GR 43 FCR Revision Final 1 PDF

MIE 315 Design for environment
Project 13. Electric / diesel hybrid busses vs fuel cell buses
Teaching Assistant: Seyed-Ehsan Mir-Haidari
Team member Student number
Submission Date: Mar 31th, 2017

Executive Summary
Toronto Transit Commission (TTC) is a public transport company that provides essential transit
service for the GTA in Ontario, Canada. TTC operates various of transit systems such as transit
bus, streetcars and metro trains. Established in 1921, TTC began with the first subway train
carriage purchased from the Great Britain to a grand fleet made of 278 streetcars, 1800 buses and
852 subway trains, TTC now has became a symbol of Toronto and possess an indispensable role
in the GTA. With such great influence, a small change from TTC can impact many people’s life.
Now, environmental issue has became a global focus. Recognizing the changes in society, TTC
decided to upgrade its transit bus fleet to either hybrid or fuel cell bus in consideration of both
environmental and economical aspects. Thus, to acquire a better knowledge in the operating
differences between the two buses, TTC has enlisted the aid from four engineering students from
University of Toronto. This document is the final assessment on the two buses. The first section
briefly introduced the alternatives, outlined the goal, scope and function unit also included the
preliminary findings from the previous report. Second section of this report conducted a detailed
economic analysis on both alternatives to decide which alternative has a greater advantage in the
economic aspect. Third section conducted a hybrid life cycle analysis that exclusively discussed
overall environmental impact brought by each life stage of the two alternatives. Lastly, a societal
analysis is presented to address all societal factors aroused by implementing these buses. The
functional unit is defined as ‘transport 2 people per 1 km’. The analytical lifespan for this study
is determined to be 12 years.
The economic analysis is conducted upon the costs for each bus to operate 12 years without
breakdown. All costs are analysed in a 12-year analytical period with in consideration of
inflation. Then the price is converted to a net present value with a MARR of 10%. After a
comparative study between the alternatives, we found that the hybrid bus has a much lower
NPV, thus the hybrid bus had a conclusive advantage in this section. The hybrid life cycle
examined both alternatives in great detail. From this assessment, the hydrided bus had an
outstanding advantage with a smaller impact from both midpoint and endpoint analysis. Despite
the hydrogen bus has no operational emissions and is 90% recyclable, the manufacture on its key
components and reforming on hydrogen brought significant impact on the environment. Lastly,
from the societal analysis on ticket price, noise level, public safety and reliability, the hybrid bus
had another inevitable success.
Based upon the numerous assessments in this report, quite controversially from the PCR, our
final recommendation for TTC is to upgrade the fleet to the diesel hybrid bus for its superior
advantages in both economical and environmental aspects.
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Table of Contents
1. Introduction
1.1. Topic and Alternatives ……………………………….….………………….…..
4
1.2. Preliminary Findings …………………………………..………………………. 4
1.3. Goal …………………………………………………….………………….….… 5
1.4. Scope …………………………………………………….………………..……... 5
1.4.1. Function and Function Unit …..……………………………………..… 6
2. Economic Analysis
2.1. Life Cycle Cost
2.1.1. Initial Costs …………………………………………….……….………. 6
2.1.2. Operational and Maintenance Costs ………………………….………. 6
2.1.3. Salvage Value ………………………………………………….…….......
7
2.2. Analysis Method
2.2.1. Time Value of Money …………………………….……….……………. 7
2.3. Electric / diesel Hybrid Bus …………………………………………………..... 8
2.4. Fuel Cell Bus …………………………………………………………………..... 9
2.5. Comparison of Alternatives ………………………………………….….…… 10
2.6. Sensitivity Analysis ……………………………………………………….…... 11
3. Hybrid Life Cycle Assessment
3.1. Analysis Method For Both Alternatives ………………….…...………….…. 12
3.2. Electrical / diesel Hybrid Bus
3.2.1. Cummins ISL 8.9L 330HP diesel engine …………..…………..……..
13
3.2.2. Allison H40 EP traction drive unit …………….…………….………. 15
3.2.3. Diesel Fuel ………………………………………….…………..……… 16
3.2.4. Diesel Fuel Tank ………………………………………………...…….. 18
3.2.5. Entire Hybrid Bus Analysis …………………………………..……… 19
3.3. Hydrogen Fuel Cell Bus
3.3.1. FC velocity HD85 Module ……………………………………...…….. 22
3.3.2. FC gen 1020 ACS Fuel cell stack ………………………………..…… 23
3.3.3. Hydrogen Fuel ………………………………………..……………….. 26
3.3.4. Hydrogen Fuel Tank ……………………………………………..…… 29
3.3.5. Entire Fuel Cell Bus Analysis ……………………………..…….…… 30
3.4. Inventory Flow Analysis
3.4.1. Hybrid Bus Inventory Flow ……………………………………….…. 33
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3.4.2. Hybrid Fuel Cell Bus Inventory ………………….……………….…. 36
3.5. Summary on Midpoint Impact Analysis ………………...…………….…….. 39
3.6. End Point Analysis …………………………………………...…………..…… 42
4. Societal Analysis
4.1. Punctuality & Reliability ………………………….…....……………….….… 43
4.2. Potential Risk………………………………………………….….………….... 44
4.3. Ticket Price ………………………………...……………………...…………... 44
5. Summary and Recommendation ……………………….………...……..….………... 44
6. Reference …………….……………….……………….………………….….………... 47
6.1. Appendix A (Introduction) ……………………………………...…………….
60
6.2. Appendix B (Economic) ……………………………………….……....……… 64
6.3. Appendix C (Hybrid bus) ……………………………………..……………… 68
6.4. Appendix D (Fuel cell bus) …………………………………….………....…... 77
6.5. Appendix E (Potential factors and end point analysis) …………………….. 86
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1. Introduction
This section briefly re-introduces the topic and alternatives in a systematic manner. The findings
from our previous report will be summarized and key matrices will be included in the appendix
A. The goal, scope and functional unit for this report will also be introduced.
1.1 Topic and Alternatives
This report is constructed upon Toronto Transit Commission (TTC)’s request on a life cycle
assessment study considering two alternatives: the electric/diesel hybrid bus and the fuel cell bus.
Depending on the result of this report, TTC will make their final investment decision on whether
to upgrade their current bus fleet or not based on both environmental and economical factors.
Two specific products being considered in this report are New Flyer H40 LFR ™ fuel cell bus
[106] and Nova LFS HEV ™ electrical/diesel hybrid bus [8]. The New Flyer fuel cell buses are
currently operating at BC transit bus fleet and the Nova hybrid buses are operating at TTC bus
fleet. Both of them are manufactured by leading companies with sophisticated technology
embedded.
For detailed explanation on both alternatives please see appendix A.
1.2 Preliminary Findings
Our preliminary recommendation is made based on a FOC analysis and a streamlined life cycle
analysis. Throughout the FOC analysis, both alternatives have achieved the desired function of
transporting people and have met all the constraints. By utilizing a weighted decision matrix, we
have found that the hybrid bus takes slightly more advantages than the hydrogen bus in terms of
the objective criteria. However, quite oppositely during the evaluation on the pre-manufacturing,
manufacturing, transportation, use and disposal stages in the SLCA, we have found that the
hydrogen bus had an overwhelming victory since the fuel cell produces only water during
operation. Therefore, the hydrogen bus has an exceptional advantage at a score of 49 vs 38.
However, due to the imperfections of the SLCA method as a semi-quantitative analysis, no
quantitative resources used are addressed nor the results can be normalized to the functional unit.
Thus this recommendation is only made preliminarily and further quantitative analysis will be
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conducted in this report. The corresponding decision matrices can be found in the appendix A
table 13.
1.3 Goal
This report will further analyze and quantify the environmental and economic impacts of both
alternatives over an expected operation lifespan by TTC of 12 years. Detailed explanations on
the lifespan will be presented in the scope section. The findings presented in this project are
intended to help our client TTC to make an investment decision upon considerations on both
economical and environmental factors between two alternatives. This comparative study may be
released to public by TTC to understand the difference between these two alternatives and the
corresponding environmental impacts brought by two buses.
1.4 Scope
Based on researches, the average operating life for a transit bus are constructed upon the vehicle
miles travelled and vehicle hours travelled [13]. Although some buses will not necessarily stop
operating at a 12-year life, but the maintenance cost after this lifespan will increase significantly
[13]. Therefore, the analytical lifespan is set to be 12 years.
Based on extensive researches, our primary scope of this report will be focus on the uncommon
parts objects below [14][65][120][5]. (For detailed research, refer to appendix A)
Significant parts of hybrid bus not in common are as following [6][8][10]:

- Cummins ISL 8.9L 330 HP diesel hybrid engine,
- Allison H40 EP traction drive device,
- Fuel tank and diesel fuel used for operation,
- Note the alternator, carburetor, cooling system and power steering unit are considered as
part of the hybrid engine.
Significant parts of hydrogen bus not in common are as following [7][9][11]:

- FC velocity HD85 Module,
- FC gen 1020 ACS fuel cell stack,
- Fuel tank and hydrogen fuel used for operation.
- Note that the coolant subsystem and air subsystem are integrated in the fuel cell module,
therefore they will be considered as a whole.
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Prominent datasets used in this study do not account for production and maintenance of
machinery used for the engine system. Also, the overhead cost and human activities related to
manufacturing and retailing process are assumed to be equivalent for both alternatives and are
omitted from the system of our study. Therefore, the system boundary inclusions and exclusions
are summarized in table 16, appendix A.
1.4.1 Function and Function Unit
The primary function for each alternative is the ability to transport people. As such, the function
unit (FU) used throughout the subsequent analysis is defined as ‘transport 2 people per 1 km’.
From the operating statistics of TTC website, the amount of people riding TTC has reached a
saturated state ever since 2011. From 2010 to 2011, 22.8 million more people are riding with
TTC, but from 2014 to 2015, the amount of people riding with TTC has not changed much (only
increased 2.8 million). Therefore, using the data provided from 2015, we assume that 540 million
people will be riding with TTC in 2017.[1] From TTC annual report, about 45%-50% of total
people are bus riders. Therefore, about 243 million people will be bus riders in 2017.[1] Total
kilometers of bus operated in the GTA has a continuous increasing behavior ever since 2008
until 2014. However the rising behavior started getting shallow since 2015 [1]. Therefore, a total
of 132 million operational kilometers is expected in 2017. Thus, by dividing the two data,
approximately there will be two people are transported 1 km by riding TTC bus. For analysis
purpose, all measurements will be normalized to this function unit.
2. Economic Analysis
Economic factor is also one of the most important considerations that help TTC determine
whether they should make the investment. This section will estimate the total costs of both buses
from the usage to the end of life stages. Costs in pre-manufacturing and manufacturing stages are
already included in the purchasing cost.
2.1 Life Cycle Cost
2.1.1 Initial Costs
Once TTC decides to upgrade the current bus type, the initial cost will occur and include the
original purchasing price, tax and the transportation cost from assembly plant to TTC. Transit
agencies like TTC tend to pay the full amount of the purchasing price without any debt
services[15] and loan payment later.
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2.1.2 Operational and Maintenance Costs
Operational costs are composed of insurance cost, registration fee and fuel costs. Human
resource expenditure(wages and benefits) has a majority percentage of the operational cost[15].
Since both types of buses are assumed to operate in the same environment and routes, the
replacement of brakes, tire rotations, air conditioning is assumed to have the same frequency[13].
2.1.3 Salvage Value
Based on the depreciation rate of buses and the number of depreciation years, the salvage value
of buses can be determined from subtracting the total depreciation value from the initial
purchasing price[36]. Depreciation value measures the total value loss of the bus after certain
number of years. Acceleration depreciation method is used in this analysis [36].
2.2 Analysis Method
2.2.1 Time Value of Money
Each alternative has an equal lifespan of 12 years or 500000 miles (804672 kilometres which is
the normalization factor of function unit)[12]. Hybrid bus and fuel cell bus have various costs
taking place at different times throughout the entire life cycle. Therefore, net present value
(NPV) analysis is used to convert all costs occurring in different time to the present value at year
zero. All the results are calculated using the minimum annual rate of return (MARR) of 10%
[17]. Inflation is also considered and is estimated to be 1.66% based on the average inflation rate
in past 12 years in Canada[35]. All values calculated in the economic analysis are expressed in
CAD dollars.
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2.3 Electric /diesel Hybrid Bus
The initial costs ($734456) are calculated based on purchasing and shipping
factors.[19][22][21].The operational and maintenance costs (present value = $1234834) are
based on fuel economy, employee salary, maintenance and bus
insurance.[12][116][24][25][18][29][30] The salvage profits at the end of the life span results a
present value of $71458. Based on these, the figure on life cycle costs below is construed. From
the figure we can see that the initial and employee salary costs take up 63% of the total costs that
dominate throughout the entire life cycle. *All calculations of present values conversion are
listed in the Appendix B.
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2.4 Fuel Cell Bus
The initial costs ($2373236) are calculated based on purchasing and shipping
factors.[20][23][21].The operational and maintenance costs (present value = $4489188) are
based on fuel economy, employee salary, maintenance and bus
insurance.[31][34][75][10][27][28][30][31][18] The salvage profits at the end of the life span
results a present value of $20444.3. Based on these, the figure on life cycle costs below is
construed. From the figure we can see that the initial and employee salary costs take up 63% of
the total costs that dominate throughout the entire life cycle. *All calculations of present values
conversion are listed in the Appendix B.
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2.5 Comparison of Alternatives
As demonstrated in the above graph, the net present value of fuel cell bus has greatly exceeded
that of the hybrid bus. Fuel cell bus has an initial cost of $2373000, which is more two times
expensive than hybrid bus. Another major cost of fuel cell bus is fuel cell stack replacement
which is greater than its initial cost. In conclusion, hybrid bus is much more cost-efficient.
2.6 Sensitivity Analysis
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The majority costs of both buses are stable since the exact data is found through the research.
However, the number of fuel cell stacks is uncertain and is estimated based on the average fuel
cell stack power output and average input power of fuel cell bus. Unlike other major costs such
as initial costs which are fixed, fuel cell stack replacement cost accounts for 40% of the total cost
of fuel cell bus and can have a change within a large range. The final cost of fuel cell bus is very
sensitive. Table 17 illustrates the new annual replacement cost on different power output fuel cell
stacks under the conditions of minimum(30 kW) and maximum(100 kW) input of buses.
Table 17. Sensitivity Analysis on economic analysis

Fuel cell stack Minimum (400W) Average (1850W) Maximum (3300W)
power
Bus input power Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum
# of fuel cell 75 250 16 54 9 30

stacks
Annual 822000 2740000 175360 591840 98640 328800

replacement cost
($)
As shown in the table 17, the annual replacement cost is largely affected by the output power of
fuel cell stack and the input power of fuel cell bus. Even though the total cost of fuel cell bus can
be changed largely, it will not affect the conclusion that hybrid bus has less life cycle cost. From
figure 2, it can be easily observed that the cost of fuel cell bus without fuel cell stack
replacement cost is already over $4000000 while the total costs of hybrid bus is only above
2000000. Therefore, the number of fuel cell stacks is not sensitive to the economic analysis.
3. Hybrid Life Cycle Assessment
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3.1 Analysis Method For Both Alternatives
Based on the scope of this report, uncommon parts between two alternatives will be examined in
this hybrid life cycle assessment. For this hybrid life cycle assessment, two methods will be
mostly used are EIO-LCA and conventional LCA. For EIO-LCA the specific economic activity
will be examined using the 2002 producer model. under TRACI 2.0 impact assessment that
generates all environmental impact along with this economic activity. For parts that are not
commodified, a conventional LCA will be utilized for results as completely as possible.
Different analysis methods will be used for each alternative due to their unique life cycle stages.
First, the diesel engine, traction drive, diesel fuel and fuel tank will be examined for the hybrid
bus. Then, the fuel cell module, fuel cell stack, hydrogen fuel and hydrogen tank will be
examined for the hydrogen bus.
The following section will exclusively discuss each part and their environmental impacts at the
first three life stages: pre-manufacturing, manufacturing and transportation. Pre-manufacturing
stage normally includes the raw material extraction and transportation. Manufacturing stage
includes the secondary process of raw material such as reforming, purification, forging, cracking,
distillation, etc. Transportation stage will discuss the first transportation pathway from the
components (such as engine) manufacturing factories to the overall bus assembly factory. The
remaining three stages of the entire bus assembly will then be reviewed together. These will
include the secondary transportation pathway where the assembled bus is shipped to TTC. Note
that as early discussed in the scope, the assembly of the whole bus will not be discussed since the
overall assembly procedure and emissions will be the same for both. Then, the use stage of each
bus will be closely examined and divided to two parts: maintenance & repair and fuel direct use.
Lastly, the disposal stage will be examined for the entire bus at the end of the analytical lifespan.
For all conventional LCA conducted, all residues will be equalized to global warming
potential(CO2e), acidification potential(SO2e), eutrophication potential(Ne) and photochemical
ozone creation potential(C2H4e) by the corresponding factors. All data calculated in the
assessment will be normalized to the function unit of transport 2 people per 1 km. Furthermore,
at the end of each component, an impact analysis table will be presented to address all significant
relevant environmental stressors for each life cycle stage. The total energy input for each sector
will also be included as well. For potential factors, please see Appendix E[77].
At the end, a end-point analysis based on ReCiPe report will be conducted to analysis all data
calculated from this grand hybrid life cycle assessment.
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3.2 Electrical/diesel Hybrid bus
3.2.1 Cummins ISL 8.9L 330 HP diesel engine

The diesel engine is basically an internal combustion engine that converts the chemical energy in
the diesel fuel to the kinetic energy for the bus.
1. Pre-manufacturing stage
The premanufacturing stage of diesel engine is mainly the raw material mining process. The
major technical parameters and materials of the normal heavy-duty bus diesel engine are shown
in the following table 8[37].
The steel is an alloy of iron and other elements, primarily carbon.The most commonly applied
process for steelmaking is the integrated steel-making process via the Blast Furnace – Basic
Oxygen Furnace. [117] The iron mined from the iron ore combined with other element which
determine the property of the steel in the oxygen furnace. The steel is used for the connecting rod
and piston.
For the cast iron, the iron ore is heated in a blast furnace with coke and limestone to remove the
impurities and produce molten iron. The molten iron is then poured into molds and cooled to
make cast iron. [118] The cast iron is used for the crankshaft and flywheel.
The aluminum alloy is typically utilized for cylinder heads and the engine body due to its lower
fatigue strength than steel. The aluminum is typically mined from bauxite which is the common
ore for the aluminum. The aluminum is then combined with other materials which determines the
alloy property (typically magnesium , silicon, copper) in the blast furnace. [119]
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The raw material is latex which is harvested from the natural rubber tree. The rubber is typically
used for the belting system in the diesel engine.
The cost of material refining and processing in the diesel engine pre-manufacturing process is
5.389e-4 USD/FU. We calculated this based on 2008 price of the each material shown in Table
8, the currency exchange rate in 2008 [42] and CPI [40]. The detail calculation and sector
selection is shown in appendix A.
2. Manufacturing stage
The manufacturing stage of diesel engine is raw material processing (including milling,
stamping, drilling and all other machinery process) and assembling process. Since the cost of
processing and assembly is not approachable, it is assumed that the processing cost can be
calculated by deducting the raw material cost from the entire engine cost. The cost of diesel
engine manufacturing process is 0.012 USD/FU. We calculated this based on the price of raw
material cost in the previous section,the whole engine cost in 2015 [44], the currency exchange
rate in 2015 [43] and CPI [40]. The detail calculation and sector selection is shown in appendix
A.
3. Transportation
The diesel engine is assumed to be transported to the assembly plant (Saint-Eustache,
Quebec)[22] from the nearest manufacturing facility. The nearest manufacturing plant of
Cummins ISL diesel engine is located at Darlington, England. The engine is assumed to be
transported solely by ocean since the cost the later ground transport is insignificant compared to
the cost of long-distance ocean freighter transport. The transportation fee is 1.7e-3 USD/Fu. We
calculated this based on the estimated ocean transportation fee [46] and CPI[40] The detail
calculation and sector selection is shown in appendix A.
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3.2.2 Allison H40 EP traction drive unit
The drive unit is equipped with planetary gears, clutches and motor/generator. The
generator/motor acts as variable clutches and controls the the planetary components. [45] For
the simplification purpose, it is assumed that the driving unit only includes the motor/generator.
The cost of planetary gear and clutches is negligible comparing to the cost of motor and
generator. [44]
1. Pre-manufacturing and manufacturing stage

The pre-manufacturing and manufacturing stage of traction unit includes refinery of raw
materials for the electrical motor and electrical generator, the processing and manufacturing cost
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for motor and generator. Since there is a sector called ‘ motor and generator manufacturing’ in
TRACI 2.0, this stage can be simply analyzed by EIO-LCA. The total cost of traction drive unit
is 0.051 USD/FU. We calculated this value based on the cost of generator and motor [44],
currency exchange rate [43] and CPI [40].The detail calculation and sector selection is shown in
appendix A.
2. Transportation
The traction drive unit is assumed to be transported to the assembly plant (Saint-Eustache,
Quebec)[22] from the nearest manufacturing facility. The nearest manufacturing plant of Allison
H40 EP traction drive unit is located at Indianapolis in North America [47]. The traction unit is
assumed to be transported from Indianapolis to Quebec solely by truck [47]. The estimated cost
for transportation is 6.27e-4 USD/FU. We calculated this value based on the estimated
transportation fee[47] and CPI [40]. The detail calculation and sector selection is shown in appendix
A.
3.2.3 Diesel Fuel

Diesel fuel is normally refined from the crude oil. The chemistry energy in the diesel is
converted to kinetic energy by the internal combustion engine.
1. Pre-manufacturing and manufacturing stage
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For the pre-manufacturing process, the raw material of the diesel fuel is the crude oil produced
by drilling into porous rock structures located 7000 feet underground [55]. The crude oil used to
produce diesel is 0.31 USD/FU. We calculated this based on the conversion ratio between crude
oil and diesel fuel[50], the price of the crude oil [49], and CPI [40].
The manufacturing stage of the diesel fuel includes mid-distillate hydrotreating, hydrocracking
process to convert the crude oil to the fuel. The cost of diesel is 0.36 USD/FU. We calculated
this based on the fuel consumption rate [12], current price of diesel fuel [48] and CPI[40] The
detail calculation and sector selection is shown in appendix A
2. Transportation
The diesel is refined from crude oil and transported from Nanticoke, Ontario [56]to gas station in
Toronto city by solely truck[57]. The total cost of diesel transportation is 0.021USD/FU. We
calculated this value based on the estimated transportation fee[47] and CPI [40].The detail
calculation and sector selection is shown in appendix A
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3.2.4 Diesel Fuel Tank
The diesel fuel tank for the hybrid bus is made by high density polyethylene (HDPE) [52].
HDPE is derived from either modifying the olefins (ethylene) from the natural gas or from the
by-product of catalytic cracking of crude oil into gasoline[51].
1. Pre-manufacturing stage
The pre-manufacturing stage for the polyethylene tank is converting the crude oil and natural
gas to the polyethylene resin.The total cost of HDPE resin used for the tank is 4.17e-5 USD/FU
We calculated this value based on current price of HDPE resin [54], the weight of the tank [53]
and CPI [40].The detail calculation and sector selection is shown in appendix A
2. Manufacturing stage
The manufacturing stage is converting plastics resins into the final shape of the tank. It is
assumed that the price difference between the final price and the raw material cost is the cost for
manufacturing process. The total cost of manufacturing the tank is 1.9e-4 USD/FU. We
calculated this value based on final price of the tank [53], raw material cost calculated from
previous section and CPI [40].The detail calculation and sector selection is shown in appendix A
3. Transportation
The diesel fuel tank is assumed to be transported to the assembly plant (Saint-Eustache, Quebec)
[22] from the nearest manufacturing facility. The nearest manufacturing plant of HDPE fuel
tank is located at Richmond Hill in Toronto[47]. The transportation cost is 1.68e-4 USD/FU for
fuel tank transportation.The total cost of diesel transportation is 0.021USD/FU. We calculated
this value based on the estimated transportation fee[47] and CPI [40].The detail calculation and
sector selection is shown in appendix A
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3.2.5 Entire hybrid bus analysis
1. Transportation
In this stage, the entire bus is transported from the assembly facility in Saint-Eustache, Quebec to
the TTC company in the Toronto. It is assumed that the entire bus is transported by truck. The
transportation cost is 1.68e-4 USD/FU for fuel tank transportation.The total cost of diesel
transportation is 3.16e-4 USD/FU. We calculated this value based on the estimated transportation
fee[47] and CPI [40].The detail calculation and sector selection is shown in appendix A
2. Use
● Fuel use
From the previous calculation, the fuel consumption of the hybrid bus is 47.04 litres/100km.
From the data given by the US. Energy Information Administration, about 22.38 pounds of CO2
are produced from burning a gallon of diesel fuel[60], which can be converted to 2.68kg
CO2/litre. So the CO2 emission for hybrid bus is 1.26 kg/km equivalent. We can use the
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following figure 59 to estimate the quantity of the other pollutant emissions[61]. For example,
the mass ratio between CO2 and NOx is (0.5kg/kwh)/(17.0 g/kwh)=29.4. So the equivalent
emission of NOx is 1.26/29.4=0.043kg/km. Table 9 shows all the emission of pollutant or
greenhouse gas (GHG) in kg/km.
● Repair & Maintenance
The total cost of repair&mainenace cost is 0.0196 USD/FU. We calculated this value based on
the estimated maintenance fee of hybrid bus[18] and CPI [40].The detail calculation and sector
selection is shown in appendix A
3. Disposal & Recycle

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Notice that the whole life cycle assessment is based on the life cycle of 12 years. The uncommon
components between two alternatives are diesel engine, traction drive unit and HDPE fuel tank.
Normally, the traction drive unit has lifespan of 15 to 20 years which is apparently longer than
analytical lifespan 12 years. [63]The diesel engine has a average lifespan of 20 years [62]
Therefore, the diesel engine can also be used after 12 years. The only part that needs to be
recycled is HDPE fuel tank. The fuel tank equipped on the hybrid bus is 18.8kg. The following
figure 19 shows the emissions (in kg) of recycling 14.2kg HDPE fuel tank[64]. It is assumed that
the emissions are proportional to the weight of the HDPE. The emissions (in kg/km) produced by
18.8kg fuel tank is recorded in Table 10. Only substance that have significant environmental
impacts are listed.
The energy input from the incineration of 1 kg of HDPE is 46.3 MJ[64]. Assume the tank is
made solely by HDPE. The total energy is 870.44 MJ or1.08e-3 MJ/FU.
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3.3 Hydrogen Fuel Cell Bus
3.3.1 FC velocity HD85 Module
The FC velocity HD85 module is the power core of the fuel cell bus. It contains the fuel cell
stacks inside and acts as a giant engine that converts the chemical energy from the fuel cell to a
continuous electrical power output.
1. Pre-Manufacturing Stage & Manufacturing Stage
From research, Ballard power system sold $17 million deal over 300 fuel cell module in
2016[91]. The normalized price is $0.04. Now, the analysis is conducted using the ‘Motor and
generator manufacturing sector. (See figure 9 and calculation 1, Appendix D) Please see figure
48 for detailed inventory flow.
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2. Transportation
The fuel cell module with its air and coolant subsystem together weights 256+44+61 = 361
kg[92]. From the manufacturing company Ballard power systems warehouse facility (Burnaby,
BC)[88] to closest New flyer bus assembly facility in Jamestown, New York. Detailed
calculation in Appendix D calculation 2
3.3.2 FC gen 1020 ACS fuel cell stack
The FC gen 1020 ACS fuel cell stack is the fuel cell core embedded inside of the HD85 Module.
Inside this polymer exchange membrane fuel cell(PEMFC) is where the chemical combustion
between the hydrogen fuel and ambient oxygen takes place[85]. Though the working lifespan of
this cell extently depends on the ambient air quality, its maximum working lifespan is around 1
year. For one bus, there will be 35 fuel cell stacks presented (see section 2.4.2). Therefore, there
will be a total of 420 fuel cell stacks utilized for 12 years. Each fuel cell stack costs $10960[28],
so the total price for 420 fuel cell stack is $4603200.
1. Pre-Manufacturing Stage - Detailed inventory flow in figure 46
The manufacturing procedure on the fuel cell stack is extremely complicated and sophisticated.
A complete inventory flow diagram will be presented later in the section. However, some
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elements have utmost insignificant contribution to environmental impact. Therefore, not all
elements will be include for discussion in this session for they will not bring much influence on
the overall result. The main material inventory of a PEMFC can be seen in the following
graphs[74]:
Table 11: material inventor of a fuel cell stack [74]
From this graph, we can summarize the material input into these categories: Ferrous Alloy
Manufacturing (steel), Aluminum Manufacturing(Aluminum alloy), Non ferrous metal
manufacturing (Platinum, Ruthenium), Plastic manufacturing (Nafion, Polypropylene) and
carbon fiber manufacturing (Carbon paper, Carbon fibers and carbon powder). For detailed
calculations please refer to Appendix D calculation 3.
Therefore, each category has a economic activity as follow (normalized to FU): steel: $0.129,
aluminum: $0.24, non ferrous is $4.3e-3, plastic: $1.338, carbon: $2.58.
Based on these results, multiple EIO-LCAs can be conducted on different sectors’

pre-manufacturing stage. Note that the plastic and carbon sectors’ two manufacturing stage will
not be separately discussed for these materials are mostly synthesized composites and the
limitation on the EIO-LCA database. They will be discussed thoroughly later in the
manufacturing stage.
24
Ferrous, aluminum and nonferrous will be individually analyzed from three EIO-LCAs such as
Iron ore mining, aluminum refining and primary aluminum production and other metal ore
mining. (See figure 3,4 and 24, Appendix D)
2. Manufacturing Stage - Detailed inventory flow in figure 46
From the analysis above, this section will include the manufacturing emissions from all five
categories of material input on PEMFC. For ferrous , the EIO-LCA will be conducted on Iron
and steel mills. For aluminum - secondary smelting and alloying of aluminum.
For non-ferrous metal alloys - primary smelting and refining of nonferrous metal and nonferrous
metal rolling, drawing, extruding and alloying. For plastic materials - plastics material and resin
manufacturing. For carbon materials, carbon paper and carbon fiber - carbon and graphite
product manufacturing whereas the carbon powder will be conducted on carbon black
manufacturing. (See figure 26-29, 15, 31, 32 Appendix D)
3. Transportation
Since the manufacturing company Ballard power systems warehouse facility is located in
Burnaby, BC[88] and closest New flyer bus assembly facility is in Jamestown, New York. (see
section 2.4.1). The total weight for 420 fuel cells is 69.9*420 = 29538 kg. Normalized shipping
costs is $0.016. (See figure 10, calculation 4 Appendix D)
25
3.3.3 Hydrogen Fuel
Hydrogen, a widely heard gas that are used everywhere does not naturally exist on Earth and
requires serious energy use in the production, storage and delivery stages. Numerous methods
26
can be used to produce hydrogen gas such as water electrolysis, steam methane reforming(SMR),
thermochemical and photoelectrochemical water splitting, thermolysis, and photocatalysis.[66]
Although there are many clean method can be used to produce hydrogen, but due to immature
technical developments, most of the hydrogen produced in the world(96%) is facilitated by
reforming of fossil fuels, most commonly by SMR[67]. Therefore, despite hydrogen is
considered as one of the cleanest energy carrier, negative environmental impacts can emanate
during its production. Since the hydrogen fuel will fully convert to other substance form such as
water, so the life cycle stages will end at the use phase. Therefore, this section will not examine
the EOD stage for this fuel.
Based on the analysis lifespan of 12 years, 16318.8 Mcf of natural gas is need.[12, 68, 69, 70]
Detailed calculation in calculation 5 Appendix D
1. Pre-manufacturing stage (Natural Gas extraction) - Detailed inventory flow in figure 47

From U.S. energy information administration, the most recent import price for liquefied natural
gas at 2016 is $4.63 USD per Mcf. Normalize with respect to our functional unit, yields $0.07
[40].This value will be entered into ‘Natural Gas Distribution’ sector. (including melting and
shaping the steel and iron). (See figure 35, calculation 6 Appendix D)
2. Manufacturing Stage (Hydrogen gas reforming) - Detailed inventory flow in figure 47

The manufacturing stage is the SMR synthesize on hydrogen gas from raw extracted natural gas.
To produce hydrogen, a sufficient amount of natural gas is burned and there are significant
emissions from this stage. A simplified reforming process can be modeled below[73]:
Figure 60: Simplified SMR
From this model, we can see that other than water, most gaseous emissions are qualified as
GHG. The total mass of hydrogen fuel is 415887.8 kg. (calculation 11, appendix D)
Several significant typical emissions from natural gas combustion can be summarized as follow:
27
Table 12: Typical emissions from natural gas combustion [73]
Note, we do not consider for CO because this substance are further reduced or recycled for later
use in the intermediate process of the SMR[73]. For detailed emission from gas combustion
please refer to table 13, appendix D.
From Air Products (The closest hydrogen producing company in Ontario), hydrogen are
produced at a rate of 5000 m3 / hour[94]. Normalized energy input is obtained to 1.57
MJ/km[73]. (calculation 12, appendix D)
Now, if we use the potential conversion mentioned in section 3.1. A conventional LCA can be
analyzed. The data will be later included in the life cycle analysis table. (See calculation 7,
Appendix D)
3. Transportation Stage
This section illustrated the emission generated from the transportation stage of the produced
hydrogen gas. Hydrogen will be transported from the reforming plant to the hydrogen filling
station. But during research, we found that there is only one hydrogen filling station that is close
to city of toronto at mississauga - Hydrogenics Headquarters[78]. As for hydrogen reforming
plant, there is a new factory just built in the GTA - Air Products[79]. An EIO-LCA can be
conducted on normalized economic activity of $1.25e-3. (See figure 10, calculation 8 Appendix
D)
28
3.3.4 Hydrogen Fuel Tank
Since hydrogen is an extremely unstable gas, special containment is required for its storage
during normal bus operation. Therefore, unlike most automobile fuel tanks, the hydrogen are
concealed inside of a highly rigid and pressurized tank. For New Flyer H40 LFR ™, there are
four tanks placed on top of the bus containing hydrogen[81] at 5000 psi [80]. These pressurized
cylinder are produced by Hexagon Lincoln fuel cylinders[81], model K each weighing 43kg,
[80]volume is 64L and contains 2.6kg of hydrogen[82]. Due to high manufacturing standards for
these cylinder, the body of the tank will not fracture easily[83]. Although, one thing to check is
the regulator on the tank itself, however, average lifespan for a hydrogen tank regulator is 25
years[84]. So we can say that in the analytical lifespan of 12 years there will be no maintenance
or replacing activities on these hydrogen cylinders.
1. Pre-manufacturing Stage & Manufacturing Stage
There are four tanks used for each bus and each tank is made of all-carbon high density
polyethylene which is a kind of carbon fibre[82]. Through research, an equivalent, industrial
grade 12L HDPE hydrogen tank costs 618$ USD[86]. A complete EIO-LCA producer model for
a cradle to gate analysis on carbon and graphite product sector will be examined. This model
included both of the pre-manufacturing and manufacturing stage of the hydrogen tank. (See
figure 38, calculation 9 Appendix D). Detailed inventory flow in figure 48.
2. Transportation Stage
29
Since the tanks are mostly assembled in Lincoln, NE[87] and the closest New flyer bus assembly
facility is in Jamestown, New York. (see section 2.4.1). Normalized economic activity is
$6.77e-4 (See figure 10, calculation 10 Appendix D)
3.3.5 Entire Fuel Cell Bus Analysis
In this section, the life cycle analysis of the entire manufactured bus will be analyzed. For
detailed inventory flow on bus assembly please refer to figure 49.
1. Transporation
From bus manufacturing factory located at Jamestown, NY to Toronto, ON. The average weight
of a transit bus is 38000 lbs[89]. Therefore, total cost to transit one bus is $1415. After CPI
conversion and function unit normalization, the total price is $1.32e-3. From here, a similar
EIO-LCA can be conducted
2. Operation
● Fuel Use
30
The fuel cell bus has one superior advantage that is, it produces absolutely zero environmental
hazards emission during operation. Only water is produced from hydrogen and oxygen
combustion[90]. Therefore, no environmental stressors are presented in this stage,
● Maintenance
From section 2.4.2, we found that the annual maintenance cost for the fuel cell bus is $383600.
After CPI conversion and function unit normalization, the total price is $4.29. (See figure 18,
Appendix D)
3. Disposal & Recycling
At the end of analytical lifespan, the fuel cell bus would have changed 12*35 = 420 fuel cell
stacks. All the other parts usually have longer lifespan so they will be refined for maintenance
and calculated into the maintenance section. For PEMFC stacks, at the end of life, the majority
of fuel cell stacks (90%) would be returned to the manufacturer for closed-loop dismantling and
recycling[95]. The stacks collected were dismantled and separated into following sections:
precious metal such as platinum or ruthenium, common metals such as aluminum or steel and
recycled plastics. The other materials and chemicals in the fuel cell are assumed to be
non-recycle and are sent to landfill. The precious metal is 98% recyclable and common materials
such as common metal and plastics are 90% recyclable[95].
Based on this, the recyclable materials will result a negative impact on the environment based on
their pre-manufacturing and manufacturing stage and the wasted products’ economic activities
will be calculated and an EIOLCA can be conducted on the waste management sector.
31
3.4 Inventory Flow Analysis
The inventory flow diagrams for each alternative are presented in this section. They exclusively
displayed the overall life cycle stages and clearly indicated all energy input and emissions
output. All raw materials and significant intermediate products are included in corresponding
stages.
32
3.4.1 Hybrid Bus Inventory Flow
33
34
35
3.4.2 Hydrogen Fuel Cell Bus Inventory Flow
36
37
38
3.5 Summary on Midpoint Impact Analysis
The total impact brought by each alternative is summarized into figures below.
Based on above data, following figures were created to address the environmental impact on
both alternatives.
39
40
From above figures, we can see that despite in most sectors, the fuel cell bus has some
advantages in the disposal stage, but overall, it brings significant environmental impact on all
41
sectors evaluated in this report. These impacts are defined as mid point impacts and they will be
analyzed further into end point analysis for better understanding of the data.
3.6 End Point Analysis
The life cycle impact analysis is utilized to convert mid point impacts to endpoint damages. In
this section, the ReCiPe template will be used to convert all mid potentials to correspond
hierarchical impact such as human health, Ecosystems and Resources. The end point weighted
character factors are included in the table below [96].
Note that 2,4-Diaminotoluene is converted to 1,4-DB eq at a factor of 6.2 kg [96].
For weighted character factors used in this analysis please refer to table 14, appendix E
42
From the above figure, the mid-point analysis are converted to end-point by ReCiPe. Emissions
per km upon 12 years of operations on both alternative are calculated in section 3. These
emissions will have the following impacts on human health (HH) and ecosystem (Eco):
- Hybrid Bus
- HH : disability- adjusted life year of 1.43e-5.
- Eco: 2.64e-8 species will diminish each year.
- Fuel Cell Bus
- HH : disability- adjusted life year of 1.78e-3.
- Eco: 1.92e-7 species will diminish each year.
We can see that on both end-point impact, the hydrogen bus brings a larger impact. Namely, for
12 years of life span every km travelled by this bus will results in less human life of 1.78e-3 year
and contribute to 1.92e-7 species’ extinction. Both data are about 10 - 100 times larger than the
hybrid bus. Now we can conclude that after the hybrid LCA, the hybrid bus has superior
advantage.
4. Societal Analysis
The most important point that was not mentioned in the previous report is the passenger's’
experience and the public safety. Public safety is the first important consideration. One of the
most important things of a public transit agency while selecting a bus is to consider passengers'
riding experience. Passengers surely prefer to take the punctual and comfortable bus with low
noise and low ticket price.
4.1 Punctuality & Reliability
It is one of the main standards to evaluate the performance of a public transit system[97]. There
are many inevitable objective factors leading to the bus delay. But regarding the bus itself, there
are many subjective factors. In terms of low accident rate and higher punctuality rate. For the
hybrid bus, technologies of both diesel generator and electric generator have already been
matured [98], which generally has low frequency of breaking-down situations. But it is a
different story for the hydrogen bus. In 13th May 2015, two of Europe's newest hydrogen buses
broke down within 24 hours [114]. This accident shows that the new technologies (hydrogen
bus) has higher frequency of breaking-down. What's more, gas and charging stations can be seen
everywhere, which is very convenient to supplement energy to the hybrid buses. On the other
side, there is only one hydrogen station [100] in the GTA. Besides, hydrogen fuel-cell stack is
very fragile. It requires an extremely high purity of the entering air. If the surrounding air
contains excessive sulfide, it will result the abnormal operation of the hydrogen fuel electric
43
vehicle[115]. As a result, all these reasons will lead to a high proportion of breaking down of the
hydrogen bus[102] and lower the punctuality. To deal with this situation, TTC should require the
hydrogen bus production factory produce more stable buses, which have lower frequency of
breaking-down.
4.2 Potential risk
More hydrogen fueling infrastructures need to be built in GTA to provide fueling service. The
hydrogen leakage in a bus will put all the passages in danger because it may result in explosion
and fire [105]. Hydrogen leakage in the fuel stations tend to be more harmful due to large
number storage of hydrogen. Comparing to gasoline fueling stations, hydrogen buses and
hydrogen fueling stations have higher possibility of leakage due to low density and explosive
property of hydrogen under the high pressure[105]. Diesel is flammable liquid, which will lead
to a longer lasting fire. It is easy to control the accidents comparing to hydrogen explosion [104].
TTC should require the hydrogen fueling stations, which will service with TTC’ bus, improve
the safety level of their equipment.
4.3 Ticket Price
As shown in the economic analysis, the net present value of a hybrid bus is $2012335. For a
hydrogen bus, the net present value is $6634926, which is 3 times higher. The ticket price will
probably increase if TTC chooses fuel cell buses. TTC may decrease the ticket price by applying
some subsidy from the Ontario government because hydrogen bus is more clean than other types
of public buses. Using more hydrogen buses will make the environment better in Ontario.
5. Summary and recommendation

Our preliminary assessment of two alternatives are based on function, objective and constraint
analysis and a Streamlined Life Cycle assessment. From FOC analysis, we concluded that both
alternatives were equivalent in function and met the constraints. By applying the weighted
decision matrix, we found out that the electrical/diesel hybrid bus had a better performance than
the fuel cell bus on the objective criteria.When measuring environmental impact, the SLCA
presented the opposite result, giving the fuel cell bus have a better performance than the hybrid
bus throughout the product life stages. Our preliminary recommendation was to invest in the fuel
cell bus. However, the SLCA is highly unreliable since most of the marking are dependent on
people’s perspective rather than a quantitative measurement. Therefore, quantitative methods are
used instead of SLCA in this report to further analysis the alternatives.
44
In this report, we conducted an economic analysis and HLCA. All the quantitative values are
normalized by the function unit of ‘transport 2 people per km’ to ensure comparability of
alternatives and equivalence of analysis.The societal analysis was also conducted to address the
public perception. Then a pairwise comparison matrix was conducted to determine the relative
importance of our evaluation methods.
The economic analysis considered the initial cost of purchasing each bus, the maintenance and
operational cost during the use stage and salvage value for the end of life. All the values are
normalized to net present value to ensure the comparability of alternatives. The fuel cell bus is
shown to have three times overall cost than the hybrid bus in the entire life cycle.
The HLCA analysis considered all the environmental impact associated with the life stages of
each alternatives including: pre-manufacturing, manufacturing, transportation, use and end of life
stage. The HLCA analysis only consider the environmental impacts for the uncommon parts for
both alternatives in the system boundary. Although the SLCA method utilized in the previous
report gave a qualitative indication that fuel cell bus have less environmental impact. However,
the fuel cell bus is proved have way more total environmental impact than the hybrid bus
according to our mid-point impact analysis. In the end-point analysis, it is shown that the fuel
cell bus have more negative impacts on both human health and ecosystem.
Finally, the societal analysis identified some societal impacts from different aspects including
reliability, comfort, potential risk and ticket price rise. The hybrid bus is proved to be more
reliable, safe and with lower ticket price than the fuel cell bus. The fuel cell bus made less noise
than the hybrid bus during the operation.
45
All of the results conducted by FOC, economic and hybrid LCA indicated that the hybrid bus is a
better choice on both environmental and economic aspects. Although fuel cell bus operates more
quietly than the hybrid bus, the noise level factor is relatively insignificant comparing to the
other important factors.
At this point, the better choice is pretty obvious. Although the fuel cell bus had a better score in
the SLCA, but many real-world factor was not considered such as the amount of fuel cells that
needs to be changed in 12-year life span. Therefore, we strongly recommend the Electrical/diesel
hybrid bus to TTC for its superior advantages on both economic and environmental evaluations
conducted in this report.
46
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Appendix A (Introduction)
Detailed explanation on both alternatives:

Out of their 1800 bus fleet, there are currently around 500 hybrid buses serving at TTC bus
fleet[1]. This type bus is named as hybrid because it possesses two propulsion systems: diesel
and electrical. Both an internal combustion engine(ICE) and a electric motor powers the bus
commutativity. Most conventional ICEs tend to generate excessive power for the vehicles during
their normal cruising operations. Therefore, an electric motor is employed to operate the vehicle
with just sufficient power during cruising since an electric motor possesses high speed but a
relatively low torque output[2]. This eliminates the excessive power loss from ICE while keeping
the ICE functional to output extensive power when the vehicle is overcoming loads or
accelerating. Electricity are generated by the ICE and stored in the battery system so only diesel
fuel is needed to operating this vehicle. For these advantages, as one of the newest technologies
invented over the past decade, hybrid buses are widely chosen by most transportation companies.
On the other hand, hydrogen bus, as one of the newest automotive technologies invented in the
past few years, has not been used commonly in the world. However, for its superior functional
60
advantages, this type of vehicle is being recognized, studied and operated progressively by
world’s leading edge companies. The main propulsion system for this bus is a heavy duty electric
motor that is powered by fuel cell stacks[3]. The fuel cell converts chemical energy into
electrical energy from the chemical reaction between positively charged hydrogen ions and
oxygen ions[4]. Electricity can be generated as long as the fuel input is continuous and excessive
power will be stored in the battery system for later use. The hydrogen fuel used are reputed as
the cleanest energy source since only water will be produced during reaction.
Based upon the analytical lifespan, this report will conduct an economic analysis and hybrid
analysis to assess the overall economic and environmental impact brought by each alternative.
An impact analysis will be conducted to outline any significant environmental impacts brought
by each alternative in each life stage. Lastly, a societal analysis will be introduced to consider
relevant societal factors.
Scope research
Since an automobile has roughly 30000 components[120], a complete life cycle assessment is
impossible to conduct. This report will include and discuss all relevant parts of the two
alternatives in a comparative manner. That is, after considering all major part of two buses, all
similar parts with no differentialities will not be covered in the report for further analysis. A
general bus component graph can be found as following [5]:
61
Figure 1: Bus components
Considering the above graph, it is not hard to see that some parts are commonly presented on all
buses. Thus, they possess no value for discussion in this comparative study. Such parts are:
overall bus frame, windshield, window wiper, windows, mirrors, doors, tires, overall chassis,
transmission, exterior lighting system, exhaust system, battery system*, overall chassis including
the transmission shaft and gear box, interior lighting system, integrated driving system, steering
wheel, air conditioning system, seats, auxiliary power unit, floor and other electrical systems.
*Note: The battery systems for each bus are researched and they appear to be the same lithium
hybrid battery [14][65]. The APU also appears to be the same for each alternative. So they will
not be discussed in the LCA neither.
Table 13 Weighted decision matrix

Objective Weight Electrical/diesel hybrid bus Fuel Cell Bus
Smooth acceleration 10% 3 3
62
Passenger Capacity 15% 4 [107] 3 [108]
Maintenance interval 25% 4 [109] 4 [110]
Noise 15% 3 [111] 1 [111]
Durability 35% 4 [112] 4 [113]
Total 100% 3.75 3.3
Table 14 SLCA Matrix for Electric/diesel hybrid bus and fuel-cell bus
Environmental Stressor
Life stage
Inputs Residues
Materials Choice Energy Use Solid Liquid Gaseous
Pre-manufacturing H 3 0 2 1 0
F 0 0 2 1 0
Manufacturing H 3 0 2 0 4
F 2 0 3 4 4
Delivery H 2 1 3 4 3
F 2 1 3 4 3
Utilization H 0 3 0 4 0
F 2 2 4 4 4
Refurbishment, H 0 0 0 3 0
Recycling, Disposal
F 2 0 0 2 0
Total Score H 38
F 49
H: Electric / diesel hybrid buses
F: Fuel cell bus
Table. 16 Inclusion and Exclusion of system boundary.
63
Inclusions Exclusions
Transportation of raw materials and finished Human activities during retailing

products to manufacturing site or customer
Bus fuel extraction and transportation Maintenance and operation of support

equipment
Processing of materials Internal transportation of materials within

manufacturing facilities
Production and assembling of power module, Overhead cost including electricity and heat
engine and all other relevant part. used during manufacturing. Also the
assembly process for the entire bus will be
omitted since other than parts manufacturing,
the overall assembly for each alternative will
be the same.
End-of-Life treatment for all components and The common parts applied in both
materials related to the engine system alternatives such as tires, bus frame, seats,
safety belts, light system and chassis etc.
Appendix B (economic)
Tables
Table 1. Cost summary of hybrid bus
Cost Cost [$] Present value [$]
Initial Costs Purchasing cost (plus tax) 829,420 829,420

(at year 0)
shipping fee 456 456
Fuel 34,257.98/year 251,295.01
Employee salary and benefits 69,430.6/ year 509,299.30

Operational and
Maintenance Battery system replacement 37,000/ 6 years 23,054.00
Costs
Maintenance 28,333.33/ year 207,835.52
64
Bus insurance and registration 35,715/ year 243,351.00
Salvage Value (at year 13) 199,161.49 71,458.16
NPV 1,993,252.67
Table 2. Cost summary of fuel cell bus
Cost Cost [$] Present value [$]

(refer to Appendix B)
Initial Costs Purchasing cost (plus tax) 2,373,000 2,373,000

(at year 0)
shipping fee 236 236
Fuel 103,802.5/ year 761,429.98
Fuel cell stack replacement 383,600/ year 2,813,848.79
Operational and Employee salary and benefits 69,430.6/ year 509,299.30

Maintenance
Costs Battery system replacement 37,000/ 6 years 23,054.00
Maintenance 16,250/ year 119,199.80
Bus insurance and registration 35,766/ year 262,356.92
Salvage Value (at year 13) 569,808.09 204,444.33
NPV 4,284,744.46
Calculation
Hybrid bus
N −N 12 −12
Fuel: P = A( 1−(1+g)i−g(1+i) ) = 34, 257.98 * ( 1−(1+1.66%) (1+10%)
10%−1.66%
) = $251, 295.01
Employee salary and benefits:

N −N 12 −12
P = A( 1−(1+g)i−g(1+i) ) = 69, 430.6 * ( 1−(1+1.66%) (1+10%)
10%−1.66%
) = $509, 299.30
65
N 12
(1+I) −1 (1+0.1) −1
Maintenance: P = A * I(1+I)N
= 28, 333.33 * 0.1(1+0.1)12
= $207, 835.52
N 12
(1+I) −1 (1+0.1) −1
Bus insurance and registration: P = A * I(1+I)N
= 35, 715 * 0.1(1+0.1)12
= $243, 351.00
Salvage value:
P = F * (1 + i)−N (1 + g )N = 199, 161.49 * (1 + 0.1)−13 (1 + 1.66%)13 = $71, 458.16
N P W =− total cost + salvage value =− $2, 012, 335
2.3.1 Initial Costs

- Purchasing cost of the hybrid bus is $ 734000 with 13% tax[19];
- The closest Nova Bus assembly plant to Toronto is located in Saint-Eustache, Quebec
[22];
- The shipping distance is around 337 miles to Toronto and the shipping fee is
estimated to be $456 [21];

- Fuel economy
- Fuel economy of hybrid bus is typically 5 miles/gallon [12];
- The total fuel consumed in the lifespan is 100000 gallons, which is equivalent to
378541.18 litres [116];
- The average diesel price in Toronto is 108.6 cents /litre so the total fuel cost is
$411095.72 [24];
- Employee salary and benefits
- Typically, there is only one driver operating each bus;
- TTC offers bus driver a wage of $33.32 /hour and time that a driver operates the
bus is 40 hours/ week, so driver’s annual salary is calculated to be $69305.6;[25]
- TTC spends a total amount of $3.5 million on employee’s Health Plan each year
and there are approximately 28000 TTC employees, so the annual average
benefits cost is $125 /employee;
- Maintenance
- The maintenance cost includes all the replacement costs and salaries for employee
at the maintenance department;
- Maintenance cost for hybrid bus is $0.68 /mile therefore the total maintenance
cost per bus is $340000 or $28333.33/ year [18];
66
- Bus insurance and registration
- The average bus insurance rate is $35000 / year [29];
- The registration fee is $715 / year based on its weight of 15000 kg [30];
2.3.3 Salvage Value

- The depreciation rate of buses is 10.3% in Canada [37];
- The number of depreciation year is 12;
- By applying accelerated depreciation model, salvage value can be calculated as:
734000 * (1 − 10.3%)12 = $199, 161.49
Fuel cell bus
N −N 12 −12
Fuel: P = A( 1−(1+g)i−g(1+i) ) = 103, 802.5 * ( 1−(1+1.66%) (1+10%)
10%−1.66%
) = $761, 429.98
Fuel cell stack replacement:

N −N 12 −12
P = A( 1−(1+g)i−g(1+i) ) = 383, 600 * ( 1−(1+1.66%) (1+10%)
10%−1.66%
) = $2, 813, 848.79
N −N 12 −12
Maintenance: P = A( 1−(1+g)i−g(1+i) ) = 16, 250 * ( 1−(1+1.66%) (1+10%)
10%−1.66%
) = $119, 199.80
Bus insurance and registration:

N −N 12 −12
P = A( 1−(1+g)i−g(1+i) ) = 35, 766 * ( 1−(1+1.66%) (1+10%)
10%−1.66%
) = $262, 356.92
Salvage value
P = F * (1 + I )−N (1 + g )N = 569, 808.09 * (1 + 0.1)−13 (1 + 1.66%)13 = $204, 444.33
N P W =− total cost + salvage value =− $6, 634, 926
2.4.1 Initial Costs

- Purchasing cost of the fuel cell bus is 2100000 with 13% tax [20];
- The nearest New Flyer bus assembly plant is located in Jamestown, New York [23];
- The shipping distance is around 180 miles and the shipping cost is estimated to be
$236 [21];
67
- Fuel economy
- Fuel cell bus consumes 15.48 kilograms hydrogen / 100 km so there are totally
124563 kg hydrogen consumed in the entire lifespan [31];
- The hydrogen gas is $10 / kilogram so the total fuel cost is $1245630 or
$103802.5 /year [34];
- Fuel cell stack replacement
- FCgen 1020 ACS fuel cell stack requires an annual replacement[75];
- Fuel cell bus requires an average power input 65kW [10] and each fuel cell stack
is able to provide an average 1850W power [27], so there are approximately 35
fuel cell stacks per bus;
- A price at $109608 for each fuel cell stack is estimated based on similar fuel cell
stack with 2000W power output [28];
- The annual replacement cost is estimated to be $383600;
- Employee salary and benefits are same as the amount in the hybrid bus section;
- Maintenance costs
- Maintenance cost for fuel cell bus is $0.39 /mile therefore the total maintenance
cost per bus is $195000 or $16250 /year[18];
- Bus insurance and registration
- Insurance cost is same to the amount in the hybrid bus section;
- The registration fee is $766 / year based on its weight of 15422 kg [30][31];
2.4.3 Salvage Costs

- With the same depreciation rate and years, its salvage value can be calculated as:
2100000 * (1 − 10.3%)12 = $569808.09
Appendix C (hybrid bus)

Engine pre-manufacturing:
The total cost of steel used in the engine is 812.2 Yuan (Chinese Renminbi).This value
calculated is based on the data in 2008 [42]. The currency exchange rate in 2008 is 694.51 Yuan
to 100 USD. So 812.2 Yuan is equivalent to 116.94 USD. Since TRACI 2.0 is based on the data
of American sectors, the Consumer Index price (CPI) used here should also be based on
American data. The CPI of America is 215.3 in January,2008 and 179.9 in 2002. [40]
Normalizing the price by the function unit, we got 1.21e-4 USD/FU. From other calculations,
All values will be entered into the ‘iron ore mining’, ‘Gold, silver, and other metal ore mining’
and ‘Rubber and plastics hose and belting manufacturing ’ sectors. Using these CPI values
68
found to convert the value of steel price in 2017 to the price in 2002, we got
116.94*(179.9/215.3)=97.71 USD, Suppose the bus is able to run 500000 miles (equates to
804,672 km) in the whole life cycle.
The total cost of cast iron used for engine is 1447.08 Yuan, or 208.36 USD equivalent.Using our
CPI conversion, we can easily get that the cost of cast iron is 174.1 USD, or 2.2e-4 USD/FU.
This value will also be entered into the ‘iron ore mining’ sector.
The aluminum and alloy is 1229.71 Yuan or 177.06 USD equivalent. Using our CPI conversion,
we can get the cost of aluminum and alloy is 147.95 USD, or 1.84e-4 USD/FU. This value will
be entered into the ‘Gold, silver, and other metal ore mining’ sector.
The rubber in the engine is 92.7 Yuan, or 13.36 USD equivalent.Using our CPI conversion, we
can get the cost of rubber is 11.16USD, or 1.39e-5 USD/FU. This value will be entered into the
‘Rubber and plastics hose and belting manufacturing ’ sector. (See figure 5, Appendix C)
Engine manufacturing process:

The processing and assembling cost can be calculated by reducing the total raw material cost
from the whole diesel engine cost. The price of the diesel engine is about 16600 CAD [44] in
2015. The currency exchange rate in 2015 is 1USD=1.279CAD,[43] which is equivalent to
12978.89 USD. Using the CPI conversion from 2015 to 2002 [40], the price of engine is
12978.89*(179.9/237.017)=9851.2 USD in 2002. The processing and assembling cost is
approximately 9420.28USD, or 0.012USD/FU. This value will be entered into the ‘Motor
vehicle parts manufacturing ’ sector. (See figure 6, Appendix C)
Engine transportation:
The transportation fee is estimated to be 1762.69 - 1948.24 USD, or 1855.47 USD in
average.[46] By using the CPI conversion, the equivalent cost is 1374.57 USD or 1.7e-3
USD/Fu.This value will be entered into the ‘Water transportation’ sector. (See figure 7,
Appendix C)
Traction drive pre and manufacturing:

The cost of electrical generator and electrical motor is 20995 CAD and 48100 CAD respectively
in 2015 [44]. By converting these values to USD, we get 16415.2 USD for generator and 37607
USD for motor [43] By using the CPI conversion, the cost of generator is 12459.4 USD and the
cost of motor is 28544.4 USD. So the total cost of traction drive unit of hybrid bus is estimated
to be 41003.8USD,or 0.051USD/FU in 2002. This value will be entered into the ‘Motor and
generator manufacturing ’ sector. (See figure 9, Appendix C)
69
Traction Transportation:
The estimated cost for transportation is 681.52 USD in average [46][. By using the CPI
conversion from 2017 to 2002, the equivalent cost is 504.88 USD or 6.27e-4 USD/FU.This value
will be entered into the ‘Truck transportation’ sector.(See figure 10, Appendix C)
Diesel fuel pre-manufacturing:

The conversion ratio between crude oil and diesel fuel is about 42:12 [50]. Therefore, about
47.04*(42/12)=164.64 litres/100 km of crude oil is used to refine diesel. The price of the crude
oil is 48.41USD/barrel [49], or 0.25USD/litre. Using the CPI conversion, the price in 2002 is
0.19USD/litre. So the crude oil used to produce diesel is 0.31USD/km, or 0.31USD/FU. This
value will be entered into the ‘ Oil and gas extraction ’ sector.(See figure 12 and 13, Appendix
C)
Diesel fuel manufacturing:

The current diesel price of Toronto in March 2017 is 1.04 CAD /litre[48]. The equivalent diesel
price is calculated as 1.04*0.74=0.77USD/litre. Since the CPI value for 2017 is not
approachable, the CPI value of 2017 is estimated by utilizing the value in January 2017, which is
242.839[40]. Using the CPI conversion, we can get 0.57 USD/litre. The fuel economy value of
hybrid diesel bus is 5 miles/gallon,or 47.04 litres/100km equivalent. So the fuel consumption
cost is (47.04/100)*0.77=0.36USD/km, or 0.36USD/FU.This value will be entered into the
‘Petroleum refineries ’ sector. This sector comprises of fractionation, straight distillation of crude
oil and cracking process. Apparently, this is just the manufacturing process of making diesel
fuel. (See figure 12 ,Appendix C)
Diesel transportation:
The truck transportation fee is 2 cents/lb mass[59]. The weight of 100000 gallons of diesel fuel is
852690 pounds[58]. Thus, the total cost of diesel transportation is 17053.8 USD, or 0.021
USD/FU. This value will be entered into the ‘Truck transportation’ sector.
Fuel tank pre-manufacturing:

The weight of HDPE tank assembled on the hybrid bus is estimated to be 18.18kg[53]. It is safe
to assume that all the body of tank is made by pure HDPE. The price of HDPE resin is 2.43
USD/kg in 2015[54]. So the total price of HDPE resin used for the tank is 18.18*2.43=44.18
USD in 2015. Using CPI conversion, the equivalent cost of the raw material is 33.53 USD, or
4.17e-5 USD/FU [40] This value will be entered into the ‘ plastic and resin manufacturing ’
sector. (See figure 15, Appendix C)
Fuel tank manufacturing:
70
It is assumed that the price difference between the final price and the raw material cost is the cost
for manufacturing process. The final price of the tank is 245.95 USD[53]. Using CPI conversion,
the equivalent price of tank is 186.66 USD in 2002. So the cost of processing and manufacturing
is 186.66-33.53=153.13 USD, or 1.9e-4 USD/FU.
Fuel tank transportation:

It is assumed to be transported from Richmond Hill to Quebec solely by truck. The estimated
cost for transportation is 182 USD [21]. By using the CPI conversion from 2017 to 2002, the
equivalent cost is 134.83 USD or 1.68e-4 USD/FU. This value will be entered into the ‘Truck
transportation’ sector.
Entire bus transportation:

It is assumed that the entire bus is transported by truck. The estimated cost of transportation is
457 CAD [21] or 343.67 USD equivalent based on the currency exchange rate in 2017. Using the
CPI conversion, the equivalent cost of transportation in 2002 is 254.64 USD, or 3.16e-4
USD/FU. This value will be entered into the ‘Truck transportation’ sector.
Figure 3: TRACI Impact Assessment of ’Iron ore mining’ sector.
71
Figure 4: TRACI Impact Assessment of ‘Gold,silver, and other metal ore mining’ sector.
Figure 5: TRACI Impact Assessment of ‘Rubber and plastics hose and belting manufacturing’
sector.
72
Figure 6: TRACI Impact Assessment of ‘Motor vehicle parts manufacturing’ sector.
Figure 7: TRACI Impact Assessment of ‘Water transportation’ sector.
73
Figure 9: TRACI Impact Assessment of ‘Motor and generator manufacturing’ sector.
Figure 10: TRACI Impact Assessment of ‘Truck transportation’ sector.
74
Figure 12: TRACI Impact Assessment of ‘Petroleum refineries’ sector.
Figure 13: TRACI Impact Assessment of ‘Oil and gas extraction’ sector.
75
Figure 15: TRACI Impact Assessment of ‘Plastics material and resin manufacturing’ sector.
Figure 16: TRACI Impact Assessment of ‘Unlaminated plastics profile shape manufacturing’
sector.
76
Figure 18: TRACI Impact Assessment of ‘Automotive repair and maintenance, except car
washes’ sector.
Appendix D (fuel cell)
Table 13. Normalized emissions from natural gas combustion

Emitted Emitted Global Acidificati Eutrophica Crit Air Kg Smog Kg
Substance Mass Warming on tion PM10 e C2H4 e
Kg/Km Potential Potential Potential Converted
Kg CO2e Kg SO2e Kg Ne to O33 as
1:1 [93]
CO2 1.39 1.4 1.6e-3 6.9e-4 8.8e-6 5.36e-5
N2O 2.55e-5
SO2 6.09e-6
VOC 6.4e-5
PM10 8.8e-6
CH4 2.7e-5
77
NOX 2.24e-3
- Calculations
1. Individual module is worth $56667 CAD = $ 42636 USD. Taken in consideration of

inflation, the price in 2002 is $31958. Normalize this to the function unit, the total price
is $0.04.
2. The total shipping costs is $1367. In 2002, the equivalent price is $1022. Normalize this
to the function unit, the total price is $1.27e-3
3. The total weight is 69.87 kg, for each subcategory, a weight fraction can be calculated
such as for metal alloy = (2.05)/69.87 = 3% , similarly, for Aluminum = 5.6%, non
ferrous metal = 0.1%, plastic = 31.2%, carbon = 60.2%. The total price at 2002 for total
fuel cell used is $4603200*(179.9/240) = $3450482 therefore, each category has a
economic activity as follow (normalized to FU): steel: $103515, aluminum: $193227,
non ferrous is $3451, plastic: $1076550, carbon: $2077190. All economic activities will
then be normalized to the function unit of 1 km (divided by 804672).
4. Assume this fuel cell stack will not be shipped all at once but in a 12-year period. Based
on a one-year maintenance interval. Therefore, total shipping costs will be $1430 * 12 =
$17160 to ship 2682 miles. After CPI and normalizing to function unit, the total shipping
cost per km in 2002 is $0.016.
5. An average operational miles about 500000 miles (804672 km)[12] with 15.48 kg of
hydrogen used per 100 km [68] will utilize (804672/100)*15.48 = 124563 kg = 124.6
tons of hydrogen gas. For approximately every 3 cubic feet of hydrogen produced by
SMR, 1 cubic feet of natural gas have to be burned[69]. The density of hydrogen at 0
degree and at 101.3 kPa is 0.08988 g/L[70]. Therefore, to produce 124.6 tons =
124.6e6/0.08988 = 1386292835 = 48956469.44641 cubic feet of hydrogen, 48956470/3
= 16318823 cubic feet (16318.8 Mcf) of natural gas is needed.
6. The price in 2002 is 4.63*(179.9/240)=$3.47. Therefore, the total price of natural gas
extracted in 2002 is 16318.8*3.47 = 56633.9$.
7.
CO2 emitted = 2.69 * 415887.8e3 = 1118.74 tons, N2O emitted = 4.93e-5 * 415887.8e3 = 20.5
kg
SO2 emitted = 1.34e-5 * 415887.8e3 = 5.57 kg, VOC emitted = 12.3e-5 * 415887.8e3 = 51.15
kg
Particulates emitted = 17e-5 * 415887.8e3 = 7.07 kg, CH4 emitted = 5.15e-5 * 415887.8e3 =
21.42 kg
NOx emitted = 2.24e-3 * 415887.8e3 = 931.6 kg
78
Now if we normalize all data to our function unit (divided by 804,672 km), we have the
following:
CO2 emitted = 1.39 kg/km, N2O = 2.55e-5 kg/km, SO2 = 6.09e-6 kg/km
VOC = 6.4e-5 kg/km, Particulates(PM10)= 8.8e-6 kg/km, CH4 = 2.7e-5 kg/km
NOx = 2.24e-3 kg/km
8. The distance between these two location is approximately 50 km. To transport hydrogen gas
for our analysis life of 12 years, a total of 124.6 tons of hydrogen will be transported but not all
in once. Assume the hydrogen are transported once per year.Based on research, the overall cost
is approximately 112$*12 = $1344 [21]. To change this to 2002’s value is $1007.4. After
normalize: $1.25e-3
9. For the Hexagon Lincoln model K, a 64L volume is presented. Therefore, for a lack of
information on the Hexagon tank, through a reasonable assumption on the size of the cylinder,
approximately the model K should be 5 times more expensive the the 12L tank: 618*5 = $3090.
For four tank, the price will be $12360. If we take in consideration of CPI, the price in 2002 is
$9264.85. Normalize this number to our function unit yield a price of $0.012 Since for
polyethylene, this is a particular composite fabricated based on carbon.
10. The total weight of the cylinders are 43*4 = 172 kg. Therefore, an estimated shipping cost for
998 miles can be found as $727[21]. After CPI conversion, the price in 2002 is $545 USD.
11. From this model, we can see that other than water, most gaseous emissions are qualified as
GHG. Therefore, all GHG emissions will be calculated and converted to CO2 equivalent. From
above section, total natural gas burned for producing 12-year hydrogen fuel is
462097.60745m^3. The density of natural gas is 0.9 kg/m^3 at standard temperature and
pressure[70]. Therefore, the total mass is 462097.6*0.9 = 415887.8 kg.
12. Therefore, to produce 48956469.44641 cubic feet = 1386292.8 m3 of hydrogen, 277.3 hours
= 998130s. To produce hydrogen, an average energy input of 1.273 MJ/s is required[73].
Therefore, a total of 1270620 MJ. After normalized, 1.57 MJ/km is obtained.
79
Figure 24: TRACI Impact Assessment of ‘Alumina refining and primary aluminum production’
sector.
Figure 26: TRACI Impact Assessment of ‘Iron and steel mills’ sector.
80
Figure 27: TRACI Impact Assessment of ‘Secondary smelting and alloying of aluminum’
sector.
Figure 28: TRACI Impact Assessment of ‘Nonferrous metal (except copper and aluminum)
rolling, drawing, extruding and alloying’ sector.
81
Figure 29: TRACI Impact Assessment of ‘Primary smelting and refining of nonferrous metal
(except copper and aluminum)’ sector
82
Figure 31: TRACI Impact Assessment of ‘Carbon and graphite product manufacturing’ sector.
83
Figure 32: TRACI Impact Assessment of ‘Carbon black manufacturing’ sector.
Figure 35: TRACI Impact Assessment of ‘Natural gas distribution’ sector.
84
Figure 38: TRACI Impact Assessment of ‘Carbon and graphite product manufacturing’ sector.
85
Appendix E (potential factors and end point analysis)
Table 4: Acidification Table 5: Global Warming
Table 6: Emissions
86
Table 7: POCPi
Table 14. Weighted character factors for end point analysis.

Substance (Kg) Midpoint Impact Endpoint HH Endpoint Eco Endpoint R ($)
(DALY) (Species, yr)
CO2 eq Climate Change 1.4e-6 7.93e-9 N/A
SO2 eq Acidification N/A 5.9e-9 N/A
87
PM10 eq Particulate 2.6e-4 N/A N/A
Matter
Formation
1,4 - DB eq Human Toxicity 7e-7 N/A N/A
NMVOC eq Photochemical 3.9e-8 N/A N/A

Oxidant
Formation
N eq Marine N/A N/A N/A

Eutrophication
7. Attribution Table
Section Team Members
Yuzhou Zhang Yiran Zou Yilun Wang Songhui Xu
Executive MR,ET RD,MR,ET ET ET

summary
Introduction RS, RD,MR,ET RS,RD,MR,ET RS RS,ET
Economic RS,MR,ET RS,MR,ET RS,ET RS,RD,ET

analysis
Hybrid RS,RD.MR,ET RS,RD,MR,ET RS RS,RD, ET

analysis
Societal RD,MR,ET MR,ET RD,ET RS,ET

Analysis
Summary RD,ET,MR ET ET ET
88
“All” FP FP,OR2 FP. FP,CM
RS - research
RD -wrote the first draft
MR - responsible for major revision
ET – edited for grammar, spelling, and expression
OR – other
“All” row abbreviations:
FP – final read through of complete document for flow and consistency
CM – responsible for compiling the elements into the complete document
OR - other
If you put OR (other) in a cell please put it in as OR1, OR2, etc. Explain briefly below the role
referred to:
OR1: Responsible for constructing system boundary charts
OR2: Inventory flow diagram
89

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MIE 315 Design for environment

Project 13. Electric / diesel hybrid busses vs fuel cell buses

Teaching Assistant: Seyed-Ehsan Mir-Haidari

Team member Student number

Submission Date: Mar 31th, 2017

1.1 Topic and Alternatives

For detailed explanation on both alternatives please see appendix A.

1.2 Preliminary Findings

Significant parts of hybrid bus not in common are as following [6][8][10]:

Significant parts of hydrogen bus not in common are as following [7][9][11]:

1.4.1 Function and Function Unit

2.1 Life Cycle Cost

2.1.1 Initial Costs

2.1.3 Salvage Value

2.2 Analysis Method

2.2.1 Time Value of Money

2.6 Sensitivity Analysis

Table 17. Sensitivity Analysis on economic analysis

Bus input power Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum

# of fuel cell 75 250 16 54 9 30

Annual 822000 2740000 175360 591840 98640 328800

3. Hybrid Life Cycle Assessment

3.2.1 Cummins ISL 8.9L 330 HP diesel engine

1. Pre-manufacturing and manufacturing stage

3.2.3 Diesel Fuel

1. Pre-manufacturing and manufacturing stage

● Repair & Maintenance

3. Disposal & Recycle

3.3.1 FC velocity HD85 Module

1. Pre-Manufacturing Stage & Manufacturing Stage

3.3.2 FC gen 1020 ACS fuel cell stack

1. Pre-Manufacturing Stage - ​Detailed inventory flow in figure 46

Table 11: material inventor of a fuel cell stack ​ [74]

Based on these results, multiple EIO-LCAs can be conducted on different sectors’

2. Manufacturing Stage - ​Detailed inventory flow in figure 46

1. Pre-manufacturing stage​ (Natural Gas extraction) - Detailed inventory flow in figure 47

2. Manufacturing Stage ​(Hydrogen gas reforming) - Detailed inventory flow in figure 47

Figure 60: Simplified SMR

1. Pre-manufacturing Stage ​& ​Manufacturing Stage

3.3.5 Entire Fuel Cell Bus Analysis

3. Disposal & Recycling

3.6 End Point Analysis

4.1 Punctuality & Reliability

4.2 Potential risk

4.3 Ticket Price

5. Summary and recommendation

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2. Manufacturing Stage (Hydrogen gas reforming) - Detailed inventory flow in figure 47

1. Pre-manufacturing Stage & Manufacturing Stage

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