MODULE 1 SPEECH AND ORAL COMMUNICATION

Intended Learning Outcomes:

At the end of module 1, you should have been able to:

1. present the interrelationship of listening and speaking through a semantic diagram;

2. illustrate the process of speech communication through various communicative; and

3. Appreciate the impact of oral communication in the teaching field through graphic and
audio-visual medium.

In this section, you will get to refresh your memory on the nature of communication and
deepen your understanding on the importance of speech and oral communication. There
might be some confusions with certain concepts which seem similar but are different.
Likewise, you will also realize the equal importance of listening and how listening and
speaking are interrelated. Moreover, you will learn that communication does not only
entail the vocal symbols but rather it is reinforced by other nonlinguistic elements. Hence,
this module intends to answer your questions such as: What is the difference between
speech and oral communication?” Are they not the same? What are the kinds of
communication if there is such a thing? Why is listening important? Or you might ask why
listening is considered active when most people think of it as passive.
It is hoped that your better perspective of speech and oral communication is achieved to
help you improve your oral communications skills from the way you express, how you
project yourself and how you produce the sounds especially in your future line of work in
which you will be dealing with different people with varied cultural backgrounds and
different languages. Thus, your proficiency in the English language is critical since it is the
lingua franca of tourism and hospitality industry. Remember you are not just meant to be
dealing with local people but rather national and international clients/guests. So, you
better ask yourself this question, how do I become a better communicator to be able to
establish good will and rapport with my future clientele/ employers? Your aim here is not
just to acquire the knowledge but to demonstrate a certain level of communicative
competence that warrants or ensures success in the industry that you are preparing to
penetrate. The key is to be open to learning and never back down to opportunities from
which you will grow and improve.

Lesson 1: The Communication Process

At the end of the lesson: the students should have been able to:

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 a. differentiate speech communication from communication;
b. describe and explain the model of communication process and it elements;
c. illustrate the different functions and purposes of communication through a role
play; and
d. demonstrate the types and levels of communication in various communication
situations.

WHY WE COMMUNICATE?

Here is the poem that explains the value of communication/ speech. Read it and try to
answer the given questions.
CREDO
by Christian Buckner
I believe that of all human functions the gift of speech is the most miraculous.
I believe that, if speech were to stop, all civilized living would suddenly vanish.
I believe that the ability to articulate is essential to inner harmony, to emotional maturity,
and to mental balance. If all people could be completely articulate at all times, human
relations might improve to the point where there would be no more wars and no more jails,
more stable homes and more happy people.
I believe that speech is essential to the growth of the human personality and that it
provides a way for self-discovery and self-renewal. For many, it is a way of self-expression
without brush or pen.
I believe that the act of speech is a total process, that when it reaches optimum
effectiveness, the whole man communicates. What one is, is always part of what one says.
I believe that there is no substitute for content in the speaking process. Material or
intellectual worth provides the essence of eloquence. Speech skills have their importance,
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but they no more make speech than clothes make the man. The center of gravity in all
speech communications is thought and idea.
I believe that every student should develop a concern for truthful and responsible speech,
exhibiting sense – not non-sense, sincerity – not cleverness, forthrightness – not
superficiality, and should never be a party to plagiarized or dishonest work.
I believe that speech has no absolutes, that a completely perfect speech has not yet been
made. I believe that speech offers a lifetime challenge in which there is never a final summit
of achievement beyond one cannot climb.
I believe that the individuality of the speaker is a valuable asset in the speaking process,
and that any person with normal intelligence, normal emotional balance, and normal
speech mechanisms has at his command the resources enabling him to make certain
speeches that can be equaled by no other person. Every student has the potential to speak
superbly at some time.
How do you feel after reading the poem? Why do you think the poet considered that among
human functions speaking is the most miraculous? Do you agree with him? What are the
most important aspect
s in speech/or communication? What does the poet want to convey when he said that
“every student should develop a concern for truthful and responsible speech….”? What
does the line “ the individuality of the speaker is a valuable asset in the speaking process”
mean? As a student, how could you possibly make an effective and superb speech at some
time?
Obviously, the poem depicts how the world would have been with the gift of speech. Thus,
you have come this far because communication makes it possibly so. However, you take all the
good and the bad that come along with your ability to communicate since the individuality of the
speaker also affects the kind of communication he/she makes. Regardless of the negative and
positive impact of communication, one thing is certain, all human beings happen to be social
beings. Consequently, everybody has this need to express and be listened to. And as part of a
society, you also have social responsibility to establish and maintain good relationships. It becomes
possible if you know the difference between one’s ability to speak and the ability to speak well. Ben
Johnson rightly puts it “To speak and to speak well are two different things”. Hence, we are blessed
to be given normal speech mechanism, normal intelligence and emotional balance, it is not futile
for us to aim to get ourselves better at speaking. We can do it by exposing oursleves to various
speaking situations and observe how speakers express themselves. Moreover, we take every
opportunity to talk the langauge. As they say, “Good practice makes perfect”. Always tel yourself, “if
they can, why can’t I?”.

The Nature of Communication and Process of Communication

Speaking and listening are vital elements of communication. When you communicate, you
take both the role of a speaker and listener. Most of the time communication takes place

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when you are talking with other individual/s. In the process, you exchange ideas, thoughts
and opinions and also their reaction shown in their voice, facial expressions and even body
language. According to experts, the better you are performing both roles, the more effective
your communication becomes.
In your purposive communication course, communication is defined as “as the process of
meaning-making through a channel or medium”. It is by which people share and transmit
thoughts, ideas, feelings, attitudes, and information using common signs and symbols. It is
best illustrated in the diagram below.

Figure 1. The communication Process

Eugene White (1960) mentions eight stages in the cycle of communication. These are
thinking, symbolizing, expressing, transmitting, receiving, decoding, reacting and
monitoring. On the other hand, Roman Jacobson mentions the following as the components
of communication: addressor (speaker), addressor (speaker), addressee (listener), context
(situation), contact, code and the message. Whatever you say will depend on your purpose,
the person you are talking with, and the context or situation. In figure 1, it shows how
communication takes place and how it is shaped by other components or elements. By and
large, the success of the communication depends if both the interlocutors consider those
essential components.
You might ask what is the difference between communication and speech communication.
Well, speech communication is the scientific study of human symbolic behavior in many
forms. It is the process by which verbal and nonverbal symbols are sent, received, and
given meaning by people who share information, ideas, feelings and aspirations (Seiler as
cited by Padilla, et. al.) Since there are thousands of languages in the world, it also implies
that there are also thousands of symbols used by people and it could mean differently from
one another. Naturally, there is a need to study them from a scientific perspective.
The Components of Communication
The Speaker. The source of the message or the addressor. As the speaker, you are expected
to have mastery of the subject matter. You are supposed to know what you are talking
about. Although at times, a speaker may not necessarily know exactly what she is talking

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about because the talk could just be making opinion, speculation or just a mere joke.
However, when it is a public communication or it a purposive communication, it requires
certain level of mastery or competence on the subject matter at hand. If you are a public
speaker, you have to exude confidence and authority.
Aside from mastery is the clarity of purpose. Even if you have mastered your topic, if there
is no clear purpose, you end up confusing your listeners. The success of the communication
depends whether the purpose has been achieved or not. Next to clear purpose is your
attitude. Attitude is about how you project yourself, how you relate to your audience and
how you carry out the objective. Aristotle calls it ethos or the good character of the speaker.
Though public speaking demands one’s confidence and expertise but it does not also
encourage a know-it-all attitude.
The Message. It is what you communicate verbally and non-verbally. It also refers to the
thoughts, ideas,, or information that you convey to listeners. When you use your voice and
words, that is what you call verbal message. When you deliver the message, you utilie other
elements of voice (rate, volume, pitch, and quality), articulation, and pronunciation. While
non-verbal message is the absence of these elements.
Meanwhile, verbal message consists of three variables: content, structure and style.
Content is everything you say about something. It may be referential or relational. All that is
relevant to your topic is referential while suggestion of any relationship with your listeners
is relational. Structure refers to the pattern of organization that you must follow. On the
other hand, style refers to how you express your ideas. You must carefully select and
arrange your words to add more impact to your message.
The Channel. Channel refers to sound and light waves. The sound is expressed in the use of
a language. Light waves are manifested through visuals or sight since. When it is a face-to-
face communication, you do not only hear the but at the same time see the sender.
Sometimes, it comes with smelling, touching, and tasting as channels of the message.
The Listener or Addressee. The receivers of the message are the listeners of the
addressees. Upon receiving the message, politeness demands that they show or manifest
some kind of reaction which could be either favorable or unfavorable.
Just like the speakers, the listeners should also have a purpose for listening. Likewise, they
must have certain attitudes towards themselves, the speaker, and the ideas presented.
The Feedback. Reactions are known as feedback and these are directed to the speaker.
Through the feedback, the speaker is able to adjust to the needs of the listeners. Feedback
may consist of the listeners’ verbal response to the message or it could be a nod, a smile, or
a frown.
The Context or Situation. This refers to the time and place in which communication
occurs. It also includes the purpose of the communication and the relationship between the
speaker and listener. Your message, your language, your demeanor, and even your attire
will depend on the situation.

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 Purposes and Functions of Communication
Every time you communicate, you convey a purpose which you sometimes are not
conscious about it. According to Padilla, et al. (2011), although communication technologies
are changing rapidly- you send e-mails, text messages or even chat using social media
platforms, the purposes of communication remain the same. There are four basic purposes
of communication:

1. Discover. This is one of the major purposes of communication. During

interaction, you learn so much from others, as well as you also learn about
yourselves. You discover so many things and events around us. When you do
research, you discover many things. When you listen to newscast, you learn the
latest news about local or global information.
2. Relate. As a social animal, you want to establish different kinds of relationship
with people around us. You build friendly, professional, intimate, parental
relationship, etc.
3. Persuade. According to Plate, et al. (2005), persuasion is a process that leaders
use to change or reinforce someone’s attitudes, beliefs, and actions. It can serve
to stimulate the audience to feel more strongly about something. The ability to
persuade others is one of the most rewarding activities in life.
4. Play. You always find time to relax and enjoy especially if you are stressed or
have problems. You listen to your favorite TV shows, watch concerts or even
watch movies in netflix or vidoes on youtube. These activities may lighten up
your burdens or worries in life.
The purposes of communication work hand-in-hand with the functions of communication.
According to Martinez (2007), the four communication functions are: to inquire, to inform.
to persuade, and to entertain.
You inquire to request for information, assistance, services, or supplies without persuasive
effort. On one hand, you convey information to the intended audience by providing
instructions or directions, description of something, or explanation of how and why an
object or a process operates, or reports. While you persuade to motivate the
audience/listener to act or behave in a way that he/she may not have thought about before.
Then, you entertain by sharing humor, jokes or even gossip. Basically, all these functions
involve sharing of information though the kind of information may determine the end
purpose.
Types and Levels of Communication
Communication is a social process, thus it involves different types and levels to
establish relationships with people which results to changes with the speech situation.
1. Intrapersonal communication. This is the first type and level of communication
where the person talks to himself mentally, processing the information he
receives from the environment and relates it to his own personal experiences.

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 2. Interpersonal communication. It is where two persons come face-to-face
exchanging interesting ideas common to the both of them.
3. Small-group communication. This involves three to six persons pooling their
ideas to gather facts in order to reach a common decision. Examples are
committees, boards, business meetings, etc.
4. Public communication. It is also known as public speaking which consists of a
speakers delivering an informative and persuasive speech to the audience. This
type restricts feedback because of the physical and psychological factors
between the speaker and the audience.
5. Mediated Communication. This makes use of electronic devices in transmitting
the message. Examples are the use of cellular phones, e-mails, facebook,
teleconferencing, videoconferencing, etc.

The Effective Communicator

Do you wish to be an effective communicator? How can you be one? Do you have to master
the English language? Do you really need to have a golden voice and dashing looks?
Well, as future teachers whose job is to communicate with students, colleagues, parents
and other people, you need to be an effective communicator. Since English is the medium of
communication and the lingua franca of many fields, it is very helpful if you have a good
command of the English language. While it is advantageous if you have a pleasant voice and
good looks, but those things do not define you nor the absence of them restrict you to
becoming an effective speaker. Remember, effective or great communicators are not born;
they are made. Here are the basic principles of how you can be a great communicator.

1. Prepare thoroughly. It said that” Those who fail to prepare, prepare to fail”.
Nobody can beat a well-prepared person. A good and varied exposure to speaking
situations will enrich your mind with useful information. Keeping a journal or
notebook for quotations, anecdotes, jokes and personal jottings can help greatly
when you will prepare and deliver a speech. Listening to excellent speakers will
make you knowledgeable and develop the ability to think logically and critically.
2. Get rid of speech blemishes. To be able to speak spontaneously and fluently, you
need to work hard to get rid of the so-called ‘speech blemishes’ such aas stuttering,
stammering, vocalizing aspirated pauses, punctuating statements with expressions
like you know, well, okay, get what I mean, all right, pronouncing words inaccurately,
and using your native intonation as you speak English. All these can be corrected or
minimized. The Fundamental of Public Speaking, states : “The Secrets to effective
speaking are hard work, discipline and practice”.
3. Correct misconceptions. Most fears come from what other people’s misconception
or mistaken notions. First, you might think that most audiences are hostile and
unfriendly or fault finders. Though there might be some truth to it, but you need to
accept that people will say whatever they want to say and that is something you
need to accept; however, you should have a target audience whom you wish would

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 appreciate what message you want to convey. They are your intended audience
whom you want to take away something from your talk. Forget the others. You
cannot please everybody. Focus on your target audience.
Second, you might feel inferior with your voice and looks, or limited vocabulary.
If you feel that way, there are things you can do to improve them. You can do
breathing exercise to improve you voice; enrich your vocabulary through reading
and enhance your looks through proper diet and good grooming. Third, a lot of
people believe that stage fright cannot be overcome. Well, I say that “everything is
just in the mind”. Yes, they do! Though it takes a lot mental maneuvering. Encourage
yourself by saying, “I can do this; I am good”. Think of them as small ants and that
you are much bigger than them. Besides, there is nothing to be scared of since you
have prepared yourself for that. Again, the key is preparation and practice. Then,
take 3 deep breaths and then you are ready to conquer!
4. Be concerned with your physical appearance. Naturally, looks are important.
Initially, looks command attention and interest; however, what holds the people
focus and attention is personality and character traits that are manifested in how
you project yourself in delivering the message.
5. Be interested in people, in communicating your ideas, and in receiving feedback.
The fact that you have reached that far, you might as well enjoy it. Seize the
opportunity you have to influence or inspire people. Remember, any task becomes
light and enjoyable when you’re interested in it.
6. Show genuine enthusiasm as you express your thoughts and sincerity as you
assume the role of the listener. Convey enthusiasm through your voice, facial
expressions, movements, and also through manner you establish rapport with your
listeners.
7. Speak clearly and correctly. Since you are Filipino, you are only expected to
approximate the pronunciation of the cultured and educated fluent speaker. Hence,
there is a need to improve your articulation, enunciation and grammar.
8. Speak from the heart. What makes the audience appreciate one’s message is when
they can relate or they are touched. It is important that you choose a topic which
you can talk with conviction, sincerity and earnestness.

1. Make a T-chart differentiating communication and

Concretizing speech communication. (10 pts
2. .)
3. Why is communication considered a process? (10 pts.)
4. What determines the success of communication? (10 pts.)
5. As education students, why is there a need to take speech and oral
communication? (10 pts.)

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 I learned that ______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________.

Lesson 2: The Listening Process

At the end of this lesson, the students should have been able to:

a. explain the listening process;

b. identify the purposes of listening;
c. determines the types of listening modes; and
d. cite ways to overcome listening barriers.

The Nature of Listening

In every conversation or any given situation, the results could be determined by the
amount of effort exerted through consideration and respect of both parties involved. The
feedback is possible when there is effective listening. As they say, listening is the only way
to understanding.
Listening is often taken for granted. Most often, people think that listening is just a passive
skill but they never realize that listening just like reading is a mental activity. Thus,
listening effectively is hard work. It involves more than hearing other’s words. The main

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reason why we listen is to obtain information. Students like you spend more time listening
than speaking, reading or writing. It is the most often used skill but many still fail to
demonstrate effective listening.
What is listening? Listening is different from hearing. You hear sounds, words, and
utterances. They impinge on your consciousness, but you are not concerned about their
meaning. Listening means understanding what you hear. Thus, we say, you listen for
meaning.
Hearing is a natural and continuous process while listening is a learned skill. A person with
normal hearing receives different sounds ceaselessly but we listen only what we want.
Hearing is passive because you do not exert effort to do it. The sound just passes from one
ear to the other through sound waves. In contrast, listening is active and demands that you
concentrate, interpret and respond. Below is a diagram to make you understand further.

Receiving

Selecting

Interpreting

Understanding

Evaluating

Resolving

Figure 2. The Listening Process

In a face-to-face communication, the first stage is the receiving of sounds, particularly the
auditory stimulus. The source of the stimulus is the speaker. You, the listener, then focus by
selecting what you want to listen to- the speaker’s voice or the message. Next, you try to
interpret or give meaning to the message to better understand the content. Acting upon
this information, you start to evaluate the reliability of the message and the credibility of
the speaker. Lastly, you try to resolve by either accepting or rejecting the message and
deciding what you can do about it.

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 It may not be true that each time you listen, you go through all the stages. Once you engage
in formal communication, however, unconsciously or not, you pass through all the stages in
the listening process.
Reasons/Purposes of Listening
People may have varied reasons for listening. It may be one or several of the
following.

1. Listening for Information- Informational listening is used to understand a wide

variety of messages. Its main purpose is to learn. This involves questioning or
paraphrasing.
2. Listening for Critical Evaluation- Critical evaluation involves persuasion. It is
either to adopt or reject an idea. The most obvious type of persuasion involves
selling, literally.
3. Listening to Help- You listen to help others. You listen to give pieces of advice or
just offer listening ears without having to give advice. Just letting the other
person that he/she is cared for by simply being there to listen.
4. Listening for Enjoyment- The aim of this is to appreciate the things around you.
Either listen to music or to somebody’s jokes.
Types of Listening
Before you proceed to the types of listening, examine first the attributes of listening.

1. All listening aims at comprehending the message. You listen because you want to
understand the message. It is important, therefore, for you to concentrate on the
speaker and on the message.
2. Listening is a transactional process. As speakers share with you their message,
you are expected to respond through your verbal and non-verbal feedback.
3. Listening is interpretive. Meanings are not in words but in people. As you
interact with the speakers, favorably and unfavorably through your verbal and
non-verbal feedback, the speakers also monitor your feedback so that they can
make the necessary adjustment.
The type of listening corresponds to the amount of attention you give and the kind of
person that you are.
Emphatic listening
Empathy involves placing oneself in the position of the other. In emphatic listening, the
listeners literally and figuratively offer their ears, shoulders, and time to the speaker. This
type of listening is the most common in therapeutic setting. It develops confidence and
builds closer relationships.

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Critical Listening
This is the better type of listening. The listeners concentrate on the message with the end
in view of enriching their knowledge and generating better decisions or generalizations.
As college students, you should strive to be critical listener. Raise a question to clarify a
point and seek evidence to evaluate the ideas presented to you. It is not wrong to be critical
as long as your purpose is to be clear and accurate about what you have heard. To improve
your listening skills, here are some behaviors you should try to avoid:

1. Overly criticizing the speaker- minding the speaker’s appearance and manner of
delivery
2. Arguing mentally with the speaker- questioning the speaker’s statements because
you feel you know better than he does or you are more knowledgeable on the topic.
3. Prejudging the speaker- Rendering or forming conclusion even before you have
heard the speakers is prejudging them. There is something new you might learn
from the speaker.
4. Reacting emotionally- Be objective even if you dislike or disagree with the speaker.
5. Causing distraction- You are there to listen and enrich your personal experiences. So,
good manners require you to behave accordingly.

Listening Modes
Campbell (1997) identified three basic listening modes: Combative, Attentive and
Reflective Modes.
Combative Listener. The combative listener does not really listen; he is interested in
other people’s point of view but instead is busy thinking of how he can promote himself in
every discussion.
Attentive Listener. He/she is interested in other people’s point of view. They listen and
they care. But they are not evaluating the details that are coming from the speakers. In that
case, they are becoming more of a passive listener.
Reflective Listener. He/she thinks critically and assesses the speaker’s idea. He/she goes
beyond what is being explained. He/she examines every detail of it to distinguish the
opinion and facts.
Barriers to Effective Listening
Sometimes, you experience difficulty in effective listening because of certain barriers.
Though some barriers can be overcome by your own, others are beyond your control. Here
are six barriers to effective listening.
Environmental Barriers. These may involve physical distractions-sounds and sights- that
takes you away from listening attentively to the person that you are talking to. Any noise
that comes from your environment takes away your focus and consumes your thoughts
from what you are currently doing or listening.

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 Physiological Barriers. These may result from individual’s personal discomfort, caused
by ill-health, poor eye sight, or hearing difficulties. The physical condition of the listener
can affect concentration and restrict the amount of information he/she takes in.
Physical Appearance. Looks can kill possible good conversation, can divert a
person’s attention from listening and learning to merely admiring or criticizing the speaker.
Gender Differences. Deborah Tannen, a sociolinguist state that “all else being equal,
women are not as likely to be listened to as men, regardless of how they speak or what they
say.
Faulty Assumptions. Aside from looking at the speaker’s physical appearance sometimes
when you know that he/she is not from the same background, you tend to lose your
interest. People are naturally judgmental based on their personal preferences and
experiences. As an audience or listener, a person’s attitude towards a speaker or a stranger
could very much reflect his/her values and character.
Short Span of Attention. People may vary with their span of attention. Young audience
are likely to have short span of attention compared to mature audience. However, if you
really want to listen attentively, stay in front or somewhere near the speaker so that your
focus and attention can be immediately called. Besides, when you are seated in front you
are less likely to doze off.

Concretizing

1. Elaborate how the listening process occurs. (20 pts.)

2. Give examples for each purpose/reason of listening. (2 pts. Each)
3. Cite 5 ways of how to overcome certain barriers to effective listening. (15 pts.)

I learned that ______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________.

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 Lesson 3: Non-Verbal Communication
At the end of the lesson, the student should have been able to:
1. illustrate the concept of non-verbal communication through a schematic diagram;
2. demonstrate certain facial expressions appropriate for a certain verbal
communication; and
3. present a communication situation that depict the importance of nonlinguistic
elements in communication.

NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION
Nonverbal communication is a type of communication that does not make use of
words but may enhance or change the linguistic code. One of the biggest misconceptions of
the people is that what is being said is more important than how it is being said. In fact, “it
is not what you say but how you say it.” However, if you desire to be an effective speaker
you need to make sure that what you say is congruent with how you say it. When we say
nonverbal communication, it includes the nonlinguistic elements and paralinguistic
elements.

A. NONLINGUISTIC ELEMENTS
Nonlinguistic elements of communication are the devices used in conveying
messages without entirely relying on speech or language. These non-speech elements fall
under the following categories: kinesics, proxemics, chronemics, olfactics, haptics,
oculesics, artefactual and physical appearance.
KINESICS
It is the interpretation of body language or any other nonverbal behavior related to
movement of any part of the body or the body as a whole (Padilla, et al., 2009)
Robert Phipps, one of UK’s best known experts in the field claims that sometimes 100% of
our message is in our body language. He also says that our body is capable of giving off
more than 700,000 different signals and that we have an estimated 250,000 facial

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expressions, more than 5, 000 different ways to use our hands, and more than 1,000 ways
to stand and sit.

1. Gestures. A gesture is a form of nonverbal communication made with a part of

the body, used instead of or in combination with verbal communication
(Tendero, et al., 2009). Gestures allow individuals to express a variety of feelings
and thoughts. People use gestures to reinforce or to put emphasis on the words
they speak. One of the most common forms of gestures involve greetings and
departures, which have rituals that are largely nonverbal, such as shaking hands
or waving. These tend to vary across cultures. In Japan, for example, it is
common to bow when greeting someone, with the nature of the bow (how deep
and how long) being determined by the nature of the occasion and social
connection of the persons involved. In some cultures, kissing on the cheek is the
usual greeting, although how many times the kisses are exchanged and which
sexes are included can vary. In other parts of the world there may be hugs and
kisses, depending on the context and relationship. In Arab countries it is
common to bow and touch the forehead and chest (the salaam) when meeting
someone. The Wai is used in Thailand and in other Asian cultures, consisting of
a bow with the palms pressed together. In other cultures, people rub noses, such
as in the hongi, a traditional greeting of the Maori people in New Zealand.
Knowledge of such rituals can be helpful in avoiding awkwardness in first
encounters.

2. Facial Expression. An expression of the face can communicate different things.

Humans have 80 facial muscles which can make us create more than 7, 000
facial expressions.
There are seven universally recognized emotions shown through facial
expression (Nonverbal Communication Portal, n.d.)

a. Happiness- round eyes, smile, raised cheeks

b. Sadness- raised inner eyebrow, pulling down of outer lips

c. Surprise- eyebrows raised, wide open eyes, open mouth

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 d. Anger- lower eyebrows, intense stare
e. Fear- raised eyebrows and eyelids, slightly opened mouth, lip edges
stretched back horizontally
f. Contempt- naturally occurs on one side of the face, pulling upper lip and
away

g. Disgust- wrinkled nose, lowered eyelids and eyebrows, raised upper lip

3. Oculesics/ Eye Contact

It is the study of eye movement or eye contact. Eye contact can be a channel of
communication for it can convey that you are paying attention to the speaker and you
respect the person you are speaking with. Studies show that in Western cultures, talkers
hold eye contact about 40% of the time and listeners nearly 70% of the time (Knapp and
Hall, 2006). They also maintain eye contact when discussing a topic they are comfortable
with.
Below are eye behaviors with emotional summaries according to Changingminds.org.

1. Eyes Up. Different people look up for different reasons. Some look up when they’re
thinking; they’re recalling something from their memory
2. Eyes Down. Avoiding contact, or looking down can be a sign of submission or fear.
3. Lateral Movement of Eyes. Looking away from the person to whom one is
speaking could be a sign that something else has taken their interest; a person is
distracted.
4. Gazing. Having the eyes fixed steadily at something or someone shows sincere
interest. Gazing at someone’s lips can indicate one’s desire to kiss another person.
5. Glancing. It can show a person’s true desires. For instance, glancing at a door might
mean that someone wants to leave.
6. Eye Contact. Eye contact is powerful and show sincere interest if it is unbroken. A
softening of the stare can indicate sexual desire.
7. Staring. Staring is more than just eye contact; it usually involves eyes wider than
normal. A lack of blinking may indicate more interest but it also may indicate a
stronger feeling than a person may intend to portray. Prolonged eye contact can be
aggressive, affectionate, or deceptive.
8. Following with the Eyes. Eyes follow movement naturally. If a person is interested
in someone, then their eyes will follow that person naturally.
9. Squinting. It may mean a person is trying to obtain a closer look. It may also mean
that a person is considering whether someone is true or not.
10.Blinking. It is also a natural response that can occur for no other reason than having
dry eyes. It can also be the result of a person feeling greater level of stress.

16
 11.Winking. It can indicate that two people understand something without using
words. It can mean “hello” or it can be a sign of flirtation.
12.Closing of Eyes. It serves to shut out the world. It can be a reaction to fear or
embarrassment. Others may close their eyes as a way to think more sincerely about
a particular subject.
13.Eye Moisture. Tears obviously indicate sadness, but moisture also has a more
practical purpose to wash and clean the eyes. Damp eyes can be suppressed crying
or an expression of extreme happiness or laughter.
14.Pupil Dilation. Pupil dilation may be harder to detect by most people. Sexual desire
may be a cause of such dilation. It may also be an indication of attraction.
15.Rubbing of Eyes. Eyes may water, causing a person to rub their own eyes. This can
happen when a person feels uncomfortable or tired.

4. Posture

Posture is the last item in our list of kinesics. Humans can stand up straight
or slouch, lean forward or backward, round or slump our shoulders, and tilt our
heads. Mehrabian (1972) believed that posture communicates immediacy and
power. Immediacy is the degree to which you find someone interesting and
attractive. Typically, when someone from the United States finds someone
attractive, they face the person when talking, hold their head up, and lean in.
Whereas a reaction to someone they don’t like might have them look away and lean
back. Power is the ability to influence people or events. In the United States, high-
status communicators typically use relaxed postures (Burgoon et al., 1996), but in
Japan, the opposite is true. Japanese display power through erect posture with feel
planted firmly on the floor

PROXEMICS
Proxemics is the study of how people use and perceive the physical space around them.
Padilla et al. (2011), stated that space, in nonverbal communication maybe divided into
four main categories: intimate, personal, social, and public space.

1. Intimate (0-18 inches)- appropriate for private conversation between couples,

family or close friends.
2. Personal (18 inches- 4 feet)- for keeping someone “at arm’s length” like in casual
conversations
3. Social (4-12 feet)- for impersonal business like a job interview.
4. Public (12-15 feet)- for public communication like lectures and speeches. Hargie
and Dickson (2004) identify four territories:
a. Primary Territory- This refers to an area that is associated with someone
who has exclusive use of it. Example; a house
b. Secondary Territory- There is no “right” to occupancy, but people may
still feel some degree of ownership of a particular space.

17
 c. Public Territory- This refers to an area that is available to all, but only for
a set period such as parking space or a seat in a canteen.
d. Interaction Territory. This is a space created by others when they are
interacting. Example: When a group is talking to one another on a
catwalks, others will walk around the group rather than disturb it.

CHRONEMICS
It is the study of the use of time in nonverbal communication. Gudykunst and TingToomey
(1998) described two dominant time patterns:

1. Monochronic Time System. Things are done one at a time, and time is segmented
into precise, small units; time is scheduled, arranged and managed. Monochronic
cultures include Germany, Canada, Switzerland, United States, and Scandinavia.
2. Polychronic Time System. Several things can be done simultaneously, and a more
fluid approach is taken to scheduling time. The focus is on relationships, not
watching the clock. The polychromic people do not worry about being late for an
event if they are with family or friends because relationship is what really matters.
Polychronic cultures include most northern and western European cultures, Latin
American and Arabic cultures, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Mexico, Philippines, India and
Africa.
Chaney and Martin presented table that compares the differences between
monochronic and polychromic cultures.
Monochronic People Polychronic People
Do one thing at a time Do many things at once
Concentrate on the job Are easily distracted
Take time commitments seriously Consider time commitments casually
Are committed to do the job Are committed to people
Show respect for private property; rarely Borrow and lend things often
borrow or lend
Are accustomed to short term Tend to build lifetime relationships
relationships

OLFACTICS
The study of smell in humans is called olfactics. In some cultures (in Africa and the Middle
East, for example) there's a preference for standing close enough to a person in
conversation to be able to detect body odor. Odor is used in such cases to categorize people
according to status, power, or social class. In many cultures wearing an expensive perfume
or cologne can signal status and wealth. On the other hand, the smell of sweat or strong
body odor is likely to suggest manual labor and lower social status. Some smells are

18
associated with particular ethnic groups and may lead to prejudicial treatment. The smell
of curry, linked to South Asians, has been used as a basis for discrimination, such as
refusing to rent apartments to Indians or Pakistanis (Jackson, 2014). Although some smells
seem to be universally attractive (jasmine, lavender, roses) others may vary in how they
are perceived across cultures. The smell of onions, for example, is considered unpleasant in
many cultures, but the Dagon people of Mali find the smell attractive, even to the point of
rubbing onions on their bodies (Neuliep, 2006).

HAPTICS
Touch in communication interaction is called haptics, from the ancient Greek word
“haptien.” Cultural norms have a strong impact on how people use and perceive touch.
Socially, acceptable levels of touching varies from one culture to another. In the Thai
culture, touching someone’s head may be thought rude. Remland and Jones (1995) studied
groups of people and found that in England (8%), France (5%), and Netherlands (4%)
touching was rare compared to Italy (14%) and Greece (12.5%).
In some Arab cultures, it is common for men to hold hands in particular situations.
Some cultures have a taboo on touching the top of someone's head, as in patting a child, as
the head is considered sacred. Another taboo, in India, the Middle East, and Africa, is the
use of the left hand in certain social situations, such as eating. Cooper, Calloway-Thomas &
Simonds (2007) provide a set of rules in relation to touch in Thai culture:

• Don’t touch anyone’s head for any reason. The head is the most important part of
the body. It is the seat of the soul.
• Do not touch a female on any part of her body.
• The feet are considered the “dirtiest” part of the body. They are used only for
walking. Thus, it is an insult to rest your feet on someone else’s backrest, such as in
the cinema or on a train.
• Women must never touch a monk or his robe. Even in a bus or train, Women cannot
sit next to a monk.
• Always accept things with your right hand. The left hand is used to Wash the
posterior and is therefore regarded as unclean (p. 138).

Categories of Haptic Communication according to Heslin (1974)

• Functional/Professional- expresses task-orientation

• Social/Polite- expresses ritual interaction
• Friendship/Warmth- expresses idiosyncratic relationship
• Love/Intimacy- expresses emotional attachment
• Sexual/Arousal- expresses sexual intent

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Hall (1963) suggests that the use of proxemics and haptics merge within a culture to create
what researchers now call contact and noncontact cultures. In contact cultures, people
stand closer together while talking, touch more frequently, and speak in louder voices.
Some examples of contact cultures are cultures in Central and South America, the Middle
East, and Eastern and Mediterranean Europe. For example, Latin American cultures tend to
hug more than do Northern Europeans. In noncontact cultures, people stand farther apart
while talking and touch less. Some examples of noncontact cultures are Great Britain, the
United States, and Japan. This difference is exemplified in a study of outdoor cafes in
London, England and San Juan, Puerto Rico. Researchers found that Puerto Ricans touched
each other an average of 180 times per hour whereas the British average was zero (EPA,
2002). Being aware of such norms in visiting another culture can make seemingly strange
behavior understandable and help to avoid embarrassing faux-pas.
PHYSICAL APPEARANCE AND ARTIFACTS

Physical appearance and artifacts profoundly influence our communication

encounters. In other words, how you look conveys as much about you as what you say.
Physical appearance includes attributes such as hair, clothing, body type, and personal
grooming. Across cultures, people credit individuals they find physically attractive with
higher levels of intelligence, persuasiveness, poise, sociability, warmth, power, and
employment success than they credit to unattractive individuals (Hatfield & Sprecher,
1986). Communication researchers call this tendency to make a blanket judgment of a
person based on one trait the halo (positive) or horns (negative) effect. As physical
attractiveness is variable across cultures, and constantly being redefined, beauty is in the
eye of the beholder.
Artifacts are the things we possess that influence how we see ourselves and that we
use to express our identity to others. They can include rings and tattoos, but may also
include brand names and logos. From clothes to cars, watches, briefcases, purses, and even
eyeglasses, what we choose to surround ourselves with communicates something about

20
our sense of self. They may project gender, role or position, class or status, personality, and
group membership or affiliation.
Many cultures have rules and conventions for dress and appearance, established
through custom or religious beliefs. Women in Muslim countries, for example, dress so that
their hair is covered and, in some cases, also their bodies and faces. In some cases, dress
can provide information about social/economic position, marital status, or age. In Japan,
women's kimonos vary according to the time of year and occasion, but also based on
marital status and age. For the Masai tribe in Kenya, earrings and necklaces designate the
marital status of women, while men wear earrings and arm rings that show their social
status, indicating whether they are elders or warriors (Vandehey, Buergh & Krueger, 1996).
In rural northern India, the level of a woman's veil over her face can indicate romantic
interest or disinterest (Lambert & Wood, 2005). Dress and physical appearance can be
important identifiers for membership in particular groups. Members of motorcycle gangs
wear black leather and heavy boots. Japanese businessmen ("salarymen") wear dark,
conservative suits and plain ties. Japanese tourists often wear a resort hotel's yukata (a
lightweight kimono) signaling to others in the town their role (Ting-Toomey, 1999). In this
way, forms of dress serve as identity markers. Certain uniforms signal professions, as in the
case of police officers or members of the military, while also conveying a sense of authority
and power.
Body piercings and tattoos, in bygone days, indicators of low-prestige socio-
economic status (sailors, carnival workers), have become mainstream among young people
in the US and elsewhere. Older people are likely to retain the images from the past and may
have a negative view of heavily tattooed or pierced young people. One of the persistent
stereotypes is in regards to women's dress and appearance. Young women in miniskirts
and tank tops, especially if blonde, may be perceived as flighty and unintelligent. Muslim
women wearing a hijab face prejudice and discrimination in many non-Muslim countries,
which is even more pronounced for those wearing a whole body burqua. In some Western
countries, wearing traditional Muslim female dress in public or in schools has been banned.
In the US, hooded sweatshirts (hoodies) are often associated with young black men. In
Florida, a young black man, Treyvon Martin, was wearing a hoodie when shot dead by a
white "neighborhood watch" member as he was returning from a convenience store. The
white man found Martin "suspicious", due to his skin color and attire.
Appearance messages are generally the first nonverbal codes we process, sizing up
the other person based on skin color, appearance, and clothing. The first impression might
determine our attitude towards another person, helping to determine whether we want to
get to know that person or not. Sometimes, some features of the other person's appearance
might lead to specific pre-judgments. One of those might be the particular shade of skin.
Black people with darker skin are sometimes viewed as somehow less attractive or having
lower status than Blacks with lighter skin. Light-skinned Blacks may feel discriminated
against as well (see sidebar). In South American countries such as Brazil, there is a rich mix
of ethnicities and races, resulting in a wide range of skin colors and a complex social
hierarchy, built in part on the particular shade of one's skin.

21
 In some cases, we are conscious of the distinctive views we may have towards those
with a certain appearance. Many US Americans, for example, have heard so much since
2001 about Muslims and terrorism, that someone perceived to be Muslim by their
appearance and dress likely triggers already well-established and self-acknowledged views
on Muslims. The largely negative stereotypes can have tragic consequences, as the acts of
violence towards Muslims in the US and elsewhere has shown. In some cases, the perceived
target may not even represent the intended group. The first victim of revenge killing in the
US following the September 11, 2001 attacks was not a Muslim, but a Sikh gas station
manager in Arizona shot down by a man vowing to kill "towel heads" (Basu, 2016).
In many cases individuals may not be aware of the negative attitudes towards
others. Humans naturally tend to categorize, and that process includes grouping together
other humans. We likely do that with individuals we meet without being aware of this
process of implicit bias. This is a phenomenon that scientists have been studying for some
time, namely that even well-meaning people have hidden prejudices against those of other
races. Studies have shown subtle biases are widespread in the US, especially against
African-Americans, and lead to discrimination in many areas, including in education,
professional life, and housing (Yudkin at al., 2016). In the US recently, the issue has arisen
in connection with white police officer's using violence against unarmed young black men.
Studies have shown that "implicit bias can be overcome with rational deliberation" (Yadkin
& Van Bavel, 2016). Many police departments in the US have begun the process of making
police officers aware of their biases. Project Implicit from Harvard University provides an
online process for analyzing one's possible biases in a number of areas, including attitudes
towards race, skin tone, religion, sexuality, Arab/Muslims, age, disability, and weight. These
are all areas in which implicit bias may be present in individuals in the US. Other cultures
are likely to have some of the same biases, along with others. In recent years, corporations
in North America have begun to offer training to employees to make them aware of hidden
biases in an effort to treat their customers equitably, regardless of race or ethnicity.
Whether such training is effective – particularly when offered in one-time short training
seminars — is questionable (Godwin-Jones, 2018).

PARALINGUISTICS
Paralinguistics is the study of vocal cues that clients use to communicate meaning.
Poyatos (1984) defined paralanguage as “the ever present co-occurrent voice modifications
or alternating independent sounds of perfectly lexical value” (p. 433). These aspects of
language include the higher volume used in conversation with Latins and Arabs,
highpitched or breathy intonations of some clients, tongue clicking as seen in South Africa,
and sighing. It includes the use of silence, hesitations or pauses, rate of speech, inflections,
and expressiveness (Sue & Sue, 1990).
Paralinguistic elements include the following attributes of voice that accompany the
words we say (Diaz, 2009).

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1. Vocal Quality. This refers to the predomination timbre or tone color of your
voice. It is the distinctive characteristic of the tone of the voice that makes it
pleasant or unpleasant and by which people identify you. It is brought about by
the complexity of vibrations generated by breathing, phonation, and resonance.
Changes in your quality reflect your emotional condition.
If you are tense or irritated, it shows in your voice. If you feel what you are
saying, your voice quality changes on its own to suit the feeling. Flores and Lopez
(2009) identified the common types of voice quality.
a. Normal Voice. The normal quality of voice occurs when you speak naturally
showing little or no emotion during conversations. It is the result of proper
distribution between the oral and nasal resonance when all resonators are
used in balanced proportion with no tension at all.
b. Breathy Voice. This is an “aspirate” quality of voice. When you want to create
an atmosphere of secrecy and mystery, you use this kind of voice. In this
kind,
the sound of rushing air present in the real whisper is sustained by a partial
vibration of the vocal cords.
c. Full Voice. You use deep quality of voice when the voice must be projected to
a greater distance or when an occasion is formal and dignified. Also known as
the “orotund” (round mouth) quality, it is produced by opening the mouth
somewhat wider and by increasing the oral and nasal resonance so that the
voice acquires a more ringing tone.
d. Chesty Voice. This is a deep hollow voice as if coming from a deep and empty
cave. Its voice quality has less nasal resonance and it is accompanied by
vibration from bony structure of the upper chest, thus making it chesty voice
with a “pectoral quality”. This voice quality is particularly effective in
speaking the part of a spirit or a ghost.
e. Thin Voice Quality. Also called “falsetto”, this voice quality is thin and
highpitched being its characteristic. This quality occurs only in extreme
fatigue, weakening, old age, ill health or in extreme excitement.
2. Pitch. It refers to the highness or lowness of the voice when you speak. Your
pitch may range from low, normal, high and extra high. Diaz (2005) added that
pitch is determined by the length and thickness of the vocal cords. It depends on
the frequency at which your vocal cords vibrate. When these are stretched, they
vibrate with higher frequency and the voice become shriller.
3. Tempo. It refers to the number of words uttered within a given time. This is
another indicator of the speaker’s mood. This may also depend on the thought
being expressed. Serious ideas would be said slowly while exciting stories would
be told in faster rate.
4. Voice Intensity. Intensity refers to the volume of the voice or the loudness with
which we speak. This tone amplification is done not by the constriction or
tightening of the throat but by the force of the air stream and the efficient use of

23
 resonators. To convey the thoughts and feelings effectively, varying degrees of
vocal force is necessary.
5. Junctures or Pauses. Junctures are pauses in the flow of speech. Pauses are
intervals of silence between or within words, phrases or sentences. Such pauses
express feelings and convey meaning more effectively than words.
A pause helps create suspense, puts emphasis on the word or words that
follow, gives a listener time to absorb what has been said for dramatic effect.

Pauses may be made not only between words and phrases but also during
vocalization such than one may pause for a longer time than is normal for a
word.

Concretizing

1. Present the different nonverbal communication aspects in a schematic diagram. (20

pts.)
2. How do the different non-linguistic elements affect verbal communication? (10 pts.)
3. Make a comic strip which illustrate the significance of different non-linguistic
elements. (25 pts.)

I learned that ______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________.

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 Lesson 4: Features of Speech

Intended Learning Outcomes: I

t At the end of the lesson 4, you should have been able to:

1. describe the supra-segmentals/ non-prosodic features of English language;

2. demonstrate the impact of paralinguistic elements in communication through
communication act; and
3. illustrate the 4 prosodic features in both oral and written tests.

is said that it is not what you say but how you say it. Well, it is very true. Most people believe
that speech is the key to the personality of an individual. You can tell about other people’s
values, attitudes, emotional states, feelings and other traits from their words and manner of
speaking. When you speak, you express what you intend to mean by producing the segments
of sounds of the language accompanied with the suprasegmental phonemes- meaning these
are meaningful units of sounds that cannot be separated from the segmental phonemes.
When the words/ phrases or sentences are spoken, there is now the added prosodic features
which are the illustrated in the use of stress, intonation, pitch and juncture. These speech
features
The ability to produce the sounds of English correctly is your first step in enhancing your
speech. You can avoid confusion, misunderstanding, and even costly mistakes with clear
articulation. It can be done when you also get to master the aspect of speech. To be effective
in your communication, you have to know and observe the following:

1. Stress
2. Intonation
3. Blending
4. Juncture

STRESS
The dictionary defines stress as the relative force or prominence given to a syllable or
word. A stressed syllable or word is given a longer duration, a louder volume, and a higher
pitch.
Stress may also be placed on a word in a phrase to signify that it is the more important
word. It may also be placed on word in a sentence to indicate emphasis or finality.
There are four types of stress:

1. Primary or strong
2. Secondary or medium
3. Tertiary
25
 4. Weak
Often, dictionaries indicate only the strong and the secondary stresses. There are no
hard and fast rules on stressing but there are certain guidelines.

a. Most English words, especially nouns that contain two syllables are stressed on
the first syllable.
Examples:
li’ver beau’ty mo’del fi’ltrate
lit’mus le’tter com’pass ti’ssue
se’tting scissors co’mmerce mu’scle
co’nscious co’ma re’stive no’vel
bishop ca’dence mo’ral trea’ty
Contrast them with the following words which are stressed on the second syllable. Notice
that they are mostly verbs.
prefe’r dete’st rega’rd conse’nt
perva’de compe’l resea’rch consign
reve’rse comme’nd belie’ve deceive
appro’ve collide conne’ct invite
b. Words to which suffixes like – tion, - sion, - ic, - ity are added, carry the strong
stress on the syllable before theses suffixes.
Distinguish between:
eco’nomy – econo’mic
a’ctor – activity admire –
admira’tion mate’rial –
materialistic eve’ntual –
eventua’lity

Add more to this list.

c. Compound nouns are stressed on the first noun to distinguish them from an
adjective and a noun combination.
Distinguish again between:
Compound Nouns Adjective + Noun
bla’ckboard black boa’rd
gree’nhouse green hou’se

26
 lighthouse light hou’se
smo’king smoking ro’om
to’y store toy sto’re
Many non-narrative speakers of English often commit errors in stressing. Here is a list of
words which are often mispronounced by us.
ne’cessary ci’rcumstances Fe’bruary re’asonable dio’xid’e contribute
condo’lence pa’rticipate ba’ptism esta’blish seme’ster distinguish
enginee’r superinte’ndent ta’lented adole’scence co’lleague
parliame’ntary compe’titor therapeup’tic
WORD STRESS
There are two general classes of words:

a. Content words
These are the important words in a phrase or a sentence because they carry the
meaning of the phrase or the sentence. These are the nouns, verbs, adjectives
and adverbs.
b. Function words
These words perform minor functions in a phrase or sentence. These are the
pronouns, prepositions, articles, conjunctions, and auxiliaries.

Read aloud the following phrases. Put the emphasis on the content words.
in the room behind the clouds of the students could be right among the
doctors the past events SENTENCE STRESS
Normally, you put the strong stress on the last content word. For a specific purpose, you
may stress any word which you like to emphasize.
Sentences

1. A breath of wind made him shiver.

2. He remembered that today was his father’s birthday.
3. How long ago was it?
4. His father listened to his plans, nurtured his dreams and inspired him.
5. He thought then that he was the luckiest son in the world.

BLENDING
To avoid a staccato style of speaking, you must observe blending. This is the process of
joining the final sound of a word with the initial sound of a word with the initial sound of
the next word within a thought group. The effect is a continuous flow of voice.

27
 When should you blend?
When the first word ends with a vowel sound and the second word begins also with a
vowel sound, you blend the sounds. Example: to act out
be equipped
the old saying
sofa and bed
When the first word ends with a vowel sound and the second word begins with a
consonant, you blend sounds.
Example: to write
to be loved
see them
a book
When the first word ends with a consonant sound and the second word begins with a
vowel sound, blending is also done.
Example: look out
get into put out
what are

When the first word ends with a consonant sound and the next word begins with a similar
sound, again, blending is observed. Example: tennis shoes last try team mate
joyous song

PHRASING AND GROUPING

Another means to achieve rhythm in your speech is breaking or dividing an utterance into
breath units or thought groups. This is called phrasing and grouping.
To separate breath units or thought groups, draw a line or lines between them. The more
lines you draw, the longer the pause between the thought groups. Punctuation marks like
commas, colons, semi-colons, and of course, periods are signal for phrasing.
Examples:

a. When we communicate, / we must focus on our message.//

b. Effective body language/ contributes to clarity and
emphasis/ in communication.//

28
 c. An effective speech/ stimulates the mind/ tickles the funny bone/ and touches
the heart. //

INTONATION
Intonation is defined as the manner of speaking language. It also refers to the rhythm given
to speech by the rise and fall in the pitch.
The voice has four levels of pitch.

1. Low
2. Normal
3. High
4. Very High
Each level has a specific use. The low is usually used to signal the end of an
utterance. The normal is used when one starts an utterance. The high is used to
indicate a stressed syllable in a word. It also used to emphasize a word in a phrase
or sentence. The very high is used to indicate excitement, fear, or any other strong
feeling.
The four levels of pitch can be illustrated as follows:
4 – Very High
3 – High
2 – Normal
1 – Low
Examples:

1. Words

leadership

individual

communication
2. Phrases

In hot water

For all of you

29
 With enthusiasm

3. Sentences
What time is it?

Who is your adviser?

Have coincidence in yourself.

Notice that level 4 is seldom used.

Here are some examples of utterances that use very high pitch.

a. Help! Fire!

b. Never in a thousand years!

c. Yes! We won!

Read aloud the following phrases. Raise your voice on the stressed syllable of the
last content word.

1. make the most of it.

2. a wonderful opportunity

3. a pleasing personality

4. free from ostentation

5. make room for others.

Now, read aloud the following sentences. Stress the last content word.
Example: effective communication promotes mutual respect.
Respect is stressed because it is a noun and is the last content word.

1. Communication is an art.

30
 2. Communicating effectively is also a skill.
3. Since we need to communicate, we should develop our oral and written
communication skills.
4. Effective communication brings about personal success.
5. It can also enrich our personal and social relationships.
Notice that in sentences 1-3, you glide on the words art, skills, skills because these
words have only one syllable. In sentence four, the word success is stressed on the
last syllable; thus, you glide on the last syllable. In sentence five, your voice goes up
on the second syllable of the word relationship and then you bring it down to level 1
abruptly.

Try again with the following sentences:

1. Enthusiasm is a positive emotion.

2. It is infectious and it can make the listeners pay attention to the speaker.
3. It can also be a sign of sincerity on the part of the speaker.
4. Do you consider yourself an enthusiastic speaker?
5. Do you look at your audience while you speak?
Sometimes, however, you don’t have to put stress on the last content word. It will
depend on your purpose and on the construction of the utterance itself.
Examples:
1. He is a doctor. (You want to emphasize the He and not anybody else is a doctor).

2. He is my friend. (You want to emphasize that he is indeed your friend, not an

enemy).

3. Dr. Santos, can you confirm this? (Direct address)

4. Would you like the answer now or later? (alternative – raise your voice on the
choices)

5. English is not as difficult as French. (Comparison – raise your voice on what you
are being compared).

Juncture
People can usually distinguish the word juncture in contrastive twins of word pairs
such as play nice and plain ice. We can see many features which differ between the twins in
spectrograms, but observation alone cannot tell us which features ate important to the
perception of juncture. The contributions of pitch, amplitude, timing, and segmental

31
features to juncture perception were studied as follows. Parametric representations of
twins XY were obtained by analyzing natural speech, and the above features were
exchanged between the twins in a complete factorial design. A feature f was considered
important for juncture perception if exchanging fX and Y also caused perception to be
exchanged; that is, listeners heard Y when presented with X possessing feature f of Y, and
vice versa. Listeners' responses indicated that all the features were important, but the
importance of any particular feature or set of features depended on the juncture consonant.
Features also interacted prominently for some consonants and between
Junctures and pauses are just the same they are both the stop of speaking.

Juncture – is a pause or slightly delay in a continuous flow of speech

Pauses – are intervals of silence between or with in words, phrases or sentences.
This silence is an effective communicative tool if used sparingly. For better effect, pausing
to breathe must be done at natural breaks in the sentences where commas and full stops
would be in written prose. This provides a further benefits since relaxed breathing
regulates the oxygen supply to the brain and aids clear thinking.

A. Classification:
1. Close juncture – is movement from sound to sound which has no intervening pauses
or delay.
2. Open juncture – is movement which is not continuous. There is a slight stoppage of
the last sound till it blends with the next. B. Sound:
1. with in a syllable:
man ear clear bed

2. from syllable to syllable with in a word:

lady shadow faith-full
man-ly plen-ty live-ly
3. from word to word:
a)From one consonant to another: plosive to plosive: hot day (First plosive is held
briefly, then exploded as part of the second).
b)From plosive to continuant: plosive is not exploded before the continuant but
becomes part of the latter.
Hot water without money
c)From t to th /&/: th th /or/ should be sounded more prominently.
Ex. At the store, them, through thick and thin.

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 d)From consonant to a vowel: the plosive is exploded blending with the vowel.
Ex. Stop it.
It is continuous with some continuants.
Ex. Pull out.
e)From vowel to vowel: a momentary glide consonant is likely to link them together.
Ex. Do it trying see us know it
w y y w

f) The linking “r”- transition: when a syllable ends with a vowel (followed by “r”)
the /r/ sound s links them together. Ex. Star of the show moreover, Activity:
Say the following:

1. Plosive to plosive:
A good team, the black table, on a dark day, blood bank, the sick baby, hard times.
2. Plosive – Continuant;
With a big smile, to keep late hours, old land lord, picnic supper, next month.
3. From t or d to the /or/:
Right there, about that time, tasted the pie, third theme.
4. Vowel to vowel:
My own book, every actor, flew away, with a cry of joy, the creation.
5. Consonant – Vowel:
Made it up, a cup of tea, slept an hour, some of us, an orange, in a minute, keep it up,
broke a leg, a bag of apples.
6. Linking “r” transition:
Forever and ever, where and when, faster and faster, our uncle, poor orphan.
Guide Questions:
Read the following pairs. Tell the difference in meaning between each pair.

1. The president, said the secretary, is busy.

The president said, the secretary is busy.

2. Who is calling, Jingky?

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 Who is calling Jingky?

3. Are you leaving my child?

Are you leaving, my child?
Increase your “tonal vocabulary” through these exercises.

1. Imagine yourself in each of these situations. Say “what’s the matter” using changing in
pitch, tempo, force, pauses, and voice quality.
a)A friend is found crying.
b)There is commotion in the classroom.
c)A colleague stubbornly insists on a proposal you strongly dislike.
d)Somebody finds faults with you
2. Say ‘yes” to the following:
a)You’re happy about it.
b)You’re excited about it
c)You’re not sure of it
d)You’re forced into it
e)You’re afraid of it
f)You’re angry at it
With all these features of speech – stressing, phrasing, blending, and intonation –
you can effectively enhance your communication. With practice, you can easily win the
respect and admiration of the people you communicate with.

1. Differentiate the features of speech from each other through a diagram with 2
examples each. (20 pts.)
2. How do these features reinforce or contradict the meaning of the words? (10 pts.)
3. Do the following exercises:
A. The following questions are about stress. In your answer sheet, just write your
answer
1. Which words in a sentence are usually stressed?

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 content
words
structure words
2. Which words carry little meaning but make a sentence grammatically correct?

content
words
structure words
3. When speaking English, we try to create a rhythm in which the time between
stressed words is

the

same different
4. Which is a list of content words?

they, should've, through

Donald's, eyes, small
5. Which are NOT usually stressed?

prepositions, articles, pronouns,

conjunctions nouns, main verbs,
adjectives, adverbs
6. Which is the normal neutral stress pattern?
If you CAN, CALL me in the MORNING.
If you can, call ME in the MORNING.
7. Which is the normal neutral stress pattern?

THEY went TO London to VISIT the QUEEN.

They WENT to LONDON to VISIT the QUEEN.
8. Which is the normal neutral stress pattern?

If we COOK, could you WASH the DISHES?

If WE cook, could YOU wash the dishes?
9. An exception to the rule: We can also stress structure words in order to _______
wrong information.

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 provide correct
10. Which stress pattern corrects this statement? "I'm sure they work for the
police."

THEY don't, but WE do.

They don't, BUT we do.
B. Place the primary stress on the following words by writing the syllable in capital
letters
1. Production
2. Question
3. Creativity
4. Productivity
5. Communication
6. Community
7. Qualification
8. Quality
9. Authority
10. Authorization
C. Draw an appropriate intonation line in the following sentences.
1. What is his name?
2. Alex wrote the letters very quickly.
3. She wants to buy a new car.
4. Paris is a large city.
5. Do you visit them often?

I learned that ______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________.

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References
Aquino, Edna C. et. al. (2015). Speech Power. Mutya Publishing House,Inc. Malabon City.
Flores, Carmelita S. & Lopez. Evelyn B. (2003). Effective Speech Communication. Fourth
Edition. National Book Store. Mandaluyong City.
Villamarzo, Perla C. et. al. (2003). Functional Oral Communication. UST Publishing House.
Manila. Revised Edition 2003.
Wakat, Geraldine S. et. al. (2018). Purposive Communication. LORIMAR PUBLISHING, Inc.
Quezon City.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/paralanguage
https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Courses/Butte_College/Exploring_Intercultural_Communic
ation_(Grothe)/05%3A_Nonverbal_Processes_in_Intercultural_Communication/5.02%
https://www.google.com.ph/search?q=listening&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwiPgKnGjOvvAh
VF6ZQKHVdvCMYQ2-cCegQIABAA&oq=listening&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQAzIEC http://lieni-
literature.blogspot.com/2011/03/juncture-or-pauses.html

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