What is Sociology?

focused and represent attempts to explain seems no obvious reason why theoretical
particular social conditions or types of thinking in sociology should be confined to
event. They are usually formed as part of the the 'middle range'.
process of research and in turn suggest Assessing theories, and especially theo-
problems to which research investigations retical approaches, in sociology is a chal-
should be devoted. An example would be lenging and formidable task. Theoretical
Durkheim's theory of suicide, referred to debates are, by definition, more abstract
earlier in this chapter. than controversies of a more empirical kind.
Many theories have been developed in The fact that sociology is not dominated by
the many different areas of research in a single theoretical approach might seem to
which sociologists work. Sometimes theo- be a sign of weakness in the subject, but
ries are very precisely set out and are even this is not the case. The jostling of rival theo-
occasionally expressed in mathematical retical approaches and theories is an
form - although this is more common in expression of the vitality of the sociological
other social sciences (especially economics) enterprise. In studying human beings -
than in sociology. ourselves - theoretical variety rescues us
Some theories are also much more from dogma and stagnation. Human behav-
encompassing than others. Opinions vary iour is complicated and many-sided, and it
about whether it is desirable or useful for is very unlikely that a single theoretical
sociologists to concern themselves with perspective could cover all of its aspects.
very wide- ranging theoretical endeavours. Diversity in theoretical thinking provides a
Robert K. Merton (1957), for example, rich source of ideas that can be drawn on in
argued forcefully that sociologists should research and which stimulate the imagina-
concentrate their attention on what he cails tive capacities so essential to progress in
'theories of the middle range'. Rather than sociological work.
attempting to create grand theoretical
schemes (in the manner of Marx, for Levels of analysis: micro sociology
instance), we should be concerned with and macro sociology
developing theories that are more modest.
Middle-range theories are specific One important distinction between the
enough to be directly tested by empirical different theoretical perspectives we have
research, yet sufficiently general to cover a discussed in this chapter involves the level
range of different phenomena. A case in of analysis at which each is directed. The
point is the. theory of relative de p rivation. study of everyday behaviour in situations
This theory holds that the way people eval- offace-to-face interaction is usually called
uate their circumstances depends on whom micro sociology. Macrosociology is the
they compare themselves to. Thus, feelings analysis of large-scale social systems, like
of deprivation do not conform directly to the political system or the economic
the level of material poverty that people order. It also includes the analysis of long-
experience. A family living in a small home term processes of change, such as the
in a poor area, where everyone is in more or development of industrialism. At first
less similar circumstances, is likely to feel glance, it might seem that microanalysis
less deprived than a family living in a similar and macroanalysis are distinct from one
house in a neighbourhood where the major- another. In fact, the two are closely
ity of the other homes are much larger and connected (Knorr-Cetina and Cicourel
the other people more affluent. 1981; Giddens 1984).
It is indeed true that the more wide- Macroanalysis is essential if we are to
ranging and ambitious a theory is, the more understand the institutional background of
difficult it is to test empirically. Yet there daily life. The ways in which people live their
WHAT IS SOCIOLOGY?

everyday lives are greatly affected by the with such changes and attempt to turn
broader institutional framework, as is obvi- them to their advantage. For example, when
o us when the daily cycle of activities of a the UK government decided to reduce the
culture like that of the medieval period is role of coal in its energy policy in the 1980s,
compared with life in an industrialized the impact was disastrous for many tradi-
urban environment. In modern societies, tional mining communities, as people's
we are constantly in contact with strangers. livelihoods were threatened by large-scale
This contact may be indirect and imper- unemployment (Waddington et al. 2001).
sonal. However, no matter how many indi- Mining communities initially organized to
rect or electronic relations we enter into protest against the policy, but, when this
today, even in the most complex societies, eventually failed, many individual miners
the presence of other people remains retrained to find work in other industries.
crucial. While we may choose just to send an Such studies of the community-level of
acquaintance an email message, we can social life can provide a window through
also choose to fly thousands of miles to which to observe and understand the inter-
spend the weekend with a friend. action of micro- and macro-levels of society
Micro-studies are in tucn necessary for and much applied work in sociology takes
illuminating broad institutional patterns. place at this mesa level of social reality.
Face-to-face interaction is clearly the main In later chapters, we will see furt her
basis of all forms of social organization, no examples of how interacti on in micro-
matter how large scale. Suppose we are contexts affects larger social processes, and
studying a business corporation. We could how macro-systems in tucn influence more
understand much about its activities simply confined settings of social life.
by looking at face-to-face behaviour. We
could analyse, for example, the interaction
of directors in the boardroom, peop le work- Why study sociology?
ing in the various offices, or the workers on
the factory floor. We would not build up a Sociology has several practical implications
picture of the whole corporation in this way, for our lives, as C. Wright Mills emphasized
since some of its business is transacted when developing his idea of the sociological
thro ugh printed materials, letters, the tele- imagination. First, sociology gives us an
phone an d computers. Yet we could awareness of cultural differences that allows
certainly contribute significantly to under- us to see th e socia l world from many
standing how the organization works. perspectives. Quite often, if we properly
Of course, people do not live their lives as understand how others live, we also acquire
isolated individuals, nor are their lives a better understanding of what their prob-
completely determined by national states. lems are. Practical policies that are not based
Sociology tells us that our everyday life is on an informed awareness of the ways of life
lived in families, social groups, communi- of people they affect have little chance of
ties and neighbourhoods. At this level - the success. For example, a white social worker
meso (or 'middle') level of society - it is operating in a predominantly Latin Ameri-
possible to see the influences and effects of can community in South London will not
both micro- and macro-level phenomena. gain the confidence of its members without
Many sociological studies of specific local developing a sensitivity to the differences in
communities deal with the macrosociologi- social experie nce between members of
cal impact of huge social changes, such as different groups in the UK.
industrialization and economic globaliza- Second, sociological research provides
tion. But they also explore the way that indi- practical help in assessing the results of
vid uals, groups and social movements cope policy initiatives. A programme of practical
 What is Sociology?

reform may simply fail to achieve what its for future careers in law, journalism, busi-
designers sought or may produce unin- ness and health professions.
tended consequences of an unfortunate There is often a connection between
kind. For instance, in the years following the studying sociology and the prompting of
Second World War, large public housing social conscience. Should sociologists
blocks were built in city centres in many themselves actively advocate and agitate for
countries. These were planned to provide programmes of reform or social change?
high standards of accommodation for low- Some argue that sociology can preserve its
income groups from slum areas and offered intellectual independence only if sociolo-
shopping amenities and other civic services gists are studiously neutral in moral and
nearby. However, research later showed that political controversies. Yet are those schol-
many people who had moved from their ars who remain aloof from current debates
previous dwellings to large apartment necessarily more impartial in their assess-
blocks felt isolated and unhappy. High-rise ment of sociological issues than others? No
apartment blocks and shopping centres in sociologically sophisticated person can be
poorer areas often became dilapidated and unaware of the inequalities that exist in the
provided breeding grounds for muggings world today. It would be strange if sociolo-
and other violent crimes. gists did not take sides on political issues,
Third, and in some ways this is the most and it would be illogical to try to ban them
important, sociology can provide us with from drawing on their expertise in so doing.
self-enlightenment - increased self- In this chapter, we have seen that sociol-
understanding. The more we know about ogy is a discipline in which we often set
why we act as we do and about the overall aside our personal view of the world in order
workings of our society, the more likely we to look more carefully at the influences that
are to be able to influence DUI own futures. shape our lives and those of others. Sociol-
We should not see sociology as assisting only ogy emerged as a distinct intellectual
policy-makers - that is, powerful groups - in endeavour with the development of
making informed decisions. Those in power modern societies, and the study of such
cannot be assumed always to consider the societies remains a central concern.
interests of the less powerful or underprivi- However, in an increasingly interconnected
leged in the policies they pursue. Self- global world, sociologists must increasingly
enlightened groups can often benefit from take a similarly global view of their subject-
sociological research by using the informa- matter if they are properly to understand
tion gleaned to respond in an effective way and explain it. Of course, sociologists
to government policies or form policy initia- remain preoccupied with a broad range of
tives of their own. Self-help groups like Alco- issues about the nature of social interaction
holics Anonymous and social movements and human societies in general.
like the environmental movement are exam- As we will see in chapter 3, Theories and
ples of social groups that have directly Perspectives in Sociology, the central prob-
sought to bring about practical reforms, with lems that exercise SOciologists change along
some degree of success. with the societies they aim to explore and
Finally, it should be mentioned that many understand. During the period of the disci-
sociologists concern themselves directly pline's classical founders, the central prob-
with practical matters as professionals. lems included social class conflict, wealth
People trained in sociology are to be found distribution, the alleviation of absolute as
as industrial consultants, researchers, well as relative poverty, the secularization of
urban planners, social workers and person- religious belief and the question of where
nel managers, as well as in many other jobs. the process of modernization was headed.
An understanding of society can also help In the contemporary period, though most of
WHAT IS SOCIOLOGY?

th ese issues remain, it can forceful ly be Readers can expect the ongoing debate
argued that sociology's central p roblems are about the status and continuing relevance
shifting. Today, societies are gra ppling with of the classical sociological theories and
the pro blem s created by rap id globaJization, attempts to construct new theories to occur
enviro nmental degradation and its im pact throu gho ut this book.
on human h ealth and well-being, th e Sociology is not just an a bstract intellec-
aware ness of risks with potentiall y high tual fi eld, but has majo r practical imp lica-
consequences, how to create successfu l tions for people's lives. Learning to become
mod e ls of mu lt iculturalism a n d th e a sociologist should not be a dull or tedious
achievem ent of a genui ne gender equaJity: endeavour. The best way to make sure it
to name just a few. This means that socio lo- does not become so is to approach th e
gists will need to question whether the theo- subject in an imaginative way and to relate
ries designed to grasp the different prob - sociological ideas and findings to situations
lems of an earlier period have any purchase in your own life. In that way, yo u sho ul d
on the p ro blem s facing today's societies. If learn im portant things ab o ut yo urself,
not, the n they will n eed to design new theo- about your society an d about th e wider
ri es that can grasp what Karl Mannheim h uman world.
once called 'the secret of these new times'.

Summary points because of the complex problems involved

in subjecting our own behaviour to study.
I. Sociology is the systematic study of human 6. The main theoretical approache s
societies, giving spe cial, but not exclusive in sociology are functionalism,
emphasis, to modern industrialized societies. conflict p e rspectives and symbolic
2. The practice of sociology involves the ability interactionism. There are some
to think imaginative ly and to detach oneself basic differe nces b e tween each of these
from preconceived ide as about social life. approaches, which have strongly influenced
3. Sociology came into being as an attempt to the developme nt of the subject in the post-
understand the far-re aching changes that war p e riod.
have occurred in human societies over the 7. One way of thinking about sociology's
past two or three centuries. The changes approache s is in terms of their level of
involved are not just large-scale ones; they analysis. Microsociology is the study of
also involve shifts in the most intimate and everyday behaviour in face-to-face
personal aspects of people's lives. encounte rs. Macrosociology analyses large-
4. Among the classical founders of sociology, scale social systems and whole societies.
four figures are particularly important: Micro- and macro-levels are closely
Auguste Comte, Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim connected, however, and this can be seen in
and Max Weber. Comte and Marx, working in research studies of communities and
the mid-ninetee nth ce ntury. established some ne ighbourhoods - the meso (or middle) level
of the basic issue s of sociology, later of social life.
elaborated on by Durkheim and Webe r. These 8. Sociology is a subject with important
issues concern the nature of sociology and the practical implications. It can contribute to
impact of modernization on the social world. social criticism and practical social reform in
5 . A diversity of theore tical approache s is found seve ral ways. The improved understanding of
in sociology. The ore tical d isputes are difficult social circumstances gives us all a better
to resolve even in the natural science s , but in chance of controlling them. At the same time,
sociology we face special difficultie s sociology provides the me ans of increasing