First published 2020

Anthropology & Society (Online) ISSN: 2002-6293

ISBN (Paperback): 978-91-7635-123-9

To read the free, open access version of this book online,

Anthropology & Society (ISSN 2002-6293, https://www.stock

Previous titles in the series

Stockholm University Press ensures that all book publications are

Recognition for reviewers

I dedicate this book to my mother

Prologue: Ethnography of Flora Nwapa and Nigerian Women

1. Cultural Tangles in Lagos 29

2. Feminist Controversies in Maiduguri 61

3. Celebrating Children in Abuja 97

4. Post-War Publishing in Enugu 129

5. Culture and Relationality in Owerri 161

6. Sacred Waters in Oguta 191

Epilogue: Revisiting Oguta and Thanking Ogbuide 213

1 Efuru@50 press conference banner 14

to share my research with them. I am also thankful to Matilda

s­ haring insights into spirituality: One love! My daughter Nyamizi,

Conceptual groundings in anthropology of world

By invoking Flora Nwapa, this monograph draws attention to

How to cite this book chapter:

in 1977, Flora Nwapa also became the first female publisher in

value of literature, especially in this age of crisis, when ‘we need to

I approach literature in terms of storytelling, thus paying at-

programme Cosmopolitan and Vernacular Dynamics in World Literatures

Exploring Nigerian literature from within, this monograph ad-

1995, 109, emphasis in original). Focusing on Flora Nwapa’s

denoting global phenomena (e.g. Eriksen 2020; Hannerz 1987;

1996, 133; Phillips 2006).2 The womanist theory I use in this

controversial’ characteristic of womanism as a critical theory

by a chi, which he describes as a guardian spirit. Comparatively,

cultural beliefs might be not only such’ (Blaser and de la Cadena

1995). In my efforts to avoid such epistemic violence (Spivak

Reviving Flora Nwapa’s legacy though Efuru@50

Figure 1. Efuru@50 press conference banner. Courtesy of Flora Nwapa

at the University of Abuja, and Dr Razinat Mohammed of the

The idea of celebrating Efuru@50 was inspired by o ­ verseas

and Abuja attracted a few hundred each, Owerri less. In each

ritual elements that cater to various communities (Weber 2018).

cultural framings, within the encompassing frame of femininity

Fieldworking in and beyond Nigeria

‘Yeh, kind of. I consider Tanzania my second home. I even built

I was surprised by how quickly Nigerians adopted me as an

r­ esearch skills had also improved through the teaching of meth-

In addition to participant observation, I conducted interviews

Figure 2. Filming scholarly presentations at University of Abuja.

I also relied on visual methods, especially photography and

biographical research on Björg C. Thorlaksson, decades after her

Poetic reflections on a good journey

It was all meant to come together

It was meant to be catalyzed

It was meant to be explored

s haring insights into spirituality: One love! My daughter Nyamizi,

The idea of celebrating Efuru@50 was inspired by o verseas

r esearch skills had also improved through the teaching of meth-

uanced reading of Nwapa’s literary worldmaking, as will be dis-

dual c elebration of womanhood and Flora Nwapa. When she