GEOLOGICAL AND

GEOPHYSICAL
INVESTIGATION IN CIVIL
ENGINEERING
Presented by Group 5 (BSCE-2F)
 GEOLOGICAL AND
GEOPHYSICAL
INVESTIGATION IN CIVIL
ENGINEERING
Presented by Group 5 (BSCE-2F)
The student will be able to:
Provide a clear definition and
description of each theme
incorporating geophysical studies
into the design and construction
processes
The fundamental goals of
the application of geophysics to this report are thus to
the determination of engineering produce guidelines for
parameters both civil and geotechnical
engineers
geophysical capability for
investigating ground pollution and
grunion.
 GEOLOGICAL AND GEOPHYSICAL
INVESTIGATION IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

A thorough site investigation is

conducted to confirm and enhance
reconnaissance and preliminary level
studies. It provides the designer with
specific and quantitative information for
use in design and construction of
buildings and structures. The results are
used to plan and design appropriate
foundations, and draw up bills of
quantity for excavation.
 SITE
INVESTIGATION
 Site Investigation
The exploration or discovery
of ground conditions to
enable engineers to make
informed design decisions.

 SITE INVESTIGATION
Site investigation (SI) is an
important step or process that
must be performed before any
Civil Engineering Project can
begin. SI involves data
collection, followed by data
evaluation and a report about
the collected data, and the
outcome of the said activities.
SITE
INVESTIGATION
These paces are performed in order to
obtain a safe and economical design. But
to achieve the aims, there are three
objectives that must be satisfied:

i. To access the suitability of the site

ii. To plan the method of construction
iii. To determine the changes that may
arise in the ground and environmental
condition
 IMPORTANCE
OF SITE
INVESTIGATION
 Sustainability
- To assess the general suitability Construction
and its environs for the proposed to plan the best construction method and
work. for some projects, identify sources of
suitable materials such as concrete
aggregate and fill and locate sites for
Design disposal of waste.

- To enable an adequate and

economical design, including Effect of Changes
temporary works. - To consider ground and
environmental changes on the works
(e.g., intense rainfall and earthquakes)
Choice of Site to assess the impact of the works on
Where appropriate, identify adjacent properties and the
environment.
alternative sites or allow optimal
planning of the works.
 SITE
INVESTIGATION
PROGRAM
 Site Investigation Program

i. Gathering available ii. Gathering information

information on the site/ of structure to be
Desk Study constructed

- maps (geology, - type and function of the

topography, and land use), structure, column loads,
aerial photos, hydrological local building codes
data, SI reports, for the
nearby existing structures
 Site Investigation Program

iii. Site visit/ Site iv. Preliminary subsurface

Reconnaissance exploration

- first-hand/primary
- type and function of the
information of the actual
structure, column loads,
situation/scenario
local building codes
IMPORTANT EVIDENCES TO LOOK FOR ARE AS FOLLOWS:

Hydrogeology
Slope Instability
Mining
Access
 Site Investigation Program

iii. Site visit/ Site iv. Preliminary subsurface

Reconnaissance exploration

- first-hand/primary
- type and function of the
information of the actual
structure, column loads,
situation/scenario
local building codes
 v. Detailed subsurface
exploration

Subsurface exploration usually

Involve drilling of involves soil sampling and
laboratory tests of the soil samples
several boreholes to retrieved. Geotechnical
obtain disturbed and investigations are very important
before any structure can be built,
undisturbed samples ranging from a single house to a
large warehouse, a multi-story
at different depths building, and infrastructure projects

like bridges, high-speed rail, and

metros.

Trial Pits
are shallow excavations going down to a
depth no greater than 6m. The trial pit as such
is used extensively at the surface for block
sampling and detection of services prior to
borehole excavation.
3 Types of Samples from
Trial Pits
Disturbed Sample
Block Sample
Push in Tube Sample
Disturbed Sample
Samples where the soil in-situ
properties are not retained.

Disturbed Samples at Depth

of 0.5 M below the ground
level
Undisturbed Sample
is one where the conditions of the soil in
the sample are close enough to the
conditions of the soil in-situ to allow
tests of the structural properties of the
soil to be used to approximate the
properties of the soil in situ.

Block Sample
Undisturbed but retains
some in-situ properties.

 Push in tube
Sample
Tube samples of the soil in a
trial pit.

Boreholes
is used to determine the nature of the ground
(usually below 6m depth) in a qualitative
manner and then recover undisturbed samples
for quantitative examination.
Sampling
1. SPT test – a measure of the density of the
soil
2. Core Sample – must be sealed with paraffin
to maintain the water
condition and then end sealed to prevent
physical interference.
3. Bulk Samples – usually taken from trial pits
or in soils where there is
little or no cohesion.
Soil Sampling
1. Large-diameter Borings – are rarely used due
to safety concerns and expense, but are
sometimes used to allow a geologist or
engineer to visually and manually examine the
soil and rock stratigraphy in situ.

2. Small-diameter Borings – are frequently

used to allow a geologist or engineer to
examine soil or rock cuttings or to retrieve
samples at depth using Soil Samplers and to
perform in place soil tests.
 Off-shore Soil
Samples

- No specific formula to determine the number

and depth of boreholes (at every corner and
middle of the proposed structure until the hard
layer Δσ≈ 10% of the average imposed
stress by the building).

- If rock is encountered, coring must be done

(minimum of 3m continuously)
 Soil Samplers
Shovel

Trial Pits – relatively small hand or machine-

excavated tranches to determine groundwater
levels and take disturbed samples from.

Hand/Machine Driven Auger – typically

consist of a short cylinder with a cutting edge
attached to a rod and handle. It is advanced by
a combination of rotation and downward force.
Samples taken this way are disturbed
samples.
 Soil Samplers

Continuous Flight Auger – a method using an auger as a

corkscrew. It is screwed in the ground and then lifted out.
Soil is retained on the blades of the auger and kept for
testing. The soil sampled this way is considered disturbed.

Shelby Tube – thin-walled seamless steel tubes and is

generally used to take disturbed samples for routine site
investigation works.

Piston Sampler – when soils are much sensitive to

disturbance or soil consists of silts and silty sands, which
have some cohesion piston sampler is preferred. It
ensures the availability of samples of first-class quality.
 Soil Samplers

Scraper Bucket – when soil deposits are sand mixed with

pebbles, obtaining samples by split spoon may not be
possible with a spring core catcher and a scraper bucket
may be used. It has a driving point and can be attached to
a drilling rod. The sampler is driven down into the soil and
rotated and the scrapings from the side fall into the
bucket.

Standard Sampler (Split Spoon Sampler) – used for visual

examination for classification test.
 PROCESSES OF
OBTAINING
INFORMATION OF
THE PROPOSED SITE

Mackintosh or JKR Probing

lightweight portable penetrometers that are designed to be a tool to

investigate the soil bearing capacity where no soil sample can be
obtained and the data from the activity can be used to design
foundations of small and light structures. The difference between them
is their structure. Mackintosh cone has a straight portion with a length
of 11 cm, a tip with an angle of 30 or 60 degrees, has a diameter of 25
mm, and a slot to connect the cone to the extendable rod, while JKR
cone has a slightly sloping portion and has a tip with an angle of 60
degrees only.
Mackintosh or JKR Probing

On the other hand, the process of performing these probes is quite

similar to each other, where, 4.5 kg of the hammer is being used and is
dropped freely from a height of 300 mm to drive the cones and
penetrate them to the ground. It is also important to record the number
of blows required to penetrate the instrument.

The processes are repeated until reached the maximum depth which is
about 12m-50m or when the number of blows is 400.
Mackintosh 60 ° Graph
JKR Probe Graph
II. Geological Methods
Geology is a branch of Earth science concerned
with both the liquid and solid Earth, the rocks of
which it is composed, and the processes by
which they change over time. Geology can also
include the study of the solid features of any
terrestrial planet or natural satellite such as
Mars or the Moon. Modern geology significantly
overlaps all other Earth sciences, including
hydrology and the atmospheric sciences, and so
Geologists use a wide variety of
is treated as one major aspect of integrated methods to understand the Earth's
Earth system science and planetary science. structure and evolution, including
fieldwork, rock description, geophysical
techniques, geochemical analysis, and
numerical modeling.
Fieldwork
Outside the confines of a laboratory, library, or
office, fieldwork is the collection of raw data.
Field research methodologies and procedures
differ from discipline to discipline. While
biologists may simply watch animals interact
with their environment, social scientists may
interview or observe people in their natural
surroundings to gain insight into their languages,
folklore, and social structures.
Rock Description
Tectonics is the study of rocks and their
formation. Igneous, metamorphic, and
sedimentary petrology are all subcategories of
petrology. Because of the substantial reliance
on chemistry, chemical techniques, and phase
diagrams in both igneous and metamorphic
petrology, they are frequently taught combined.
For For this reason, sedimentary petrology is
often taught alongside stratigraphy in courses on
the formation of sedimentary rock.
Geophysical Technique
The systematic collection of geophysical data for spatial
investigations is called a geophysical survey. Geophysical
signal processing relies on the detection and analysis of
geophysical signals. There is a wealth of seismic activity
and structural information in the Earth's magnetic and
gravitational fields emitted from its interior. Detection and
analysis of the electric and magnetic fields is therefore
extremely important. All the 1-D transformation techniques
can be applied to the analysis of electromagnetic and
gravitational waves because they are multi-dimensional
signals. Multi-dimensional signal processing techniques are
therefore also discussed in this article.
Geochemical Analysis
To understand large geological systems like the
Earth's crust and its oceans, geologists employ
chemistry to understand their mechanisms.
Geochemistry has made significant contributions to
our knowledge of a wide range of phenomena,
including the formation of planets, mantle convection,
and the origin of granite and basalt. It's a branch of
chemistry and geology that's all rolled into one.
Numerical Modeling
When a computer model simulates a real-world or physical
system, it tries to anticipate how it will behave or what its
outcome will be. It is possible to assess a mathematical
model's accuracy by comparing it to the actual results that it is
intended to forecast. Many natural systems, including physics
(computational physics), astronomy, climatology, chemistry,
biology, and manufacturing, as well as human systems, such
as economics, psychology, social science, health care, and
engineering, can now be mathematically modeled using
computer simulations. The running of a system's model is how
simulation is represented. New technology can be explored
and the performance of systems that are too complicated for
analytical solutions can be estimated using this method.
III. Exploration
Exploration techniques are defined here as the set
of procedures of observation, measurement, and
interpretation of the characteristics (geological,
physical, and chemical) of mineralized areas and
their associated effects. Techniques comprise the
data-gathering methods the exploration uses to test
concepts of ore localization.
It is an activity related to establishing mineral
activities related to establishing minerals deposits
through geological, geophysical deposits through
It is preceded by prospecting
geological, geophysical, and geochemical methods. and followed by planning &by
It is preceded and geochemical methods. prospecting and followed by
planning & development.
Exploration methods
Boulder exploration, geological mapping in the field,
geophysical surveys, geochemical sampling, and
drilling are examples of the methods we use in
exploration to find new mineral deposits.
 Geophysical surveys
Investigates the bedrock’s physical
properties. Surveys can be performed
from the air, manually on the ground,
or using probes lowered into
boreholes.

The method has limited or no

environmental impact.
Boulder hunting
Physically searching on-site for
geologically interesting boulders that have
been separated from the bedrock in
connection with inland ice sheet
movements and are now part of a till layer.
The discovery of e.g. copper or zinc
indicates the possibility of deposits in
nearby bedrock.

The method has limited or no environmental

impact.
Bedrock mapping
Documents the geological properties of
outcrops, including metallic minerals, and
gathers the information in databases for
interpretation and analysis.

The method has limited or no environmental

impact.
 Geochemical sampling
Analyses till and drill cuttings to
trace mineralization's limited
impact on the environment in the
form of minor ground damage may
occur.
 Diamond drilling
Enables the mapping of the bedrock
at depth, its geology, and possible
mineralization. Core drilling can take
place to depths as great as 2,000
meters.
This method has some impact on the
environment as the borehole entails
an intervention in the bedrock.
Geological Mapping
is a highly interpretive, scientific process that can produce a range of
map products for many different uses, including assessing ground-
water quality and contamination risks; predicting earthquake, volcano,
and landslide hazards; characterizing energy and mineral resources
and their extraction costs; waste repository siting; land management
and land-use planning; and general education.

 A way to gather & present geologic data. (Peters, 1978)

Shows how rock & soil on the earth’s surface is distributed.
(USGS)
IV. Geophysical Methods

Are routinely used to measure

the engineering properties of
soils and bedrock as an input
to the design of foundation
structures including piles.
 Geophysical Methods can be classified
into two types:

Passive Geophysical Method Active Geophysical Method

A “perturbation/signal”
is injected into the earth to
Measurements of naturally occurring fields
measure how the subsurface responds to this signal.
or properties of the Earth.

Artificially generated signals are transmitted into the
Spatial variations of these fields or ground and then modified in the received signals in
properties and attempt to infer something ways that are characteristic of the materials through
about the subsurface material distribution. which they travel. Examples of these methods are
seismic and some electrical methods.

Advantages of Passive
Geophysical Method

Record / signal from naturally

occurring field
Cost-efficient
Not Invasive
Advantages of Active
Geophysical Method

Controllable Sources

Better Depth Control

Large Quantities of Data
 Geophysical Methods are:
Gravity Method

It is mainly used for oil exploration. Sometimes in mineral and ground

water prospecting.
Different types of rock have different densities and denser rocks
have greater gravitational attraction.
If the higher–density formations are arched upward in a structural
high, such as an anticline, the earth’s gravitational field will be greater
over the axis of the structure than along its flanks.
 Geophysical Methods are:
Magnetic Method

Deals with variations in the magnetic field of the

earth which are related to changes in structures
or magnetic susceptibility in certain near-surface
rocks.
Designed to map structure on or inside the
basement rocks or to detect magnetic minerals
directly.
Employed for the direct location of ores
containing magnetic minerals such as magnetite.
 Geophysical Methods are:
Electrical Method

Designed to give information about the

electrical conductivity of the earth’s rocks.
Current is driven through the ground using a
pair of electrodes and the resulting
distribution of the potential in the ground is
mapped by using another pair of electrodes
connected to a sensitive voltmeter.
Used to map boundaries between layers
having different conductivities.
SEISMIC
METHOD

Two Types of Seismic Methods

Used to

1. Seismic Reflection Method

map the structure of subsurface
formations by measuring the times required for a
seismic wave, generated in the earth by a near-
surface exploration of dynamite, mechanical
impact, or vibration, to return to the surface after
reflection from the interface between formations
having different physical properties.
One can locate and map such features as
anticlines, faults, salt domes and reefs. Many of
these are associated with the accumulation of oil
and gas.
 Two Types of Seismic Methods

2. Seismic Refraction Method

Instruments recorded the arrival times of the
seismic waves when refracted from the
surface of discontinuity.
Give information on the velocities and depths
of the subsurface formations along which
they propagate.
Makes it possible to cover a given area in a
shorter time and more economically than with
the reflection method.
 Radioactive Method
Used

to estimate concentrations of the

radioelements: potassium, uranium and
thorium in the near surface.
V. Seismic Methods
A geophysical prospecting method
based on the fact that the speeds
of transmission of shock waves
through the Earth vary with the
elastic constants and the densities
of the rocks through which the
waves pass.
Seismic Waves
A seismic wave is an elastic wave generated by an impulse such as an
earthquake or an explosion. It is a mechanical vibration that is initiated by a
source and travels to the location where the vibration is noted. The vibration is
merely a change in the stress state due to a disturbance. The vibration emanates
in all directions that support displacement. The vibration readily passes from one
medium to another and from solids to liquids or gasses and in reverse. A vacuum
cannot support mechanical vibratory waves, while electromagnetic waves can
be transmitted through a vacuum. The direction of travel is called the ray, ray
vector, or ray path. Since a source produces motion in all directions the locus of
the first disturbances will form a spherical shell or wavefront in a uniform
material. There are two major classes of seismic waves: body waves, which pass
through the volume of a material; and, surface waves, which exist only near a
boundary.
 TYPES OF
SEISMIC WAVES
Body waves

body wave is a seismic

wave that moves through
the interior of the earth, as
opposed to surface waves
that travel near the earth's
surface.
Primary wave (P-wave)
These are the fastest traveling of all seismic waves. The particle motion of
P-waves is an extension (dilation) and compression along the propagating
direction. P-waves travel through all media that support seismic waves;
airwaves or noise in gasses, including the atmosphere. Compressional
waves in fluids, e.g., water and air, are commonly referred to as acoustic
waves.
Secondary wave (S-wave)
S-waves travel slightly slower than P-waves in solids. S-waves have particle
motion perpendicular to the propagating direction, like the obvious
movement of a rope as a displacement speeds along its length. These
transverse waves can only transit material that has shear strength. S-waves
therefore do not exist in liquids and gasses, as these media have no shear
strength.
S-waves may be produced by a traction source or by conversion of P-
waves at boundaries. The dominant particle displacement is vertical for SV
waves traveling in a horizontal plane. Dominant particle displacements are
horizontal for SH-waves traveling in the vertical plane. SH-waves are often
generated for S-wave refraction evaluations of engineering sites.
Secondary wave (S-wave)
Surface waves
A surface wave is a seismic wave that is trapped near the surface of the earth. Two
recognized vibrations, which exist only at "surfaces" or interfaces, are Love and
Rayleigh waves. Traveling along a surface, these waves attenuate rapidly with distance
from the surface. Surface waves travel slower than body waves. Love waves travel
along the surfaces of layered media and are most often faster than Rayleigh waves.
Love waves have particle displacement similar to SH waves. A point in the path of a
Rayleigh wave moves back, down, forward, and up repetitively in an ellipse-like ocean
wave.
Surface waves are produced by surface impacts, explosions, and waveform changes at
boundaries. Love and Rayleigh waves are also portions of the surface wave train in
earthquakes. These surface waves may carry greater energy content than body waves.
These wave types arrive last, following the body waves, but can produce larger
displacements in surface structures. Therefore, surface waves may cause more damage
from earthquake vibrations.
Surface waves
Wave theory
A seismic disturbance moves away from a source location; the locus of
points defining the expanding disturbance is termed the wavefront. Any
point on a wave front acts as a new source and causes displacements
in surrounding positions. The vector normal to the wavefront is the ray
path through that point and is the direction of propagation. Upon striking
a boundary between different material properties, wave energy is
transmitted, reflected, and converted. The properties of the two media
and the angle at which the incident ray path strikes will determine the
amount of energy reflected off the surface refracted into the adjoining
material lost as heat, and changed to other wave types.
Data Acquisition
Digital electronics have continued to allow the production of better
seismic equipment. Newer equipment is harder, more productive, and
able to store greater amounts of data. The choice of seismograph,
sensors (geophones), storage medium, and source of the seismic wave
depend on the survey being undertaken. The sophistication of the
survey, in part, governs the choice of equipment and the field crew size
necessary to obtain the measurements. Costs rise as more elaborate
equipment is used. However, there are efficiencies to be gained in the
proper choice of source, number of geophone emplacements for each
line, crew size, the channel capacity of the seismograph, and
requirements of the field in terrain type and cultural noise.
Data Acquisition
Sources
The seismic source may be a hammer striking the ground or an aluminum plate or weighted
plank, drop weights of varying sizes, a rifle shot, a harmonic oscillator, waterborne mechanisms,
or explosives. The energy disturbance for seismic work is most often called the "shot," an archaic
term from petroleum seismic exploration. Reference to the "shot" does not necessarily mean an
explosive or rifle source was used. The type of survey dictates some source parameters. Smaller
mass and higher frequency sources are preferable. Higher frequencies give shorter wavelengths
and more precision in choosing arrivals and estimating depths. Yet, sufficient energy needs to be
transmitted to obtain a strong return at the end of the survey line. The type of source for a
particular survey is usually known prior to go into the field. A geophysical contractor normally
should be given latitude in selecting or changing the source necessary for the task. The client
should not hesitate in placing limits on the contractor's indiscriminate use of some sources. In
residential or industrial areas, perhaps the maximum explosive should be limited. The depth of
drilling shot holes for explosives or rifle shots may need to be limited; contractors should be
cautious not to exceed requirements of permits, utility easements, and contract agreements.
Geophones
The sensor receiving seismic energy is the geophone (hydrophone in waterborne
surveys) or phone. These sensors are either accelerometers or velocity transducers
and convert ground movement into a voltage. Typically, the amplification of the ground
is many orders of magnitude but accomplished on a relative basis. The absolute value
of particle acceleration cannot be determined unless the geophones are calibrated.
Most geophones have vertical, single-axis responses to receive the incoming
waveform from beneath the surface. Some geophones have a horizontal-axis response
for S-wave or surface wave assessments. Triaxial phones, capable of measuring
absolute response, are used in specialized surveys. Geophones are chosen for their
frequency band response.
The line, spread, or string of phones may contain one to scores of sensors depending
on the type of survey. The individual channel of recording normally will have a single
phone. Multiple phones per channel may aid in reducing wind noise or air blasts or in
amplifying deep reflections.
Geophones
Seismographs
The equipment that records input geophone voltages in a timed sequence is
the seismograph. Current practice uses seismographs that store the
channels' signals as digital data at a discrete time. Earlier seismographs
would record directly to paper or photographic film. Stacking, inputting, and
processing vast volumes of data and archiving the information for the client
virtually require digital seismographs. The seismograph system may be an
elaborate amalgam of equipment to trigger or sense the source, digitize
geophone signals, store multichannel data, and provide some level of
processing display. Sophisticated seismograph equipment is not normally
required for engineering and environmental surveys. One major exception is
the equipment for sub-bottom surveys or nondestructive testing of
pavements.
Seismographs
Electrical Method
Basic Concept
Electrical geophysical prospecting methods detect the surface effects
produced by electric current flow in the ground. Using electrical methods,
one may measure potentials, currents, and electromagnetic fields that occur
naturally or are introduced artificially in the ground. In addition, the
measurements can be made in a variety of ways to determine a variety of
results. There is a much greater variety of electrical and electromagnetic
techniques available than in the other prospecting methods, where only a
single field of force or anomalous property is used. Basically, however, it is
the enormous variation in electrical resistivity found in different rocks and
minerals that makes these techniques possible (Telford, et al., 1976).
Electrical Properties of Rocks
All materials, including soil and rock, have an intrinsic property, resistivity that
governs the relationship between the current density and the gradient of the
electrical potential. Variations in the resistivity of earth materials, either vertically or
laterally, produce variations in the relations between the applied current and the
potential distribution as measured on the surface or thereby reveal something
about the composition, extent, and physical properties of the subsurface materials.
The various electrical geophysical techniques distinguish materials through
whatever contrast exists in their electrical properties. Materials that differ
geologically, such as described in a lithological log from a drill hole, may or may
not differ electrically and, therefore, may or may not be distinguished by an
electrical resistivity survey. Properties that affect the resistivity of a soil or rock
include porosity, water content, composition (clay mineral and metal content), the
salinity of the pore water, and grain size distribution.
Electrical Properties of Rocks
In most earth materials, the conduction of electric current takes
place virtually entirely in the water occupying the pore spaces or
joint openings, since most soil- and rock-forming minerals are
essentially non-conductive. Clays and a few other minerals, notably
magnetite, specular hematite, carbon, pyrite, and other metallic
sulfides, may be found in sufficient concentration to contribute
measurably to the conductivity of the soil or rock.
Typical electrical resistivity of earth materials.
Typical electrical resistivity of earth materials.
Classification of Electrical Methods
Self-Potential (SP)
The self-potential method consists of the passive measurement of
the distribution of the electrical potential at the ground surface of
the Earth and in boreholes. The purpose of this method is to map
the electrical potential to reveal one or several polarization
mechanisms at play in the ground. In some cases, the self-potential
signals are monitored with a network of non-polarizable electrodes,
which provide both a better signal-to-noise ratio and the possibility
to discriminate between various sources.
Classification of Electrical Methods
Telluric Current
Telluric current, also called Earth Current, is a natural electric
current flowing on and beneath the surface of the Earth and
generally follows a direction parallel to the Earth’s surface. Telluric
currents arise from charges moving to attain equilibrium between
regions of differing electric potentials; these differences in
potential are set up by several conditions, including very low-
frequency electromagnetic waves from space, particularly from
the magnetosphere incident upon the Earth’s surface, and moving
charged masses in the ionosphere and the atmosphere.
Classification of Electrical Methods
Magnetotelluric Methods
It measures orthogonal components of the electric and magnetic
fields induced by these natural currents. Such measurements
allow researchers to determine resistivity as a function of depth.
The natural currents span a broad range of frequencies and thus a
range of effective penetration depths.
Classification of Electrical Methods
Resistivity Method
Electric resistivity methods are a form of geophysical surveying
that aids in imaging the subsurface. These methods utilize
differences in electric potential to identify subsurface material.

METHODS:
The three main methods of electric resistivity surveys are
vertical electric sounding (VES), electric profiling, and electric
imaging. Each of these utilizes one of the array configurations
mentioned above
Resistivity Method
Vertical Electric Sounding
VES is one of the more commonly used and cost-effective
resistivity survey methods. Current is moved through the
subsurface from one current electrode to the other and the
potential as the current moves are recorded.
Resistivity Method
Electric Profiling
Where VES focuses on determining resistivity variations on a
vertical scale, electric profiling seeks to determine resistivity
variations on a horizontal scale. Profiling can use the same
electrode spacing configurations as VES.
Resistivity Method
Electric Imaging
Electric imaging is able to survey both vertical and horizontal
changes in resistivity. This method essentially combines the other
two methods. Electrode spacing is increased and the survey is
moved along a profile in order to measure both vertical and
horizontal resistivity. These values are then used to create a
pseudo section.
Resistivity Method
Electromagnetic (EM) Method
An EM transmitter outputs a time-varying electric current into a
transmitter coil. The current in the transmitter coil generates a
magnetic field of the same frequency and phase. Lines of force of
this magnetic field penetrate the earth and may penetrate a
conductive body. When this occurs, an electromotive force or
voltage is set up within the conductor
Classification of Electrical Methods
Induced Polarization
Induced Polarization (IP) is a geophysical method used extensively
in mineral exploration and mine operations. The IP survey is very
similar to electrical resistivity tomography (ERT). Resistivity and IP
methods are often applied on the ground surface using multiple
four-electrode sites.
VI. Direct Penetration
-Is a type of direct research that obtains
information by physically sampling or
testing soil, rock, and Groundwater. This
approach involves real excavation by
probing, digging, or test pits. Soil samples
are collected from rock and soil layers.
The GWT features are then established
by performing laboratory tests on the site
sample.
 Two types of Direct
Penetration

1. Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

2. Static cone penetration
- is an in-situ test that falls under
A method of geotechnical
the penetrometer test category.
investigation for testing bearing
Between the soil parameters and
capacity and penetration
the penetration resistance, an
resistance of soil. This method is
empirical correlation is determined.
widely used to record the variation
The test is highly beneficial for
in the in-situ penetration resistance
assessing cohesionless soils'
of soil where standard density test
relative density and angle of
(SPT) is unreliable or where soil
shearing resistance.
density is disturbed.
Tools for Standard Penetration Test

1. Standard Split Spoon Sampler

A standard split spoon sampler

consists of a thick wall tube having
an outer diameter of 50.8 mm
internal diameter of 35 mm and a
length of 6OO mm. The tube has a
drive shoe attached to its bottom
and a coupling head at top to
accommodate the drill rod, used
for testing.
Tools for Standard Penetration Test

2. Drop Hammer weighing 63.5kg

A machine consisting of an anvil or

based aligned with a hammer that
is raised and then dropped on the
metal resting on the anvil.
Tools for Standard Penetration Test

3. Guiding rod
A heavy drill rod coupled to and
having the same diameter as a
core barrel on which it is used. It
gives additional rigidity to the core
barrel and helps to prevent
deflection of the borehole.
Tools for Standard Penetration Test

4. Drilling Rig
An integrated system that drills
wells, such as oil or water wells, in
the Earth’s subsurface.
Tools for Standard Penetration Test

5. Driving head (anvil).

That portion of the drive-weight
assembly which the hammer
strikes and through which the
hammer energy passes into the
drive rods.
Standard Penetration Test Procedure

1. Dig Starting Bore Hole

First, dig the starting borehole with boring equipment. Before
conducting the test, we have to decide the total depth of penetration
bore and depth interval to carry the test and collect the sample the
same. Let’s take borehole depth up to 10m. (Generally, the depth of
the bore is up to the groundwater table or up to hard strata below the
ground surface.) We can decide the intermediate test depth of every
1m. So, SPT is conducted at every one meter of boring below ground
level, and soil samples are collected at the same depth.
Standard Penetration Test Procedure

2. Assemble the Sampler

Once the boring of the hole is done up to desired depth (1 m depth we
decided) remove the drilling tools from the borehole and clean all the
disturbing materials. After that fit, the soil sampler was named a split
spoon sampler with the drilling rod and lowered into the borehole.
Now, the rest split spoon sampler was attracted to a drilling rod at
bottom of the drilled borehole of undistributed soil.
Standard Penetration Test Procedure

3. Assemble Equipment
As we place the sampler rest on the bottom of the borehole, it’s time
to conduct the SPT test. Keep ready test equipment the Hammer,
Anvil, and guiding rod, and assemble them with each other properly.
Mark the distance of 150mm on the drilling rod to observe penetration
details.
Standard Penetration Test Procedure

4. Conduct SPT Test

Firstly drive the drop hammer on the bottom of a borehole by blows
from the slide hammer with a mass of 63.5 kg falling through a
distance of 750 mm (30 in) at the rate of 30 blows per minute.
Now, Count the number of blows required to reach or drive depth of
150 mm (6 in). Similarly, again drive sampler in soil and count the
blows needed to penetrate the second and third 150 mm (6 in). In this
test, the total sum of the number of blows required to drive the
sampler 150mm (6 in.) of penetration is termed the “standard
penetration resistance” or the “N-value“.
 Standard Penetration Test Procedure

4. Conduct SPT Test

If the sampler is driven less than 450 mm (total), then the “N-value” shall be for the
300 mm of penetration (if less than 300 mm is penetrated, then the report should
specify the number of blows and the depth penetrated). If a number of blows are
required to drive the sampler to a depth of 150 mm excess of the value 50, it is
considered as a refusal, and the test is discontinued. The entire sampler may
sometimes sink under its own weight when a very soft sub-soil stratum is
encountered. Under such situations, it may not be necessary to give any blow to the
sampler, and the “N-value” should be indicated as zero. The Test shall be made at
every change in the stratum or at intervals of not more than 1.5 meters whichever is
less. The test may be made at lesser intervals if necessary or specified.
Standard Penetration Test Procedure

5. Soil Sample Collection

Now, collect the soil sample from the borehole
 Two types of Direct
Penetration

1. Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

2. Static cone penetration
- is an in-situ test that falls under
A method of geotechnical
the penetrometer test category.
investigation for testing bearing
Between the soil parameters and
capacity and penetration
the penetration resistance, an
resistance of soil. This method is
empirical correlation is determined.
widely used to record the variation
The test is highly beneficial for
in the in-situ penetration resistance
assessing cohesionless soils'
of soil where standard density test
relative density and angle of
(SPT) is unreliable or where soil
shearing resistance.
density is disturbed.
Equipment
The CPT tanks used to advance the
cone into the ground mainly consist of a
hydraulic jack and a reaction system
and it is usually placed in a truck
weighing 15 tons or more, and torsional
anchors can be implemented to provide
the required reaction force.
 The cone penetrometer
provides an accurate and
continuous profile of soil
stratification. This tool provides
valuable information about
granular and cohesive soils. In
addition, the cone
penetrometer has two fiction
which is ELECTRIC FRICTION
and the MECHANICAL FRICTION
Static cone penetration Procedure
The test is performed by
pushing the standard cone
with a base area of 10 cm2 and an angle of 60°, into
the soil at a rate of 10 to 20 mm/sec. After
installation, a sounding rod is pushed into the soil at
a steady rate of 10 mm/sec in order to advance the
cone.
VII. Core Boring
“Boring in geology means drilling a hole, tunnel, or well
in the Earth.”

Core boring is a sampling technique used to research

mineral resources in the subsoil by boring wells in
order to analyze the ground, and for other digging
activities for civil engineering purposes. In core boring,
a cylinder-shaped sample of rock or ice is extracted,
which is known as a core. This is the method commonly
used to drill through the hard rock formation. The
equipment used to form the boring is also called a
core barrel.
Core Barrel
– It consists of a hardened steel rod with a tough cutting bit,
possessing commercial diamond or tungsten carbide chips. The
core barrels are regularly 5 to 10 cm in diameter and about 30 to
300 cm long.
 Two types of core
barrel:

a) Single tube b) Double tube

core barrel core barrel
How is it conducted?
This soil exploration is conducted by attaching core barrels plus cutting it bit
assembly with the rods. The core is advanced by rotary drilling. Water or air is
used as the coolant. The coolant will be pressed through the rods and barrel.
The water will emerge at the end of the bit. The soil stays inside the core
barrel. It is separated to perform an examination of soil, by getting the barrel
onto the surface.

After the collection of samples, the rock is sent to the laboratory. In the
laboratory, rock type, and texture orientation of rock formation are found.
Compression tests and permeability tests are performed on core samples to
know about the compressive strength. The depth of the recovered sample
must be properly recorded. Based on the depth of recovery, the recovery ratio
can be found.
Computing for the recovery Ratio:

Recovery ratio= length of core recovered/ theoretical length of

the rock cored

Examples of Contracts about Core Boring:

SECTION 201
DRILLING
201.1 EQUIPMENT
All equipment and tools shall be subject to the approval of the
Engineer. They shall be modern, in the condition of good repair,
and capable of doing the work herein described. Hammers used
to obtain Standard Penetration Tests shall have been calibrated
within the past three (3) years. A certificate of calibration shall
be provided to the Engineer.

Approval of the equipment by the Engineer shall not be construed

as justification for measurement and payment for borings
abandoned or lost before reaching the depth specified by the
Engineer.
201.2 CORE BORINGS
Those borings designated core boring in these specifications shall include
an investigation of both the soil and rock portions within a specified boring
and shall be accomplished as follows:

201.2.1 SOIL PORTION: Soil borings shall be made for the purpose of ascertaining the nature and elevation of
each stratum of material encountered above rock. Test samples shall be collected as outlined in AASHTO
Designation T-206. Unless otherwise specified or directed, sampling will be of the Standard Penetration Test
(SPT) method. The soil boring may be advanced by Rotary Drill. If required to maintain an open hole and
facilitate sampling, Rotary Drill - Mud Method or Rotary Drill - Cased Boring Method, which are described
below, may be used:

201.2.1.1 ROTARY DRILL - MUD METHOD: Any method which demonstrates to the satisfaction of the Engineer
successful advancement of the boring maintaining an open hole and permitting the securing of disturbed and
undisturbed samples, and SPT blow counts shall be permitted. The method described in Bulletin 35
Waterways Experiment Station, Corps of Engineers, U.S. Army, Vicksburg, Mississippi, is a satisfactory method.
a. Core logging
A type of examination in which the drill core is measured thru a
systematic recording gaining as much information as possible to
the extent. It determines the changes in mineral assemblages,
determines lithology, geological history, and potential mineral
deposits.
Core logging procedure
The following steps are suggested during the core logging process:
Clean the core of drilling fluids or mud.
Mark major structures, proposed point load testing locations, and
depths (every 1-2 metres) on undisturbed core in splits.
Photograph the core in the splits (if using triple tube method) with
a scale placed in the picture and a whiteboard indicating what
depth the core has been obtained from.
Complete the Discontinuity and core description logs.
Transfer the core from the splits to a labelled core box.
Once a core box is full, take a single photograph of the core box
with a scale
Colour and rock description
Color and rock descriptions should be logged as part of the core
logging procedure to identify the lithologies and alteration sequences
encountered. Logging should be based on easy-to-identify attributes
that will in most cases allow rock type to be determined quickly and
easily. Such attributes include:
• Pattern
• Colour
• Grain size
• Texture
• Fabric
• Lithology
• Alteration
Colour and rock description
Logging these parameters separately and on an interval basis will
allow for the recognition of subtle variations that would normally be
smoothed over in the summary log, and will ensure that the
descriptions produced for final reporting are clear, concise, and
repeatable. Codes describing the above should be decided upon in
advance and kept as simple as possible for ease of data entry and for
consistency.
 VIII. GEOLOGICAL
CONDITIONS NECESSARY
FOR CONTRUCTIONS OF
DAMS.

Dams
- is a barrier that stops or restricts the
flow of water or underground streams.
Reservoirs created by dams not only
suppress floods but also provide water
for activities such as irrigation, human
consumption, industrial use, aquaculture
and navigability.
Spill Way Size and Location
Spillway disposes of the surplus river
discharge. The capacity of the spillway
will depend on the magnitude of the
floods to be bypassed. The spillway is
therefore much more important on rivers
and streams with large flood potentials.
Competent Rocks for Safe Foundation
If igneous rocks occurs at selected dam
site, they will offer a safe basis, and
weak sedimentary rocks, particularly
shale, poorly commented sandstone
and lime stones are naturally
undesirable to serve as foundation
rocks.
Narrow River Valley
The proposed dam site of the river
valley is narrow, only a small dam is
required which means the cost of dam
construction will be less.
Bedrock at Shallow Depths
To ensure the safety and stability, a
dam has to necessarily rest on
(physically) very strong and (structurally)
very stable.
Effects of Associated Geological Structures

For the stability of dam, the occurrence of

favorable geological structure is a very
important requirement. Under structural
geology, those rocks bear certain inherent or
original physical properties, such characters
get modified either advantageously or
disadvantageously when geological structures
occurs in those rocks.
Earthquake Zone
If dam is suitated in an earthquake zone,
its design must include earthquake
forces
Tunnels
Tunnels may be defined as underground routes
or passages driven through the ground without
disturbing the overlying soil or rock cover.
Tunnels are driven for a variety of purposes and
are classified accordingly.
Tunnels have many uses: for mining ores, for
transportation— including road vehicles, trains,
subways, and canals—and for conducting
water and sewage.
 Types of Tunnels

Chief classes of tunnels are:

Traffic Tunnels
Public utility
tunnels
Hydropower

tunnels

Tunneling
Tunneling has been practiced on a large scale during last two centuries in
all big countries for ensuring better and faster communications through
roads and railways. At places such as in high mountains tunneling
becomes an absolute necessity for connecting two countries or two
different places of the same country. Tunneling has been one of the most
challenging jobs for the engineers. Geological information is an integral
part of all the processes involved in preparing designs, executing
excavations and construction of all types of tunnels.
1. Traffic Tunnels
A traffic tunnel is usually adopted as a convenient and cost-effective
alternative to divert the traffic load and provide a direct transportation link
between two places separated by such inconvenient obstacles as mountains,
hills, water-bodies or even densely populated areas in the metropolitan cities.
Traffic tunnels may vary in length from a few meters to many kilometers and
have been excavated in almost all major countries of the world. Reduction in
distance which in turn saves considerable time and hence cost in travelling is
the most common and important objective in driving tunnels compared to
having surface traffic links.
 1. Traffic Tunnels
Among the hundreds of traffic tunnels in different parts of the world, the
following are just a few examples:

a. The Simplon Tunnel – It is a single-track railway tunnel, 19.370 km long and connects Brig in
Switzerland with Chiasso in Itlay. Its construction started in 1895 and it was finally completed in
1921, thus taking more than 25 years for the job. The Simplon Tunnel passes through complex
sequence of gneisses, limestones and shales under an average cover of 2 km in the Alps.

b. The Hokoriku Tunnel in Japan is a double track railway tunnel driven through sandstones and
granites. It is 13.87 km in length.
1. Traffic Tunnels
c. The Mont Blanc Tunnel links France and Itlay and is a 12.6. km. long highway
tunnel passing through complex rocks. It was completed in 1965. Another
tunnel starting in Italy and joining it with Switzerland is the St. Bernard Tunnel
which is 6.60 km long.

d. The Jawahar Tunnel is a double tube highway tunnel on the National

Highway in India and allows highway traffic even during extreme winters under
the snow-clad Himalayan Mountains (Pir Panjal) at Banihal in Jammu and
Kashmir, India.
 2. The Hydropower Tunnels
During twentieth century most of the tunneling has been in connection with hydropower
generation. Such tunnels are aptly called “hydropower” tunnels. In most cases these
are driven through rocks for the purpose of conveying water under gravity from one
point to another, as for example, to cross a hill. In such cases they are called discharge
tunnels.
The other type of hydropower tunnel are those which feed water under great pressure
to turbines and is distinguished as pressure tunnels. In India, till the end of 1989, more
than 500 km of tunneling had been done in hydropower projects. Some of the
completed tunnels are around 15 m in diameter and 12-13 km in length. The Beas-Sutlej
Link, Yamuna-II, Koyna and Balimela are few examples of hydropower tunnels.
 3. The Public Utility Tunnels
This group includes a variety of underground excavations made for specific purposes
such as for disposal of urban waste (sewage tunnels), for carrying pipes, cables and
supplies of oil, water etc. A recent development is construction of underground parking
places and storage chambers to overcome space shortage in cosmopolitan cities.

Subways and tube railways also fall in the category of excavations but they are, in
most cases, not tunnels in the strict sense because they are excavations made in the
ground and then covered from the top. This method of placing the ‘tubes’ or ‘tracks’ is
called cut and cover method and not tunneling in which, top cover remains undisturbed
and intact during the excavation.
3. The Public Utility Tunnels

Geologically speaking, only two classes of tunnels are recognized –

tunnels driven through rocks (rock tunneling) and tunnels driven through
soil, loose sediments or saturated ground (soft-ground tunneling).
3. The Public Utility Tunnels

Geologically speaking, only two classes of tunnels are recognized –

tunnels driven through rocks (rock tunneling) and tunnels driven through
soil, loose sediments or saturated ground (soft-ground tunneling).
 Geological Investigations for Tunnels
Geological investigations are very essential in tunneling projects. These
determine to a large extent solutions to following engineering problems
connected with tunneling:

(a) Selection of Tunnel Route (Alignment):

There might be available many alternate alignments that could connect two points
through a tunnel. However, the final choice would be greatly dependent on the
geological constitution along and around different alternatives: the alignment
having least geologically negative factors would be the obvious choice.
 Geological Investigations for Tunnels
(b) Selection of Excavation Method:
Tunneling is a complicated process in any situation and involves huge costs which
would multiply manifolds if proper planning is not exercised before starting the
actual excavation. And the excavation methods are intimately linked with the type
of rocks to be excavated. Choice of the right method will, therefore, be possible
only when the nature of the rocks and the ground all along the alignment is fully
known. This is one of the most important aim and object of geological
investigations.
 Geological Investigations for Tunnels
(c) Selection of Design for the Tunnel:
The ultimate dimensions and design parameters of a proposed tunnel are
controlled, besides other factors, by geological constitution of the area along the
alignment. Whether the tunnel is to be circular, D-Shaped, horse-shoe shaped or
rectangular or combination of one or more of these outlines, is more often
dictated by the geology of the alignment than by any other single factor.
 Geological Investigations for Tunnels
(d) Assessment of Cost and Stability:
These aspects of the tunneling projects are also closely interlinked with the first
three considerations. Since geological investigations will determine the line of
actual excavation, the method of excavation and the dimensions of excavation as
also the supporting system (lining) of the excavation, all estimates about the cost
of the project would depend on the geological details.
 Geological Investigations for Tunnels
(e) Assessment of Environmental Hazards:
A correct appreciation of geological set up of the area, especially where tunnel
alignment happens to be close to the populated zones, would enable the
engineer for planning and implementing plans aimed at minimizing the
environmental hazards in a successful manner.
 Tunnel design, method of its excavation and
stability are greatly influenced by
following geological conditions:

Lithology
Groundwater
Conditions
Geological
Structures
 Lithology

The information regarding mineralogical composition, textures and

structures of the rocks through which the proposed tunnel is to
pass is of great importance in deciding:
Hard and Crystalline Rocks are the favourites with the tunnel
engineers. These are excavated by using conventional rock blasting
methods (RBM) and also by tunnel boring machines (TBM) of suitable
strength. In the blasting method, full face or a convenient section of
the face is selected for blasting up to a pre-selected depth during
one shooting sequence.
 Lithology

When any one of the rocks used is stressed, such as during folding
or fractured as during faulting, tunneling in these rocks proves
greatly hazardous. Rock bursts which occur due to falling of big rock
blocks from roofs or sides due to release of stresses or falling of
rock block along fractures already existing in these rocks often
cause many accidents.
 Geological Structures

The design, stability and cost of tunnel depend not only on the type
of rock but also on the structures developed in these rocks.
Wherever tunnel is intersected by fault planes or shear zones, it is
to be considered as passing through most unsafe situations and
hence designed accordingly by providing maximum support and
drainage facilities.
 Ground Water Conditions

Determination of groundwater conditions in the region of tunnel

project is not to be underestimated at any cost. Firstly, through its
physico-chemical action, it erodes and corrodes (dissolves) the
susceptible constituents from among the rocks and thereby alters
their original properties constantly with the passage of time.
Secondly, it effects the rock strength parameters by its static and
dynamic water heads.
IX. Buildings
Buildings come in a variety of sizes, shapes, and
functions, and have been adapted throughout history
for a wide number of factors, from building materials
available, to weather conditions, land prices, ground
conditions, specific uses, and aesthetic reasons.

Buildings serve several societal needs – primarily as

shelter from weather, security, living space, privacy, to
store belongings, and to comfortably live and work. A
building as a shelter represents a physical division of
the human habitat .
 History
-There is clear evidence

of homebuilding from around 18,000 BC.

Buildings became common during the Neolithic.
 2 types of buildings

RESIDENTIAL
- Single family residential buildings COMPLEX
are most often called houses or -Sometimes a group of inter-related
homes. Multi-family residential and possibly inter-connected builds
buildings containing more than one are referred to as a complex. For
dwelling unit are called a duplex or example: a housing complex,
an apartment building. A educational
condominium is an apartment that complex, hospital complex, etc.
the occupant owns rather than

rents.

Building Damage
Buildings may be damaged during the construction of the building or
during maintenance.

Building services
Physical Plant
- Any building requires a certain general amount of internal
infrastructure to function, which includes such elements like
heating/cooling, power and telecommunications, water and wastewater
etc.
Conveying Systems
System for transport of people within buildings:

•Elevators
•Escalator
•Moving sidewalk
•Skyway
•Underground city
X. Road cutting
A process of construction used on undulating terrain with
ridges and troughs or more specifically terrain with elevated
areas such as hills and mountains and low-lying areas such as
valleys. This method is widely used in the construction of
roads, railways, canals and other projects where
embankments are to be built. The purpose is to cut the slope
to create a surface that is level or parallel with the sea level.
Vehicles are capable of moving on this road as if they are on
flat ground, although the road may be at higher elevation than
normal ground. The term cutting appears in the 19th century
literature to designate rock cuts developed to moderate
grades of railway lines. Removing earth from its original
position to make transportation on places such as mountains
much easier.
 Types of Road
Cutting

Side hill cuts Through cut

 1. Side hill Cut

It is a long

excavation of long slope to create a passage of a

transportation route alongside of, or around a hill or a mountain,
where the slope is transverse to the roadway or the railway. A
sidehill cut can be formed by means of side casting, by cutting on
the high side of a slope and moving the material to build up a low
side in the slope to achieve and provide a flat and balanced surface
that can provide a safe route.
 2. Through cut

In contrast, through cuts, where the adjacent grade is higher on both

sides of the route, require removal of material from the area since it
cannot be dumped alongside the route.

Geological Mapping for road cutting:

This are the things that is needed to be considered when doing road
cuts. Assessing the capability of the place to provide a better quality
of work and to avoid hazards.
 Joints
These influence the stability of the cuts in the same way as the bedding
planes when present in great abundance, joints reduce even the hardest
rock to a mass of loosely held up blocks on the side of a cut which could
tumble down on slight vibrations. Further, even if the joints are few, but are
continuous and inclined towards the free side of the cut, these and inclined
towards the free side of the cut, these offer potential surfaces for slips
during the presence of moisture. In major road construction programs,
therefore, jointed rocks have to be provided artificial support by breast walls
and retaining walls for ensuring stability.
 Faults
Such a condition is, of course, very un-favorable for a cut when it happens to
form upper or lower slope or even base of the cut. It should not be left
untreated in any case. These are the worst type of planes of potential failure.
Faulting generally leads to the crushing of the rock along the fault planes
and shear zones.
 Weathering
In some cases, under a cut is composed of layers of rocks of different
hardness, the softer layers get weathered at a faster rate than the overlying
or underlying harder rocks. This generally results in undermining which might
cause slips or falls of the whole face. Sometimes, when the top layers are
weathered too heavily, the slope might experience a persistent rock fall or
experience debris-fall type of situation from above.
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