Abstract of thesis entitled

“Sampasādanīyasuttavaṇṇanā:
An Annotated Translation and A Critical Study”

Submitted by
Jnan Nanda
(Jnanananda Tanchangya)
For the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy
at The University of Hong Kong
in July 2019

This project is divided into two parts. The first part is an investigation of two of
the sixteen ānuttariya-s (unsurpassable-s/excellences) of the Buddha elaborated
by Sāriputta in the Sampasādanīya-sutta; namely, bhassa-samācārā (the
Buddha’s excellence in discoursing on proper conduct in speech) and on
sassatavāda (the Buddha’s excellence in discoursing with regard to the eternalist
doctrines). In the chapter on bhassa-samācārā, its four components have been
critically examined in comparison with the components of sammā vācā in order to
point out how the Buddha’s proper conduct in speech is distinct from sammā
vācā, which is prescribed for his disciples, and his skill in discoursing on the
topic. And, in the chapter on Sassatavāda versus Ucchedavāda, the core teachings
of eternalism and materialism have been critically evaluated followed by the
Buddhist critiques of the both. Canonical evidences point that the Buddha had
different attitudes towards eternalism and materialism, although he completely
rejected the two. This part of the study primarily investigates why the Buddha was
different in his attitudes towards Sassatavāda and Ucchedavāda.

The second part of the project is an annotated translation of the

Sampasādanīyasuttavaṇṇanā, the commentary on the Sampasādanīya-sutta. In
the course of the translation, which is carried out mainly based on the Pali Text
Society edition, the Burmese, the Sinhala and the Thai editions are examined to
identify their variations and errata within in order to present the meaning of the
text accurately and articulately. Wherever required, canonical and commentarial

explanations of key terms of the text are provided in footnotes as annotations,
followed by critical views of contemporary scholars. Although several studies on
the qualities of the Buddha have been produced, however, there have not been
sufficient research on the sixteen ānuttariya-s. On the other hand, the translation
of the commentary is the first ever English translation. Therefore, both the study
and the translation serve as significant source for the study of the Buddha’s
intellectual qualities, particularly the sixteen ānuttariya-s.

 Sampasādanīyasuttavaṇṇanā:

An Annotated Translation and A Critical Study

By

Jnan Nanda

(Jnanananda Tanchangya)

A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for

the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy

at The University of Hong Kong.

July 2019


 Declaration

I declare that this thesis represents my own work, except where due
acknowledgement is made, and that it has not been previously included in a thesis,
dissertation or report submitted to this University or to any other institution for a
degree, diploma or other qualifications.

Signed ...................................................
Jnan Nanda
(Jnanananda Tanchangya)

i
ii
 Acknowledgement

This work is dedicated to all the teachers who have taught me since my primary
education level. Their support and guidance have been integral parts of my journey
to the present stage.

Veneranle Professor K.L. Dhammajoti, my ācariya since 1999, continues to be the

guiding light for me. Under his strict care and guidance, I reached this stage. I
remain most grateful to him who has been a teacher like a parent. At the same time,
I also humbly remember all the kind supporters who have supported me and my
community, and wish their well-being.

After the completion of my MA degree, Prof. T. Endo and Prof. Guang Xing
encouraged me to pursue my PhD in Pāli commentaries, an area less studied and
needs urgent scholastic attention. And, this project has been completed under their
supervision. I am very grateful to both professors for their kind guidance and
support during my studies at HKU. On several occasions, I sought Prof. G.A.
Somaratne’s advice on some difficult points and received useful comments. Prof.
G.T. Halkias’ advices and encouragements greatly helped me to keep myself active
and going forward during the course of this research. I am also grateful to both
professors.

Ven. Prof. M. Wijithadhamma, the Head of the Department of Pāli and Buddhist
Studies of the University of Sri Jayawardenapura in Sri Lanka, read a draft of my
translation of the Sampasādanīyasuttavaṇṇanā and also provided valuable
explanations. I also received valuable advices from Prof. Y. Karunadasa during my
study at HKU. I am also very thankful to both Professors.

There were no available romanized versions of the Sinhala and the Thai editions of
the Sampasādanīyasuttavaṇṇa. Ven. Ānanda (Dilokānanda), a PhD candidate at the
Mahidol University in Thailand, romanized the Thai edition for me. I am very
thankful to him for his kind help. Ven. Derangala Kusalañāṇa, a friend and
batchmate during my study at the University of Peradeniya in Sri Lanka, kindly

iii
agreed to romanize the Sinhala edition. I am also very grateful to him for his kind
help and continuous friendship. My thanks are also to Ven. Asgiriye Seelananda,
former MA student at HKU, for revising the romanized draft of the Sinhala edition.

I am thankful to Ven. Sumana (Sabin Maharjan) from Nepal, an MPhil student at

HKU, for kindly helping me in various ways during my PhD study: including
revising the romanized version of the Sinhala edition of the Sampasādanīya-
suttavaṇṇa, proofreading the chapters and pointing out several typos, and also
reading the Sinhala translation of the Sampasādanīyasuttavaṇṇa for me. I am also
thankful to Ven. Dr. Amrita Nanda, Dr. Tony (Ka Meng Chui) and Ven. Dr. Yin
De (Rao Lide) for their friendship and kind support.

Several friends, too many to mention, have helped and supported me in various
ways during my research. I am thankful to all. During the initial stage of my PhD
study, Suchita Tanchangya provided much mental support and encouragement. I
am also thankful to her. The staff of the HKU Centre of Buddhist Studies and the
Arts Faculty have been very kind in assisting us to continue our research smoothly.
My thanks are also to all of them.

iv
 Table of Contents

Declaration ….……………………………………………………………………. i
Acknowledgement …….………………………………………..……….….... iii–iv
Table of Contents ……………………………………….………….………... v–vii
Abbreviations ………….…………………………………………………….. ix–xi

Part One:
A Critical Study

Chapter One:
Introduction …………………………………………….……………………. 3–29
1.1. The Sampasādanīya-sutta and Its Commentary (Aṭṭhakthā) ….......… 3
1.2. The Buddha on Sāriputta: The Master Disciple Relationship ……..... 15
1.3. The Significance of the Translation and the Study ….….….……...… 19
1.4. The Methodology and the Scope of the Translation and
the Study .............................................................................................. 24
1.5. Remarks on the PTS, CS, SHB and Thai Editions of the
Sampasādanīyasuttavaṇṇanā ….….….….….….….….…...….….…. 27

Chapter Two:
Bhassa-samācārā: The Buddha’s Excellence in Discoursing
on Proper Conduct in Speech …………………………………………….... 31–48
2.1. Introduction ………………………………………………..….….…. 31
2.2. Bhassa-samācārā and Sammā Vācā………………………………… 34
2.3. The Buddha’s Excellence in Proper Conduct in Speech …………… 42
2.4. Concluding Remarks ……………………………………………….. 47

Chapter Three:
Sassatavāda versus Ucchedavāda ……………………..…………………. 49–116
3.1. Introduction …………………………………………………………. 49
3.2. Ucchedavāda and Sassatavāda in General …………………………. 52
3.2.1. Ucchedavāda …………………………………………………. 52

v
 3.2.2. Sassatavāda …………………………………………………... 62
3.3. The Buddhist Criticism of Sassatavāda and Ucchedavāda …………. 78
3.4. Sassatavāda versus Ucchedavāda …………………………………... 98
3.5. Conclusion …………………………………………………………. 110
3.5.1. Summary …………………………………………………….. 110
3.5.2. Concluding Remarks ………………………………………... 114

Part Two:
The Exegetical Exposition on the Faith Inspiring Discourse

Chapter Four:
The Exegetical Exposition on the Faith Inspiring Discourse …..……...… 119–210
4.1. The Exegetical Exposition on Sāriputta’s Lion’s Roar ……………. 119
4.2. The Exegetical Exposition on the Wholesome Factors ……………. 150
4.3. The Exegetical Exposition on the Sense-Bases ……………………. 155
4.4. The Exegetical Exposition on the Modes of Conception ………….. 156
4.5. The Exegetical Exposition on the Modes of Mind-Reading ………. 158
4.6. The Exegetical Exposition on the Attainment of Vision …………... 161
4.7. The Exegetical Exposition on the Designation of Individuals …….. 165
4.8. The Exegetical Exposition on the Efforts ………………………….. 170
4.9. The Exegetical Exposition on the Ways of Progress ………………. 170
4.10. The Exegetical Exposition on the Proper Conduct in Speech ……. 172
4.11. The Exegetical Exposition on the Proper Moral Conduct ………... 175
4.12. The Exegetical Exposition on the Modes of Instructing …………. 180
4.13. The Exegetical Exposition on the Knowledge
of Liberating Others ……………………………………………… 180
4.14. The Exegetical Exposition on the Eternalist Doctrines …………... 181
4.15. The Exegetical Exposition on the Knowledge of
the Recollection of Past Lives ……………………………………. 182
4.16. The Exegetical Exposition on the Knowledge on the Passing
away and Rebirth of Beings ……………………………………… 183
4.17. The Exegetical Exposition on the Modes of Psychic Powers ……. 184

vi
 4.18. The Exegetical Exposition on the Qualities of the Teacher
in Different Manners ……………………………………………... 187
4.19. The Exegetical Exposition on the Preparation for Giving ………... 192
4.20. The Talk on the Disappearance of the Tipiṭaka …………………... 194
4.21. The Exegetical Exposition on the Disappearance
of the [Buddha’s] Dispensation …………………………………... 197
4.22. The Exegetical Exposition on the Marvelous and Wonderful ……. 207

Appendix:
Sampasādanīyasuttavaṇṇanā of the PTS Edition ……………………….. 211–242

Bibliography ……………………………………………………………... 241–266

Primary Sources …………………………………………………… 241–251
Pāli Texts ……………………………………………………………. 241
English Translation of Pāli and Sanskrit Texts ……………………… 247
Sinhala translation of Pāli Texts .......................................................... 253
Secondary Sources ………………………………………………… 253–268
Books ………………………………………………………………... 253
Articles, Book Chapters and Entries in Journals, Books
and Encyclopedias …..………………………………………………. 260
Dictionaries and Grammar Books …………………………………... 267

vii
viii
 Abbreviations

A : Aṅguttara-nikāya
AA : Aṅguttara-nikāya Aṭṭhakathā (Manorathapūraṇī)
Ap : Apadāna
ApA : Apadāna Aṭṭhakathā (Visuddhajanavilāsinī)
AṬ : Aṅguttara-nikāya Ṭīkā, Chaṭṭhasaṅgāyana edition
BD : The Book of Discipline (Vinaya Piṭaka)
BDN : Buddhist Dictionary: a Manual of Buddhist Terms and
Doctrines
(http://www.palikanon.com/english/wtb/dic_idx.html)
BGS : The Book of the Gradual Sayings (Aṅguttara-nikāya)
BvA : Buddhavaṃsa Aṭṭhakathā (Madhuratthavilāsinī)
CarA : Cariyāpiṭaka Aṭṭhakathā (Paramatthadīpanī VII)
CDB : The Connected Discourses of the Buddha
Cf : compare
CS : Chaṭṭhasaṅgāyana edition (http://epalitipitaka.appspot.com)
D : Dīgha-nikāya
DA : Dīgha-nikāya Aṭṭhakathā (Sumaṅgalavilāsinī)
Dhp : Dhammapada
DhpA : Dhammapada Aṭṭhakathā (The Commentary on the
Dhammapada)
Dhs : Dhammasaṅgaṇī
DISF : Sampasādanīya Sutta: The Discourse That Inspires Serene
Faith
DLB : Dialogues of the Buddha
DPPN : Dictionary of Pāli Proper Names
(http://www.palikanon.com/english/pali_names/dic_idx.html)
DṬ : Dīgha-nikāya Ṭīkā (Dīghanikāyaṭṭhakathāṭīkā
Līnatthavaṇṇanā)
f : forward page
ff : forward pages
ibid : same source/page

ix
It : Itivuttaka
ItA : Itivuttaka Aṭṭhakathā (Paramatthadīpanī II)
ItAE : The Commentary on Itivuttaka (English translation of
Paramatthadīpanī II)
JBS (JCBSSL) : Journal of Buddhist Studies (Journal of the Centre for
Buddhist Studies, Sri Lanka)
JPTS : Journal of the Pali Text Society
Kv : Kathāvatthu[-ppakaraṇa]
KvA : Kathāvatthu Aṭṭhakathā
LDB : The Long Discourses of the Buddha
Miln : Milindapañha (Milindapañho)
MnA : Mahāniddesa Aṭṭhakathā (Saddhammapajjotikā)
M : Majjhima-nikāya
MA : Majjhima-nikāya Aṭṭhakathā (Papañcasūdanī)
MLDB : The Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha
MLS : The Middle Length Sayings
MṬ : Majjhima-nikāya Ṭīkā, Chaṭṭhasaṅgāyana edition
Mv : The Mahāvagga (Vinaya Piṭakaṃ I)
n : note (e.g., n10 = note 10)
NDB : The Numerical Discourses of the Buddha
Nett : Netti-pakaraṇa
NettA : Netti-pakaraṇa Aṭṭhakathā
NettṬ : Netti-pakaraṇa Ṭīkā, Chaṭṭhasaṅgāyana edition
PED : Pāli-English Dictionary, PTS
(http://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/pali/)
PTS The Pali Text Society

Pṭs : Paṭisambhidāmagga
PṭsA : Paṭisambhidāmagga Aṭṭhakathā (Saddhammappakāsinī)
S : Saṃyutta-nikāya
SA : Saṃyutta-nikāya Aṭṭḥakathā (Sāratthappakāsinī)
Sn : Suttanipāta
SnA : Suttanipāta Aṭṭhakathā (Paramatthajotikā II)
SṬ : Saṃyutta-nikāya Ṭīkā, Chaṭṭhasaṅgāyana edition

x
 SHB : Dīghanikāyaṭṭhakathāva (Simon Hewavitarne Bequest series)
Thai : Thai Edition of the Sumaṅgalavilāsinī (Dīghanikāyaṭṭhakathā)
TheraA : Theragāthā Aṭṭhakathā (Paramatthadīpanī I-III)
TherīA : Therīgāthā Aṭṭhakathā (Paramatthadīpanī VI)
Ud : Udāna
UdA : Udāna Aṭṭhakathā (Paramatthadīpanī I)
Vibh : Vibhaṅga
VibhA : Vibhaṅga Aṭṭhakathā (Sammohavinodanī)
Vin : Vinaya Piṭaka (Vinaya Piṭakaṃ)
VinA : Vinaya Piṭaka Aṭṭhakathā (Samantapāsādikā)
Vism : Visuddhimagga
VismE : The Path of Purification: Visuddhimagga
VvA : Vimānavatthu Atthakathā (Paramattha-dīpanī IV)
Wheel : Wheel Publication Series, Buddhist Publication Society

Remarks:
• All the Pāli texts, unless otherwise stated, are of the Pali Text Society edition.
• All the ṭīkā-s, except the Dīgha-nikāya Ṭīkā-s, are of the CS edition. In the
footnote references, sutta titles and vagga-s are mentioned, not page numbers.
• References in the footnote are as follows:
o For primary texts:
text vol.: page number: (D II: 20 = Dīgha Nikāya, Vol. II: p. 20).
o For books and articles:
author (publication year): page number (David (2005): 10).
• In footnote references for SHB and Thai, page numbers are given within
brackets; e.g., SHB (5) means SHB edition, p. 5.

xi
xii
 Part One

A Critical Study

1
 2
 Chapter One

Introduction

1.1. The Sampasādanīya-sutta1 and Its Commentary (Aṭṭhakathā)

Establishing confidence 2 in the Buddha, the Dhamma 3 and the saṅgha is a

preliminary requisite in the Buddhist path to liberation. As the Vīmaṃsaka-sutta

mentions, there could be several ways to establish such confidence.4 Likewise,

Sāriputta, in the Sampasādanīya-sutta, articulates the sixteen ānuttariya-s

(excellences) of the Buddha as the basis of his deep confidence in the Buddha.

The discourse begins with Ānanda’s usual recital statement, 5 after which,

Sāriputta’s statement that the Buddha is the supreme among the samaṇa-s and

brāhmaṇa-s of the past and future is recorded.6 The discourse then proceeds with

an elaboration of the sixteen ānuttariya-s7 (excellences) of the Buddha by the

chief disciple, in response to the former’s question. Sāriputta’s explanatory reply

1
This is also known as Sāriputta’s Lion Roar (sāriputta-sīhanāda). For a detailed explanation on
the definition of the name of the discourse 'sampasādanīya-sutta', see Piya Tan (2005): 105-106.
2
Or ‘faith’.
3
When mentioned as ‘Dhamma’ (with capital ‘D’ and non-italic), it is meant the teachings of the
Buddha. When mentioned as ‘dhamma’ (with simple ‘d’ and italic), it is meant ‘phenomenon’,
‘factors’, etc.
4
In the Vīmaṃsaka-sutta, the Buddha instructs the bhikkhus to investigate the Tathāgata on
various subjects in accordance with the Dhamma, and then only they should have confidence in
him (the Tathāgata), the Dhamma and the saṅgha. The Buddha continues that when confidence
is established in such a way, supported with such reasons, terms and phrases rooted in vision and
insight, that confidence is undefeatable by any recluse or brahmin or god or Māra or Brahmā or
anyone in the world (…yassa kassaci bhikkhave imehi ākārehi imehi padehi imehi byañjanehi
tathāgate saddhā niviṭṭhā hoti mūlajātā patiṭṭhitā, ayaṃ vuccati bhikkhave ākāravatī saddhā
dassanamūlikā daḷhā, asaṃhāriyā samaṇena vā brāhmaṇena vā devena vā mārena vā brahmunā
vā kenaci vā lokasmiṃ). See M I: 317-320.
5
evam me sutam …
6
evaṃ pasanno ahaṃ bhante bhagavati, na cāhu na ca bhavissati na c’ etarahi vijjati añño
samaṇo vā brāhmaṇo vā bhagavatā bhiyyo bhiññataro yadidaṃ sambodhiyanti. D III: 99.
7
For the sixteen ānuttariya-s, see below (p. 5 in this thesis), or D III: 102-113.

3
to the Buddha shows that his deep confidence in the Buddha is not a mere belief

or appreciation in the Tathāgata, but it is based on wisdom, which derives from

his deep understanding of the teachings of the master––as explained in the

Vīmaṃsaka-sutta.

Sāriputta’s statement that the Buddha is supreme among the samaṇa-s and

brāhmaṇa-s of the past, present and future is responded by the Buddha to be lofty

and bold as the chief disciple has not known the Awakened Ones of the past, their

minds, conduct, teachings, wisdom, their mode of life and emancipation they

attained.8 The disciple, admitting so, replies the Buddha that it is through the drift

of the Dhamma9 he has known the Buddha and proclaimed thus. In his further

elaboration, which is the main body of the Sampasādanīya-sutta, Sāriputta

explains the sixteen excellences (ānuttariya-s), which the Buddha taught, and

comprehending which the disciple established deep confidence in the master.

Udāyī, who was listening to Sāriputta’s detailed reply to the Buddha, applauds

him in hearing such an excellent explanation about the Tathāgata. The Buddha

then instructs Udāyī to bear in mind what he has just heard from Sāriputta. The

discourse concludes with the master commending Sāriputta’s explanation and his

admonition to repeat his elaboration in front of other monks, nuns, lay male and

female followers, who have not yet entered the path to spiritual progress and have

doubt in the Tathāgata.

8
uḷārā kho te ayaṃ sāriputta āsabhī vācā bhāsitā … kiṃ nu sāriputta ye te ahesuṃ atītam
addhānaṃ arahanto sammā-sambuddhā, sabbe te bhagavanto cetasā ceto paricca viditā, evaṃ-
sīlā te bhagavanto ahesuṃ iti pi, evaṃ-dhammā … evaṃ-paññā … evaṃ-vihārī … evaṃ-vimuttā
te bhagavanto ahesuṃ …. D III: 99-100.
9
dhammanvayo vidito. D III: 100.

4
It is further reported that before proclaiming the Buddha to be supreme among the

samaṇa-s and brāhmana-s, Sāriputta has recalled his past existences up to the

time of Anomadassi Buddha––during which he resolved to become a chief

disciple of a Buddha in future.10 Subsequently, the chief disciple also surveyed his

own virtues as regards sīla (morality), samādhi (equipoise) and paññā (wisdom),

but could not see the depth of them, and thought that the extent of the all-

knowing-knowledge (sabbaññutañāṇa) he possesses is a fraction of that of the

Buddha. Sāriputta, who is also said to be one possessing sāvaka-pāramī-ñāṇa (the

knowledge of perfection of a disciple)––the highest knowledge among the

disciples of the Buddha––then surveyed the all-knowing-knowledge of the

Buddha, but could only foresee up to the Mahāvajira-ñāṇa11 of the Buddha.12

Even though he was one of the disciples possessing the highest knowledge, he

could not completely see the full extent of the knowledge possessed by the

Buddha, and therefore, he thought a samaṇa or a brāhmaṇa below his rank could

not be higher than the Buddha, whose all-knowing-knowledge is so extensive that

no disciple is able to know, not even himself or Moggallāna. This made him think

that the Buddha, whose knowledge of the Dhamma is unfathomable, is supreme

among the samaṇa-s and brāhmaṇa-s and his teachings are unsurpassable.13

10
Cf. DA III: 874.
11
i.e., the knowledge of the great diamond (/thunderbolt). This is also said to be the insight
knowledge (vipassanā-ñāṇa) of the all-knowing Buddha, which is uncommon to others,
exceedingly profound, etc. For commentarial explanation on this, see AṬ (Tika-nipāta-ṭīkā,
Mahāvaggo, Tikaṇṇasuttavaṇṇanā).
For detail on the attainment of this knowledge, see also U. Ko Lay and U. Tin Lwin (2006): 221-
225.
12
See U. Ko Lay’s Comments on Salient Points in the Sampasādanīya Sutta. For bibliographical
reference of this article see Bibliography at the end of this thesis.
13
ibid.

5
In justifying that his statement mentioned earlier is based on his faith in the

Buddha, which he established having comprehended the Dhamma taught by the

teacher, Sāriputta, further responds to the Buddha by elaborating the sixteen

ānuttariya-s in detail.

1. Kusala-dhamma-desanā14 The discourse on [the seven sets of]

wholesome factors (dhamma-s).
2. Āyatana-paññatti-desanā The discourse on [the explanation] of the
[six] sense-bases.
3. Gabbhāvakkanti-desanā The discourse on the [four] modes of
conception.
4. Ādesana-vidhā-desanā The discourse on the [four] modes of mind-
reading.
5. Dassana-samāpatti-desanā The discourse on the [four] attainments of
vision.
6. Puggala-paññatti-desanā The discourse on the designation of the [four]
individuals.
7. Padhāna-desanā The discourse on the [seven] efforts (same as
(same as satta-bojjhaṅga) the seven awakening factors).
8. Paṭipadā-desanā The discourse on the [four] ways of progress.
9. Bhassa-samācārā-desanā The discourse on the [fourfold] proper modes
of speech.
10. Purisa-sīla-samācāra- The discourse on a person’s proper moral
desanā conduct.
11. Anusāsana-vidhā-desanā The discourse on the [four] modes of
instructing.
12. Para-puggala-vimutti-ñāṇa- The discourse on the [fourfold] knowledge of
desanā liberating others.
13. Sassatavāda-desanā The discourse on the [three] eternalist
doctrines.
14. Pubbenivāsānussati-ñāṇa- The discourse on the knowledge of the
desanā recollection of past lives.
15. Cutūpapāta-ñāṇa-desanā The discourse on the knowledge of the
passing away and rebirth of beings.
16. Iddhi-vidha-desanā The discourse on [the manifold/modes] of
psychic powers.

14
For the convenience of itemization, the term ‘desanā’ is used along each ānuttariya as in CS
here. However, ‘desanā’ is not mentioned in the PTS edition.

6
According to Nyanaponika Thera, these sixteen ānuttariya-s are peerless qualities

of the Buddha’s teachings.15 He further states that they are also the justification of

Sāriputta’s deep confidence in the Buddha. The sixteen ānuttariya-s16 vary in

their scope and also could be studied in groups.

Elsewhere in the Sutta Piṭaka, various other ānuttariya-s are also mentioned. For

example, the Saṅgīti-sutta mentions two groups of ānuttariya-s; in one list it’s

three ānuttariya-s17 and in another six ānuttariya-s.18 Of the two lists mentioned

in the Saṅgīti-sutta, only two ānuttariya-s––dassana 19 and paṭipadā––are

included in the list of the sixteen ānuttariya-s of the Sampasādanīya-sutta.

However, dassana in the Sampasādanīya-sutta is mentioned as a samāpatti (=

dassana-samāpatti), while in the Saṅgīti-sutta and the Aṅguttara Nikāya20 it is

mentioned as ānuttariya (= dassanānuttariya). In the case of paṭipadā, the

Sampasādanīya-sutta mentions it as paṭipadā––without ānuttariya––and in the

Saṅgīti-sutta and the Aṅguttara Nikāya 21 it is paṭipadānuttariya. Among the

remaining, vimuttānuttariya occurs only in the list of three ānuttariya-s of the

Saṅgīti-sutta in the whole Sutta Piṭaka, while the remaining of the list of six are

15
See Nyanaponika Thera (2008): 42.
16
These sixteen subjects have been rendered as the ‘sixteen unsurpassed/able [qualities]’
(ānuttariyam). See, for example, Piya Tan (2005): 107ff; T.W. Rhys Davids and C.A.F Rhys
Davids (1921): 97ff; Maurice Walshe (1995): 418ff. Nyanaponika Thera renders ‘anuttariyam’
as ‘peerless qualities’ – see The Life of Sāriputta, Wheel No. 90/92. However, whether these
sixteen could be considered as qualities is doubtful, as they more look like the Buddha’s
expertise in explaining these sixteen topics of spiritual attainments.
17
dassanānuttariyaṃ, paṭipadānuttariyaṃ, vimuttānuttariyaṃ. D III: 219.
18
dassanānuttariyaṃ, savanānuttariyaṃ lābhānuttariyaṃ, sikkhānuttariyaṃ,
pāricariyānuttariyaṃ, anussatānuttariyaṃ. D III: 250. The same list is also mentioned in D III:
281; A III: 284.
19
Elsewhere in the sutta classification, dassana is mentioned with various other terms in different
contexts. E.g., see M I: 7, 9 & 11; S III: 28, 29, 49.
20
A III: 284.
21
ibid.

7
found only in the Aṅguttara Nikāya22 as ānuttariya-s. In the Dasuttara-sutta, the

Buddha states that the [list of six] ānuttariya-s are to be thoroughly learnt.23

There are several discourses in the Pāli canon either in praise of or about the

Buddha; some focusing on his physical qualities, some on his spiritual qualities

and some on his ways of teaching the Dhamma in leading others to liberation.24

The Sampasādanīya-sutta is another such discourse, where one of his chief

disciples expresses his deep conviction in the Buddha on the basis of what and

how he teaches. The discourse is also said to be the justification of Sāriputta’s

deep confidence in the Buddha.25 The subjects, which Sāriputta explains, in fact,

are some of the core topics of early Buddhist spiritual advancement taught by the

Buddha. The discourse is therefore a significant text in the study of the Buddha’s

intellectual qualities26 found in the early Buddhist texts.

The content of the Sampasādanīya-sutta is also found in the Nālandā-sutta of the

Saṃyutta Nikāya27 and as an episode in the Mahāparinibbāna-sutta of the Dīgha

Nikāya.28 Scholars, such as K.R. Norman, G.C. Pande, Dipak Kumar Barua and

Piya Tan, maintain that the Sampasādanīya-sutta is an elaboration of the episode

22
A III: 284, 325-329.
23
katame cha dhammā abhiññeyyā? Cha anuttariyāni, dassānānuttariyaṃ, savaṇānuttariyaṃ,
lābhānuttariyaṃ, sikkhānuttariyaṃ, pāricariyānuttariyaṃ, anussatānuttariyaṃ. Ime dhammā
abhiññeyyā. D III: 281.
24
E.g., the Lakkhaṇa-sutta (D III: 142-179) explains the physical characteristics of a great being,
and in the Mahāparinibbāna-sutta (D II: 128-129), the Buddha’s humanly qualities are shown –
in this section of the discourse, the Buddha asks for drinking water from Ānanda saying he is
thirsty; in several other discourses, the disciples express their satisfaction in what the Buddha
teaches. See also Guang Xing (2005: 7-18) and T. Endo (2002: 1-47) for detail studies on the
qualities of the Buddha recorded in the early Buddhist texts.
25
Nyanaponika Thera and Hellmuth Hecker (2007): 71.
26
As noticeable in the sutta, all the sixteen are intellectual, not physical.
27
S V: 159-161. The Nālandā-sutta, according to Piya Tan (2004: 86), is Sāriputta’s last
conversation with the Buddha before the former’s parinibbāna.
28
D II: 81-83.

8
 29
found in the Mahāparinibbāna-sutta. Both, the episode in the

Mahāparinibbāna-sutta and the content of the Nālandā-sutta, which appears as

shorter versions of the Sampasādanīya-sutta, too are attributed to Sāriputta as the

author. However, G.C. Pande states Ānanda as the author of the Sampasādanīya-

sutta,30 which is incorrect, as the text itself clearly states that it’s Sāriputta who

declares the Buddha to be supreme among the samaṇa-s and brāhmaṇa-s.

Moreover, as pointed out above, the Nālandā-sutta and the episode in the

Mahāparinibbāna-sutta also attribute the authorship to Sāriputta, not Ānanda.

At present, there are five English translations of the discourse by different

translators: T.W. and C.A.F. Rhys Davids (1921), Maurice Walshe (1995), the

Burma Piṭaka Association (1999), Piya Tan (2005), and SuttaCentral (2018)31

respectively. The translators have provided various renderings of the title of the

discourse, Sampasādanīya-sutta. T.W. and C.A.F. Rhys Davids translate it as The

Faith That Satisfied, while Maurice Walshe and Piya Tan render it as Serene

Faith and The Discourse That Inspires Serene Faith respectively. The Burma

Piṭaka Association renders it as Faith Inspiring Discourse, 32 while in the

SuttaCentral it is provided as Inspiring Confidence. Nyanaponika also translates

the title as Faith-Inspiring Discourse, 33 similar to that of the Burma Piṭaka

29
See K.R. Norman (1983): 21; G.C. Pande (1995): 111; Dipak Kumar Barua (2003): 451; Piya
Tan (2005): 106.
30
“But Ānanda gives vent to his admiration for Buddha here by enumerating various excellence
(ānuttariya-s) of his teachings.” G.C. Pande (1995): 112.
Or, it may be the case the G.C. Pande is pointing at Ānanda as the author of the sutta for his
recital during the first council held one hundred years after the Buddha’s mahāparinibbāna.
However, it is totally incorrect to state that Ānanda is the author.
31
Although SuttaCentral has been online for some years, the final work was introduced in the
early 2018. At this time, the present thesis was also at its final stage. As a result, the author did
not have sufficient time to consult the site.
32
See Ten Suttas from Dīgha Nikāya: Long Discourses of the Buddha (1999): 373.
33
Nyanaponika Thera and Hellmuth Hecker (2007): 71.

9
Association. However, the Nyanaponika’s rendering is earlier than that of the

Burma Piṭaka Association.

Among the five translators of the text, only Piya Tan has made a short study on

the title of the sutta. In his precise study, he examines the meaning of

‘sampasādanīya’ by breaking it into saṃ (prefix), pasāda (from √sad) and ṇiya

(gerundive suffix). Having observed the meanings of these terms provided by

various scholars,34 he states sampasādanīya to be a special sense of appreciation,

which means “to feel appreciative” or “that which arouses gladness”. 35 According

to him, Sāriputta’s exposition would lead the listener or the reader to appreciate

the Buddha’s virtues. Thus, leading to his translation of the title of the text as The

Discourse That Inspires Serene Faith. However, while this translation may

present a better picture of Sāriputta’s exposition of the discourse, one may not

agree with the grammar The Discourse That Inspires Serene Faith.

The Sanskrit and Pāli dictionaries have not differed much in their interpretations

of ‘pasāda’ or ‘pasādanīya.’ 36 In his Reading Buddhist Sanskrit Texts: An

Elementary Grammatical Guide, Bhikkhu K.L. Dhammajoti, while providing a

similar grammatical analysis,37 differed with their meanings. According to him,

Piya Tan might be agreeing with the renderings by Nyanaponika Thera and the Burma Piṭaka
Association as his is almost the same, with slight modification in the word-structure, but keeping
the meaning unharmed.
34
These works include T.W. Rhys Davids and William Stede’s Pali-English Dictionary;
Edgerton’s Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Dictionary; Monier-Williams’ Sanskrit-English Dictionary.
They have not differed in explaining ‘[sam]pasāda[nīya]’, and their interpretations are related to
‘serenity,’ ‘brightness,’ ‘pleasantness,’ ‘calmness’ or their adjectival, verbal and infinitive forms.
35
Cf. Richard Shankman (2008): 45, 217.
36
See n34 of this thesis.
37
Saṃ + pasāda + nīya.

10
pra-sādaḥ, the Sanskrit equivalent of Pāli pasāda, means “deep conviction”.38

Moreover, in another work, Reading Buddhist Pāli Texts: An Elementary

39
Grammatical Guide, Bhikkhu K.L. Dhammajoti renders pasanno as

conviction.40 Adding the prefix saṃ (together, complete, perfectly) and the suffix

nīya to pasāda (= sampasādanīya) would literally mean ‘complete/perfect deep

conviction’ or rather just ‘deep conviction’. Then, does the title of the text mean

The Discourse on Deep Conviction?

It would be worth to examine what the text itself says about its title before

drawing a conclusion on this. Unfortunately, the text itself does not include the

term sampasādanīya. Furthermore, nowhere in other places of the Sutta Piṭaka

does this term occur, except only with the title of the text in question at present.

This means sampasādanīya occurs only once in the whole Sutta Piṭaka. The only

term related to sampasādanīya and found in the whole discourse is pasanno, 41 the

participle form of pasīdati, and which carries the following meanings: clear,

bright, happy, gladdened, reconciled, pleased. 42 There is no doubt that the

translators may have drawn their interpretation from this context of the text.

Although these are common terms found in the Buddhist texts, however, the

sixteen topics (ānuttariya-s) that Sāriputta explains seem to convey a deeper

meaning than just being pleased or generating mere faith in the Buddha. These

sixteen are some of the most important and advanced subjects in the early

38
See Bhikkhu K.L. Dhammajoti (2015): 8 & 401.
39
The term has been used by Sāriputta to declare the Buddha as supreme among the recluses and
brahmins in the Sampasādanīya-sutta, the Nālandā-sutta and the Mahāparinibbāna-sutta.
40
Bhikkhu K.L. Dhammajoti (2018): 54.
41
T.W. Rhys Davids and William Stede provide two ‘pasanna-s’, but only the first is relevant for
this study. See Pāli-English Dictionary (1997): 446.
42
See also Bhikkhu K.L. Dhammajoti (2018): 54.

11
Buddhist spiritual path, basing on which Sāriputta draws the conclusion that

Gotama Buddha is the supreme among all the recluses and brahmins of three

time-periods.43 His exposition further articulates that it is these topics, taught by

the Buddha, which inspire Sāriputta to believe in the Buddha.

On the other hand, returning back to the grammatical analysis of the term

sampasādanīya, Piya Tan rightly explains that the term is a combination of a

prefix, √sad and a gerundive suffix. However, the gerundive, or the future passive

participle, suffix ‘ṇiya’ he provides is incorrect. The suffixes used in Pāli future

passive participles, as Bhikkhu K.L. Dhammajoti mentions, are -tabba, -ya/eyya,

and -anīya.44 Among them, -tabba (e.g., veditabba: to be/should be understood) is

the most commonly used form. However, in the present case, could

sampasādanīya be the combination of saṃ + √sad + anīya (gerundive suffix)? If

affirmative, the term could literally mean ‘to be deeply pleased’ or ‘what ought to

be pleased’. What ought to be pleased is what causes or inspires to be pleased.

According to Sāriputta, what inspired (/caused) him to establish faith in the

Buddha is the teacher’s skills in discoursing the sixteen ānuttariya-s. Thus, one

could easily identify that the nearest among the available translations to the above

grammatical explanation are those of Nyanaponika and The Burma Piṭaka

Association: Faith-Inspiring Discourse and Faith Inspiring Discourse

respectively, both denoting same meaning. Here, one must also note that although

the common rendering for pasāda is pleasing, however, this rendering does not fit

in the present context. Therefore, the most appropriate rendering is faith, as

43
Evaṃ pasanno ahaṃ bhante bhagavati, na cāhu na ca bhavissati na c’ etarahi vijjati añño
samaṇo vā brāhmaṇo vā bhagavatā ’bhiññataro yadidaṃ sambhodiyan ti. D III: 99.
44
Bhikkhu K.L. Dhammajoti (2018): 123. See also A.K. Warder (2010): 104ff; Wilhelm Geiger
(2013): 187ff.

12
mentioned by A.P. Buddhadatta in his Concise Pāli-English Dictionary.

Therefore, among the available translations of the title of the text, in the aspects of

grammar and meaning, the most appropriate rendering is Faith-Inspiring

Discourse.

Buddhaghosa, accredited to be the most prominent Pāli commentator for

translating and compiling the major number of commentaries on the Pāli

canonical texts,45 is also the compiler of the Sumaṅgala-vilāsinī, the commentary

on the Dīgha-nikāya, in which the Sampasādaniya-sutta is listed as the twenty-

eighth. Although the content of the sutta is found in the Mahāparinibbāna-sutta

and Nālandā-sutta, the commentaries on them differ on this section, and only the

Sampasādanīyasuttavaṇṇanā contains the complete commentary on the discourse.

In fact, the author of the commentary on the Mahāparinibbāna-sutta directs the

reader to the Sampasādanīya-sutta, not the Sampasādanīyasuttavaṇṇanā.46 On the

other hand, in the Nālandāsuttavaṇṇanā, only half of the introductory section of

the commentary is provided. 47 Furthermore, in the commencement of the

Sampasādanīyasuttavaṇṇanā, it provides a detailed explanation of ‘bhagavantaṃ

etad avoca: evaṃ pasanno ahaṃ bhante bhagavatī ti,’48 which is not found in the

Nālandāsuttavaṇṇanā.

45
To be accurate: Buddhaghosa is rather the translator cum editor of several Pāli commentaries.
Many scholars continue to mention him as the commentator, but Buddhaghosa himself states that
he is translating the commentaries, not composing them. On this, E.W. Adikaram notes:
Buddhaghosa’s task was not to write a series of original books on Buddhism but to put into Pāli
in a coherent and intelligent form the matter that already existed in the various Sinhalese
Commentaries. E.W. Adikaram (1953): 2. See also Bhikkhu Ñāṇamoli (2010): xxxiv. Cf. T.
Endo (2013): 33ff.
46
Atha kho āyasmā sāriputto ti ādi sampasādanīye vitthāritaṃ. DA II: 538.
47
See SA II: 207-212.
48
DA III: 873-878.

13
While the Pāli commentators are said to have attempted to avoid repetitions,49 at

least not repeat the same explanations, it is not the case in the

Sampasādanīyasuttavaṇṇanā. Some of the paragraphs appearing at the end of the

text are also found in their exact forms in the commentaries to the Aṅguttara

Nikāya50 and Majjhima Nikāya,51 and also in the Milindapañha,52 another post-

canonical text. Moreover, this is also noticeable within the commentary to the

Sampasādanīya-sutta. For example, the explanation of uttariṃ abhiññeyyaṃ n’

atthhi is repeated twice within the text.53 Furthermore, the verse mentioned in the

introductory section of the Sampasādanīyasuttavaṇṇanā54 also appears in several

other texts: in the commentaries to the Dīgha-nikāya, Majjhima-nikāya, Udāna,

Buddhavaṃsa, Cariyāpiṭaka, Apadāna; in the sub-commentaries to the Majjhima-

nikāya, Aṅguttara-nikāya, Saṃyutta-nikāya, Nettippakaraṇa, etc.55 These factors

point out that the compilers and authors of the commentaries and other post-

canonical texts may not have referred the Sumaṅgala-vilāsinī, or at least the

Sampasādanīyasuttavaṇṇanā, during the compilation of those respective texts .

49
Cf. L.R. Goonesekere (2008): 17.
50
See pp. 189ff of this thesis.
51
ibid
52
See pp. 190ff of this thesis.
53
See DA III: 885, 895.
54
See DA III: 877.
55
DA I: 288; MA III: 423; UdA: 336; BvA: 135; CarA: 8; ApA: 388; DṬ I: 11 & 65; MṬ
(Mūlapaṇṇāsa-ṭīkā, Ganthārambhakathāvaṇṇanā); SṬ (Sagāthāvaggaṭīkā,
Ganthārambhakathāvaṇṇanā); AṬ (Ekakanipāta-ṭīkā, Ganthārambhakathāvaṇṇanā); NettṬ
(Ganthārambhakathāvaṇṇanā) Vinayavinicchayaṭīkā (Ganthārambhakathāvaṇṇanā);
Vajirabuddhi-ṭīkā (Ganthārambhakathāvaṇṇanā); Sāratthadīpanī-ṭīkā (Paṭhama-bhāgo,
Ganthārambhakathāvaṇṇanā).

14
1.2. The Buddha and Sāriputta: The Master-Disciple Relationship

The conversations between the Buddha and Sāriputta in the Pāli nikāya-s depict

that the master and the disciple had a special relationship. Although both Sāriputta

and Moggallāna56 were appointed as the two chief disciples of the Buddha, the

former is seen closer to the Buddha than the latter. Very often, the Buddha is seen

highly praising Sāriputta. Such evidences also prove that the Buddha trusted

Sāriputta’s knowledge of the Dhamma.57 On many occasions, the bhikkhu-s are

asked to go to Sāriputta for both doctrinal and other assistance. 58 In the

Saccavibhaṅga-sutta, the Buddha mentions:

Sāriputta is like a mother; Moggallāna is like a nurse. Sāriputta trains

others for the fruit of stream-entry, Moggallāna for the supreme goal.

Sāriputta, bhikkhus, is able to announce, teach, describe, establish,

reveal, expound, and exhibit the Four Noble Truths.59

According to the discourse, the Buddha proceeds to his dwelling place afterwards,

leaving Sāriputta to explain the four truths in detail to the monks. The fact that the

56
Moggallāna is said to be one who excelled in psychic powers. See A I: 23.
57
The Sampasādanīya-sutta itself is one such discourse where the Buddha praised the chief
disciple for his correct explanation of the Dhamma. When Sāriputta has concluded the
explanation of the sixteen ānuttariya-s, the Buddha asks the chief disciple to repeat it to the
monks, nuns and the lay followers (tasmāt iha tvaṃ Sāriputta imaṃ dhamma-pariyāyaṃ
abhikkhaṇaṃ bhāseyyāsi bhikkhūnaṃ bhikkhunīnaṃ upāsakānaṃ upāsikānaṃ). See D III: 116.
58
E.g., once when the Buddha was living in Devadaha, a group of monks approached him seeking
permission to go to the western part of the province. The Buddha then asked the monks to
inquire from Sāriputta stating: monks, Sāriputta is wise and friendly to his fellow monks
(Sāriputto bhikkhave paṇḍito bhikkhūnaṃ anuggāhako sabrahmacārīnaṃ). See S III: 7. Cf. M
III: 248.
59
Translation by Bhikkhu Ñāṇamoli and Bhikkhu Bodhi (1995): 1097, 1349 n1289.
Seyyathāpi, bhikkhave, janettī, evaṃ Sāriputto; seyyathāpi jātassa āpādetā, evaṃ Moggallāno.
Sāriputto, bhikkhave, sotāpattiphale vineti, Moggallāno uttamatthe; Sāriputto, bhikkhave,
pahoti, cattāri ariya-saccāni vitthārena ācikkhituṃ desetuṃ paññāpetuṃ paṭṭhapetuṃ vivarituṃ
vibhajituṃ uttānīkātuṃ. See M III: 248.

15
Buddha trusted Sāriputta’s knowledge of the Dhamma is also evident from the

teacher appointing the chief disciple as the General (marshal) of the Dhamma.60

Moreover, the complete Anupada-sutta61 is a eulogy of Sāriputta by the Buddha

himself. In the discourse, the teacher speaks highly of the chief disciple.

Bhikkhus, Sāriputta is wise; Sāriputta has great wisdom; Sāriputta has

wide wisdom; Sāriputta has joyous wisdom; Sāriputta has quick

wisdom; Sāriputta has keen wisdom; Sāriputta has penetrative

wisdom.62

The Buddha, in his conclusion of the sutta, states that if there is anyone who

rightly fits to be called the Blessed One’s son (bhagavato putto), one born of his

mouth63 and breast (oraso mukhato jāto), one born out of and created by the

Dhamma (dhammajo dhamma-nimmito), the heir of the Dhamma

(dhammadāyādo) not of material things (no āmisadāyādo), that person is

Sāriputta.64 These epithets clearly demonstrate the extent of trust the Buddha

places in Sāriputta with regard to his knowledge of the Dhamma. Thus, in the

Aṅguttara-nikāya, the Buddha declares the chief disciple to be the foremost with

regard to wisdom among his disciples. 65 Moreover, while Sāriputta was

60
See Nyanaponika Thera (2008): 3; G.P. Malalasekera in DPPN.
61
See M III: 25-29.
62
Translation by Bhikkhu Ñāṇamoli and Bhikkhu Bodhi (1995): 899.
Paṇḍito, bhikkhave, Sāriputto; mahāpañño, bhikkhave, Sāriputto; puthupañño, bhikkhave,
Sāriputto; hāsupañño, bhikkhave Sāriputto; javanapañño, bhikkhave, Sāriputto; tikkhapañño,
bhikkhave, Sāriputto; nibbedhikapañño, bhikkhave, Sāriputto. M III: 25.
63
i.e., having heard the words uttered by the mouth [of the Buddha]. See MA IV & V: 91.
64
M III: 29.
65
Etad aggaṃ bhikkhave mama sāvakānaṃ bhikkhūnaṃ … mahāpaññaṃ yadidaṃ Sāriputto. A I:
23.

16
considered only inferior to the Buddha in wisdom, the chief disciple is also said to

have excelled in knowledge-s which come under the purview of the Buddha.66

In the Pāli nikāya-s, Sāriputta is also recorded to have preached higher number of

discourses among the disciples of the Buddha.67 Some of these discourses are

distinct in their nature and topics. Commenting on these discourses, Nyanaponika

Thera notes:

The discourses of Venerable Sāriputta and the books attributed to him

form a comprehensive body of teaching that for scope and variety of

exposition can stand beside that of the Master himself. Sāriputta

understood in a unique way how to organize and present the rich

material of the Dhamma lucidly, in a manner that was intellectually

stimulating and also an inspiration to practical effort.68

Among the sutta-s taught by Sāriputta, the Sampasādanīya-sutta, an analysis of

the sixteen ānuttariya-s of the Buddha, demonstrates the chief disciple’s deep

understanding of the Dhamma, based on which he established deep faith in the

Buddha. The discourse also points out that in Buddhism, mere faith in the teacher

is not acceptable, but faith should be established on the basis of investigation of

the teachings of the teacher in various ways. 69 It is believed that the chief

disciple’s elaboration of the sutta, which is also known as ‘Sāriputta’s Lion’s

Roar’, is his last meeting with the Buddha.70 And his elaboration of the sixteen

66
See G.P. Malalasekera in DPPN; Nyanaponika Thera (2008): 3. According to both G.P.
Malalasekera and Nyanaponika Thera, Sāriputta is also credited to have methodically compiled
the Abhidhamma, which is considered the most philosophical division of the Pāli canon.
67
For a complete list of the discourses taught by Sāriputta, see Nyanaponika Thera (2008): 41-46.
68
Nyanaponika Thera and Hellmuth Hecker (2007): 45.
69
Cf. M I: 317-320.
70
See Piya Tan (2004: 86)

17
topics are to express his gratitude to the Buddha. Moreover, there are also several

discourses, which were commenced by the Buddha but Sāriputta was asked to

continue the teaching. One such example is the Saccavibhaṅga-sutta mentioned

earlier.

As Sāriputta was highly versed in the Dhamma among the disciples of the

Buddha, it is reported that, like the Buddha, he also wandered from city to city

accompanied by a group of five hundred monks or more. 71 According to

Nyanaponika Thera, Sāriputta also possessed infinite patience and would teach

the Dhamma until the listener attains sotāpatti-phala (the fruit of stream-entry).72

Moreover, during the incident when Devadatta had led away a faction of monks to

cause a schism in the saṅgha, the Buddha asked Sāriputta and Moggallāna to

bring back the faction, which both did successfully.73 These canonical evidences

point out that while Sāriputta has established faith in the Buddha completely

based on wisdom gained from the teachings of the master,74 the Buddha too in

return had confidence in the chief disciple––this is particularly noticeable in

instances where the Buddha directs other bhikkhu-s to seek Sāriputta’s admonition

and guidance.

71
One such example is when he wished to go to Nālaka, he is quoted as asking Elder Cunda,
“Friend Cunda, please ask our group of five hundred bhikkhus to take their bowls and robes, for I
wish to go to Nālaka.” See Nyanaponika Thera (2000): 33.
72
Nyanaponika Thera (2000): 16.
73
Nyanaponika Thera (2008): 12-13; G.P. Malalasekera in DPPN.
74
The Sampasādanīya-sutta is a concrete example of this.

18
1.3. The Significance of the Translation and the Study

For every Pāli canonical text, there is a commentary and a sub-commentary

written on. The primary aim of the commentators is to explain analytically and

critically the difficult terms and phrases found in the canonical texts.75 Moreover,

the commentators also explain “the words and judgments of others as accurately

and faithfully as possible.”76 The Pāli commentarial literature also shows that the

commentators not only commentated on and critically examined the difficult

terms and concepts found in the Pāli canon, but also have carried out other

important tasks too. For example, Buddhaghosa, in his commentary to the Vinaya

Piṭaka,77 mentions nine points that he used, many of which are also very common

in other Pāli commentaries. 78 Refutation of heresies, elucidation of orthodox

views and comparing with canonical interpretations are few of them. Therefore,

every commentarial (aṭṭhakathā) and sub-commentarial (ṭīkā) text in the Pāli

literature has its own distinct significance in studying the canonical texts.79 For,

different subject-materials are recorded in different canonical texts, on which both

the commentarial and sub-commentarial texts were compiled. Although the Pāli

commentaries are highly significant––for the translation of the Pāli canonical

75
In her introduction to the DṬL, Lily de Silva (1970: lxvi-lxxxi) has explained six methods of
exegesis mentioned in text (DṬL I: 43), which were used by the commentators to compile the
commentaries on the canonical texts.
76
B.C. Law (2000): 396.
77
Although there has been a trend of attributing the authorship of most of the present Pāli
commentaries (aṭṭhakathā) to Buddhaghosa, in reality, Buddhaghosa’s primary aim was to
translate back the commentaries to Pāli language from Sinhala language. See n37.
78
See Lily de Silva (1970): lxxii.
79
Besides being important for translation of the canonical texts, Sodo Mori, one of the few
contemporary scholars of Pāli commentaries, state that the commentarial works also are useful
source materials for philological studies, doctrinal and philosophical studies, linguistic studies,
historical, geographical, social and cultural studies. Sodo Mori (1989): 3-20. See also T. Endo
(2013): 8-10; Kanai Lal Hazra (2000): 283-359.

19
texts into any modern language, and to critically and analytically study the early

Buddhist discourses80––majority of the Pāli commentaries and sub-commentaries

remain untranslated until at present.

Likewise, while there have been five English translations of the Sampasādanīya-

sutta, 81 the commentary (aṭṭhakathā) on this discourse, like most of the

commentaries on the Pāli canonical texts, remains un-translated until at present.

As the author of the commentary on the Mahāparinibbāna-sutta did not include

any commentarial explanation on this particular episode,82 the translator of the

Mahāparinibbānasuttavaṇṇanā also excluded it.83 The Nālandāsuttavaṇṇanā too

remains un-translated.84 Therefore, the present work will be the first English

translation of the commentary on the Sampasādanīya-sutta. The work also would

be a useful resource for research students and scholars interested in those

80
In fact, the Pāli commentaries also serve as the prime sources for the translation and the study of
the Pāli canonical texts. K.R. Norman (2008: 67ff) states that for a translator “there is the
commentarial tradition in the first place,” which contain critical analysis of the technical terms.
He further notes that even the commentaries, which were compiled after the Buddha’s
parinibbāna and in different social and historical background, also have misinterpretations. In
such cases, rectifying the incorrect interpretations is also an important factor to be considered in
the study of the Pāli commentaries. Or, perhaps the eminent later Buddhist Elders, like
Buddhaghosa and his contemporaries, might have comprehended the Buddhist texts better or
from different perspectives, which may serve as resourceful reference at present.
81
By T.W. and C.A.F. Rhys Davids (1921: 95-110) in Dialogues of the Buddha, Part III; Maurice
Walshe (1995: 417-425) in The Long Discourses of the Buddha; the Burma Piṭaka Association
(1999: 373-395) in Ten Suttas from Dīgha Nikāya: Long Discourses of the Buddha; Piya Tan
(2005) entitled Sampasādanīya Sutta: The Discourse That Inspires Serene Faith published in
dharmafarer.org; and the latest in SuttaCentral (2018).
82
See D II: 81-83.
83
The commentator of the sutta in fact directs the reader to the Sampasādanīya-sutta: atha kho
āyasmā sāriputto ti ādi sampasādanīye vitthāritaṃ. DA II: 538
The commentary on the Mahāparinibbāna-sutta was translated into English by Yang-Gyu An
(2005) entitled ‘The Buddha’s last days: Buddhaghosa’s Commentary on the Mahāparinibbāna
Sutta’.
84
The commentator of the Saṃyutta Nikāya provided only part of the introductory section of the
commentary on the Nālandā-sutta. Unlike the commentator of the Mahāparinibbāna-sutta, the
commentator of the Nālanda-sutta, however, does not even direct the reader to the
Sampasādanīya-sutta/vaṇṇanā. See SA III: 207-212.

20
particular areas of Buddhist Studies, such as the sixteen ānuttariya-s, but are less

familiar with Pāli language. Moreover, as the commentaries on the episode in the

Mahāparinibbāna-sutta and the shorter version entitled Nālandā-sutta in the

Saṃyutta-nikāya are either not provided or remains untranslated, the translation of

the Sampasādanīyasuttavaṇṇanā would definitely assist the readers to grasp the

meaning of both sutta-s to greater extent. In other words, the translation of the

Sampasādanīyasuttavaṇṇanā would also be beneficial in understanding the

content of two more sutta-s: the Mahāparinibbāna-sutta and the Nālandā-sutta.

Much of the introductory section of the Sampasādanīyasuttavaṇṇanā is mainly

devoted on Sāriputta’s contemplation on the Buddha’s virtues.85 While examining

the extant of the teacher’s virtues he also elaborates how the Buddha is different

from him with regard to wisdom, knowledge and other virtues. On the other hand,

at the end of the Sampasādanīyasuttavaṇṇanā, various other important factors

related to the history of the monastic order and the Dhamma are discussed. The

text explains how the Dhamma will disappear and which part of the canon will

vanish first and last, and how the monastic order will survive. Therefore, the

Sampasādanīyasuttavaṇṇanā, particularly the passages at the beginning and the

end, is also a significant source for the study of topics related to the Buddha and

his disciples, and the existence of the Dhamma and the saṅgha.

The elaboration of the sixteen ānuttariya-s of the Buddha by Sāriputta,86 one of

the foremost disciples, explains how the enlightened disciples of that time

85
E.g., see DA III: 873-878.
86
Besides being endowed with wisdom and his deep conviction towards the Buddha, Sāriputta is
also noted for his gratitude towards Assaji, from whom he first heard the Dhamma. Likewise,

21
understood the Buddha through the comprehension of his teachings and

established faith in him. This makes the Sampasādanīya-sutta a significant source

for the study of the spiritual (intellectual) qualities of the Buddha and establishing

faith in the teacher balanced with wisdom (paññā) in early Buddhism. Some of

the sixteen ānuttariya-s, which are also found scattered in the Pāli canon,

especially in the Sutta Piṭaka, have been studied in different extent and contexts,

while the remaining have not attracted the attention of the Buddhist scholars.

Rupert Gethin has made a comprehensive study of the bodhi-pakkhiyā-dhamma-

s87 in his The Buddhist Path to Awakening (2003). Moreover, a number of studies

on the Buddhist critiques of the eternalist and materialist doctrines, as journal

articles or book chapters, have also been produced. Among them, Y.

Karunadasa’s “The Buddhist Critique of Sassatavāda and Ucchedavāda: The Key

to Proper Understanding of the Origin of the Doctrines of Early Buddhism”,88

Michitoshi Manda’s “On Sassatavāda––in Comparison with Ucchedavāda”89 and

Joaquín Pérez-Remón’s “Asmimāna, Sakkāyadiṭṭhi, Sassatavāda and

Ucchedavāda”90 are noteworthy,91 as the papers/book chapters particularly focus

on the two extreme religious groups.

towards Sañjaya, his former teacher before converting to Buddhism. The commentary on the
Nāva-sutta (see SnA II: 327-328) and the commentary on the Dhammapada (see DhpA IV: 150-
151) state that, before sleeping, Sāriputta used to pay his respect to Assaji thinking that the latter
is his first teacher and then he would rest his head in gratitude towards the direction Assaji was
residing. However, his elaboration of the sixteen ānuttariya-s in the Sampasādanīya-sutta shows
that Sāriputta is most grateful to the Buddha.
87
Which also include the seven awakening factors (satta-bojjhaṅga), one of the sixteen ānuttariya-
s of the Buddha mentioned in the Sampasādanīya-sutta.
88
In The Middle Way, Vol. 74 & 75. See also Y. Karunadasa (2017): 13-21.
89
In Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies, Vol. 44, No. 2: 962-959.
90
In her Self Non-Self in Early Buddhism (1980): 227-267.
91
See also Bhikkhu Anālayo (2010): 23-42; Bhikkhu Bodhi (2007): 16-19, 28-30.

22
Bradley S. Clough has made a precise study of the higher knowledge-s found in

the Sutta Piṭaka and Vinaya Piṭaka in his paper entitled “The Higher Knowledge

in the Pāli Nikāyas and Vinaya”.92 While analyzing each knowledge, Clough also

discusses the limitation and the danger of some knowledge-s; e.g., the iddhi-

vidha-ñāṇa. Harold W. French also made a study on iddhi-vidha in his paper “The

Concept of Iddhi in Early Buddhist Thought”93 where he also discusses the danger

of the knowledge and its analysis in the canonical and post-canonical texts.

However, none of the above authors, including Rupert Gethin, focus their studies

on the topics in the context as mentioned in the Sampasādanīya-sutta.94 Among

the various studies related to these topics, only Toshiichi Endo, in his Buddha in

Theravāda Buddhism (2002), which is a comprehensive study of the Buddha-

concept in the Theravāda tradition,95 has focused on few of these topics in the

context of intellectual qualities of the Buddha; such as iddhi (psychic powers),

pubbenivāsānussati-ñāṇa (the knowledge of the recollection of past lives).

Therefore, as the sixteen ānuttariya-s explained in the Sampasādanīya-sutta are

crucial in the study of wisdom-based faith in Buddhism and also as the intellectual

qualities of the Buddha, a comprehensive study on the sixteen based on the Pāli

tradition (i.e., canonical and commentarial texts) and relevant contemporary

works is significant. Thus, the first part of the present work is a partial attempt––

only focusing on two ānuttariya-s––to fulfill this gap.

92
In Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, Vol. 33, No. 1-2: 409-433.
93
In Pāli Buddhist Review, Vol. 2, No. 1: 42-54. See also S.K. Nanayakkara (1990): 508-511.
94
i.e., as the intellectual qualities of the Buddha.
95
The work also includes discussions on the similarities and differences between the Buddha-s and
bodhisatta-s.

23
1.4. The Methodology and the Scope of the Translation and the

Study

In order to present the study better, this work has been divided into two parts: the

translation of the Sampasādanīyasuttavaṇṇanā (second part) and a critical study

of the partial content of the Sampasādanīya-sutta (first part). The second part

includes a complete and annotated translation of the commentary (aṭṭhakathā) on

the Sampasādanīya-sutta followed by its Pāli text of the Pāli Text Society edition

as an appendix. As far as the commentary is concerned, the sub-commentary

(ṭīkā) is also significant in understanding the sixteen ānuttariya-s of the Buddha.

However, in this project, only the commentary has been selected for translation

due to the time-limitation. The translation of the sub-commentary will be carried

out in a future study.

According to K.R. Norman, a translation should be “intelligible to the non-

specialist.” 96 This does not exclude the academics. Therefore, one of the

preliminary targets of this study is to present the translation in a way intelligible

to both academics and non-academics. For this, the translation is carried out with

the word to word translation method. Moreover, as there is no other English

translation of the text, it is also important that this translation serves both the

academics as well as the general readers. Another important factor in the

translation is the selection of the most suitable words for better interpretations of

the Buddhist terms. For this, the relevant Pāli canonical, post-canonical and

contemporary scholarly works have been consulted. Moreover, in order to explain

96
K.R. Norman (2008): 76.

24
the technical terms in the Sampasādanīyasuttavaṇṇanā, interpretations of

contemporary scholars and their critical examination have been included as

annotations. And, selected Pāli and Sanskrit Dictionaries, and grammar books

have also been consulted wherever required. Overall, this is a literal translation

aiming readers of both academic and general levels.

One of the several difficulties faced while carrying out the translation is making

the translation readable. While one manages to find the meanings of the words

one by one, the task to construct the English translations of the Pāli sentences has

been challenging. At such junctures, the secondary sources, particularly English

translations of other Pāli texts, have been utilized to bring out the proper

meanings of the Pāli sentences. Moreover, in such several instances, the readers

have been directed to either refer or compare the translations by other scholars as

annotations. Furthermore, the present translation also includes correction of the

errata found in the PTS edition of the texts; such as the title of the text itself

Sampasādaniya-sutta-vaṇṇanā, where the short i should be long ī, is corrected to

be Sampasādanīya-sutta-vaṇṇanā.

The content of the discourse, as noticed earlier, covers a broad area of study. The

Sampasādanīya-sutta shows that the virtues of the Buddha that the chief disciple

mentions are neither physical nor mental, rather they are various important

subjects the Buddha taught using different methodologies. Sāriputta states that the

way/s the Buddha teaches the sixteen ānuttariya-s is/are unsurpassable,97 which

97
aparam pana, bhante, etad ānuttariyaṃ, yathā bhagavā dhammaṃ deseti kusalesu dhammesu. D
III: 102. “Moreover, lord, this is too unsurpassed: the way namely in which the Exalted One

25
guided him to establish unshakable faith in the master. Therefore, although all the

sixteen topics are significant in the study of wisdom-based faith in the Buddha

and in the context of his intellectual qualities, it is not possible to carry out a

comprehensive study on all the sixteen within the framework of this thesis and the

time-limitation. Thus, only two ānuttariya-s98 have been focused in the current

study, namely the Buddha’s excellence in teaching with regard to proper conduct

in speech (bhassasamācārā) and with regard to the eternalist doctrines

(sassatavāda).99

In his elaboration of bhassasamācārā, Sāriputta talks about the Buddha’s mode of

speech in four components: the abstention from false speech (musāvādā), the

abstention from divisive speech (vebhūtiya), the abstention from slanderous

speech (pesuniya) and the abstention from argumentative speech100 (sārambhajā

jayāpekkha). The primary aim of this chapter is to examine the four components

which would lead to better understanding of the Buddha’s mode of speech. It

should be noted that a similar component is also included in the noble eightfold

path: sammā vācā (right speech). Therefore, the examination of bhassasamācārā

is carried out in comparison with sammā vācā. Such a presentation will definitely

assist the readers to understand the distinct features of bhassasamācārā from

sammā vācā, which is a factor of the path not a quality. Moreover, in the present

work, an attempt is also made to examine how the Buddha discourses on proper

conduct in speech.

teaches the Norm concerning righteous doctrines.” Translation by T.W. Rhys Davids (2002):
97ff.
98
The author, however, wishes to pursue a comprehensive study on the remaining ānuttariya-s of
the Buddha in future.
99
The candidate wishes to carry out a study on all the sixteen ānuttariya-s in future.
100
Literally, this means speech which seeks victory motivated by anger.

26
Sāriputta also includes the Buddha’s expertise in teaching with regard to

eternalism (sassatavāda) as one of the sixteen ānuttariya-s of the Buddha.

However, the chief disciple does not mention anything with regard to the

doctrines of annihilationism (ucchedavāda). Sāriputta’s exclusion of ucchedavāda

and the Buddha’s statement in his rejection of the two extremes in the

Dhammacakkapavattana-sutta 101 show that the Buddha (or Buddhism) had

different attitudes towards sassatavāda and ucchedavāda. Hence, one of the

preliminary targets is to investigate this difference in attitude in the third chapter

of this project. At the same time, this study also presents how Buddhism, in its

path to emancipation, transcends both extremes. The investigation, for both

bhassasamācārā and the Buddha’s attitude towards the two extremes, is carried

out mainly based on the Pāli canonical and post-canonical texts. Wherever it is

required, contemporary works, such as book chapters, journal articles and

encyclopedia entries, have been consulted.

1.5. Remarks on the PTS, CS, SHB and the Thai Editions of the

Sampasādanīyasuttavaṇṇanā

Although the Pāli texts of the PTS of London have been used widely for research

and study of Pāli Buddhism, it is not the case that the PTS edition of the texts are

completely accurate. The same is in the case of other editions too, such as the

Burmese, Sinhalese and the Thai. In fact, these editions, compiled in their

101
Yo cāyaṃ kāmesu kāmasukhallikānuyogo hīno gammo puthujjanīko anariyo aṇatthasaṃhito.
Yo cāyam attakilamathānuyogo dukkho anariyo anatthasaṃhito. S V: 421.
The PTS edition, in the first sentence, proceeds as ‘yo cāyaṃ kāmesu kāmesu khallikānuyogo
…’, which is an error. The correct form should be ‘kāmesu kāmasukhallikānuyogo …’ as given
in this note.

27
respective countries, were also influenced by their respective local dialects and

other social and cultural factors, which the early Buddhist texts also could not

escape from.102 On the other hand, one must be reminded that the Pāli canon was

preserved by oral tradition. One such example is Mahinda Thera’s arrival in Sri

Lanka to introduce Buddhism in the island. During his arrival, he brought nothing,

except the Pāli canon and its commentaries. Moreover, the Pāli texts, which he

brought, were translated into the local language in Sri Lanka. These were the

texts, including the commentary to the Dīgha-nikāya, which Buddhaghosa

translated back to Pāli again. As a result, various variants and errata are found in

both the canonical texts as well as the commentarial and other post-canonical

works. Such factors are definitely obstacle to bringing out the true words of the

Buddha.

Cases like that are also found in the Sampasādanīyasuttavaṇṇanā of the PTS

edition, which is used as the primary edition in the present study. Very often they

may not affect the interpretation or the translation to greater extent. For example,

‘tadā’ in the PTS edition of the text103 and ‘tathā’ in the CS edition of the text.

The two terms, although different, but, meaning-wise, there is not much

difference; both terms are related to time. And, in this context, can be rendered as

‘then’ or ‘furthermore’. However, there are also terms, which differ not only

102
The historical transmission of the Buddhist teachings shows that the teachings have gone
through various editorial, social, cultural, geographical changes, where the Pāli commentarial
literature also played significant roles. There is no doubt that, in such circumstances, the
teachings may have gone through several editions. Bhikkhu Sujato and Bhikkhu Brahmali
(2015: 7) state, “There are even a few cases where the editorial hand seems to have added
interpretations to existing ideas.” Therefore, it is also important to examine the teachings
historically from the time of when it was taught by the Buddha or his disciples until at present.
This would result in bringing out the true words of the Buddha and his disciples by critically
examining and comparing these sources.
103
See DA III: 874.

28
terminologically but also have different meanings. For example, ‘satta-vihāre’ in

the PTS edition 104 and ‘satatavihāre’ in the CS, SHB (634) and Thai (94)

editions.105 Of the two, the latter, that is of the CS, SHB and Thai editions,

provides better meaning in this context. On the other hand, ‘satata-vihāre’ occurs

in various other texts and contexts too.106 In another instance, PTS edition has

‘vaṇṇena’107 while in CS it is ‘vaṇṇo na’. The latter should prevail as it provides

the proper meaning in the context, and also it is accepted by SHB and Thai.

This study, therefore, along with the translation of the commentary on the

Sampasādanīya-sutta, also examines the texts of the four editions––PTS, CS,

SHB and Thai––in order to provide better translation of the commentary, and also

to make the readers aware of these variants and errata. For this, wherever such

differences are found, they are highlighted and examined in comparison with the

three above-mentioned editions and their relevance in other parts of the Pāli canon

and their commentaries.

104
ibid.
105
See also D II: 250 & 281; A II: 198; AṬ. III: 176; CarA: 7; ItA: 7; UdA: 335.
106
See D II: 250 & 281; A II: 198; AṬ III: 176; CpA: 7; ItA: 7; UdA: 335.
107
See DA III: 877.

29
 30
 Chapter Two

Bhassa-samācāra: The Buddha’s Excellence in

Discoursing on Proper Conduct in Speech

2.1. Introduction

Proper conduct in speech is an important part of Buddhist morality, which again is

an integral part of the Buddhist path to liberation. This is so important that once

the Buddha stated that there is no evil that a person who speaks lies would not

commit: … yassa kassaci sampajānamusāvāde natthi lajjā, nāhaṃ tassa kiñci

pāpaṃ akaraṇīyanti vadāmi.108 This statement of the Tathāgata points out how

false speech is gravely harmful. And, ones who indulge in lying are said to suffer

painful consequences. 109 Moreover, engaging in wrong speech also leads one to

be born in hell.110 In various discourses in the Pāli nikāya-s, proper conduct in

speech has been emphasized for both spiritual as well as social (worldly)

development. Such as the abstention from false speech is one of the preliminary

precepts for both monastics and laity. From the early Buddhist discourses, it is

evident that the Buddha who teaches proper conduct in speech is said to be

himself endowed with good speech. For example, in the Cankī-sutta,111 brahmin

Cankī states, “the recluse Gotama is a good speaker with a good delivery; he

speaks words that are courteous, distinct, flawless, and communicate the

108
M I: 415. See also It: 18; Dhp verse no. 176.
109
See also Richard F. Nance (2010/2011): 75 n1.
110
See A II: 83.
111
M II: 167. Similar statements are also found in D I: 115, 132.
Cf. D III: 217; T. Endo (2002): 119.

31
meaning.” 112 The Sampasādanīya-sutta 113 is evidently another such discourse

confirming this perfect-ethical endowment of the Buddha. Ṭhānissaro Bhikkhu

states that the Buddha gave high preference to how he spoke to people and

therefore still applied the standards of the noble eightfold path, including proper

speech (sammā-vācā), when teaching.114 On the other hand, one teaches well what

one knows fully and has direct experience of that knowledge. 115 In the

Sampasādanīya-sutta, Sāriputta, to justify his declaration of the Buddha as

supreme among samaṇa-s and brāhmaṇa-s, states that the Buddha’s teaching

concerning proper conduct in speech is incomparable.116 This means, the Buddha,

who has followed the noble eightfold path, is not just endowed with proper

speech, but also teaches proper conduct in speech exceedingly well.

While elaborating the sixteen special topics, to justify his statement that the

Buddha is supreme among samaṇa-s and brāhmaṇa-s of the past, present, and

112
Translation by Bhikkhu Ñāṇamoli, see MLD: 777. This is in fact one of several reasons the
brahmin mentions for why he wanted to visit the Buddha. Such statements are also direct
evidences of Buddha’s embodiment of ethical perfection.
In another instance (A II: 24), the Buddha is said to be one whose actions tally with his words
and his words with his actions. The Saṅgīti-sutta of the Dīgha-nikāya (D III: 217) also points
out the Buddha’s ethical perfection in his bodily, verbal and mental actions stating that the
Buddha is pure in conduct of bodily, verbal and mental actions. The sutta further states that,
for this, the Buddha does not need to protect against misdeed.
See also T. Endo (2002): 220.
113
D III: 106-107.
114
“Even though the Buddha had followed the path to its end, he still applied its standard to the
problem of how to speak to others so that they would follow the path to awakening.”
Ṭhānissaro Bhikkhu (2010): 27.
115
Cf. Ṭhānissaro Bhikkhu (2010): 27.
116
Aparam pana bhante etad ānuttariyaṃ, yathā bhagavā dhammaṃ deseti bhassa-samācāre. D
III: 106.
It should be pointed out here that the Buddha is said to have been initially reluctant to teach the
Dhamma as it was too deep for the ordinary people. However, after a request by Brahma
Sahampati (see S I: 136-137), the Buddha decided to teach the Dhamma. Since then, the
Buddha taught people of various professions and backgrounds, and used various methods and
skills to impart the Dhamma. Probably, bhassa-samācārā of the Buddha is one of such skills of
the teacher.

32
future, and based on which Sāriputta has established deep faith in the Buddha, the

eminent disciple further explains the Buddha’s excellence in teachings with

regard to proper conduct in speech (bhassa-samācāra) in four components:

1. Abstention from false speech (musāvādā)

2. Abstention from divisive speech (vebhūtiya)

3. Abstention from slanderous speech (pesuṇiya)

4. Abstention from speech giving priority to victory (sārambhajā

jayāpekkha).117

In the nikāya classifications, the term ‘bhassa-samācāra’ occurs only in the

118
Sampasādanīya-sutta and its commentaries. However, bhassa (speech,

conversation, talk) suffixed with various other nouns and suffixes is found in

various places in the Pāli canon,119 but in different contexts. A careful reading of

the term and its usage in the Sampasādanīya-sutta point out that this term is solely

used to describe the Buddha. Moreover, even within the Pāli commentarial

literature, the term is scarce and is found only in the commentary and sub-

commentary of the Sampasādanīya-sutta. This could be a major reason why no

studies on this aspect of the Buddha’s qualities or skills have not been carried out

until at present. Several works on verbal moral conduct in Buddhism have been

produced. However, scholars have continued to focus mainly on sammā-vācā

skipping the Buddha’s skills in teaching the subject. In this chapter, an attempt is

made to examine how the Pāli sutta-s and their corresponding commentaries have

interpreted the Buddha’s skills in teaching proper conduct in speech within the

117
Literally, speech which seeks victory motivated by anger.
118
This suggests that this quality of the Buddha may not have been discussed in other places of the
Pāli canon.
119
For examples, bhassa-kārikā (Vin IV: 230) and bhassa-kārako (Vin I: 328) in the Vinaya;
bhassa-rāmā and bhassa-ratā in the Dīgha-nikāya (D II: 78); bhassa-ppavādiko in the
Majjhima-nikāya (M I: 227); etc.

33
four components of bhassa-samācāra mentioned in the Sampasādanīya-sutta and

its commentaries.

2.2. Bhassa-samācārā and Sammā-vācā

Some similarities in terminologies of the components of bhassa-samācārā and

sammā-vācā may mislead readers to consider them as one and the same.

Therefore, at the outset of this study, it is important to point out that the four

components of both bhassa-samācārā and sammā-vācā are distinct from each

other, and explore their differences. Sammā-vācā is the third limb of the noble

eightfold path. It is also an integral factor of Buddhist morality emphasizing

verbal moral conduct. In the Mahācattārīsaka-sutta, the Buddha explains that

when one clearly knows wrong speech as wrong speech and right speech as right

speech he is of right view,120 which is also a preliminary factor of the Buddhist

path to liberation. Moreover, the four components of sammā-vācā are also listed

among the ten wholesome actions, while the opposites are listed among the ten

unwholesome actions.121

Terminologically, there is neither a complete similarity nor a complete difference

between the components of bhassa-samācārā and sammā-vācā. In fact, the

principles laid down in both restrain immoral verbal actions, and promote good

conduct in speech, ultimately leading to spiritual advancement through the

purification of speech. In other words, bhassa-samācārā and sammā-vācā aim at

120
Micchāvācaṃ: micchāvācā ti pajānāti; sammāvācaṃ: sammāvācā ti pajānāti; sā ‘ssa hoti
sammādiṭṭhi. M III: 73. See also Bhikkhu Bodhi (2010): 46ff; Peter Harvey (2000): 38.
121
See M I: 47.

34
one goal; the state of purification of verbal actions. Both bhassa-samācārā and

sammā-vācā are each divided into four components:

Bhassa-samācārā Sammā-vācā

1. Abstaining from false speech (musāvādā) Abstaining from false speech (musāvādā)

2. Abstaining from divisive speech Abstaining from slanderous speech

(vebhūtiya) (pisuṇā-vācā)

3. Abstaining from slanderous speech Abstaining from harsh speech

(pesuṇiya) (pharusā-vācā)

4. Abstaining from argumentative speech Abstaining from idle chatter

(sārambhajā jayāpekkha) (samphappalāpa)

Piya Tan points out that the four components of bhassa-samācārā are the fourfold

right speech (sammā-vācā) and directs the reader to the Sāmaññaphala-sutta,122

where the four are mentioned. However, the above table clearly indicates that the

second and the fourth components (vebhūtiya and sārambhajā jayāpekkha) of

bhassa-samācārā are not found among the four components of sammā-vācā.

Furthermore, the Sāmaññaphala-sutta too includes only the components of

sammā-vācā (i.e., abstention from musāvāda, pisuṇā-vācā, pharusā-vācā and

samphappalāpa),123 which, according to the above table, means the sutta does not

mention the second and the fourth components of bhassa-samācārā. 124 The

122
Piya Tan (2005): 119 n72.
123
D I: 63-64. See also Bhikkhu Bodhi (2008): 30.
124
ibid.

35
Vibhaṅga-sutta,125 where the Buddha explains the noble eightfold path, is another

clear example to show that bhassa-samācārā does not equate to sammā-vācā.

The above table points out that the first component of both bhassa-samācārā and

sammā-vācā are similar in terms of terminology and meaning. In the

sampasādanīya-sutta, Sāriputta does not explain the term ‘musāvādā’ in detail.

However, according to the commentary to the discourse, abstention from

musāvādā is the abandonment of the eight ignoble expressions and adopting

speech associated with the eight noble expressions.126

(1) Saying that one has not seen what one has not seen; (2) saying that

one has not heard what one has not heard; (3) saying that one has not

sensed what one has not sensed; (4) saying that one has not cognized

what one has not cognized; (5) saying that one has seen what one has

actually seen; (6) saying that one has heard what one has actually

heard; (7) saying that one has sensed what one has actually sensed; (8)

saying that one has cognized what one has actually cognized. These

are the eight noble declarations.127

125
Katamā ca bhikkhave sammāvācā? Yā kho bhikkhave musāvādāveramaṇī pisunāya vācāya
veramaṇī pharusāya vācāya veramaṇī samphappalāpā veramaṇī. Ayaṃ vuccati bhikkhave
sammāvācā. S V: 9.
126
See DA III: 891.
127
Translation by Bhikkhu Bodhi (2012): 1211.
Adiṭṭhe adiṭṭhavāditā, asute asutavāditā, amute amutavāditā, aviññāte aviññātavāditā, diṭṭhe
diṭṭhavāditā, sute sutavāditā, mute mutavāditā, viññāte viññātavāditā. Ime kho bhikkhave aṭṭha
ariyavohārā ti. A IV: 307. Cf. DA I: 72-72; Bhikkhu Bodhi (2007): 118.
Kalupahana, in his Ethics in Early Buddhism, renders musāvāda as confusing speech.
Although confusion is one of the meanings of musā, it is clearly stated in the canon as well as
in the commentarial literature that musāvāda is speech which is not true, speech that is false.
However, confusing speech could either be true or false while musāvāda means false speech
only and it does not carry any truth. Therefore, in Buddhist context, Kalupahana’s rendering is
not agreeable. See David J. Kalupahana (1995): 73.
For a brief explanation on the term musāvāda, see Richard F. Nance (2010/2011): 77-79.

36
In the Aṅguttara-nikāya, the Buddha provides a similar explanation of false

speech (musāvādā) stating that one should speak what one knows and not speak

what one does not know. 128 Thus, according to these evidences, the first

components of bhassa-samācārā and sammā-vācā are same. Both emphasize the

giving up of speech which is not true and encourage speech which is true and

factual.

Some scholars have linked pisuṇā-vācā (Sanskrit: paiśunya = slander or malicious

speech) 129 of sammā-vācā to vebhūtiya 130 of bhassa-samācārā. For example,

Thanissaro Bhikkhu translates pisuṇā-vācā as divisive speech, 131 while F.L.

Woodward renders as ‘slanderous speech’.132 Y. Karunadasa also renders pisuṇā-

vācā as ‘slanderous speech’.133 He further explains that slanderous speech intends

to “make enmity and division among people.” These translations show that both

divisive speech and slanderous speech are synonymous. Which also means that

128
See A V: 267, 285, 295; Bhikkhu Bodhi (2012): 1521, 1530, 1538.
The commentary to the Brahmajāla-sutta also provides a similar, but detailed explanation of
musāvādā. Accordingly, the commentary states: ““false” is a situation that is not fact, untrue
… “false speech” denotes the volition occasioning such an act of intimation in one who wishes
to make another believe that an untrue situation is true.” See Bhikkhu Bodhi (2007): 118.
129
“Slander is speech intended to cause dissension and divisiveness between two parties. It has the
effect of creating dissension between friends or greater dissension between enemies. It may be
motivated by greed, hatred, or ignorance.” See Robert E. Buswell Jr. and Donald S. Lopez Jr.’s
(2014: 611) The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism.
130
Vebhūtiya is from vibhūti meaning causing disaster or ruin. See T.W. Rhys Davids and William
Stede’s (1997: 649) Pāli English Dictionary.
131
Bhikkhu Thanissaro translates ‘pisuṇavācaṃ pahāya pisuṇāya vācāya paṭivirato hoti . . .’ as
‘abandoning divisive speech, he abstains from divisive speech’ (A V: 267). See “Cunda
Kammaraputta Sutta: To Cunda, the Silversmith” in Access to Insight. See also “Magga-
vibhaṅga Sutta: An Analysis of the Path” in Access to Insight; “Mahā-cattārīsaka Sutta: The
Great Forty” in Access to Insight. See also Rupert Gethin (1998): 81.
132
‘Abandoning slanderous speech, he abstains therefrom’. See F.L. Woodward (1961): 179.
However, in his translation of the passage concerning ‘the fourfold cleansing of speech’ (A V:
267), F.L. Woodward has missed to translate the explanation of musāvādā.
Nyanatiloka (1981: 50) translates as ‘tale-bearing’.
133
Y. Karunadasa (2017): 97. K.L. Dhammajoti (2018: 308) renders pisuṇa as ‘back-biting,
malicious’, both of which have the possibility of leading to division.

37
vebhūtiya (divisive speech) of bhassa-samācārā equates to pisuṇā-vācā

(slanderous speech) of sammā-vācā. In the Cunda-sutta, the Buddha explains

Cunda, the blacksmith, how one causes division leading to disunity and then the

Buddha explains in reverse, which leads to harmony and unity.134

He avoids slanderous speech and abstains from it. What he has heard

here he does not repeat there, so as to cause dissension there; and what

he has heard there he does not repeat here, so as to cause dissension

here. Thus he unites those that are divided; and those that are united

he encourages. Concord gladdens him, he delights and rejoices in

concord; and it is concord that he spreads by his words.135

These evidences of canonical explanation and translations clearly point out that

vebhūtiya equates to pisuṇā-vācā.

Moreover, if vebhūtiya of bhassa-samācārā and pisuṇā-vācā of sammā-vācā are

synonymous, then what is pesuṇiya of bhassa-samācārā? Note that scholars have

rendered both pisuṇā-vācā and pesuṇiya as slanderous speech. On the other hand,

pesuṇa is from pisuṇā.136 And, pesuṇa is also defined similar to pisuṇā.137 This

leads us to assume that the three terms, namely pisuṇā, pesuṇiya and vebhūtiya,

provides the same meaning or at least it is understandable from the explanations

provided in the canon. That is, the three prohibit an individual from speaking

words, which lead to disputation and disunity. Does this mean that pisuṇā,

pesuṇiya and vebhūtiya are one and the same? The Saṃyutta-nikāya probably has

the answer to this question. The Sacca-saṃyutta mentions a pesuṇa[-sutta] as one

134
See A V: 265 & 267.
135
See Bhikkhu Bodhi (2010): 50. Cf. Bhikkhu Bodhi (2012): 1521.
136
See T.W. Rhys Davids and William Stede’s (1997: 473) Pāli English Dictionary.
137
See e.g., Bhikkhu Bodhi (2017): 1126.

38
of the ten wholesome actions together with the other components of sammā-

vācā.138 However, although the sutta is entitled ‘pesuṇaṃ’, the term pisuṇā has

been used in the text.139 This is a clear evidence that both pisuṇā and pesuṇiya

have been used interchangeably and also have the same meaning. Moreover, the

commentary to the Sampasādanīya-sutta also explains that divisive speech, being

devoid of amiability, is called slanderous speech: vebhūtiya-vācā hi piya-

bhāvassa suñña-karaṇato pesuṇiyan ti vuccati.140 This commentarial statement in

fact makes it clearer that both vebhūtiya and pesuṇiya are same and both equate to

pisuṇā-vācā of sammā-vācā.

Harsh speech or pharusā-vācā, the third component of sammā-vācā, however, has

no similarity among the component of bhassa-samācārā. In the commentary to

the Sammādiṭṭhi-sutta, Sāriputta explains that speech which is harsh for oneself

and others, which is neither pleasant to the ear nor to the heart, is harsh speech.141

According to Bhikkhu Bodhi, harsh speech is intending to cause pain to the hearer

with anger. 142 He further explains that speech such as abusive speech, insulting

speech and sarcastic speech could be forms of harsh speech.143 In the Vipāka-

sutta,144 the Buddha states that when pharusā-vācā is pursued, developed and

cultivated, it leads to hell, animal realm and the realm of ghosts. In another

instance, it is stated that one who has abandoned harsh speech speaks words

138
In this section of Sacca-saṃyutta, each factor has been classified as a separate discourse.
139
Evaṃ eva kho bhikkhave appakā te sattā ye pisuṇāya vācāya paṭiviratā. Atha kho ete va
bahutarā sattā ye pisuṇāya vācāya appaṭiviratā. S V: 469.
140
DA III: 892.
141
Yāya pana attānam pi param pi pharusam karoti, yā vācā sayam pi pharusā n’ eva
kaṇṇasukhā, na hadayasukhā, ayaṃ pharusā vācā. MA I: 200.
142
See Bhikkhu Bodhi (2010): 51.
143
ibid.
144
Pharusā bhikkhave vācā āsevitā bhāvita bahulikatā nirayasaṃvattanikā
tiracchānayonisaṃvattanikā pittivisayasaṃvattanikā. A IV: 248.

39
which are gentle, pleasing to hear, loveable, proceed to the heart, courteous,

desired by many and agreeable to many.145

The fourth components of both bhassa-samācārā and sammā-vācā are completely

different. The fourth component of sammā-vācā prohibits one to abstain from idle

chatter (samphappalāpa).

Idle chatter is pointless talk, speech that lacks purpose or depth, such

speech communicates nothing of value, but only stirs up the

defilements in one’s own mind and in others.146

In other words, samphappalāpa is gossip, useless talks which brings no good, but

is a waste of time and energy. According to the commentary to the Sammādiṭṭhi-

sutta, by which one gossips idly and which has no meaning is idle chatter.147 The

Buddha emphasizes that, having abandoned idle chatter, one should speak in

season, what is factual, in accordance with the goal, the Dhamma and Vinaya.

Furthermore, one’s words should be treasurable, seasonable, etc. 148 In the same

place, it is explained that with the four components of sammā vācā one is purified

verbally.

In contrary to samphappalāpa of sammā vācā, the fourth component of bhassa-

samācārā focuses on a completely different aspect of moral speech. Accordingly,

sārambhajā jayāpekkha emphasizes that one should not speak words born of

145
Pharusaṃ vācaṃ pahāya pharusāya vācāya paṭivirato hoti, yā sā vācā nelā kaṇṇaksukhā
pemanīyā, hadayaṅgamā porī bahujanakantā bahujanamanāpā tathārūpiṃ vācaṃ bhāsitā
hoti. M I: 288.
146
Bhikkhu Bodhi (2010): 52.
147
Yena samphaṃ palapati iratthakaṃ, so samphappalāpo. MA I: 200.
148
Samphapalāpaṃ pahāya samphappalāpā paṭivirato hoti kālavādī bhūtavādī atthavādī
dhammavādī vinayavādī nidhānavādī vācaṃ bhāsitā hoti kālena sāpadesaṃ pariyantavatiṃ
atthsaṃhitaṃ. A V: 267.

40
anger seeking victory. In the Subhāsitajaya-sutta, it is emphasized that one should

speak words not associated with violence; such words lead to victory. 149 In

another discourse, it is stated that one who returns anger for anger is at fault, but

one who does not return anger for anger one wins double.150 The Dhammapada

verse no. 224 explains that when one speaks the truth, when one does not grow

angry and when one gives to the needy, that person is reborn in the deva-world. In

other words, the fourth component of bhassa-samācārā emphasizes verbal victory

through loving and kind words, and discourages seeking victory by improper

speech. The Sampasādanīya-sutta explains that words should be spoken wisely,

treasureably and on time.151

These canonical explanations and the renderings by various contemporary

scholars suggest that bhassa-samācārā is neither completely similar to sammā-

vācā nor completely different. However, as stated earlier, both deal with verbal

moral conduct. Accordingly, sammā-vācā is a factor of the path prescribed by the

Buddha to his disciples for the verbal restraints. Bhassa-samācārā, on the other

hand, is a quality, or skill, of the Buddha. Moreover, the first may also be termed

as a striving factor while the latter is rather an endowed skill of the Buddha in

imparting knowledge with regard to the former, and which will be discussed in

the proceeding section.

149
See S I: 222-223.
150
See S I: 222.
151
… mantā mantā vācaṃ bhāsati nidhānavatiṃ kālena. D III: 106.

41
2.3. The Buddha’s Excellence in Discoursing with regard to

Proper Conduct in Speech

As it has been already pointed out earlier, the term ‘bhassa-samācārā’ occurs

only in the Sampasādanīya-sutta in the whole Pāli canon. The Pāli commentaries,

unfortunately, are also not of very much help in examining the explanation of the

term, as they do not provide detailed analysis on the subject. Bhassa-samācārā is

a combination of bhassa and samācāra. Bhassa (Sanskrit: bhāṣya from √bhāṣ

‘speak’) has been translated into English with various renderings: talk, useless

talk/talking, speech, conversation, disputation, way of talking, etc. 152 And,

samācāra is a combination of the prefix sam (saṃ), which means

complete/perfect, and ācāra meaning conduct/practice. Thus, literally bhassa-

samācāra means ‘proper conduct in speech’. The translators of the five English

translations of the Sampasādanīya-sutta, rendered bhassa-samācāra as follows:

T.W. and C.A.F. Rhys Davids:153 conduct in speech.

Burma Piṭaka Association:154 right conduct in speech.

Maurice Walshe:155 proper conduct in speech.

Piya Tan:156 a person’s proper moral conduct.

Bhikkhu Sujato:157 behavior in speech.

Among the above five, one may notice that the renderings by the Burma Piṭaka

Association and Maurice Walshe are literal, and more importantly, accurate. Here,

152
E.g., see PED; A.P. Buddhadatta Mahathera’s Concise Pali–English Dictionary; Monier
Williams’ Sanskrit–English Dictionary.
153
DLB III: 102.
154
Burma Piṭaka Association (1999): 382.
155
LDB: 421.
156
DISF: 119.
157
Bhikkhu Sujato: https://suttacentral.net/dn28/en/sujato

42
‘sam’ plays an important role to denote ‘right’ or ‘proper’; in other words, the

ethical aspect of the term (and also the conduct). However, the rendering by T.W.

and C.A.F. Rhys Davids omits the translation of ‘sam’, so does Bhikkhu Sujato’s.

On the other hand, Piya Tan’s translation rather focuses on an ‘ordinary person’s

proper conduct in speech. However, in the Sampasādanīya-sutta, it is clearly

stated that Sāriputta is expounding the sixteen excellences, including bhassa-

samācāra, of the Buddha, not any other individual. Therefore, among the above

five translations, the renderings by the Burma Piṭaka Association and Maurice

Walshe––‘right conduct in speech’ and ‘proper conduct in speech’ respectively––

are the most accurate and appropriate.

The abstention from musāvādā, the first of the four components, relates to verbal

discipline of an individual. A person’s words can be destructive for oneself and

others if not spoken properly. There is no doubt that it is for this significance that

this has been included as one of the five precepts, the eight precepts and the ten

precepts, which are the foundation of Buddhist morality. The Dhammapada

commentary explains musāvādā as speaking false for the destruction of other’s

welfare,158 while the commentary on Sampasādanīya-sutta states that musāvādā is

speech associated with the eight ignoble expressions (aṭṭha anariya-vohārā).159

The commentary further explains that abandoning these eight ignoble expressions

one should cultivate the positive aspects of the eight.160

158
Musāvāda nti paresaṃ atthabhañjanakaṃ musāvādañca bhāsati. DhpA III: 356.
159
DA III: 891.
160
For the two lists of the eight ignoble and the noble expressions, see n101 or A IV: 307.

43
The second and the third components of bhassa-samācārā again lead us to the

question whether the two are one and the smae? In fact, the interpretation

provided in the commentary to the Sampasādanīya-sutta too clearly points that

these two components are indeed one and the same, or at least relating to one

thing, divisive speech. Accordingly, Buddhaghosa, in his interpretation of na ca

vebhūtiyaṃ, states: ‘abiding in the modes of proper conduct, one does not speak

words making division’. Furthermore, in the sub-commentary, vebhūtiya is

explained as making apart and causing disaster.161 With regard to pesuṇiya, the

Sampasādanīyasuttavaṇṇanā explains that divisive words are devoid of

amiability, and that is called slandering. 162 Moreover, Dhammapala, in his

commentary to the Vimānavatthu, equates vebhūtiya to pisuṇa. 163 These

commentarial explanations lead one to assume again that vebhūtiya and pesuṇiya

are one, meaning slandering or divisive speech.164

The last components of bhassa-samācārā emphasizes that one should not speak

out of anger seeking victory (sārambhajā jāyapekkha). In explaining sārambhajā,

Buddhaghosa states that whatever speech is involved with anger, an individual

165
should abstain from such speech, while the sub-commentary to the

Sampasādanīya-sutta explains that such anger or danger arises from one’s

characteristics of superiority.166 Buddhaghosa’s further explanation indicates that

although one may be devoted to desiring victory, one should not seek victory

161
See DṬ III: 95.
162
See DA III: 892.
163
See VvA: 347.
164
Vibhūti vuccati visuṃ-bhāvo, tattha niyuttan ti vebhūtikaṃ, tad eva vebhūtiyaṃ, pesuññaṃ. DṬ
III: 95.
165
Sārambhajā ca yā vācā, tañ ca na bhāsati. DA III: 892.
166
See DṬ: III: 95.

44
through verbal violence. The commentator then emphasizes that one should give

up such violence, which has been also stated in the Sampasādanīya-sutta.

A note should be mentioned here regarding the fourth component of bhassa-

samācārā. The above investigation shows that it is not similar to the fourth

components of sammā vācā, as the terms and their explanation differ. However,

the Sampasādanīyasuttavaṇṇanā mentions idle chatter in its conclusion of its

interpretation of bhassa-samācārā. Accordingly, the commentary states that

words spoken wisely, words worthy of treasuring and spoken at proper time, such

as non-false, not slanderous, not harsh, honest and not idle chatter.167 Hence, there

arises another question: is bhassa-samācārā, according to Buddhaghosa, sammā

vācā? Unfortunately, the sub-commentary, with regard to this, does not provide

any interpretation. However, Buddhaghosa’s statement does not directly imply

that the answer is ‘yes’.168

According to Sāriputta, when one speaks, one should do it wisely by examining

whether the words are in accordance with the proper mode of conduct in speech.

His/her words should be worthy of treasuring and he/she should speak proper

words at proper time. The commentary to the Sampasādanīya-sutta states that

such words should be borne in mind. It is further stated that words spoken

accordingly are based on the four truths, the three trainings,169 the thirteen kinds

167
Evaṃ bhāsitā hi vācā amusā c’ eva hoti apisuṇā ca apharusā ca asaṭhā ca asamphappalāpā
ca. DA III: 892.
168
An elaborate study will be carried out on this in future.
169
Adhi-sīla, adhi-citta and adhi-paññā (training in higher morality, higher though and higher
wisdom).

45
of purification,170 the ten subjects of discussion, 171 the thirty-seven factors of
172
enlightenment and the path (magga). Moreover, the

Sampasādanīyasuttavaṇṇanā states that it is for this reason bhassa-samācārā is

stated to be one of the sixteen unsurpassable-s of the Buddha.173

In the Sampasādanīya-sutta, Sāriputta states: aparam pana bhante etad

174
ānuttariyaṃ, yathā bhagavā dhammaṃ deseti bhassa-samācāre. This

statement, similarly appearing with the other fifteen ānuttariya-s in the discourse,

needs careful examination before proceeding further of this study. The first clause

of the sentence––aparam pana bhante etad ānuttariyaṃ––literally means:

moreover, Venerable Sir, this is unsurpassable. And, the remaining part of the

sentence could literally be rendered as: just as the Blessed One teaches the

Dhamma with regard to proper conduct in speech. In the latter part of the

sentence, yathā could also be rendered as ‘how’.175 Therefore, the sentence could

also be translated as: moreover, Venerable Sir, this is unsurpassable, how the

Blessed One teaches the Dhamma with regard to the proper conduct in speech.

Hence, the meaning of the sentence denotes that Sāriputta is pointing at the way

the Buddha teaches with regard to proper conduct in speech. In other words, the

Buddha’s skill in teaching concerning proper conduct in speech. This also points

out that the adverb yathā plays an important role in denoting the meaning of the

whole sentence.

170
For the thirteen, See Nyanatiloka’s Buddhist Dictionary: A Manual of Buddhist Terms.
171
For the ten, see A V: 129.
172
For a comprehensive study of the thirty-seven factors of enlightenment, see Rupert Gethin’s
The Buddhist Path to Awakening (2003).
173
See DA III: 892.
174
D III: 106.
175
Or, ‘in whatever way’. See PED.

46
It is a well-known fact that the Buddha is embodied with ethical perfection, and,

like his knowledge, his loving-kindness and compassion towards sentient beings

are limitless. In fact, from what the early Buddhist discourses depict, one is able

to observe that the Buddha’s actions are embodied with such qualities. These

qualities are also significant to draw the attention of the fellow human beings

towards his teachings. 176 The Buddha’s skill in discoursing the four components

of bhassa-samācārā does not only point out his moral verbal conduct, but also his

excellence in expounding them.177

2.4. Concluding Remarks

Speech is an integral part of human life and the Buddha has emphasized proper

verbal conduct to gain both social and spiritual development. Likewise, bhassa-

samācārā is such a part of the Buddha’s teachings on morality in speech.

Furthermore, like sammā vācā, which also contains four components, it

encourages one to abandon negative speech, and to cultivate proper speech. This

is clearly shown in both the canonical and commentarial explanations of bhassa-

samācārā and sammā vācā. Moreover, as Buddhaghosa states, proper words

spoken wisely and at proper time are said to be based on the higher spiritual

goals. 178 This means that bhassa-samācārā also is another crucial aspect of

Buddhist morality, like sammā vācā.

176
See also the Cankī-sutta mentioned earlier in this chapter.
177
Cf. Ṭhānissaro Bhikkhu (2010): 28.
178
See DA III: 892.

47
Another significant factor of bhassa-samācārā is that this term has been used only

in the description of the sixteen unsurpassable-s of the Buddha by Sāriputta, and

the term is found only in the Sampasādanīya-sutta and its commentaries. Hence,

one may ask whether this is only related to the Buddha, to which neither the Pāli

canon nor the commentaries provide an answer. However, from the context of the

Sampasādanīya-sutta, and as the term has not been used with regard to any of the

Buddha’s disciples or followers in any other place within the canon, it could be

assumed that this is a quality attributed to the Buddha only. Moreover, it is also

clear that sammā vācā is a factor of the path prescribed by the Buddha to his

followers; hence, it’s prescriptive. Bhassa-samācārā, on the other hand, is

descriptive. In other words, as presented by Sāriputta in the Sampasādanīya-sutta,

bhassa-samācāra is a description of the Buddha’s discoursing of proper conduct

in speech.

48
 Chapter Three

Sassatavāda versus Ucchedavāda

3.1. Introduction

The teachings and practices of Sassatavāda and Ucchedavāda could be best

understood with the examples of particular religious groups prevalent during the

time of the Buddha. The Indian religions, before being classified into Sassatavāda

and Ucchedavāda, were mainly divided into two major traditions: the samaṇa

tradition and the Vedic tradition.179 Among the two, the latter was the oldest, and

the former was introduced in opposition to the latter’s religious and social

systems, which it thought were detrimental to the social and spiritual

development. Precisely, the differences between the two traditions could be

summarized as follows:180

Vedic tradition Samaṇa tradition

• Accepts a creator God and the • Rejects both.
creation theory.
• Divides the human society into • Rejects the four castes and
four castes. emphasizes equality.
• Social and spiritual life in the • Rejects all forms of sacrifice and
Vedic tradition is heavily recommends spiritual progress.
dependent upon [animal] sacrifices.
• Accepts the Veda as the highest • Perception is considered as the
truth. highest truth.
• Final goal is the union of the ātman • A diversity of ideas, practices and
with Mahābrahman. goals is presented.
• Recommends household religious • Prescribes renunciation.
life.

179
For details, see S.K. Nanayakkara (1971): 321-329; Suvimalee Karunaratna (2006): 658-661.
180
See also Padmanabh S. Jaini (2001): 47-96.

49
The Buddha’s further classification of the religions of these two traditions into

Sassatavāda and Ucchedavāda is mainly based on their spiritual praxis and its

impact in ending human sufferings. Hence, it should be noted that both

Sassatavādins and Ucchedavādins were prevalent in the two traditions mentioned

above.

The Dhammacakkapavattana-sutta181 and other canonical evidences point out that

the Buddha strongly advised his followers to avoid the two extreme practices––

the pursuit of the enjoyment of sensual pleasures and the pursuit of self-

mortification––for they do not lead to any good both in religious and social

advancement. Accordingly, the Buddha mentions that seeking enjoyment in

sensual pleasures is inferior, vulgar, worldly, ignoble and unbeneficial, while the

practice of self-mortification is painful, ignoble and unbeneficial too.182 However,

the middle path, which he introduces, leads to the achievement of higher social

and spiritual goals.

Monks, having overcome these two extremes, the middle path has

been realized by the Tathāgata, which leads to vision-making,

knowledge-making, calmness, higher knowledge, perfect

enlightenment and nibbāna.183

181
See S V: 421.
182
Yo cāyaṃ kāmesu kāma-sukhallikānuyogo hīno gammo puthujjaīko anariyo anatthasaṃhito. Yo
cāyam attakilamathānuyogo dukkho anariyo anatthasaṃhito. ibid.
183
ete te bhikkhave ubho ante anupagamma majjhimā paṭipadā tathāgatena abhisambuddhā
cakkhukaraṇī ñāṇakaraṇī upasamāya abhiññāya sambodhāya nibbānāya samvattati. S V: 421.

50
This path is none other than the Noble Eightfold Path consisting of the eight

limbs: proper view, proper thought, proper speech, proper action, proper

livelihood, proper effort, proper mindfulness and proper equipoise.184

Although the Buddha has been admonishing his followers to reject the doctrines

of both Sassatavāda and Ucchedavāda since he began teaching the Dhamma,

Sāriputta, one of his two chief disciples, praises the master for his excellence with

regard to the teaching of Sassatavāda. In the Sampasādanīya-sutta, the disciple

states that the Buddha is supreme among the samaṇa-s and brāhmaṇa-s who teach

with regard to the eternalist doctrines:185 aparaṃ pana bhante etad ānuttariyaṃ

yathā bhagavā dhammaṃ deseti sassatavādesu. 186 However, the elder, when

explaining in detail, mentions only three eternalist doctrines,187 which are in fact

the first three of the four eternalist views188 mentioned in the Brahmajāla-sutta.189

He, however, does not make any note on the Buddha’s teachings with regard to

ucchedavāda. The statement made by the Buddha with regard to the two extremes

in the Dhammacakkapavattana-sutta and Sāriputta’s mentioning of only ‘with

regard to Sassatavāda’ point out that the Buddha viewed the two groups

differently. And, Sāriputta particularly mentions the Buddha’s expertise

discoursing with regard to Sassatavāda to be one of the sixteen ānuttariya-s. This

chapter aims to examine this position of the Buddha as presented in the Pāli canon

and it commentaries. In carrying out this, special attention is also given to the

184
ayameva ariyo aṭṭhaṅgiko maggo seyyathīdaṃ: sammādiṭṭhi sammāsaṅkappo sammāvācā
sammākammanto sammāājīvo sammāvāyāmo sammāsati sammāsamādhi. ibid.
For a detailed analysis of the Noble Eightfold Path, see Bhikkhu Bodhi’s (2010) The Noble
Eightfold Path; Rupert Gethin (2003): 190-228; Y. Karunadasa (2017) 95-103.
185
Or, the Buddha’s teaching with regard to the eternalist doctrines is unsurpassable (ānuttariya).
186
D III: 108. See also D I: 13-16. For translation, see Bhikkhu Bodhi (2007): 63-65.
187
Tayo ‘me bhante sassata-vādā.... D III: 108-110.
188
For the fourth eternalist view/doctrine, see D I: 16.
189
See D III: 108-110. Cf. Michitoshi Manda (1996): 961.

51
statement the Buddha made in his first discourse with regard to

kāmasukhallikānuyoga and attakilamathānuyoga.

3.2. Ucchedavāda190 and Sassatavāda in General

3.2.1. Ucchedavāda

The Ucchedavādins, or the followers of Ucchedavāda, are also known by other

popular names, such as the Cārvāka-s, the Lokāyatika-s, Nāstika-s and

Bārhaspatya-s. 191 The materialists, in fact, are generally referred to by these

terms. The term ‘Ucchedavāda’, commonly used by the Buddhist scholars, is also

very scarce in the Pāli canon. However, in the early Buddhist texts, the term

‘Cārvāka’ is not mentioned.192 ‘Lokāyata’ has been often used to refer to the

materialists in the Pāli sutta-s. 193 Although materialist teachings are said to be

found in the Vedic texts,194 there are no proper historical records on the origin and

the founders of Indian materialism. Scholars have continued to differ in their

opinions in this regard.195 Nevertheless, the origin of materialism is said to be also

in strict opposition to the Vedic thought.196

190
From here onwards, reference is made first to Ucchedavāda for convenience sake with regard
to the comparison of both groups.
191
See e.g., Eli Franco and Karin Preisendaz (1998): 179; Ramakrishna Bhattacharya (2013): 2;
S.K. Nanayakkara (1971): 682; Satishchandra Chatterjee and Dherendramohan Datta (1948):
64ff; M. Rangācārya (1909): 5; E.B. Cowell and A.E. Gough (1882): 2ff.
192
See also S.K. Nanayakkara (1971): 686.
193
See e.g., D I: 11, 69.
194
Cf. A.K. Sinha (1994): 235-241. K.N. Jayatilleke (2010: 69) states that, “materialist philosophy
emerged within the Brahmaṇical fold as part of its logical and metaphysical speculations.”
195
See Satishchandra Chatterjee and Dherendramohan Datta (1948): 63-64; S.K. Nanayakkara
(1971): 682ff.
196
See K.N. Jayatilleke (2010): 69ff.

52
The materialists reject the theory of kamma. According to them, there is no moral

consequence to one’s action, either evil or wholesome. There is no meaning of

virtue and vice. With this, they also reject the idea of afterlife. According to

Śaṅkarācārya, the materialists explain that there is none higher than this world:

There is no svarga (or celestial world of enjoyment) and no hell. The

world here and other such (worlds) are all invented by those who are

… ignorant imposters.197

It is further stated that the feeling of hell is the experience of pain caused by

enemies, weapons, diseases and other forms of suffering. 198 Moreover, the

cessation of air (breath) from the body is the final mokṣa. Therefore, for a wise

person, it is not proper to undertake any religious course, such as penance and

fasting.199 As life is short and there is no life after, one is encouraged to enjoy life

to the full.200

While life is yours, live joyously;

None can escape death’s searching eye;

When once this frame of ours they burn,

How shall it e’er again return?201

It is further stated: the only end of man is enjoyment produced by sensual

pleasures.202 With the rejection of the efficacy of kamma, the materialists criticize

the Vedic practices of rites and rituals. For example, the Vedic rites of spearing of

ashes, according to the materialists, is for those who have no sense of

197
See M. Rangācārya (1909): 5-6.
198
ibid.
199
ibid.
200
See E.B. Cowell and A.E. Gough (1882): 2.
201
Trans. by E.B. Cowell and A.E. Gough (1882): 2.
202
See ibid.

53
manliness. 203 The Vedic rites are said to be tainted with falsehood, self-

contradiction and tautology, and such practices are works of knaves, buffoons and

demons.204

According to materialism, an individual is made up of the four great elements:

earth element, water element, wind element and fire element.205 With the denial of

the afterlife and the analysis of a person with the four great elements, materialism

also explains that there is no creator God. As it is the material elements, which

creates the world, the idea of a creator God is unnecessary.206 Moreover, as one is

a product of the four great elements, one perishes into them at death.207 Hence,

materialism is also known as annihilationism. Therefore, talks on afterlife are

meaningless for the materialists.

While the acceptance of a soul theory was a common trend among the religious

groups, the materialists, however, have taken a rather different approach. Within

the materialist school, the theory is rejected completely by some, while others

accept it to some extent. 208 Accordingly, as Madhava Acharya records, the

materialists are of the view that “since fatness, and etc., reside only in the body, it

alone is the soul and no other.”209 This means, the body and the soul are one and

the same, which is also annihilated at the death of the individual.210 In the Pāli

203
See E.B. Cowell and A.E. Gough (1882): 5.
204
S.K. Nanayakkara (1971): 685.
205
See E.B. Cowell and A.E. Gough (1882): 2-3. Cf. Max Müller (1919): 99.
206
Satishchandra Chaterjee and Dherendramohan Datta (1948): 72.
207
Cf. D I: 55.
208
Cf. S.K. Nanayakkara (1971): 684-685.
209
See E.B. Cowell and A.E. Gough (1882): 5.
210
Cf. D II: 319.

54
sutta-s, this is popularly termed as taṃ jīvaṃ taṃ sarīraṃ (this life (soul), and that

itself is the body).211 In other words, the soul is identical with the body.

According to K.N. Jayatilleke, the means of knowledge in materialism can be

classified into three groups:

i. Those who upheld the validity of perception alone and denied inference

and other forms of knowledge.

ii. Those who upheld the validity and priority of perception, but admitted

inference in a limited sense, denying other forms of knowledge; and

iii. Those who denied all means of knowledge including perception. 212

Jayatilleke further states that the first group to be the most popular, which in fact

is the strictest form among the three. This extreme position of materialism has

also been pointed out by the 8th century Indian philosopher Saṅkarācārya in his

Sarva-siddhānta-saṅgraha:

Whatever is arrived at by means of direct perception, that alone

exists. That which is not perceivable is non-existent, for the (very)

reason that it is not perceived.213

Madhava Acharya also provides similar explanation that what is perceived by the

four great elements is only knowledge:

Springing forth from these elements,214 itself solid knowledge, it is

destroyed when they are destroyed.215

211
See e.g., M I: 484-485; S II: 61ff. Cf. P.D. Premasiri (2010): 161; Y. Karunadasa (2017): 15;
K.N. Jayatilleke (2008): 9 & 18.
212
See K.N. Jayatilleke (2010: 71-72).
213
M. Rangācārya (1909): 5. K.N. Jayatilleke (2010: 72) translates: only the perceived exists, the
unperceived does not exist by reason of its never having been perceived.
214
i.e., the four great elements.
215
E.B. Cowell and A.E. Gough (1882): 3.

55
This group of religions, which are also known as a philosophy of hedonism, stick

to the idea that only sense satisfaction is the goal.216 And, therefore, as matter is

the reality, knowledge derived from such experiences of matter can only be

considered valid knowledge.217 Madhava Acharya explains that as knowledge is

derived from the four elements it perishes at the destruction of the elements; i.e.,

knowledge is also annihilated at the dead of the person.218 Furthermore, their

rejection of afterlife, a creator God and a transmigrating soul,219 are all based on

perception only.

As Y. Karunadasa mentions, Ajita Kesakambala220 was the foremost among the

contemporary teachers during the time of the Buddha who advocated

materialism. 221 One is directly able to understand from king Ajātasattu’s

description of Ajita’s teaching, recorded in the Sāmaññaphala-sutta,222 that there

is no moral basis in the materialist teachings and its practices. 223 Ajita

Kesakambala directly rejects the practice of meritorious actions, such as giving,

saying that it is a doctrine of the fools.224 Accordingly, this materialist, who is also

216
John Grimes (1996): 102.
217
Cf. Dipankar Chatterjee (1977): 198.
218
See E.B. Cowell and A.E. Gough (1882: 2-3): after death no intelligence remains.
219
See S.K. Nanayakkara (1971): 684-685; E.B. Cowell and A.E. Gough (1882): 3.
220
Also known as Ajita Kesakambali or Ajita Kesakamabilin. See G.P. Malalasekere in Dictionary
of Pāli Proper Names; B.M. Barua (1921): 287ff. Cf. S.K. Nanayakkara (1971): 686.
According to the Sāmaññaphalasuttavaṇṇanā (DA I: 144), his name was Ajita. However,
‘Kesakambala’ was added, as he wore a hair-blanket, which itself is made of hairs. Addressing
a group of monks, the Buddha explained that blanket made of hair is the most repulsive among
all such articles (A I: 287). See Bhikkhu Bodhi (2008): 59.
For their short biographies and teachings, see also B.M. Barua (1921): 287-296.
221
Y. Karunadasa (2017): 15.
222
According to B.M. Barua (1921: 293), the Sāmaññaphala-sutta is the principal authority with
regard to the doctrine of Ajita Kesakambala.
223
See D I: 55-57.
224
D I: 55.

56
listed as one of the six heretical teachers in the Sāmaññaphala-sutta, even denies

the moral consequences of good and bad actions.

Great king, there is no giving, no offering, no liberality. There is

no fruit or result of good and bad actions. There is no present

world, no world beyond, no mother, no father, no beings who have

taken rebirth. In the world there are no recluses and brahmins of

right attainment and right practice who explain this world and the

world beyond on the basis of their own direct knowledge and

realization . . . The practice of giving is a doctrine of fools. Those

who declare that there is (an after life) speak only false, empty

prattle . . .225

According to B.M. Barua, Ajita Kesakambala’s core teachings can be summarized

in one statement: There is no individuality after death.226 The above short passage

also point out that Ajita Kesakambala’s materialist teaching not only went against

the Vedic religious practices but also against the samaṇic religious practices too.

Another popular exponent of materialism recorded in the Pāli canon is Pāyāsi, the

chieftain227 of Setavyā. In the Dīgha Nikāya, a complete sutta is named after him:

225
Translation by Bhikkhu Bodhi (2008): 22.
N’atthi mahā-rāja dinnaṃ n’atthi yiṭṭhaṃ n’atthi hutaṃ, n’atthi sukaṭa-dukkaṭānaṃ
kammānaṃ phalaṃ vipāko, n’atthi ayaṃ loko n’atthi paro loko, n’atthi mātā n’atthi pitā,
n’atthi sattā-opapātikā, n’atthi loke samaṇa-brāhmaṇā sammaggatā sammā-paṭipannā ye
imañ ca lokaṃ parañ ca lokaṃ sayaṃ abhiññā sacchikatvā pavedenti … Dattu-paññattaṃ yad
idaṃ dānaṃ, tesaṃ tucchaṃ musā vilāpo ye keci atthika-vādaṃ vadanti. D I: 55. Cf. Y.
Karunadasa (2017): 15; Paul Fuller (2005): 16-17; D II: 356-357.
226
B.M. Barua (1921): 293.
227
The Pāli word used to describe Pāyāsi’s title in the discourse (D II: 316) is ‘rājañño’, which is
rendered as ‘a man of warrior caste’ by A.P. Buddhadatta (see Concise Pali-English
Dictionary) and ‘royalty’ or ‘a high courtier’ or ‘a khattiya’ by T.W. Rhys Davids and William
Stede (see Pali English Dictionary). The commentary explains it as ‘uncrown prince’. See
‘rājaññehīti anabhisitta-kumārehi’ in DA I: 273. Here, the rendering by T.W. Rhys Davids and
C.A.F. Rhys Davids (1910: 316ff (Dialogues of the Buddha II)) as ‘chieftain’ has been used.

57
Pāyāsi-sutta.228 According to the discourse, Pāyāsi too held views similar to that

of Ajita Kesakambala, who was his predecessor. In his argumentative

conversation with the elder Kumara Kassapa, Pāyāsi uses various similes to

establish his views as correct. Accordingly, Pāyāsi states that there is no fruit or

result of any good or bad actions.229 With this, he also denies the existence of

another world. Furthermore, he proceeds to establish his views as correct stating

that he has urged his friends, who have committed various wrong deeds, to come

back after their dead. He has also requested his friends who have lived morally to

do the same after their death. However, neither of them came back after death nor

did they dispatch any messenger to inform Pāyāsi about the existence of another

world and their rebirth.230 Such incident leads Pāyāsi to conclude that there is no

other world and there are no consequences of good or evil deeds, which lead to

rebirth in various existences after death.

Pāyāsi continues to put forward various experimental examples to prove his

views. To prove that the soul (jīvaṃ) and the body are one and the same, he

explains the case a thief being put into a jar and closing its opening tightly until he

has died. Upon opening the jar, but there is no soul to be found [which

transmigrate to another existence].231 Such evidences, according to Pāyāsi, prove

that there is neither another world nor rebirth nor consequence of good or bad

actions. Moreover, such actions lead Pāyāsi also to establish the view that only the

228
The discourse is a conversation between the elder Kumara Kassapa and chieftain Pāyāsi, and
believed to have taken place after the Buddha’s mahāparinibbāna.
229
n’atthi sukaṭa-dukkaṭānaṃ kammānaṃ phalaṃ vipāko. D II: 316-317.
230
See D II: 319-321.
231
The discourse mentions further examples, which are vicious, by Pāyāsi in order to prove that
there is no soul [which transmigrate to another existence]. See D II: 334ff.

58
sensory world exists.232 The difference between Pāyāsi and Ajita Kesakambala is

that after a long argumentative conversation with the elder Kumara Kassapa the

former was convinced that his views were wrong and followed as instructed by

the elder. The discourse narrates that Pāyāsi even started to practice giving to

acquire merits. After his death, he is said to have reborn in the community of the

four great heavenly kings.233 However, Ajita Kesakambala, unlike Pāyāsi, was not

fortunate to be detached from his wrong views.

Among the six teachers, mentioned in the Sāmaññaphala-sutta, other than Ajita

Kesakambala, whose teachings included materialism are Pūraṇa Kassapa and

Pakudha Kaccāyana.234 The former’s teachings are even more vicious than that of

Ajita.

Great king, if one acts or induces others to act, mutilates or

induces others to mutilate, tortures or induces others to torture,

inflicts sorrow or induces others to inflict sorrow, oppresses or

induces others to oppress, intimates or induces others to intimate,

if one destroys life, takes what is not given, breaks into houses,

plunders wealth, commits burglary, ambushes highways, commits

adultery, speaks falsehood–one does no evil.235

232
Cf. K.N. Jayatilleke (2010): 72.
233
See D II: 357.
234
For their short biographies and teachings, see also B.M. Barua (1921): 277-286.
235
Translation by Bhikkhu Bodhi (2008: 19).
Karato (in CS, karoto) kho mahā-rāja kārayato chindato chedāpayato pacato pācayato
socayato socāpayato (in PTS edition, socāpayato is not mentioned as in CS) kilamayato
kilamāpayato (in PTS edition, kilamāpayato is not mentioned, as in CS) phandato
phandāpayato pāṇaṃ atimāpayato adinnaṃ ādiyato sandhiṃ chindato nillopaṃ harato
ekāgārikaṃ karoto paripanthe tiṭṭhato paradāraṃ gacchato musā bhaṇato, karoto na karīyati
pāpaṃ. D I: 52.

59
Pūraṇa Kassapa’s teachings, as Ajātasattu narrates, in fact encourage its followers

that there would not be any positive or negative consequences even if they

commit the heinous crimes, such as killing all living beings on earth.

If with a razor-edged disk one were to reduce all living beings on

this earth to a single heap and pile of flesh, by doing so there

would be no evil or outcome of evil. If one were to go along the

south back of Ganges killing and inducing others to kill,

mutilating and inducing others to mutilate, torturing and inducing

others to torture, by doing so there would be no evil or outcome of

evil.236

Furthermore, this teacher too, like Ajita, denies the efficacy of good actions.237 He

too explains that there is no merit or outcome of merit due to actions, such as

giving and self-control, restraint and true speech.238 Pūraṇa Kassapa’s teachings,

as cited above, show that he in fact was teaching the extremist form of

materialism.

Pakudha Kaccāyana, on the other hand, taught seven bodies,239 which are said to

be: unmade, un-fashioned, uncreated, without a creator, barren, stable as a

mountain peak, standing firm like a pillar. 240 Since Pakudha Kaccāyana’s

236
ibid. Khura-pariyantena ce pi cakkena yo imissā paṭhaviyā pāṇe eka-maṃsa-khalaṃ eka-
maṃsa-puñjaṃ kareyya, n’atthi tato-nidānaṃ pāpaṃ, n’atthi pāpassa āgamo. Dakkhiṇaṃ ce
pi Gaṅgā-tīraṃ āgaccheyya hananto ghātento chindanto chedāpento pācanto pācento (in CS,
pācāpento), n’atthi tato-nidānaṃ pāpaṃ, n-atthi pāpassa āgamo. D I: 52.
237
According to Pūraṇa Kassapa, as B.M. Barua (1921: 279) explains, when one acts or causes
others to do so, it is not the soul that acts or causes others to act. The soul, in Pūraṇa’s view is
passive. Therefore, whatever one does the soul is not affected by its consequence.
238
Uttarañ ce pi gaṅgā-tīraṃ gaccheyya dadanto dāpento yajanto yajāpento, n’atthi tato nidānaṃ
puññaṃ, n’atthi puññassa āgamo. Dānena damena saṃyamena sacca-vajjena n’atthi puññaṃ,
n’atthi puññassa āgamo ti. D I: 52-53.
239
The seven are earth, water, fire, air, pleasure, pain and the soul. See D I: 56.
240
Bhikkhu Bodhi (2008): 23.

60
teachings do not directly fall into the category of materialism, many may argue

likewise. However, the point to be noted here is that he denies ‘real action’ or

one’s kamma along with the doer.241 According to Ajātasattu’s narration of this

teacher’s teaching, when one literally kills or causes another to kill by cutting off

the victim’s head with a sword, there is neither a killer nor a victim. For Pakudha

Kaccāyana, this is just a “sword merely passes through the space between the

seven bodies.” 242 This shows that Pakudha Kaccāyana not only denies the

committing of action, but also the existence of a doer along with the moral

efficacy of his/her actions.

Thus, three significant factors can be noted from the above evaluation of the

materialist teachings. Firstly, the materialists are Akiriyavādins; they deny the

moral efficacy of both good and bad actions. Secondly, according to materialism,

the soul and the body are one and the same. Thirdly, with the denial of the moral

efficacy of good and bad actions, the materialists believe that an individual, made

up of the four great elements, is annihilated at dead and there is no afterlife.

Therefore, materialism encourages the maximum enjoyment of sensual pleasures

in life. Such practices, according to some scholars,243 are in direct opposition to

spiritual praxis.

241
“Among these (the seven) there is no killer nor one who causes killing; no hearer nor one who
causes hearing; no cognizer nor one who causes cognition.” Translation by Bhikkhu Bodhi
(2008): 23. For Pāli text, see D I: 56.
242
Translation by Bhikkhu Bodhi (2008): 23. Yo pi tiṇhena satthena sīsaṃ chindati na koci kiñci
jīvitā voropeti, sattannaṃ yeva kāyānam antarena sattha-vivaraṃ anupatatīti. D I: 56.
243
Cf. Satishchandra Chaterjee and Dherendramohan Datta (1948): 64.

61
3.2.2. Sassatavāda

The theories presented by the Sassatavādins are in direct contradiction to their

materialist opponents. The majority of the religious groups during the time of the

Buddha can be classified under this category.244 One of the significant features of

this category is that spirituality is highly emphasized for one to be liberated.245

Moreover, this group of religions also believe in the efficacy of action. The main

ideology of the Sassatavādins is the view of an eternal existence. And, for the

emphasis on such an eternal existence, the doctrine of atta/ātman (soul/Self) plays

a significant role. A general view of this religious group is that the soul in its true

nature is pure. However, through numerous births in the cycle of saṃsāra, it gets

impure by evil karma-s due to ignorance. Therefore, one’s final goal, the

attainment of emancipation, is the purification of the soul by proper karma-s

prescribed in each religion.246

Unlike the Ucchedavādins, who believe the soul and the body is one and the

same, this school of religious thought holds the view that the soul is different from

the body (aññaṃ jīvaṃ aññaṃ sarīraṃ).247 This also means the soul, which is said

to be the result of a search for the ultimate essence of a person,248 transmigrates

to another life when the body expires.249 According to Brahmanism, an excellent

example of Sassatavāda, the unification of the soul with the Brahman

244
Cf. Y. Karunadasa (2017): 14.
245
See Surendranath Dasgupta (1922): 25. Cf. S.K. Nanayakkara (1971): 322.
246
See Surendranath Dasgupta (1922): 75f.
247
M I: 484f; Mn I: 161f. See also Y. Karunadasa (2017): 14.
248
Cf. M. Hiriyanna (2005): 55.
249
See G.N. Joshi (1965): 15; Surendranath Dasgupta (1922): 20-21, 25, 53ff & 56; Paul Deussen
(1919): 313ff. Cf. Romila Thapar (1994): 305.

62
(Mahābrahman)250 is the final liberation.251 The Brahman is the “ultimate reality,

the final resort of all things in the world.”252 The followers, who do not perform

rites, such as sacrifices, with proper knowledge of the Veda, are said to be reborn

again to face death.253 Therefore, the ātman, for them, is imperishable.254 This

view of an eternal soul is also in contrast to the materialist view of the extinction

of the soul together with the death of the person. Thus, ātman––deriving from √an

(to breath)255––in the Vedic literature is the source of everything, such as the vital

breath, truth, life, existence, etc.:256

From the ātman all the members spring into existence. Of all things

that come into existence the ātman is the first.257

Moreover, the ātman is said to be omnipresent258 for it is present in all and every

phenomenon. According to Surendranath Dasgupta, 259 the realization of the

knowledge of this ‘omnipresent supreme principle of the universe’ leads one to

sinless-ness and purity.

According to G.N. Joshi, the discovery of ātman by the Vedic seers is the result of

the search for an invisible “power to everything in the world that affected them or

impressed them with certain power in some way.”260 Paul Deussen explains that

250
Cf. M. Hiriyanna (2005): 78.
251
Cf. S.K. Nanayakkara (1971): 325.
252
See G.N. Joshi (1965): 13.
253
See Surendranath Dasgupta (1922): 25. Cf. G.N. Joshi (1965): 21-23.
254
See Shōzen Kumoi (1966): 317.
255
See Monier Williams’ Sanskrit-English Dictionary.
256
Cf. G.N. Joshi (1965): 6f; H.G. Narahari (1944): 5. See also Surendranath Dasgupta (1922): 48.
257
See Maurice Bloomfield (1908): 272.
258
See Surendranath Dasgupta (1922): 26. Cf. G.N. Joshi (1965): 26.
259
ibid. Cf. G.N. Joshi (1965): 33 & 43.
260
G.N. Joshi (1965): 5f; 10.

63
the term ātman designates the ‘principle of the world’. 261 He describes the

uniqueness of ātman in the following way:

Thus, ātman means that which remains if we take away from our

person all that is non-self, foreign, all that comes and passes away; it

means “the changeless, inseparable essence of our own soul,” and on

the other hand the essence of the Self of the whole world.262

In the Vedic literature, ātman has continued to play various, and unique, roles in

its evolution. This idea has been clearly presented by G.N. Joshi in his Evolution

of Ātman and Mokṣa. 263 Moreover, Vedic gods, such as Brahmā, Indra and

Prajāpati, are said to represent ātman.264

In the Upaniṣads, ātman came to be known and explained broadly.265 On this,

Surendranath Dasgupta comments:

The self (ātman) is spoken of in one place as the essence of the

world, and when we trace the idea in the Brāhmaṇas and the

Āraṇyakas we see that ātman has begun to mean the supreme essence

in man as well as in the universe, and has thus approached the great

Ātman doctrine of the Upaniṣads.266

As in the Veda,267 Upaniṣadic268 texts also distinguish two different souls: the
269
universal soul (jagadātma/paramātma) and the individual soul

261
Paul Deussen (1907): 20.
262
ibid. Cf. G.N. Joshi (1965): 13.
263
G.N. Joshi (1965): 6ff. Cf. H.G. Narahari (1944): 5.
264
Cf. G.N. Joshi (1965): 25-26. See also Greg Bailey (2016): 55-70.
265
Cf. G.N. Joshi (1965): 30.
266
Surendranath Dasgupta (1922): 27.
267
See G.N. Joshi (1965): 9f.
268
The Upaniṣadic texts are the final development of the Veda. For this, they are often named as
Vedānta. The Vedic seers in this period have focused more on the intellectual side of human
life and goal than their predecessors. For a comprehensive study on the development of the

64
(pudgalātma/jīvātma). 270 King As’vapati is reported to explain the universal

ātman in the following way in the Chāndogya Upaniṣad:

… the universal soul (vais’vānara ātman) is of the measure of the

span (prades’amātram abhivimānaṃ), having the lustrous (heaven)

for its head, the manifold (sun) for its eye, the many-pathed (wind)

for its breath, the extended (space) for its body, riches (water) for its

bladder, the support (earth) for its feet, the sacrificial alter (vedi) for

its abdomen, the sacrificial grass (barhi) for its hair, the gārhapatya

fire for its heart, the anvāhāryapacana for its mind and the

āhavacanīya fire for its mouth.271

However, both ātman-s are related; the universal ātman is said to be the source of

the individual ātman.272 In other words, the former is the ultimate soul, the

essence of everything, it is the ultimate reality, which is present in all at all time.

And, the latter is the conventional self, or the ego.273 It is this ātman which is said

to be entangled with evil, like greed, and is known as ‘I’, ‘my’, and ‘mine’.

According to the Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad, the individual ātman roams according to

its karma-s.274 Furthermore, the form and nature of the individual ātman is said to

be determined by the qualities of the ātman.

Upaniṣads, see S. Radhakrishnan’s The Philosophy of Upaniṣads (1935) and Paul Deussen’s
The Philosophy of Upaniṣads (1919).
269
This is also known as the hiraṇya-garbha. See also Surendranath Dasgupta (1922: 52), for
further explanation on the universal ātman (or world-soul).
270
See G.N. Joshi (1965): 44f & 61f. For a detail analysis on these two see Paul Deussen (1919):
256-263.
271
H.G. Narahari (1944): 20. Cf. J.A.B. van Buitenen (1964): 103ff; G.N. Joshi (1956): 52.
272
See G.N. Joshi (1965): 9f.
273
See G.N. Joshi (1965): 44.
274
See Patrick Olivelle (1998): 429ff. See also Max Muller’s translation quoted by G.N. Joshi
(1965) 47-48.

65
Both ātman and Brahman came to be considered almost synonymous by the

Upaniṣadic seers. On this, H.G. Narahari explains:

inasmuch as both the terms Brahman and Ātman denote the “First

Principle” in the Universe, a promiscuous employment of them is

sometimes made in the Upaniṣads.275

He further notes that “the two terms stand side by side almost in a synonymous

relation.276 In A History of Indian Philosophy (Vol. I), Surendranath Dasgupta

also equates both ātman and Brahman to be one and the same.277 “Upaniṣads are

emphatic in their declaration that the two are one and the same.”278 In response to

Indra and Virocana’s inquiry on the ātman, Prajāpati is said to have replied:

He who goes about enjoying dreams, he is the self, this is the

deathless, the fearless, this is Brahman.279

Prajāpati continues to explain ātman and Brahman as one. These evidences show

that in the Upaniṣadic period, while ātman was broadly explained in relating to

the ultimate essence of man it was also equated as the same and one with

Brahman, which was considered the source of the former in early the Vedic

literature.

The Upaniṣadic texts explains that the cause of one’s rebirth is due to its bad

karma-s – which are caused by ignorance (avidyā). Accordingly, as long as one is

inflicted with ignorance, he/she commits actions leading to bad results, 280

275
H.G. Narahari (1944): 22.
276
ibid.
277
Surendranath Dasgupta (1922): 45. See also Maurice Bloomfield (1908): 274.
278
ibid. In another instance, Surendranath Dasgupta (1922: 48) states that Brahman is ātman. See
also Maurice Bloomfield (1908): 87; D.C. Mathur (1972): 392f.
279
Quoted by Surendranath Dasgupta (1922): 47.
280
See G.N. Joshi (1965): 58f.

66
including rebirth in hell. On other hand, good actions, such as sacrifices, 281 will

lead to heavenly rebirth.282 With the recycling process of birth and death based on

karma-s, emancipation was the final option in both early Vedic and Upaniṣadic

literatures. And, the only way to emancipation is knowing the Brahman, which is

the source of ātman and the ātman itself. This is also to say that in the Upaniṣadic

period, knowledge of the ātman or Brahman was heavily emphasized for

emancipation.283 Surendranath Dasgupta explains that for the ones with ignorance

this takes ceaseless course of transmigration284 to attain emancipation.

The heavy emphasis on asceticism and sacrifices found in the early Vedic texts

come to be of less significance in the Upaniṣads. For the Upaniṣadic seers,

knowledge was more important than asceticism and sacrifices. 285 It is the

knowledge of the ātman and Brahman that lead to emancipation. In fact, the

gaining of the knowledge of the ātman itself is said to be emancipation.286 In his

The Philosophy of the Upaniṣads, Paul Deussen states the following on

emancipation in Upaniṣads:

Emancipation is not to be regarded as a becoming something which

previously had no existence.287

281
Cf. G.N. Joshi (1965): 22.
282
The Muṇḍaka Upaniṣad states that religious performances like sacrifices and other rites lead
one to where the heavenly kings reside. See Patrick Olivelle (1998): 438-439. Cf. Brian K.
Smith (1985): 292ff.
283
Paul Deussen (1919): 253f.
284
Surendranath Dasgupta (1922): 58.
285
See Paul Deussen (1919): 343.
286
See Paul Deussen (1919: 344) quoting the text: Here is my soul (ātman); thither to this soul on
my departure hence shall I enter in.
287
Paul Deussen (1919): 344.

67
The ātman and Brahman, which are omnipresent and the ultimate essence of

every phenomena, including human beings, are pure in their absolute nature. On

this, the famous vedanta master, Guaḍapāda, states:

all souls are originally free from darkness and without stain,

“Already awakened and delivered before the world was,

They rise up,” saith the Master.288

In the Chāndogya Upaniṣad, this not knowing the existence of the ātman in its

pure form in oneself has been compared to some people repeatedly passing by a

hidden treasure not knowing that there is one. 289 And, this ignorance (or,

unreality), according to Paul Deussen, is discarded only with the realization of “I

am Brahman.”290 The Chāndogya Upaniṣad, explains that the ātman is in the

heart (hṛdi) and therefore the ātman is also called heart (hṛdayam):

Now this self (ātman) is located in the heart. And this is its etymology

– ‘in the heart (hṛdi) is this (ayam),’ and so it is call ‘heart’ (hṛdayam).

Anyone who knows this goes to the heavenly world every single

day.291

This point further leads to the fact that both ātman and Brahman are not to be

found in the externality of a person. Rather, both are to be found within oneself.

On this, the Kaṭhopaniṣad states:

288
Translation by Paul Deuseen (1919): 345. For alternative translation, see Raghunath Damodar
Karmarkar (1953): 56 (५६).
289
Patrick Olivelle (1998): 277.
290
See Paul Deussen (1919): 345.
291
Translation by Patrick Olivelle (1998): 277. See also G.N. Joshi (1965) 62.

68
 There is only one ruler, the Self within all things, who makes the one

form manifold. The wise who perceive him within their Self, to them

belongs eternal happiness, not to others.292

According to the Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad, once the ātman and Brahman is

realized within oneself and when one knows ‘I am Brahman.’ even the gods are

not able to prevent it as he (the individual) is himself the ātman.293 Moreover, this

realization, the ultimate goal, which is possible only by the wise, is said to be

immortal:

This deeply serene one who, after he rises up from this body and

reaches the highest light, emerges in his own true appearance—that is

the self," he said, "that is the immortal; that is the one free from fear;

that is Brahman.294

On this, the Kaṭhopaniṣad also contains a similar statement saying that this

discovery is the achievement of ‘immortality.’ 295 The Mundaka Upaniṣad

confirms:

One who knows this Brahman, becomes Brahman only. He crosses

grief and all sins and becoming free from the knots of the dark cells,

attains immortality.296

In the Guaḍapāda-kārikā, this knowledge of the realization of ātman and

Brahman is described as the ending of suffering.297 The text explains that as the

individual knows everything, there is nothing left for him to desire more.

292
Translation by G.N. Joshi (1965) 62. For alternative translation, see Patrick Olivelle (1998):
399.
293
See Patrick Olivelle (1998): 49. Cf. Paul Deussen (1919): 345.
294
Patrick Olivelle (1998): 277.
295
Quoted by G.N. Joshi (1965): 62.
296
Quoted by G.N. Joshi (1965): 62-63.

69
These elaborations point out in both the early Vedic literature and the Upaniṣads,

a person’s life is heavily influenced by the theories of ātman and Brahman. From

his/her birth until emancipation, ātman is omnipresent in the individual. It is the

principle substance in everything. The theories of ātman and Brahman are so

highly significant which have led to the formation of other Indian Philosophies

that the two are said to be “the two pillars on which rests nearly the whole edifice

of Indian philosophy.”298 Both the Vedic and Upaniṣadic texts also show that

Vedic seers believed in spiritual practices, but in their own definition of the

term.299

Among the contemporary religions of Buddhism in the sixth century B.C.E.,

Jainism, 300 led by Nigantha Nātaputta, is another noteworthy example of

eternalism. This religious school also held the view of an eternal ātman, which

transmigrates to another life after death. The Jain concept of ātman is somewhat

similar to that of the Vedic concept: the ātman in its natural form is pure, but it is

tainted due to bad karma-s. Jainism, however, rejected the idea of a creator God.

According to G.N. Joshi, one reason might be due to the fact that Brahmanism’s

dominance by exploiting the idea of God and also the Jains believe the world is

eternal,301 which did not require a creator God. The attainment of siddha, the Jain

liberation, is possible only with the purification of the ātman. For one to purify

the ātman, he/she needs to stop the influx of more (or, new) karma-s.

297
“He who knows himself as the ātman, the first principle of things, he is by that very knowledge
free from all desires (akāmayamāna), for he knows everything in himself, and there is nothing
outside himself for him to continue to desire.” Quoted by Paul Deussen (1919): 346.
298
M. Hiriyanna (2005): 54.
299
See e.g., Paul Deussen (1919): 65ff,
300
For a comprehensive introduction to Jainism, see Jayendra Soni (2007): 3-34; and Jeffrey D.
Long’s Jainism: An Introduction (2009).
301
See G.N. Joshi (1965): 225; Jeffrey D. Long (2009): 91.

70
Jainism and its path to emancipation can best be understood from the seven tattva-

s or the fundamentals.302 Accordingly, the seven are: jīva (soul or enjoyer), ajīva

(object/matter), āśrava (flow/influx of karma-s), saṃvara (stoppage), nirjara[ṇa]

(austerity), bandha (bondage) and mokṣa (emancipation).303 Among the seven

fundamentals, the first two, jīva304 and ājīva, are significant in building the whole

religious structure of Jainism. Padmanandin, a 2nd century C.E. Jain priest, is

quoted in the Sarva Darśana Saṃgraha stating that these two are the highest

predicaments.305 The world in Jainism is thus based on this duality of jīva and

ajīva.306 Moreover, the two, though in contradiction, are inseparable as their

function depends on each other.

In Jainism, the jīva-s, unlike in other religions, are beginning-less as well as

endless, therefore, a jīva is an eternal entity.307 Moreover, the number of jīva-s in

the universe are said to be infinite. On this, Jeffrey D. Long states, “there are

many jīva-s––as many as there are living beings in the cosmos.”308According to

G.N. Joshi, a jīva is “essentially constituted of consciousness and it is the sentient

principle in every animate thing.”309 Moreover, the size of jīva-s can vary from

each other.

302
For detail analysis of the nine, see Sinclair Stevenson (1915): 95-172.
303
See E.B. Cowell and A.E. Gough (1882): 53; Jayendra Soni (2007): 7-8.
The number of tattva-s are sometimes given as nine with the inclusion of puṇya (merit), pāpa
(sin). See E.B. Cowell and A.E. Gough (1882): 53 & 59; G.N. Joshi (1965): 226; Champat Rai
Jain (1974): 10-11; Jayendra Soni (2007): 7.
This list is also given only with five tattva-s, the other two is listed within the five.
304
See also Ana Bajźelj (2017): 54-57.
305
See E.B. Cowell and A.E. Gough (1882): 49.
306
See Matthew Zaro Fisher (2017): 28; Jeffrey D. Long (2009): 90; G.N. Joshi (1965): 227-227;
T.G. Kalghatgi (1965): 230; M. Hiriyanna (2005): 157. Cf. Ana Baželj (2017): 55; Jeffrey D.
Long (2009): 142; Muni Shivkumar (1984): 35 & 40; Surendranath Dasgupta (1922): 188.
307
See Muni Shivkumar (1984): 34.
308
Jeffrey D. Long (2009): 90. See also M. Hiriyanna (2005): 157; Muni Shivkumar (1984): 40.
309
G.N. Joshi (1965): 228.

71
 … the size of the jīva or soul changes according to the size of the

body which it occupies. If the body that it occupies is big the soul

becomes even as big as an elephant, and if the same enters the body of

an ant it compresses itself and assumes the smallest size of the ant.310

Jainism is probably the only religion, which has a strict measurement of the souls

with respect to their sizes.

The jīva-s are not only eternal, but they are also not subject to change. Since they

are the doers and if they are subject to change, they cannot enjoy (or reap) the

fruits of its past actions.311 Therefore, as G.N. Joshi states, the soul as the doer and

the soul as the enjoyer should be the same.312 On this, the Ācārāṃgasūtra, a Jain

text, states:

The self is the knower (or experiencer), and the knower is the self.

That through which one knows is the self. With regard to this (to

know) it (the self) is established. Such is he who maintains the right

doctrine of self.313

The jīva-s, in their natural or original state, are pure and untainted. In their

untainted state, they are also said to possess four characteristics: unlimited

knowledge (jñāna), perception (darśana), bliss (sukha), and energy or power

(vīrya).314 Moreover, jīva-s are also divided into two major categories as the

mundane (saṃsāri) and the released (siddha). 315 Furthermore, according to

310
G.N. Joshi (1965): 232. See also M. Hiriyanna (2005): 158 & 160; Padmanabh S. Jaini (2001):
102f; Surendranath Dasgupta (1922): 189; Jagmanderlal Jaini (1916): 17;
311
See G.N. Joshi (1965): 227.
312
ibid; Muni Shivkumar (1984): 40.
313
Quoted by Muni Shivkumar (1984): 41.
314
See Jeffrey D. Long (2009): 90. Cf. Surendranath Dasgupta (1922): 189.
315
See Sinclair Stevenson (1915): 96; E.B. Cowell and A.E. Gough (1882): 51.

72
Padmanabh S. Jaini, a jīva has “three main qualities (guṇa) or functional aspects:

consciousness (caitanya), bliss (sukha), and energy (vīrya).”316 Since jīva is the

eternal entity in Jainism, the Jain leaders (or exponents) have continued to

attribute various qualities in various classification to it.317

Ajīva––the object or the matter or non-soul, and the negation of jīva318––lacks

both life and consciousness.319 Ajīva-s are categorized into two major categories:

arūpi (formless/without form) and rūpi (with form). 320 These two are again

divided into five groups of substances as pudgala, dharma, adharma, ākāśa and

kāla.321 The first, pudgala (matter/form), is the only substance within the category

of rūpi. The remaining four belong to the category of arūpi. According to the

Sarva Darśana Saṃgraha,322 pudgala––which “stands for the material substance

which undergoes modifications, combinations and dissociations” 323 ––has the

qualities of touch, taste and colour. In the Sarvārthasiddhi, pudgala is explained

as: the effect of the aggregation of colour, taste, etc. is form.324 Both dharma

(merit) and adharma (demerit) are said to assist pudgala.325 Muni Shivkumar

explains that dharma is essential for the movement of jīva-s as well as the

pudgala-s.326 In other words, as Steven Sinclair states, dharma “helps the jīva

associated with pudgala to progress just as … water helps on the movement of a

316
Padmanabh S. Jaini (2001): 104.
317
Cf. Padmanabh S. Jaini (2001): 106.
318
See Matthew Zaro Fisher (2017): 28.
319
M. Hiriyanna (2005): 159. Cf. G.N. Joshi (1965): 228.
320
See M. Hiriyanna (2005): 159; Sinclair Stevenson (1915): 106.
321
See M. Hiriyanna (2005): 159; Muni Shivkumar (1984): 35.
322
E.B. Cowell and A.E. Gough (1882): 52.
323
Muni Shivkumar (1984): 35.
324
S.A. Jaini (1960): 132.
325
See Sinclair Stevenson (1915): 106; E.B. Cowell and A.E. Gough (1882): 52.
326
For a detailed explanation on this, see Muni Shivkumar (1984): 37f.

73
fish.”327 While dharma helps to arise movement (or motion), adharma helps to

arise rest. This is explained with illustration of a man being attracted to the

shadow of a tree and resting underneath. 328 Shri Pujyapada, the author of

Sarvārthasiddhi, explains that both dharma and adharma “pervade the entire

universe-space.” 329 For the existence of both subject and object, space is

necessary; hence, ākāśa. It is said to accommodate all the other four substances:

matter, merit and demerit (or motion and rest), and time.330 Moreover, it is its own
331
base. According to the Sarvārthasiddhi, existence is subject to three

characteristics as origination, destruction and permanence.332 The last substance

kāla (time) applies to all these. The above explanation of the five substances

under ajīva clearly explains the relationship between jīva-s and ajīva-s. Moreover,

this also clearly points out the Jain analysis of duality of the universe based on

jīva-s and ajīva-s.

The Sarva Darśana Saṃgraha explains the next tattva, āsrava (flow/influx of

karma-s), as “the action of senses which impels the soul towards external objects

…”333 When jīva, as the doer, acts or moves, it allows the karma-s to flow into it.

This movement is described as yoga (activity) in the texts.334 The Sarvarthasiddhi

explains yoga is the vibration of the jīva.335 And, yoga is divided into three

groups: the action of the body, the organ of speech and the mind (or bodily

327
Sinclair Stevenson (1915): 106.
328
See Muni Shivkumar (1984): 37-38; Sinclair Stevenson (1915): 106.
329
S.A. Jaini (1960): 139.
330
See Muni Shivkumar (1984): 38
331
ibid.
332
See S.A. Jaini (1960): 163.
333
E.B. Cowell and A.E. Gough (1882): 54.
334
See E.B. Cowell and A.E. Gough (1882): 53.
335
See S.A. Jaini (1960): 167.

74
activity, speech activity and thought activity).336 The influx of the karma-s to jīva,

which entangles it in saṃsāra, is illustrated with the example of the flow of water

as a stream. 337 The kinds of karma-s that flow into jīva are two: puṇya

(merit/virtuous) and pāpa (demerit/sin). 338 Activities, such as refraining from

injuring and speaking the truth, are explained as good yoga-s in the Sarva

Darśana Saṃgraha, 339 Since āsrava-s bind the jīva-s in saṃsāra, they are

generally explained together with the next tattva, bandha (bondage). Muni

Shivkumar explains that the two are actually “correlated as cause and effect, and it

is the āśrava that creates the ground for bandha.”340 Moreover, the karma-s are

said to be garland (māla) and the source of bondage.341 Accordingly, when

342
āsrava is controlled, bondage too is automatically stopped. In the

Sarvarthasiddhi, the main causes of bondage are given as: wrong belief, non-

abstinence, negligence, passions and activities (yoga).343 Hence, It is to be noted

that the karma plays an important role in Jainism. The karma-s influenced by

negative qualities, such as the ones mentioned above, lead the jīva-s to be

entangled in the cycle of birth and death.

So, a Jain follower should strive to stop the inflow of karma-s to the jīva-s as to

unbound the jīva-s from the mundane world. This leads to the tattva of saṃvara

336
ibid.
337
Cf. S.A. Jaini (1960): 168; E.B. Cowell and A.E. Gough (1882): 53.
“The karmic matter flows into the self like the flowing of water into the boat when there is a
hole in it.” Muni Shivkumar (1984): 87.
338
See S.A. Jaini (1960): 168. The Sarvarthasiddhi further states that virtuous activities are the
causes of puṇya and wicked activities are the cause of pāpa.
339
See E.B. Cowell and A.E. Gough (1882): 53-54.
340
Muni Shivkumar (1984): 88.
341
Cf. Y. Krishan (1988): 197.
342
See Muni Shivkumar (1984): 88.
343
See S.A. Jaini (1960): 215. Cf. G.N. Josh (1965): 246.

75
(stoppage). Saṃvara is in opposition to āsrava.344 G.N. Joshi mentions a list of

[bodily, verbal and mental] actions345 that one must practice in order to stop the

inflow of karma-s to the jīva-s:

i. One must not indulge in passions like anger, anxiety, grief or joy, nor

should one show a kind of partiality.

ii. One must wear equanimous attitude to all persons.

iii. One must observe vacanagupti by observing complete silence or by

speaking as little as possible.

iv. One must also practice kāyagupti – bodily control, so that he may not

harm anything in the world.346

In case of a saint (kevala), the practice of complete immobility of the limbs are

said to be a must.347 In his explanation of saṃvara, Mādhava Ācārya states:

āsrava is the cause of mundane existence, saṃvara is the cause of liberation.348

Moreover, saṃvara is with regard to the past karma-s; i.e., it is the practice to

stop the influx of the past karma-s.

The stoppage of the influx of the past karma-s to the jīva-s, however, does not

lead to purification of the jīva-s. Since, jīva-s are constantly influenced by

activities and the seeds of the past karma-s are still within the jīva-s, one is

required to completely destroy them and also stop the influx of future karma-s.349

344
See Muni Shivkumar (1984): 103.
345
G.N. Josh (1965): 253-254.
346
Overall, the practice of stoppage is divided into two main groups: threefold religious awareness
(samiti) and self-control (gupti). Samiti consists of carefulness in walking, speaking, eating,
taking up and setting down and excreting. Gupti consists of control of bodily, verbal and
mental activities. See Muni Shivkumar (1984): 103.
347
See G.N. Josh (1965): 253-254.
348
See E.B. Cowell and A.E. Gough (1882): 57.
349
Cf. Surendranath Dasgupta (1922): 195.

76
For this, the Jain religious leaders recommend the practice of the next tattva,

nirjarā (austerity). Nirjarā is practiced by undertaking [extreme] austerity (tapas).

The Sarva Darśana Saṃgraha states that forced asceticism leads to the attainment

of liberation.350 For this, self-mortification is highly recommended in Jainism.

Since jīva-s occupy the body in their extent, the karma-s affecting the jīva-s are

burnt out by the practice of painful austerities. Accordingly, twelve kinds of

austerities are recommended in Jainism. 351 Another important austerity is the

practice of meditation (dhyāna) for burning out the karma-s. The Jain dhyāna,

however, are said to require certain condition, which Muni Shivkumar quotes

Akalaṅka, a 7th century C.E. Jain logician:

Good atmosphere, accord with posture of the body, breathing slowly

and steadily, avoidance of lethargic nature, sleep, sex-love, fear,

doubt, sorrow etc.352

The dhyāna-s are further divided into two categories as inauspicious

(apraśasta) and auspicious (praśasta),353 both of which include painful as

well as pleasant (positive)354 meditation.

In order to achieve mokṣa, the Jain followers are also highly emphasized to

practice non-violence (ahiṃsa). The practice of non-violence helps the Jain

followers to develop a neutral attitude towards all.355 The successful practice of

nirjarā leads to the final religious goal in Jainism, mokṣa. The Sarva Darśana

350
See E.B. Cowell and A.E. Gough (1882): 57.
351
For the twelve, see G.N. Joshi (1965): 255-256. Cf. Muni Shivkumar (1984): 105; Sinclair
Stevenson (1915): 163f.
352
Muni Shivkumar (1984): 106.
353
See ibid.
354
Such as forgiveness, modesty, etc.
355
Cf. G.N. Joshi (1965): 154.

77
Saṃgraha explains that from the abolition of past karma-s [and their seeds] and

the stoppage of future karma-s (nirjarā), “there arises the absolute release from all

actions––this is mokṣa.”356 The text continues that the soul then “rises upward to

the end of the world.”357 Hence, it should be noted that the whole explanation on

the seven realities (tattva-s) in Jainism points out to one particular fact; i.e., like in

Brahmanism and Upaniṣads, the liberation in Jainism is mainly focused on the

liberation of the jīva-s through purification. Such a scenario also presents the Jain

path to liberation as the liberation of the soul rather than the person.

Although both materialism and eternalism are two religious groups in opposition,

both groups are strongly centred around one common significant factor. That is

the soul (ātman/atta). One’s existence, according to both groups, are based on

their views on the soul. The materialists uphold the view that the body and the

soul are one and the same, while the eternalists differ and believe that both are

separate entities – although the Jaina followers hold the idea that jīva-s occupy the

material bodies. As existence is based on the existence of the soul, liberation in

these religions is also centred around the concept of the soul (ātman/jīva/atta).

3.3. The Buddha’s Criticism of Sassatavāda and Ucchedavāda

Gotama’s journey to liberation was not a complete steady and pleasant one.

Before tracking himself along the middle path, the Buddha-to-be experienced both

religious praxis described in the preceding section of this chapter. While being a

royal prince, Gotama had the privilege to enjoy life to the highest level in all

356
E.B. Cowell and A.E. Gough (1882): 58.
357
See ibid.

78
aspects in the human society. However, such a materialistic life rather frustrated

him leading to search for an alternative. His renunciation from the material

pleasures (or household life) in search of supreme bliss led him to practice

extreme austerities, such as self-mortification, a common religious practice in

Jainism.358 As both ways of life failed to guide him to nibbāna, he abandoned

them and had to look for a new path, which later came to be known as the middle

path.

The rejection of both materialism and eternalism and the adoption of the middle

path by the Buddha have been clearly presented in the Dhammacakkappavattana-

sutta, his first discourse after his enlightenment. The Buddha explains the five

monks––his first disciples–– that, having avoided359 the two extremes (sensual

indulgence and self-mortification), 360 he adopted the middle path361 comprising of

eight limbs (i.e., the Noble Eightfold Path362). He further states that the middle

path, which he has perfectly realised, leads to the arising of vision (cakkhukaraṇī),

the arising of knowledge (ñāṇakaraṇī), appeasement (upasamāya), direct

knowledge (abhiññāya), full enlightenment (sambodhāya) and to nibbāna

(nibbānāya). 363 According to Y. Karunadasa, the middle path is neither a

moderation nor a compromise or a synthesis of the two extremes. 364 As the

discourse itself explains, the middle path is completely different from the two

358
Cf. Y. Karunadasa (2017): 19.
359
Bhikkhu Bodhi translate anupagamma as ‘without veering.’ See CDB II: 1844.
In the PTS edition of the text (S V: 421), it is given as anupakamma, which is not correct. The
correct form should be anupagamma (an + upa + √gam + ya = anupagamma), as in the CS
edition. See also Kākkāpalliye Anuruddha Thera (2013): 28-29.
360
See also A.K. Warder (2004): 45ff.
361
Cf. K.N. Jayatilleke (2010): 89; Y. Karunadasa (2017): 17; Peter Harvey (2004): 90.
362
For a comprehensive study, see Bhikkhu Bodhi’s The Noble Eightfold Path (2010).
363
See S V: 421; CDB II: 1844.
364
Y. Karunadasa (2017): x. Cf. Analayo (2017): 139f.

79
extremes. And, therefore, it is stated “not entering into these both.”365 As Y.

Karunadasa explains,366 the middle path transcends both extremes.

Both the above passage and the preceding section on Sassatavāda and

Ucchedavāda further point out that, in fact, the two extremes, though rejected by

the Buddha, also paved the way for the birth of Buddhism.367 As the birth of

Buddhism is a response to the two extremes as an opposition, Y. Karunadasa calls

this “a critical response to the binary opposition between two world-views.”368 It

is well-known that the Buddha is well-versed, intellectually and materially, in

Sassatavāda and Ucchedavāda. His knowledge on the two extreme paths led him

to conclude that they do not guide to end human suffering. Therefore, in the

Dhammacakkappavattana-sutta, he states the two paths do not lead to the welfare

(anatthasaṃhito) of the practitioners.369 In contrast, the purpose of Buddha’s

renunciation was to put an end to human suffering completely.370

The Buddha, as a bodhisatta during his princely life, had the experience of

materialism, including sensual pleasures, at the highest level that a person could

enjoy.371 Not convinced with such a materialistic life, his renunciation of the

365
Ete te … ubho ante anupagamma …. S V: 421. See also Vin I: 10; S II: 17; S IV: 330. Cf. D
III: 113.
366
Y. Karunadasa (2017: x): “middle-ness” is the transcendence of the mutual opposition between
the two extremes.
367
Cf. Analayo (2017): 134.
368
Y. Karunadasa (2017): 13.
369
S. V: 421. See also SA III: 297.
370
In the Ariyapariesana-sutta, the Buddha calls his search for this path ‘the search for what is
wholesome (kiṃ-kusala-gavesī).’ See M I: 163f.
371
In the Māgandiya-sutta (M I: 501-513), in conversation with Brahmin Māgandiya, the Buddha
relates the sensual comforts that he had previously when he was a prince: “formerly when I
lived the home life, I enjoyed myself, provided and endowed with the five cords of sensual
pleasures: with forms cognizable by the eye … with sounds cognizable by the ear … with
odours cognizable by the nose … with flavours cognizable by the tongue … with tangible

80
household life,372 leaving the royal comforts, directly signifies his rejection of

materialism. He is recorded in several places within the Pāli canon criticizing the

pursuit of such materialist sensual pleasures. The pursuit of such sensual

pleasures, 373 according to the Buddha, is ‘low, vulgar, way of worldlings,

ignorable, unbeneficial.’ 374 Contrary to materialism, where the enjoyment of

sensual pleasure is highly encouraged, Buddhism emphasizes the abandonment of

such pleasures and to take up a simple life compared to a bird, which flies only

with the weight of its two wings.375 In other words, the Buddha emphasizes the

simplest form of life––consisting of the four requisites, namely food, clothing,

shelter and medicine376––which are actually the least necessities for the survival

of an individual.

In the Māgandiya-sutta, 377 the Buddha compares the enjoyment of sensual

pleasures to feeling (contact with) of fire, which is painful, hot and scorching.

Continuing to explain the danger of the pursuit of sensual pleasures, the Buddha

states that he abandoned such pleasures realizing the evil retribution:

cognizable by the body that are wished for, desired, agreeable, and likeable, connected with
sensual desire and provocative of lust.” Translation by Bhikkhu Ñāṇamoli and Bhikkh Bodhi
(1995): 609. See also W.G. Weeraratne (1996): 107.
372
See Bhikkhu Ñāṇamoli (2001): 10.
373
According to the commentary (SA III: 297), here the Buddha is referring to the two types of
sensual pleasures: objective sensuality or the object-base of sensuality (vatthu-kāmā) and
mental defilements (kilesa-kāmā). For a detail analysis of the two see Mn I: 1-22. See also
Bhikkhu Bodhi (2017): 459. Cf. David Webster (2005): 118.
374
Translation by Bhikkhu Bodhi, see CDB II: 1844. Yo cayāṃ kāmesu kāma sukhallikānuyogo
hīno gammo puthujjanīko anariyo anatthasaṃhito – S V: 421. See also Vin I: 10; S IV: 330.
Cf. D III: 113.
375
In the Cūḷahatthipadopama-sutta (M I: 180), the Buddha explains that refraining from
unwholesome activities, one should live contented with the needed requisites just like birds,
whether small or large, which fly only with the weight of their two wings. See also D I: 71; M
I: 346-347.
376
Cf. D I: 71.
377
M I: 507ff.

81
 On a later occasion, having understood as they actually are the origin,

the disappearance, the gratification, the danger, and the escape in the

case of sensual pleasures, I abandoned craving for sensual pleasures, I

removed fever for sensual pleasures, and I abide without thirst, with a

mind inwardly at peace.378

On another occasion,379 the Buddha warns the disciples that sensual pleasures are

impermanent, hollow, false and deceitful. Ānanda, his chief attendant, in response

to Sandaka’s question, explains that the holy life is navigated by four ways of

life,380 which are all categorized under Ucchedavāda. Ānanda further explains that

a Buddha attains the meditative attainments (jhāna) by separating himself from

sensual pleasures (kāmehi vivicca).381

In the early Buddhist teachings, the pursuit of sensual pleasures has been

criticized in various ways and in various classifications. 382 Accordingly, the

analysis of the second truth383 states that craving (taṇhā)––the root cause of the

arising of dukkha384––is divided into three kinds. Among them, the first is the

craving for sensual pleasures (kāma-taṇhā). 385 For one to be liberated from

dukkha, the complete stoppage of the arising of dukkha has to be achieved, which

is possible with the destruction of cravings, including craving for sensual

pleasures. And, according to the Buddha, the destruction of craving itself is the
378
Translation by Bhikkhu Ñāṇamoli and Bhikkh Bodhi (1995): 610. For Pāli text, see M I: 505-
506.
379
M II: 261. Cf. David Webster (2005): 118.
380
M I: 515-519.
381
M I: 521. See also Anālayo (2006): 83.
382
Cf. D III: 215-216, 230, 235, 254.
383
The noble truth of arising of suffering (dukkha-samudaya-ariyasacca).
384
See Vin I: 10; D II: 308; S V: 421.
385
The other two are: bhava-taṇhā (craving for becoming) and vibhava-taṇhā (craving for re-
becoming). See ibid. See also Christopher W. Gowans (2003): 128-130; R.G. de S. Wettimuny
(1969): 25- 26.

82
attainment of nibbāna. 386 Among the ten fetters (saṃyojana-s), 387 desire to

sensual pleasures (or sensual desire: kāma-cchandha)388 is listed among the first

group which leads to the lower realm of life. Kāma-cchandha is also included in

the list of five hindrances,389 which, according to the Buddha, hinder, obstruct and

entangle the mind from development. Moreover, among the three cankers (āsava-

s), the desire to sensual pleasure or sense-desire (kāmāsava)390 is one.391 Among

the disciplinary precepts, beginning from those of the lay followers up to those of

the monastics, the precept of [sexual] misconduct, which is directly related to

sensual pleasures is one of the most important. 392 In fact, for a monastic member,

committing such an offence leads to his/her expulsion from the community.393 An

important point to be noted here is that in all these cases, the Buddha is seen to be

critical of sensual pleasures and strongly admonishes his followers to abandon

sensual pleasures as well as its desire.

The Kāma-sutta explains that one who is greedy for sensual pleasures is

overtaken by the weak and faces trouble.394 Therefore, being mindful, one should

avoid sensual pleasures like avoiding the head of a serpent with one’s foot – the

386
“Rādha, the destruction of craving itself is nibbāna (taṇhakkhayo hi rādha nibbānan ti).” S III:
190. See also Anālayo (2008): 248; Walpola Rahula (2007): 35-44; B.C. Law (1932-33): 80.
Cf. S IV: 251; SA II: 243; It: 88.
387
For the ten, see A V: 17.
388
Cf. Analayo (2006): 67. See S.K. Nanayakkara (1996): 105-106.
389
Namely, sensual-desire (kāma-cchanda), ill-will (vyāpāda), sloth and torpor (thīna-middha),
restlessness and remorse (uddhacca-kukkucca), doubt (vicikicchā). See D I: 246; D III: 234 &
278; M I: 144; A III: 63-64.
In order to abandon the five, one must practice the development of mindfulness with four
references: the body, feeling, mind, and mental factors. See A IV: 457-458. See also S V: 84-
85. Cf. D II: 300-301; S V: 327.
390
Cf. Christopher W. Gowans (2003): 21.
391
The other two are: (bhavāsava) and (avijjāsava). See D III: 216.
392
See Peter Harvey (2000): 71-74.
393
See Vin III: 11ff. See also Mohan Wijayaratna (1990): 144. Cf. Richard F. Gombrich (1996):
22-23; B.C. Law (1932-33): 85.
394
Cf. Y. Karunadasa (2017): 83.

83
avoidance of sensual pleasures thus leads to the other shore.395 Moreover, in the

Mahādukkhakkhandha-sutta, the Buddha points out that sensuality is the cause of

various problems in the society; such as not being able to earn enough wealth,

fights between kings and their retinues, engaging in misconduct, etc.396 In another

discourse, the Buddha explains five kinds of sensual strands (kāma-guṇa); when

one is bound by these, he/she is enslaved, infatuated, bonded leading to calamity

and disaster. 397 Furthermore, sensual pleasures––though colourful, sweet and

delightful––agitate the mind.398 Thus, realising the danger of sensual pleasures

and having abandoned them, one should live like a rhinoceros.399 The whole of

Buddha’s teachings as well as the disciplines, with regard to the path to nibbāna,

indicates that one must renounce his/her materialist life, including sensual

pleasures, so as to achieve this goal. 400 In other words, the celibate life

(brahmacariya) in Buddhism is devoid of the pursuit of sensual pleasures.

Although the eternalists had a different approach than the annihilationists in their

pursuit of liberation––which is rather a direct opposition to the practice of sensual

pleasures––it neither could escape the purview of the Buddhist criticism. In the

Dhammacakkapavattana-sutta the Buddha clearly states that both paths do not

401
lead to the welfare (anatthasaṃhita). Moreover, the pursuit of self-

mortification (attakilamathānuyoga) is termed as painful and ignoble.402 In this

395
Sn: 151. Cf. Ud: 75.
396
M I: 85-87.
397
See M I: 173-174.
398
Cf. David Webster (2005): 120.
399
See Sn: 6-12. Cf. Bhikkhu Bodhi (2017): 458-460; Y. Karunadasa (2017): 73.
In the Pabbajjā-sutta, the Buddha states that he proceeded to striving having realized the
danger in sensual pleasures and having seen renunciation as safety. See Sn: 74.
400
See Christopher W. Gowans (2003): 170.
401
See S V: 421.
402
Yo cāyam attakilamathānuyogo dukkho anariyo anatthasaṃhito. See ibid.

84
case too, the Buddha personally experienced the practice of extreme asceticism

and concluded that this path does not lead to any good. The biography of the

Buddha points out that he undertook attakilamathānuyoga for six years.403 In the

Mahāsaccaka-sutta, the Buddha explains Saccaka how he suffered and also was

unsuccessful while practicing extreme asceticism which did not lead him to

emancipation. 404 The Buddha states that after practicing various forms of

asceticism––such as stopping of breathing in and out, stopping of taking coarse

food, etc.––his body became too thin.405 Such extreme practices rather led him to

painful physical state.406 The Buddha was able to attain enlightenment only after

he regained his physical health from receiving food. This further points out, like

in the case of the rejection of the pursuit of sensual pleasures, the Buddha rejected

the practice of extreme asceticism on the basis of his personal experience that it

was painful and unbeneficial.407 In the Dhammapada verse 141,408 the Buddha

states that such practices do not purify a person. In contrary, the Buddha

recommends a life unconditioned by both extremes.

The religious practices in both Sassatavāda and Ucchedavāda are centred around

one significant factor, the liberation of the atta/ātman.409 The Ucchedavādins

believe that the soul and the body is one and the same. And therefore, as a person

The practice of extreme asceticism or austerity was popular in both the Vedic and the samaṇa
traditions. In the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa, it is stated that the practice of austerities leads every
part of the practitioner to heavenly worlds. See C. Witanachchi (1966): 325. See also Walter O.
Kaelber (1976): 360-367. Cf. Edward Fitzpatrick Crangle (1994): 53-55.
403
See Hajime Nakamura (2000): 140-141, 430 n106; Bhikkhu Ñāṇamoli (2001): 15ff.
404
M I: 240ff.
405
In the sutta, the Buddha uses various similes to compare the pain he felt and also to compare
how his body looked like.
406
See Bhikkhu Ñāṇamoli (2001): 16-19.
407
See C. Witanachchi (1966): 325.
408
Dhp: 39-40.
409
See Steven Collins (1999): 35. Cf. Y. Karunadasa (2017): 35.

85
is made up of the four great elements, the soul is also annihilated at the

destruction of the body during dead.410 On the other hand, the Sassatavādins hold

the view that the soul and the body are different, though the former’s existence is

based on the latter. According to the Ucchedavādins, the annihilation of the soul

together with the dissolution of the body at dead is the end of life, and there is

neither rebirth nor transmigration of the ātman.411 On the other hand, a group of

Sassatavādins explains that the unification of the soul with the Mahābrahma is the

final emancipation while another believe the purification of the soul leading to its

natural pure form is liberation. Moreover, according to the Sassatavādins, the soul

is an eternal entity which has neither a beginning nor an ending. This conception

of the soul also has been vehemently rejected by the Buddha. In various places of

the Pāli canon, the Buddha is presented as a critic of this doctrine.

The origin of the atta/ātman concept of the sassavādins is very well presented by

the Buddha in the Brahmajāla-sutta, where altogether sixty-two wrong views are

discussed. 412 In the discourse, the Buddha mentions four views within the

Sassatavāda group. Among them, the first three differ with regard to time periods

only.413 Accordingly, in the first instance, a recluse or a Brahmin, with a certain

degree of concentrated mind, is able to recall his numerous past lives until

thousands of births in the first case, he is able to recall until ten aeons in the

second case, and in the third case he is able to recall until forty aeons.414 In all the

410
See Mathieu Boisvert (1995): 66; G.P. Malalasekera (1961-1965): 567-568; B.C. Law (1937):
76.
411
See B.C. Law (1937): 76.
412
Cf. Paul Fuller (2005): 26-27, 112-113.
413
See Bhikkhu Bodhi (2007): 64-65.
414
From the sequence of these numbers, it is also assumable that the number of years and past
lives mentioned in the discourse are not fixed. They more look like some examples to point out

86
three,415 while recalling the past births, he comes to the conclusion that although

he passes away and is reborn again and again only his soul remains unchanged

and eternal, which he declares among others. In the fourth case, he uses logic
416
(takka-pariyāhataṃ), investigation (vīmaṃsānucaritaṃ) and his own

intelligence (sayaṃ-paṭibhānaṃ) to justify his declaration that the soul is

unchanging and eternal. 417 Thus, the four views clearly points out how the

concept of the soul has shaped this religious group, the Sassatavādins.

According to Buddhism, however, what these religions declare as Self or soul is

rather the five aggregates. In the Yamaka-sutta, Sāriputta explains to Yamaka that

one who is not versed and disciplined in the Dhamma and Vinaya considers the

five aggregates to be the soul.418 The commentary to the Brahmajāla-sutta also

points out that what have been referred to as ‘the Self and the world’ in the

discourse are none other than the five aggregates.419 In the Samanupassanā-sutta,

the Buddha states that those samaṇa-s and Brahmins who regard the soul in

various ways all regard it with regard to the five aggregates or in one of them.420

how the atta/ātman concept originated among these samaṇa-s and Brahmins. See D I: 13-16.
For translation, see Bhikkhu Bodhi (2007): 62-65. Cf. G.A. Somaratne (2017): 129.
In the Sampasādanīya-sutta (D III: 108-110), Sāriputta mentions only these three, not the
fourth.
415
See also K.N. Jayatilleke (2010): 240.
416
Piya Tan translates ‘fabricating it through reasoning’. Both Bhikkhu Bodhi and Maurice
Walshe have similar translations as ‘hammered out by reason’ and ‘hammering out by reason’
respectively. T.W. Rhys Davids renders it as ‘addicted to logic and reasoning’. Piya Tan
(2014): 42; Bhikkhu Bodhi (2007): 65; Maurice Walshe (1995): 78; T.W. Rhys Davids (1899):
28-29.
417
See D I: 16. See also Piya Tan (2014): 42.
418
S III: 109. See also M III: 18.
419
DA I: 104; Bhikkhu Bodhi (2007): 129-130. See also Y. Karunadasa (2017): 38-40.
420
Ye hi keci bhikkhave samaṇā vā brahmaṇā vā anekavihitaṃ attānaṃ samanupassamānā
samanupassanti. sabbe te pañcupādānakkhandhe samanupassanti etesaṃ vā aññataraṃ. S III:
46. See also S III: 66; Walpola Rahula (2007): 20-26,52; Joaquín Pérez-Remón (1980): 231,
259. Cf. P.D. Premesiri (2006): 181-182; G.P. Malalasekera (1961-1965): 569.

87
In this statement, the Pāli word used is ‘pañcupādānakkhandha’, 421 meaning

‘clinging to the five aggregates’ and points out another important factor.

Accordingly, considering the five aggregates as they are does not give rise to any

issue (or obstacle). In fact, the Buddha instructs that one should see the

phenomenon (dhamma-s) as they are in conformity with the truth (yathābhūtaṃ

ñāṇadassanaṃ). 422 It is the clinging (upādāna) to the five aggregates that

obstructs one to see the aggregates as they are.423 The Buddha explains that

neither the five aggregates nor any single of them is soul,424 which leads the

Buddhist doctrine of soullessness.

The Buddhist doctrine of soullessness can be better understood from the analysis

(or the formula) of the three universal characteristics (tilakkhaṇa), which are said

to be “the three universal properties of all existing things of the phenomenal

world”: impermanence (anicca), un-satisfactoriness (dukkha) and soullessness

(anatta).425 Accordingly, the formula begins with the statement ‘all conditioned

[things/phenomenon] are subject to change (impermanence)’426 and it is said that

whatever is subject to change (impermanent) leads to un-satisfactoriness, and un-

satisfactoriness leads to the conclusion that it is no-Self (or non-soul).427 In the

421
Cf. Joaquín Pérez-Remón (1980): 261.
422
See e.g., S V: 423.
423
In the Sammādiṭṭhi-sutta, Sāriputta mentions four kinds of clinging: clinging to sensuality,
clinging to views, clinging to rites and rituals and clinging to self-view. The disciple goes on to
explain that when one understands clinging, its origin, its cessation and the way to it, he is of
right view. M I: 51.
424
Rūpaṃ bhikkhave anattā, vedanā anattā, saññā anattā, saṅkhārā anattā, viññāṇaṃ anattā
(monks, matter is non-soul, feeling is non-soul, perception is non-soul and formations are non-
soul). M I: 230.
425
See O.H. De A. Wijesekera (1994): 71-83; G.P. Malalasekera (1961-1965): 571.
426
Dhp: 78 (verses: 277-279).
427
See ibid. In Buddhism, all the phenomenon are considered as conditioned, only nibbāna is
unconditioned. See Ud: 80.

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Cūlasaccaka-sutta, the following conversation takes place between the Buddha

and Saccaka––a Jain follower––who asserted that the five aggregates are the soul:

Buddha: What do you think, Aggivessana, is material form permanent

or impermanent?

Saccaka: Impermanent, Master Gotama.

Buddha: Is what is impermanent suffering or happiness?

Saccaka: Suffering, Master Gotama.

Buddha: Is what is impermanent, suffering, and subject to change fit

to be regarded thus: ‘This is mine, this I am, this is my self’?

Saccaka: No, Master Gotama.428

This conversation clearly points out the early Buddhist stance on the doctrine of a

soul which was strongly propagated by both the Sassatavādins and the

Ucchedavādins.

In the Mahāvaggapāli, while stating that form is soulless, the Buddha explains

that if the form is with a soul, one would not fall sick as he/she would have the

power to control it. However, one is not able to do so as the form is soulless.429

Moreover, in the Vipallāsa-sutta, the Buddha states that considering a soul in

what is non-soul is deformation of perception, mind and views.430 In some case,

the Buddha is also recorded to have remained silent when asked about the

existence of a soul. One such cases is recorded in the Ānanda-sutta (also known

428
Bhikkhu Ñāṇamoli and Bhikkhu Bodhi (1995): 327. For Pāli text, see M I: 232-233. See also S
III: 66. Cf. Joaquín Pérez-Remón (1980): 158.
429
Rūpaṃ bhikkhave anattā, rūpañ cā h’idaṃ bhikkhave attā abhavissa, na yidaṃ rūpaṃ
ābādhāya saṃvatteyya, labbhetha ca rūpe evaṃ me rūpaṃ hotu, evaṃ me rūpaṃ mā ahosīti.
Yasmā ca kho bhikkhave rūpaṃ anattā, tasmā rūpaṃ ābādhāya saṃvattati, na ca labbhati
rūpe evaṃ me rūpaṃ hotu, evaṃ me rūpaṃ mā ahosīti. Vin I: 13.
430
A II: 52.

89
as Atthatta-sutta431).432 Accordingly, wanderer Vacchagotta visited the Buddha

and ask whether there is a soul. However, the Buddha remained silent.433 Ānanda

who observed the incident asked the Buddha why he did not respond to

Vacchagotta’s question. And, the Buddha answered Ānanda as follows:

If Ānanda, when I was asked by the wanderer Vacchagotta, ‘Is there a

self”’ I had answered, ‘There is a self,’ this would have been siding

with those ascetics and brahmins who are eternalists. And if, when I

was asked by him, ‘Is there no self?’ I had answered, ‘There is no

self,’ this would have been siding with those ascetics and brahmins

who are annihilationists.434

On another occasion, the Buddha explains that he teaches the Dhamma in the

middle way being aloof from the views of existence and non-existence:

‘All exists’: Kaccāna, this is one extreme. ‘All does not exist’: this is

the second extreme. Without veering towards either of these extremes,

the Tathāgata teaches the Dhamma by the middle.435

According to the Buddha, when one sees the origin and the cessation of the world

as they are with proper wisdom, in him, there is no notion of existence with regard

to the world.436

431
See G.P. Malalasekera’s Dictionary of Pāli Proper Names.
432
S IV: 400-401.
433
The question regarding the existence of a soul is one of the ten answered questions. For a study
on the ten, see Chandima Wijebandara (1993): 175-183.
434
Translation by Bhikkhu Bodhi (2000): 1394. See also Y. Karunadasa (2017): 45. Cf. Paul
Fuller (2005): 38.
435
Translation by Bhikkhu Bodhi (2000): 544.
436
Lokasamudayaṃ kho kaccāyana yathābhūtaṃ sammappaññāya passato yā loke natthita sā na
hoti. Lokanirodham kho kaccāyana yathābhūtaṃ sammappaññāya passato yā loke atthitā sā
na hoti. S II: 17.

90
In opposition to the two extremes, the Buddha presented the doctrine of

paṭiccasamuppāda (dependent co-origination), the central doctrine in Buddhism,

also known as the middle doctrine. 437 Earlier, it has been stated that all

conditioned phenomenon are subject to change, un-satisfactoriness and

soullessness. It is with the doctrine of paṭiccasamuppāda, this conditionality of

the phenomenon is explained. 438 According to Buddhism, an individual is a

combination of the five aggregates, which are further analysed into various other

factors. 439 Therefore, in ultimate reality there is no person. The doctrine of

paṭiccasamuppāda in relation to the view of a soul has also been very well

presented by Nāgasena in his conversation with King Milinda.440 Accordingly,

when Nāgasena replied the king saying that there is no [permanent]

individuality441 and a name (e.g. Nāgasena) is just a general designation for a

common usage, the king put forwards various questions to the arahant; such as

who gets sick, who lives righteously, who attains nibbāna, etc. When the king has

asked several questions of ethical and unethical concern, the enlightened disciple

responded all in negative. Nāgasena asked the king how he has come, whether on

foot or in a chariot. When the king answered “in chariot”, the elder questioned the

king what a chariot is; is it the pole, is it the axle, is it the wheels, etc. After

several questions, the king realized that there is no chariot, but he insisted that it is

the combination of various parts, such as axle, spokes, ropes, etc. which is known

437
See Y. Karunadasa (2017): 26-28.
438
See Walpola Rahula (2007): 52ff. Cf. Y. Karunadasa (2017): 43.
439
For a comprehensive study on the five aggregates, see Mathieu Boisvert’s The Five
Aggregates: Understanding Theravāda Psychology and Soteriology. Cf. George Grimm
(1994): 170ff.
440
See Miln: 25-28. For translation, see T.W. Rhys Davids (1890): 40-45. See also Steven Collins
(1999): 182-183.
441
Or soul. Cf. T.W. Rhys Davids (1890): 40.

91
as chariot. Nāgasena explained the king that it is the same case with the so-called

being (or an individual), which is the combination of the five aggregates.

Just as it is by the condition precedent of the co-existence of its

various parts that the word ‘chariot’ is used, just so it is that when the

skandhas are there we talk of a ‘being.’442

Just as a chariot is the conditional co-existence of various factors, Buddhism

explains that a being, who is misperceived as a Self or soul, is the conditional co-

existence of the five aggregates.

Thus, with the analysis of a ‘being’, in accordance with the doctrine of dependent

co-origination, the Buddha makes it clear that in the ultimate reality there is no

such [eternal] entity called ‘Self’ or ‘soul’. Accordingly, whatever form, whether

in the past or present or future, are said to be devoid of a soul:

Any kind of form whatsoever … Any kind of feeling whatsoever …

Any kind of perception whatsoever … Any kind of volitional

formations whatsoever … Any kind of consciousness whatsoever,

whether past, future, or present, internal or external, gross or subtle,

inferior or superior, far or near, all consciousness should be seen as it

really is with correct wisdom thus: ‘This is not mine, this I am not,

this is not myself.’443

The Buddhist doctrine of soullessness is such that it transcends the conventional

Self and guides one to realize the ultimate reality of phenomenon. For this, this

doctrine has be stated to be a unique one in the Indian religious and philosophical

442
Translation by T.W. Rhys Davids (1890): 45.
443
Translation by Bhikkhu Bodhi (2000): 916. For Pāli text, see S III: 89. See also Joaquín Pérez-
Remón (1980): 179-181.

92
arena as none of these taught such a doctrine.444 Although religions in Indian

sought liberation from suffering, including birth and death, pain and misery, but

their liberation was concerned more with the liberation of the ātman. Hence,

according to them, it is with the perfect knowledge of the ātman that leads to

emancipation. 445 Although the aim of the Buddhist teachings has a similar goal––

to completely end human suffering––however, in Buddhism what leads to

liberation is not the knowledge of ātman/atta (or Brahman), rather it is the

knowledge of non-Self (soullessness/anatta).

The Buddhist doctrine of volitional kamma is another significant contribution

made by the Buddha. It is evident that several Indian religious groups, including

those of the Vedic tradition and Jainism, taught their own forms of karma.

However, the Buddhist doctrine of kamma differs from them on the basis of

volition and morality.446 In Buddhism, an action is an act committed out of one’s

volition. Therefore, the Buddha states that volition is what he calls kamma, which

is committed bodily, verbally and mentally.447 Accordingly, an action produced

from one’s intention (or will) is kamma and it is this which bears fruit/s (vipāka)

either in the present life or in a future rebirth depending on the required

condition/s and circumstances.448 Thus, here too, the doctrine of dependent co-

origination plays an important role. 449 In other words, a person cannot act

automatically (own his own); in order for an intention to arise in him to commit

444
See Steven Collins (1999): 4. Cf. Walpola Rahula (2007): 51.
445
See G.N. Joshi (1965): 63.
446
It is also the Buddhist doctrine of volitional kamma that leads to the attainment of nibbāna. Cf.
D.J. Kalupahana (2009): 49.
447
Cetanāhaṃ bhikkhave kammaṃ vadāmi; cetayitvā kammaṃ karoti kāyena vācāya manasā. A
III: 415. See also AA III: 408; D.J. Kalupahana (2009): 50.
448
See Anālayo (2009): 669. Cf. D.J. Kalupahana (2009): 51.
449
See W.S. Karunaratna (1979-1989): 87-92.

93
an action, he has to be conditioned first.450 This doctrine of volitional kamma is in

direct opposition to the Jain doctrine of karma.451

According to Jainism, which taught absolute determinism, the present is the result

of the previous karma-s. 452 Although kamma, in the Buddhist context, also

produces results, 453 it is however very different from that of Jainism. In a

conversation with Sīvaka, the Buddha explains the wanderer that considering all

the present experiences as the consequences of the past is wrong.

Some feelings, Sīvaka, arise here originating from phlegm disorders

… originating from wind disorders … originating from an imbalance

[of the three] … produced by change of climate … produced by

careless behaviour … caused by assault … produced as the result of

kamma …454

The Buddha explains, if the present is the result of past action/s, the moral life

would not be worthy and one cannot put an end to suffering.455 As Anālayo points

out,456 according to Buddhism, past actions too produce results. However, in order

for the past kamma-s to produce results, there need to be various other factors,

such as the volition, conditionality and circumstances.457

450
See Bhikkhu Bodhi (2012): 1768 n1417.
451
In Jainism, “the accumulation of karmas takes place as a result of instinctive and automatic
bodily activities and not merely due to volitional actions.” Y. Krishan (1988): 198.
452
See M II: 214-228. See also K.N. Jayatilleke (1975): 148-149.
453
Cf. Peter Harvey (2000): 17-23.
454
Translation by Bhikkhu Bodhi (2000): 1279. For Pāli text, see S IV: 230-231. See also Anālayo
(2009): 669.
455
See A III: 415. See also D.J. Kalupahana (2009): 50.
456
Anālayo (2009): 669.
457
See Y. Karunadasa (2017): 82; K.N. Jayatilleke (2008): 15; K.N. Jayatilleke (1975): 140-141.
Cf. Bhikkhu K.L. Dhammajoti (1995): 93.

94
In the Buddhist doctrine of kamma, morality is another significant factor. As D.J.

Kalupahana notes,458 it is with kamma that one is able to distinguish between

moral and immoral. Without the distinction between moral and immoral, the

Buddhist doctrine of kamma would be aligning with the materialists, who deny

the efficacy of actions, and which would be futile. By understanding the moral

distinction of kamma one acts accordingly and reaps the fruits of his/her kamma/s.

The root of immorality is greed (lobha), hatred (dosa) and delusion (moha) and

the root of morality is the opposite of the three: absence of greed (alobha),

absence of hatred (adosa) and absence of delusion (amoha).

The first root refers not only to the absence of greed, but also to its

positive manifestations as charity, liberality, and renunciation … the

second root refers not only to the absence of aversion, but also to the

positive qualities of amity, goodwill, gentleness, benevolence, and

loving kindness.459

If the other two roots provide the volitional impetus in the emotional

tone required for wholesome consciousness, this particular root

(amoha) represents its rational or intellectual aspect.460

As Y. Karunadasa notes,461 these six roots are used to evaluate the morality of

kamma as wholesome and unwholesome in Buddhism.462

Morality can generally be divided into two levels: meritorious (puñña) and

wholesome (kusala).463 The first is said to be prescribed for the lay followers,

458
D.J. Kalupahana (2009): 49.
459
Y. Karunadasa (2017): 82.
460
Nyanaponika Thera quoted by Y. Karunadasa. See ibid.
461
See ibid. See also D.J. Kalupahana (2009): 54-57.
462
Cf. K.N. Jayatilleke (1975): 140.

95
while the second, which is higher, is for the [monastic] followers striving to attain

nibbāna. On the two terms, P.D. Premasiri notes:

Acts of puñña were conceived in early Buddhism as deeds of positive

merit, which bring about, as their consequences, enjoyment of a

sensuous kind, not generally of a spiritual kind. Kusala on the other

hand emphasizes the non-sensuous, spiritual bliss, which results from

it, and culminates in the eradication of the defilements of rāga (lust),

dosa (hatred) and moha (delusion). Hence the term that is invariably

used in specifying the good actions which lead to the spiritual bliss of

Nibbāna is kusala, whereas the term more frequently used for

specifying the good actions which lead to sensuous enjoyment and

happiness in saṃsāra is puñña.464

In various places in the Pāli canon, the Buddha speaks of beings being born in

heavenly world as well as hell, and states that their rebirths take places depending

on their past actions, either good or evil. On the other hand, practitioners who

have transcended puñña, such as those already in the noble path, attain nibbāna.

In order to track the individual and social life into proper structure, Buddhism

recommends morality in whatever way one acts. In the Dhammapada verse No.

183, to avoid all evil and cultivate what is good and true, and to purify one’s mind

is said to be the advice of all the Buddha.465 A better way to see the moral aspect

463
The opposite of the two are evil (pāpa) and unwholesome (akusala). For a comprehensive
study on the two, see P.D. Premasiri (2006): 77-95. See also M.M.J. Marasinghe (2005): 457-
475. S.K. Nanayakkara (1996): 258-259.
464
P.D. Premaisiri (2006): 83. Premasiri (2006: 79) further notes that the term ‘kusala’ does not
occur in the Veda and early Jain texts, although it occurs in the Upaniṣadic text, but not in the
moral context. The term, however, is used in Buddhism in the moral context.
465
Dhp: 52.

96
of Buddhist doctrine of kamma is from the disciplines prescribed for both the lay

community as well as the monastic community. 466 Moreover, the adjective

‘sammā’ 467 in the Noble Eightfold Path also demonstrate the significance of

morality in the Buddhist path to liberation. Therefore, it is stated that the Buddhist

path is good in the beginning, good in the middle and good in the end.468

The above explanation, on both the Buddhist doctrine of soullessness and the

volitional kamma, points out that the Buddha with the middle path presented his

own distinct doctrine aloof from the practices of Sassatavāda and Ucchadevāda.

In particular, with the doctrine of anatta the Buddha rejected the ātman/atta

concept of both groups and the Buddhist doctrine of kamma, where volition and

morality were of utmost significance, transcended the kamma teachings

recommended by the religious groups of his time. Moreover, in Buddhism, the

acceptance of the moral responsibility of one’s action shows that one is

responsible for one’s own deeds. With this, Buddhism also rejects the creation

theory taught in other religions.469 One could observe that the introduction of the

Buddhist teachings with these distinct doctrinal and ethical features and by

rejecting the core teachings of his contemporaries, the Buddha paved the way for

a new path, that leads to the complete end of suffering.

466
In fact, the life span of the Buddha’s dispensation is said to depend on the disciplines, for which
the monks in the first council decided to recite the Vinaya rules first. Moreover, when the
Vinaya rules are established, the sāsana also gets established. See VinA I: 13.
467
Generally rendered as: right, proper, correct.
468
Cf. D I: 62; Y. Karunadasa (2017): 18.
469
Cf. Y. Karunadasa (2017): 81. This point should not be understood lone as such; it should
however be related to the theory of dependent co-arising. If one is of the view that everything
is the result of a creator God, while it would deny the moral consequences of one’s own
actions, this view also would lead to the denial of the causal theory. In introducing the causal
theory, the Buddha states that whether a Tathāgata arises or not this causal theory is still there
and this applies to all the phenomenon. See S II: 25. See also D.J. Kalupahana (2009): 39, 50.

97
3.4. Sassatavāda versus Ucchedavāda:

The two statements the Buddha made in the Dhammacakkapavattana-sutta

against the pursuit of sensual pleasures and the pursuit of self-mortification, the

religious practices of Ucchedavāda and Sassatavāda respectively, need special

attention at the outset of this section of the subject in question. Accordingly, the

Buddha states:
470
Yo cāyaṃ kāmesu kāma-sukhallikānuyogo hīno gammo

puthujjanīko anariyo anatthasaṃhito. Yo cāyam attakilamathānuyogo

dukkho anariyo anatthasaṃhito.471

The pursuit of sensual happiness in sensual pleasures, which is low,

vulgar, the way of worldlings, ignoble, unbeneficial; and the pursuit of

self-mortification, which is painful, ignoble, unbeneficial.472

A careful observation shows that the Buddha used five adjectives to criticise the

practice of sensual pleasures and only three against the practice of self-

mortification. A further observation also points out that the Buddha used stronger

negative adjectives473 against the pursuit of sensual pleasures, while he took a

softer tone towards the Sassatavādins.

According to the commentarial explanation, the pursuit of sensual pleasure is

inferior, belonging to the villagers,474 enjoyed by very foolish people, it is neither

470
In PTS edition (S V: 421), this phrase runs as kāmesu kāmesu khallikānuyoga. However, it
should be kāmesu kāma-sukhallikānuyoga as in CS.
471
S V: 421.
472
Translation by Bhikkhu Bodhi (2000): 1844.
473
The adjectives are rather used in an inconsiderate way. Cf. Piya Tan (2010): 55 n167.
474
The sub-commentary explains this is [something that is] served by the villagers. See SṬ
[Saccasaṃyuttaṃ, Dhammacakkapavattanasuttavaṇṇanā].

98
of noble nor pure nor highest, and it is not of the nobles, it is not equipped with

welfare and is not based on making welfare and happiness. 475 With regard to the

pursuit of self-mortification, the commentary states that it is conducive to pain by

killing 476 oneself by leaning against (covering) thorns. 477 In fact, these two

statements, in the Dhammacakkapavattana-sutta, are the Buddha’s first criticism

against the eternalists and the annihilationists. In the Sampasādanīya-sutta, when

Sāriputta explains the sixteen excellences of the Buddha, he mentions that the

Buddha’s way of teaching with regard to eternalism is unsurpassable.478 Sāriputta,

however, does not mention of anything regarding Buddha’s knowledge with

regard to the annihilationism. These two instances, specially the statements in the

Dhammacakkapavattana-sutta, point out that, although the Buddha rejected both

religious groups, however, he differed in his attitudes towards them to a huge

extent.

In explaining this different attitude of the Buddha towards Ucchedavāda and

Sassatavāda, a few scholars, such as Y. Karunadasa and Michitoshi Manda,479

have precisely pointed out kamma and moral responsibility to be the factors

considered in this regard. As explained in the preceding sections of this study, it is

clear that while the materialists deny the efficacy of kamma, the eternalists on the

other hand had their own forms of kamma theories. The materialist denial of the

moral consequences of kamma is very well presented by the Buddha in the

Sāmaññaphala-sutta with the example of Pūraṇa Kassapa:

475
See SA III: 297
476
Or, torturing.
477
See SṬ [Saccasaṃyuttaṃ, Dhammacakkapavattanasuttavaṇṇanā].
478
See D III: 108f.
479
Y. Karunadasa (2017): 18-19; Michitoshi Manda (1996): 22.

99
 If one acts or induces others to act, mutilates or induces others to

mutilate, tortures or induces others to torture, inflicts sorrow or

induces others to inflict sorrow, oppresses or induces others to

oppress, intimidates or induces others to intimidate; if one destroys

life, takes what is not given, breaks into houses, plunders wealth,

commits burglary, ambushes highways, commits adultery, speaks

falsehood – one does no evil. If with a razor-edged disk one were to

reduce all the living beings on this earth to a single heap and pile of

flesh, by doing so there would be no evil or outcome of evil. If one

were to go along the south bank of the Ganges killing and inducing

others to kill … by doing so there would be not evil or outcome of

evil. If one were to go along the north bank of Ganges giving gifts and

inducing others to give gift, by doing so there would be no merit of

outcome of merit. By giving, self-control, restraint, and truthful

speech there is no merit or outcome of merit.480

The whole passage, narrated by Ajātasattu to the Buddha, points out that Pūraṇa

Kassapa denied both moral consequences of both evil and good actions. In the

Saleyyaka-sutta, the Buddha calls such views as wrong view and distorted view

which are unrighteous and not in accordance with the Dhamma.481 In their pursuit

of the enjoyment of sensual pleasures, the materialists go to such an extreme level

where, while denying moral consequences of actions, they proceed to the stage of

denying even their parents, their own existence and rebirth (or saṃsāra).

480
Translation by Bhikkhu Bodhi (2008): 19. For Pāli text, see D I: 52. Pāyāsi also presented a
similar materialist view. Cf. S IV: 343-350. See D II: 356. See also D.J. Kalupahana (2009):
13-14.
481
M I: 287. Cf. D III: 264-265; M I: 515-516; S III: 206-207; A I: 193; A IV: 226; A V: 266, 282-
287; Mn I: 189; Miln: 5; Pp: 26.

100
Moreover, there is also no place for spiritual praxis in materialism. This is further

elaborated in the doctrine taught by Ajita Kesakambala, a contemporary of both

the Buddha and Pūraṇa Kassapa.

There is no giving, no offering, no liberality, no present world, no

world beyond, no mother, no father, no beings who have taken rebirth.

In the world there are no recluses and brahmins of right attainment

and right practice who explain this world and beyond on the basis of

their own direct knowledge and realization.482

Jain texts too record such materialistic views of the Ucchedavādins, however, the

expounders of Jainism too, like in Buddhism, have been strongly critical of such

views.483 In the Sevitabbāsevitabba-sutta,484 the Buddha explains that such views

lead to the increment of demerits, while the opposite increase merits. In another

instance,485 such views are stated to be leading one to hell. On another occasion,

in the Apaṇṇaka-sutta,486 the Buddha states that those who expound such views

are expected to deny the three wholesome states, namely the physical, mental and

verbal good conduct. However, one with the positively opposite views are said to

reap the moral benefits as they renounce such views and practices having realized

the danger in them.

482
Translation by Bhikkhu Bodhi (2008): 22.
N’atthi mahā-rāja dinnaṃ n’atthi yiṭṭhaṃ n’atthi hutaṃ, n’atthi sukaṭa-dukkaṭānaṃ
kammānaṃ phalaṃ vipāko, n’atthi ayaṃ loko n’atthi paro loko, n’atthi mātā n’atthi pitā,
n’atthi sattā-opapātikā, n’atthi loke samaṇa-brāhmaṇā sammaggatā sammā-paṭipannā ye
imañ ca lokaṃ parañ ca lokaṃ sayaṃ abhiññā sacchikatvā pavedenti. D I: 55. See also D.J.
Kalupahana (2009):14; K.N. Jayatilleke (2008): 5. Cf. D III: 264-265; M I: 515-516; S III:
206-207; A I: 193; A IV: 226; A V: 266, 282-287; Mn I: 189; Miln: 5; Pp: 26.
483
See B.C. Law (1937): 76ff.
484
See M III: 53.
485
See A V: 282-287.
486
M I: 402-409.

101
On the other hand, as stated earlier, the Sassatavādins had their own forms of

karmic theories. One such example is the karma theory taught in Jainism. It

should be noted that the terms puñña (Sanskrit: puṇya) and pāpa, which are very

commonly used in the Pāli sutta-s to denote moral and immoral actions, are

prevalent in both Upaniṣadic and the Jain texts. Shri Pujyapada, in his

Sarvarthasiddhi, states that there are two kinds of actions in Jainism, namely

merit (puṇya) and demerit (pāpa).487 He further states, “virtuous activity is the

cause of merit (puṇya) and wicked activity is the cause of demerit (pāpa).”488 In

defining what is good and evil, it is stated:

Killing, stealing, copulation, etc. are wicked activities of the body.

Falsehood, harsh and uncivil language are wicked speech-activities.

Thoughts of violence, envy, calumny, etc. are wicked thought

activities.489

Moreover, karma-s of good and bad are said to flow into the jīva.490 In the

Upaniṣadic texts, karma-s are also morally divided into good and bad. E.g., in the

Śatapathabrāhamaṇa, it is said: one becomes good by good action, and evil by

evil action.491 Besides the two terms puṇya and pāpa, sukṛta and duṣkṛta are also

said to be used to mean good and evil respectively.492 Good actions, according to

the Sassatavāda religious group, leads one to heavenly world, while the evil doers

are guided to the lower realms.

487
See S.A. Jaini (1960): 168.
488
Translation by S.A. Jaini. See ibid.
489
ibid.
490
See Y. Krishan (1988): 197; T.G. Kalghatgi (1965): 235; Peter Flügel (2012): 20; Muni
Shivkumar (1984): 90-91. Cf. Padmanabh S. Jaini (2001):115; Muni Shivkumar (1984): 99f.
491
Quoted by P.D. Premasiri (2006): 35.
492
See Y. Krishan (1988): 195.

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 The virtuous and pious men who perform morally good actions and

practise the prescribed religious rites rise to the heaven, and those who

indulge in the evil actions, morally contemptible deeds and are

addicted to irreligious deeds, are sent by Varuna to the dark regions

of the hell.493

These evidences prove that in the Sassatavāda religious group some forms of

morality are encouraged in their respective religious definitions of karma.

One of the differences, however, between the Buddhist doctrine of kamma and

that of some of the Sassatavāda religions is the results of actions. E.g., in Jainism,

all kinds of karma-s, whether good or bad, intentional or unintentional,494 are said

to produce consequences. 495 In other words, every past action will result in

retribution to the performer of that action.496 Therefore, one is encouraged to the

non-committing of action in order to exhaust the past karma-s as well as put a

stoppage to any future karma-s. This is in contrast to the Buddhist doctrine of

volitional kamma and its relation to conditionality.

Although both Jainism and Buddhism encourage non-violence, in the former, the

practice of non-violence is led to an extreme level. The Jain priests are said to

carry utensils, such as water strainers to strain water before its usage and brooms

493
G.N. Joshi (1965): 21-22. Cf. Y. Krishan (1988): 195; Noble Ross Reat (1977): 163.
494
It is, however, stated in the Sarvarthasiddhi, the commentary by Shri Pujyapada on the Ācārya
Umaswami's Tattvārthasūtra, that one distinguished good and bad action by knowing the
intention. According to Pujyapada, “that activity which is performed with good intentions is
good. And that activity which is performed with evil intentions is wicked.” See S.A. Jaini
(1960): 168.
495
See Y. Krishan (1988): 198.
496
Cf. Padmanabh S. Jaini (2001):112.

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to sweep away living beings/things from the road they travel along.497 Jainism

was therefore popular among the Indian religions for its practice of extreme non-

violence. Although one could notice a form of morality in such practices in

Jainism498––which is implemented in the most extreme painful forms––nowhere

in the Buddhist teachings, the Buddha encourages any of such painful practices

for the attainment of nibbāna. Moreover, while such painful practices are said to

be leading to emancipation in Jainism, the path to emancipation in Buddhism is

said to be aloof from such painful experiences. The Buddhist path, as mentioned

earlier, does neither fall in such extreme painful practices nor in the extreme

enjoyment of pleasures in sensuality. This articulation further proves that while

Buddhism encourages morality along the middle path without falling into any of

the extremes, Jainism recommended an extreme form of morality.

As Y. Karundasa points out,499 the theory of morality in Buddhism consists of

three significant principles, namely the recognition of moral kamma

(kammavāda),500 the recognition of the commitment to moral good (kiriyavāda)

and the effort to do good (viriyavāda). On the three, Karunadasa states:

What they seek to show is that the advocacy of moral life in itself is

not adequate. To be meaningful, the advocacy of moral life must be

supplemented, first with a rational explanation as to the efficacy of

moral actions, and secondly, with a justification for the necessity and

497
Cf. Matthew Zaro Fisher (2017): 26-36.
498
Cf. B.C. Law (1937): 67, 74.
499
Y. Karunadasa (2017): 80:
500
Cf. M III: 138-144.

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 desirability of the role of human effort in the practice of the moral

life.501

Karunadasa’s statement further highlights that there are in fact three important

levels of commitment in the Buddhist theory of morality. Accordingly, in every

stages of the implementation of an action, morality is given a high priority. To

proceed along such a path, the Buddha emphasizes that first one should develop

right understanding (sammā diṭṭhi), the first limb of the Noble Eightfold Path,

which is the path for the complete ending of dukkha. Sammā diṭṭhi assists one to

grasp the reality as it is without being afflicted.

In the Mahācattārīsaka-sutta, while pointing out that the views of the

Ucchedavādins are wrong views,502 the Buddha explains that sammā diṭṭhi is of

two kinds:

Right view, I say, is twofold: there is right view that is affected by

taints, partaking or merit, ripening on the side of attachment; and there

is right view that is noble taintless, supramundane, a factor of the

path.503

Accordingly, what the Buddha meant by the first type is worldly,504 and is also

relating to the views of the Sassatavāda. With regard to the second, which is

501
Y. Karunadasa (2017): 80. See also George Grimm (1994): 311-316.
502
I.e., the denial of the moral efficacy of kamma, parents, rebirth, etc. See M III: 71-72.
503
Translation by Bhikkhu Ñāṇamoli and Bhikkhu Bodhi (1995): 934-935.
Sammādiṭṭhiṃ p’ahaṃ, bhikkhave, dvayaṃ vadāmi. Atthi, bhikkhave, sammādiṭṭhi sāsavā
puññābhāgiyā upadhivepakkā; atthi, bhikkhave, sammādiṭṭhi ariyā anāsavā lokuttarā
maggaṅgā. M III: 72. See Also MA IV & V: 131.
504
‘There is what is given and what is offered and what is sacrificed; there is fruit and result of
good and bad actions; there is this world and the other world; there is mother and father; there
are beings who are reborn spontaneously; there are in the world good and virtuous recluses and
brahmins who have realized themselves by direct knowledge and declare this world and the
other world.’ This is right view affected by taints, partaking of merit, ripening on the side of

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noticeably of a one who is already in the path to enlightenment, the Buddha

explains:

The wisdom, the faculty of wisdom, the power of wisdom, the

investigation-of-states enlightenment factor, the path factor of right

view in one whose mind is noble, whose mind is taintless, who

possesses the noble path and is developing the noble path: that is right

view that is noble, taintless, supramundane, a factor of the path.505

Thus, in the Sammādiṭṭhi-sutta, Sāriputta explains that knowing what is

unwholesome and its root and knowing what is wholesome and its root is sammā

diṭṭhi.506 The disciple further mentions that this sammā diṭṭhi of a noble disciple is

straight, is endowed with deep confidence in the Dhamma and has mastered the

true Dhamma.

From the three significant principles of the Buddhist theory of morality, one could

directly observe that there is neither of the three in materialism, as they deny

‘right action’ and its moral responsibility. Moreover, as the Ucchedavādins deny

the efficacy of actions, it can be stated that such views also lead to the denial of

the attainment of emancipation, which is the complete end of dukkha, the highest

attainment in Buddhism. This also points out that whatever the materialists

advocated is not sammā diṭṭhi, but micchā diṭṭhi.507 Another important point to

note here, in the general social context, is that one could also observe that such

attachment. Translation by Bhikkhu Ñāṇamoli and Bhikkhu Bodhi (1995): 935. For Pāli text,
see M III: 72.
505
ibid.
Yā kho, bhikkhave, ariyacittassa anāsavacittassa ariyamaggassa samaṅgino ariyamaggaṃ
bhāvayato paññā paññindriyaṃ paññābalaṃ dhammavicayasambojjhaṅgo sammādiṭṭhi, –
ayaṃ, bhikkhave, sammādiṭṭhi ariyā anāsavā lokuttrā maggaṅgā. ibid.
506
M I: 46-47. See also Nyanatiloka Mahathera (1927): 22-24.
507
See Nyanaponika Thera (2008): 4.

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views would lead to the collapse of the moral structure (or pillars) of the society.

Thus, the spiritual life advocated by the materialists is completely against any

moral principle,508 while the Buddha advocated morality as one of the pillars of its

teachings and the dispensation.

In the above explanation, with regard to Ucchedavāda and Sassatavāda, it is

noticeable that for the Ucchedavādins, the enjoyment of sensual pleasures is the

primary aim of life. Even though they hold the ātman view, or the existence of

ātman, the concept however does not have a stronger impact in the group,509

unlike in the Sassatavāda group. In materialism, as the ātman and the body is

believed to be one and the same, the ātman is annihilated at the dissolution of the

body at dead. 510 The ātman concept in fact shapes the religious life in the

Sassatavāda religious group. As mentioned earlier, the union of ātman and

Brahman is the final liberation in the Vedic tradition, while the complete

purification of the ātman is the final emancipation in Jainism. The Brahmajāla-

sutta also clearly points out the significance of the ātman concept in

Sassatavāda.511 Accordingly, the soul is said to be transmigrating from one birth

to another since unknown beginning. Hence, shaping the view of eternalism.

However, the ātman concept is one of the significant factors that Buddhism stands

against and proceeding to completely reject ātman either in this life or an eternal

one. Thus, the Buddha rejects both views of Ucchedavāda and Sassatavāda with

regard to the ātman concept by presenting the unique doctrine of soullessness,

508
In fact, the general spiritual praxis advocated in the religious arena was absent in materialism.
Both in Brahmanism and other samaṇic religious groups, celibacy was an integral part of
spiritual life. However, the materialists advocated for the complete opposite.
509
Cf. D I: 34-36.
510
See also B.C. Law (1937): 76.
511
See D I: 13ff.

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which has already been explained earlier. Accordingly, since there is no soul,

there is neither a soul being annihilated at death in this life nor a soul

transmigrating to another life after death.

An important feature in the religions classified under the Sassatavāda is that they

all believe in karma and it plays a significant role in achieving their goals, such as

emancipation. This goal is achieved through karma-s based on moral values

defined from respective religious perspectives.512 This points to the fact that in

contrast to the materialist’s rejection of the moral consequences of one’s actions,

karma plays a significant role in achieving one’s goal in eternalism; it may be

either for heavenly achievement or spiritual emancipation. Thus, both Buddhism

and the religious groups classified under Sassatavāda have one common feature;

i.e., to attain emancipation, though through different paths. As both Buddhism and

the Sassatavādins advocated the efficacy of kamma/karma, it is important to note

that there could be misunderstanding of the Buddha to have borrowed teachings

from older religions. Indeed, it is a fact that there are several similarities between

Buddhism and some of the Sassatavāda religions, specially Jainism, which co-

existed with Buddhism during the Buddha’s time. For example, in most of the

Sassatavāda religions, including the Upaniṣads and Jainism, one should refrain

from evil deeds such as killing or harming another. Such similarities, in fact, have

already led some scholars to assume so.513 However, a proper analysis of the

Buddhist doctrine of kamma and its path to liberation would prove to be

otherwise. For example, as explained earlier, sammā diṭṭhi plays a significant role

512
E.g., see G.N. Joshi (1965): 22.
513
See Lal Mani Joshi (2008): 5, 7, 11, 17-18. Cf. Trevor Ling (2013): 13, 84.

108
in any aspect of Buddhism. Just as Sāriputta has articulated,514 in Buddhism,

knowing well what is wholesome and its roots and knowing well what is

unwholesome and its roots is proper understanding. Thus, in the Buddhist path to

liberation, there is neither harm to oneself nor to any other beings. The Buddhist

path is for the welfare of oneself as well as others.515 On the other hand, in the

Vedic religions, sacrifice has been an integral part of the Vedic path to liberation.

While in Jainism, self-torture to weaken past karma-s and for the stoppage of

committing new karma-s is an integral part of the path to liberation.

Moreover, the Buddhist theory of dependent co-origination leads the Buddhist

doctrine to transcend all other doctrines prescribed by older and contemporary

religions516 of the Buddha. As demonstrated earlier, whether it is the doctrine of

kamma or the concept of atta or the path to liberation, in Buddhism, the theory of

dependent co-origination plays significant roles. 517 This theory exists as a

universal law.

Whether there is an arising of Tathāgatas or no arising of Tathāgatas,

that element still persists, the stableness of the Dhamma, the fixed

course of the Dhamma, specific conditionality.518

This theory also plays an important part in rejecting the idea of a creator God. In

the Brahmajāla-sutta, views of creation theories have been classified as wrong

514
M I: 46-47. See also Nyanatiloka Mahathera (1927): 22-24.
515
Cf. S V: 421.
516
These include both Ucchedavāda and Sassatavāda.
517
Cf. Y. Karunadasa (2017): 81.
518
Translation by Bhikkhu Bodhi (2000): 551.
Uppādā vā tathāgatānam anuppādā vā tathāgatānaṃ, ṭhitā vā sā dhātu dhammaṭṭhitatā
dhammaniyāmatā idapaccayatā. S II: 25. See also Y. Karunadasa (2017): 1.

109
views.519 With the theory of dependent co-origination, Buddhism explains that

nothing arises or exists or changes by its own; all the phenomenon is subject to

conditioning and interdependency.

3.5. Conclusion

3.5.1. Summary

A careful study of the religious background of the Buddha’s time would show that

while searching for emancipation from worldly sufferings, the religious groups

were also campaigning against one another for religious and social dominance in

the region (Jambudīpa). However, for the Buddha, the religious praxis and its

impact on human life were more significant. Thus, rather than campaigning to

dominate over other religions, he classified the religions of his time into two

major groups as Ucchedavāda and Sassatavāda based on their prescribed

practices and the ultimate goals. The first group, literally rendered as the belief in

annihilation (or just ‘annihilationism’), has been referred to as materialism in the

present study as they emphasized and promoted the enjoyment of material life. On

the other hand, the other group is rendered as eternalism for the belief in an

eternal soul which transmigrates from one life to another.

The essence of spirituality, a core feature of religious life, was completely absent

in Ucchedavāda. The enjoyment of sensual pleasures in the maximum level was

519
See D I: 17ff. See also Bhikkhu Bodhi (2007): 192-193.; Y. Karunadasa (2017): 155f. Helmuth
Von Glasenapp (1966): 35-47.

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the primary aim of life for the Ucchedavādins.520 Such high level of the pursuit of

the enjoyment of pleasures is so extreme that it leads to the denial of moral

efficacy of kamma.521 According to them, meritorious actions are practices of the

fools. This group also held the view that an individual is made up of the four great

elements.522 Moreover, according to them, the body and the soul are one and the

same. 523 Therefore, the soul is believed to be annihilated together with the

dissolution of the body at death. The materialist teachings, as presented in the Pāli

sutta-s, show that they even deny the existence of parents and other world.524

And, therefore, for them, there is neither rebirth nor transmigration of a soul.

On the other hand, the practices promoted by the Sassatavāda group was in

complete contradiction to Ucchedavāda. In other words, this group campaigned

against the latter group. This means the Sassatavādins encouraged the

renunciation of material life and promoted spirituality. The group also presented

respective forms of morality and encouraged the followers to committing good

and refraining from evil actions. Moreover, while the Ucchedavādins were more

concern about the enjoyment of sensual pleasures at the highest level, the

Sassatavādins pursued a way to achieve emancipation from worldly sufferings. In

the Sassatavāda group, ātman plays a significant role and religious life is shaped

on the basis of the soul. Some religions, such as Brahmanism, was of the view

that the ātman’s union with the Brahman is the final liberation. In Jainism, a

520
See E.B. Cowell and A.E. Gough (1882): 2.
521
See e.g., D I: 55.
522
See E.B. Cowell and A.E. Gough (1882): 2-3.
523
taṃ jīvaṃ taṃ sarīraṃ. M I: 427.
524
See D I: 55.

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samaṇic religion in the same group, taught that the purification of the jīva is the

final liberation, which is achieved with the practice of self-mortification.

Buddhism emerged as an opposition to Sassatavāda and Ucchedavāda. The

biography of the Buddha, in fact, shows that the Buddha himself had the

experience of religious praxis recommended by the two groups. In the words of

the Buddha, Sassatavāda and Ucchedavāda are two extremes which he avoided in

his path to Buddhahood. Thus, in the Dhammacakkappavattana-sutta, he explains

that he was able to achieve enlightenment only after he abandoned the pursuit of

enjoyment in sensual pleasures and the pursuit of self-mortification, the practical

sides of Ucchedavāda and Sassatavāda respectively.525 Rejecting these extremes,

the Buddha adopted the middle path––i.e., the Noble Eightfold Path––which is

said to be leading to the attainment of nibbāna, the ultimate goal of spiritual life

in Buddhism.

When introducing the Buddhist teachings to the public, the Buddha also presented

some unique features not found in any of the religions of his time. Among them,

the doctrine of kamma, the doctrine of soullessness, the theory of dependent co-

origination and nibbāna are the most significant. It is to be noted here that these

features were also presented as critics to both Ucchedavāda and Sassatavāda.

With regard to the doctrine of kamma, it is not that this doctrine was completely

new. As explained earlier, different forms of karma were taught in both

Brahamanism and Jainism. However, the Buddhist doctrine of kamma differed to

a greater extant. The Buddhist doctrine of kamma is based on three significant

525
See S V: 421.

112
principles: the recognition of moral kamma, the recognition of the commitment to

moral good and the effort to do good.526 Moreover, in Buddhism kamma begins

with cetanā (intention),527 and for one to commit a moral good action, it should be

accompanied by sammā diṭṭhi, a factor that assists the doer to know what is

morally wholesome and unwholesome. The Buddha also rejected the ātman

concept presented in both Sassatavāda and Ucchedavāda, and presented the

Buddhist doctrine of soullessness. According to this doctrine, a person is the

combination of the five aggregates, clinging upon which the notion of a soul

arises. Buddhism explains that when one sees the aggregates as they are, there is

neither a soul existent in this life nor a soul to transmigrate to another life.

The theory of dependent co-origination, popularly known as the middle doctrine,

sheds a new way of viewing the world. This causal theory, which is said to be

ever existing, explains that all Dhamma-s (phenomenon) are subject to

conditionality, and in every aspects of the Buddhist teachings, including the

doctrines of kamma and soullessness, this theory plays a significant role. The

theory is so important that the Buddha has stated that understanding it is

equivalent to the understanding of the Dhamma.528 According to the Buddha,

whether a phenomenon arises or exists or ceases, it is conditioned by various

other factors. The theory also played vital roles in the Buddha’s rejection of the

views and praxis presented in Ucchedavāda and Sassatavāda.

526
See Y. Karunadasa (2017): 80.
527
See A III: 415
528
Yo paṭiccasamuppādaṃ passati so dhammaṃ passati, you dhammaṃ passati so
paṭiccasamuppādaṃ passati. M I: 190-191.

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Like many religious founders and teachers, the Buddha renounced his royal life

with the aim of finding liberation from worldly sufferings. Religions like

Brahmanism and Jainism presented their respective forms of liberation. Likewise,

the Buddha too presented the Buddhist liberation. However, the liberation

presented by the Buddha is distinct from the liberation presented by any religion,

both in the past as well as present. The Buddhist liberation, as strived for by the

Buddha, is known as the realization of the knowledge of the destruction of

cankers, a realization not attained by any recluse or Brahmin before the Buddha.

3.5.2. Concluding Remarks

It is clear at present that the Buddha rejected both extreme practices and views

presented by the Ucchedavādins and the Sassatavādins. The Buddha’s statement

concerning the two extreme practices, the pursuit of sensual indulgence and the

pursuit of self-mortification, proves that he was not only against them, but also

differed in his attitude towards the two. And, this is observable only from a

comprehensive study of the major doctrinal topics that he taught. As pointed out

by Y. Karunadasa529 and Michitoshi Manda,530 morality played a significant role

in the Buddha’s judgement of the two. Accordingly, as explained earlier, there is

no moral value in the practices promoted by the Ucchedavādins. While morality

was presented as a foundation of the religion and the dispensation in Buddhism,

the Ucchedavādins’ way of life led to the collapse of not only individual life, but

the whole society. In other words, the materialistic practices and the views are

futile and lead to no moral good either in this life or after life.

529
Y. Karunadasa (2017): 18-19.
530
Michitoshi Manda (1996): 959.

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On the other hand, the Sassatavādins presented different forms of morality. In the

Vedic religions, particularly the Upaniṣads, a distinction was made between good

and evil with terms like puṇya and pāpa. For example, those who commit merit

are said to be born in heavenly worlds while those who commit demerit are led to

dark hell.531 In case of Jainism, the practice of extreme non-violence is a clear

evidence of the significance of morality for the Jain followers.532 However, the

Buddhist theory of morality transcended all other moral theories as the Buddhist

presented the doctrine of kamma together with cetanā, the theory of dependent co-

origination and sammā diṭṭhi.533 This means that the materialists are the only

religious group that did not present a moral theory. There is no doubt that

realizing the futility of materialism, the Buddha took a stronger stance in rejecting

ucchedavāda and its pursuit of the enjoyment of sensual pleasures. And, it is not

only Buddhism that has been very critical towards materialism. Śaṅkarācārya, in

his Sarva Siddhānta Saṅgraha, notes that all the non-materialist philosophical

schools were against ucchedavāda. 534 Since there is no moral foundation

presented by the Ucchedavādins, materialism serves neither for individual

development nor social development.

A very important point here to note is that there is no aim or effort of putting a

complete end to human suffering in materialism. For the materialists, the external

force is more powerful than the inner will of an individual. Hence, with the denial

531
G.N. Joshi (1965): 21-22. Cf. Y. Krishan (1988): 195; Noble Ross Reat (1977): 163.
532
For further details concerning the moral teachings presented by the sassatavādins, see also
section 3.5.1. of this chapter.
533
For further details on this, see sections 3.4. and 3.5.1. of this chapter.
534
“The Doctrine of the Lokayatika-s is liable to be objected to by all (other) philosophical
controversialists.” See M. Raṅgācārya (1909): 7.

115
of the moral efficacy of kamma, they also deny to strive for liberation. 535

However, as explained earlier, the primary aim of the Sassatavādins is to

completely end suffering and therefore, they strive for liberation. This is a

significant feature shared by the religions in the Sassatavāda group and

Buddhism. However, although it is a shared feature, there is a significant

difference between the liberation strived for in Buddhism and the liberation in the

Sassatavāda religions. In the latter, liberation is related to divinity; e.g., in the

Vedic tradition, the union of the ātman and the Brahman is considered to be the

final liberation. In contrary, the Buddha’s primary aim for his renunciation was to

find a complete end to human suffering, not an union with divinity or a creator

God or to purify a soul.536 Thus, this leads to the attainment of nibbāna, where

there is neither rebirth nor divinity nor suffering, but supreme bliss.

535
This is specially in the sense of religious striving for the attainment of emancipation. In
religions such as the Sassatavāda group and Buddhism, there is a strong urge to strive for
liberation through [higher] religious (or spiritual) praxis. However, this is completely absent in
Ucchedavāda.
536
This also points out the Buddha’s stance on the ātman concept, which has been already
mentioned earlier, and the concept has been completely rejected with the doctrine of
soullessness. Considering the attitudes of these three groups––ūcchedavāda, sassatavāda and
Buddhism–– =towards the ātman concept, all the three are in opposition towards each other.

116
 Part Two

The Exegetical Exposition

on the Faith Inspiring Discourse

117
 118
 Chapter Four

The Exegetical Exposition

on the Faith Inspiring Discourse537

4.1. The Exegetical Exposition on Sāriputta’s Lion’s Roar538

[873]* I have heard thus.

At one time (ekaṃ samayaṃ):539 [it is with reference to] serene faith. This is the

exposition of the words not explained there.

* Numbers in square brackets are page numbers of the PTS text.

537
The PTS edition’s Sampasādaniya is incorrect. Sampasādanīya, with long ī should be the correct
form as in CS, SHB (633) and Thai (92). See also D III: 99, for the title of the discourse.
The content of the Sampasādanīya-sutta is also found in the Nālandā-sutta (S V: 159-161), and as
an episode in the Mahāparinibbāna-sutta (D II: 81-83). Scholars maintain that the Sampasādanīya-
sutta is an elaboration of the episode in the Mahāparinibbāna-sutta. See K.R. Norman (1983): 21;
G.C. Pande (1995): 111; Dipak Kumar Barua (2003): 451; Piya Tan (2005): 106.
The commentaries on the Mahāparinibbāna-sutta and Nālandā-sutta direct the reader to the
Sampasādanīyasuttavaṇṇanā for the commentarial interpretations and also to avoid their
repetitions. This suggests that the commentary on the Sampasādanīya-sutta is earlier than that of
the former two discourses.
The Sampasādanīya-sutta is also known as Sāriputta’s lion’s roar (. . . sīha-nādo nadito), which the
Buddha himself states in the three discourses. See D III: 99; D II: 82-83; S V: 159-160.
There is another discourse titled Nālandā-sutta, also in the same Nikāya but in a different volume
(S IV: 110). The discourse is a conversation between the Buddha and a householder named Upāli
on ‘why some beings attained nibbāna in this very life and why some do not attain nibbāna in this
very life.’ The content of this discourse is found in the Sakka-sutta of the same Nikāya at S IV:
101-102. Therefore, the Nālandā-sutta mentioned earlier should not be mistaken for this one.
538
The subtitles provided in this translation are based on the CS and the Thai editions. The PTS and
SHB do not provide the subtitles.
539
It is also rendered as ‘once’ or ‘at that time’. This is a phrase found in most of the introductory
passages of the discourses in the Sutta-Piṭaka to denote the reciter, Ānanda, expressing the time of
preaching of the discourse.

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In Nāḷanda (nāḷandāyaṃ): in a city named Nālandā.540 He made that town a [suitable]

place for alms.

At Pāvārika’s mango grove (pāvārik’ ambavane) means at the mango grove of

millionaire Dussa-Pāvārika. 541 He indeed had that garden. Having listened to the

Dhamma-teaching of the Blessed One, being pleased in (with) the Blessed One,

having constructed a monastery consisting542 of huts, caves, pavilions, etc. for the

Blessed One in that garden (mango grove), [and] he offered543 [it to the Blessed

One]. 544 Just like Jīvaka’s mango grove, that monastery became known as 545

Pāvarika’s mango grove. “He dwells in that mango grove of Pāvārika” is the meaning.

540
Nālandā is a small town in Rajagaha, the capital of Magadha. The Buddha is said to have his last
tour through Magadha and stayed in Nālandā, during which arahat Sāriputta uttered his lion’s roar.
See D II: 82-83; Vin II: 287.
According to G.P. Malalasekera, Nālandā is also said to be the birthplace of arahat Sāriputta, the
main expounder of the Sampasādanīya-sutta.
The Mahāvaṃsa also mentions of a village named Nālandā in Poloṇṇaruwa. According to Geiger,
it’s in between modern Matale and Dambulla in Ceylon. The text further states that King
Parakkamabahu had a camp in the area. See Wilhelm Geiger (1953): 301 & 304 (=Cūlavaṃsa I).
See also K.T. Sarao (2007): 76. For detail about the Indian Nālandā, see DPPN.
541
See also DPPN.
542
This means the millionaire also constructed hut, cave and hermitage within [the premises of] the
monastery.
543
In CS, niyyātesi. In PTS, SHB (633) and Thai (92), niyyādesi. Both terms, niyyādesi and niyyātesi,
connote similar meanings.
544
This came to be known as the mango grove of Pāvārika (Pāvārika-ambavana). The following sutta-
s are said to have been preached at this monastery: the Kevaddha-sutta (or Kevaṭṭa-sutta – D I:
211-223), the Upāli-sutta (M I: 371-387), the two Nālandā-sutta-s (S V: 159-161 by Arahat
Sāriputta and S IV: 100 by the Buddha respectively), the Asibandhaka-putta-sutta, Khettūpama-
sutta, Saṅkha-sutta, Kula-sutta, (S IV: 311-325), and the Mahāpurisa-sutta (S V: 158).
545
In PTS and SHB (633), saṅkhaṃ gato. In CS and Thai (141), saṅkhyaṃ gato.
This translation is adapted from the translation of ‘saṅkhaṃ gacchati’ as ‘comes to be reckoned as’
by K.N. Jayatilleke (2010): 290.

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He said this to the Blessed One: Venerable Sir, I am indeed pleased in the Blessed

One, (bhagavantaṃ etad avoca: evam pasanno aham bhante bhagavatī): why is it

said thus? For the purpose of one’s arisen feeling of joy. There, this is the

exposition546 (explanation).

On the early part of that day, having attended to his bodily needs,547 dressed [well]548

with garment,549 having taken the bowl and the robe, by going forward pleasantly, etc.

[and] causing (arousing) pleasantness to the gods and men, practicing550 for the

welfare and happiness of the residents of Nāḷanda, the Elder has entered551 for alms-

round. Returning from alms-round after midday, having gone to the monastery,

having directed [himself] towards the teacher, when the teacher [has] entered

chamber, having worshipped the teacher, he (Sāriputta) went to his own daily

residence. Then, having fulfilled the duties towards the co-resident pupils, after

stepping back, having cleaned [his] daily residence, having prepared a leather rag,552

having cooled553 [his] hands and feet with water from the water vessel,554 having

fetched555 a three-legged coach, having marked limited a time, the Elder entered into

the fruit of meditative attainment. Having emerged from the meditative attainment by

546
In PTS and SHB (633), anupubba-kathā. In CS and Thai (92), anupubbikathā.
547
Also rendered as ‘having taken care of his bodily needs’.
548
In PTS and SHB (633), nivattha-nivāsano. In CS and Thai (92), sunivatthanivāsano.
549
Here it means ‘dressed with robe’.
550
In PTS and Thai (92), anubrūhanto. In CS, anubrūhayanto. And, in SHB (633), anubrūhento.
551
i.e., entered Nāḷandā.
552
i.e., a cushion like a mat made of animal skin.
553
Or, ‘having rested’.
554
In PTS, udaka-kumbhato. In CS, SHB (633-634) and Thai (93), udakatumbato.
555
In PTS, āharitvā. In CS, SHB (634) and Thai (93), ābhujitvā.

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whatever limited time, he started to remember his own virtues. 556 Then, from

remembering his own virtues, the range of morality has been reached.557 And, from

there successively to equipoise, wisdom, liberation, the vision of the knowledge of

liberation, the first absorption558 . . . [874] the attainment of the sphere of neither

perception-nor-non-perception, the knowledge of insight,559 the knowledge of the

divine eye, psychic power, the path of stream entrance, the fruit of stream

entrance, . . . the path of arahat-hood, the fruit of arahat-hood, the analytical

knowledge of meaning,560 the analytical knowledge of the Dhamma,561 the analytical

knowledge of language, 562 analytical knowledge of perspicuity (wit) 563 and the

knowledge of the perfection of a disciple. Thereupon, having made a firm resolution,

556
Virtue is the English rendering used for guṇa while morality is used for sīla in the translation. In
many occasions, guṇa is also rendered as quality.
557
In CS, SHB (634) and Thai (93), āgataṃ. The PTS edition’s āgātaṃ might be a misreading which
provides no proper meaning. Therefore, the appropriate term here should be āgataṃ, which has
been preferred in the other three editions.
558
From here onwards, the CS mentions the remaining jhāna-s and meditative attainments: the second
jhāna, the third jhāna, the fourth jhāna, the meditative attainment of the sphere of boundless space
(ākāsānañcāyatana samāpatti), the meditative attainment of the sphere of boundless consciousness
(viññānañcāyatana samāpatti) and the meditative attainment of nothingness (ākiṅcaññāyatana
samāpatti). While the PTS explains the remaining with ‘…’, the SHB (634) and Thai (93) just omit
them without providing any explanatory note.
559
The CS mentions ‘manomayiddhiñāṇaṃ (the knowledge of projecting mind-made images)
iddhividhañāṇaṃ (the knowledge of psychic power) dibbasotañāṇaṃ (the knowledge of divine
hearing), cetopariyañāṇaṃ (the knowledge of the penetration of the minds of others),
pubbenivāsānussatiñāṇaṃ (the knowledge of remembrance of one’s previous existences)’ after
vipassana-ñāṇaṃ and before dibbacakkhu-ñāṇaṃ, which are omitted in the PTS, SHB (634) and
Thai (93) editions.
560
Attha-paṭisambhidā is the first of the four analytical knowledge-s. According to Nyanatiloka, there
are five things considered as attha: everything dependent on conditions, nibbāna, the meaning of
words, kamma-result, and functional consciousness. See BDN. See also VismE: 436 (Vism: 441-
442).
561
Five things considered as dhamma: every cause (hetu) producing a result, the noble path, the
spoken word, the karmically wholesome, the karmically unwholesome. See ibid.
562
Nyanatiloka explains analytical knowledge of language as the language corresponding to reality,
and the unfailing mode of expression concerning the true meaning and the law. See ibid.
563
This means the knowledge of the preceding three kinds of knowledge in all their details, with their
objects, functions, etc. See ibid and VismE: 9, 436. Cf. A II: 150.

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etc., at the feet of Anomadassī Buddha over an uncountable length of more than one

thousand kappa-s, 564 remembering his own virtues until the virtues appeared while

being seated cross-legged. Thus, the Elder, remembering his own virtues, was unable

to exhibit the extent or the division of the virtues. He thought: “I do not have the

extent or division of the virtues of an upright disciple yet on account of limited

knowledge. I got ordained with reference to which teacher? Of what kind of virtues

are his?” He started to bear in mind the virtues of the one with the ten powers.565

He started to remember the virtues of the one with ten powers566 by means of

morality, by means of equipoise, wisdom, liberation, the vision of the knowledge of

liberation,567 by means of the four foundations of mindfulness,568 by means of the

four right exertions,569 the four psychic powers,570 the four paths,571 the four fruits,572

564
For details on this story, see “Commentary on the biography of the thera Sāriputta” in Apadana
Commentary (atthakatha) translated by U Lu Pe Win.
565
Or ‘one endowed with the ten powers’. For the ten powers of the Buddha, see M I: 69-71.
566
For the ten powers, see M I: 69-71; A V: 33-36. In various places of the Pāli Canon, the Buddha is
described possessing various powers, which scholars have examined. E.g., Reginald A. Ray
explains various powers of the Buddha. See his Buddhist Saints in India (1994): 43-78. See also
“Bala” in Encyclopaedia of Buddhism, Vol. II: 511-513.
567
This part of the sentence ‘samādhiṃ paññaṃ vimuttiṃ vimutti-ñāṇadassanaṃ nissāya’ is omitted in
SHB (634).
568
Contemplation on body (kāyānupassanā), contemplation on feeling (vedanānupassanā),
contemplation on mind (cittānupassanā) and contemplation on mental objects
(dhammānupassanā). The Buddha explains that the four foundations of mindfulness are for the
purification of beings, for the overcoming of grief and lamentation, for the extinction of pain and
sorrow, for attaining the right way, for the direct realization of nibbāna (ekāyano ayaṃ bhikkhave
maggo sattānaṃ visuddhiyā soka-pariddavānaṃ samatikkamāya dukkha-domanassānaṃ
atthagamāya ñāyassa adhigamāya nibbānassa sacchikiriyāya . . .). D II: 291-315. See also M I:
55-63.
From cattāro satipaṭṭhāna onwards, until catu-vīsati koṭi-sata-sahassa samāpatti sañcara
mahāvajira ñāṇaṃ is found in ItA: 7; UdA: 335-336; MṬ [Mūlapariyāyasuttavaṇṇanā] and SṬ
[Oghataraṇasuttavaṇṇanā] with some slight differences.
569
i) effort to avoid the arising of unwholesome states (saṃvara-padhāna), ii) effort to overcome the
unwholesome states (which has already arisen) (pahāna-padhāna), iii) effort to develop the

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the four analytical knowledge,573 the knowledge of the four types of birth,574 and the

four noble lineages575 of the Blessed One. Then,576 he started to remember the virtues

of the one with the ten powers by means of the five factors of striving,577 the fivefold

right equipoise, 578 five spiritual faculties, 579 five powers, 580 five elements of

wholesome states (bhāvanā-padhāna) and iv) effort to maintain the wholesome states (which has
already arisen) (anurakkhana-padhāna). See A II: 13-14.
570
T.W. Rhys Davids renders as ‘four stages to efficiency’. DLB III: 215.
The four are desire (chanda), equipoise (samādhi), effort (padhāna) and mental co-efficient
(saṃkhāra-samannāgata). See D III: 221; A IV: 463-464; Vibh: 216.
A complete chapter (saṃyutta) in the Saṃyutta-nikāya has been dedicated to the detailed analysis
of the four iddhipāda-s in different contexts. See S V: 254-293.
571
Generally, the Noble Eightfold Path is the path (magga) to liberation in Buddhism. However, the
four stages of enlightenment, namely sotāpatti-magga, sakadāgami-magga, anāgāmi-magga and
arahatta-magga, which are also called supramundane path (lokuttara-magga) are referred here.
According to I.B. Horner (1979: 205-256), nowhere in the Pāli canon are the four paths and the
four fruits explained together. Their analyses are rather scattered in the canon varying in their
numbers.
572
Namely, sotāpatti-phala, sakadāgāmi-phala, anāgāmi-phala and arahatta-phala. For detailed
analysis on the four magga-s and four phala-s, see I.B. Horner (1979): 205-256.
573
See BDN.
574
Born from egg (aṇḍaja), born from womb (jalābuja), born of moisture (saṃsedaja) and born
spontaneously (opapātika). M I: 73.
575
In the Aṅguttara-nikāya, the Buddha talks about four noble lineages, reckoned as ancient, of long
standing, traditional, primeval, pure and un-adultered, not confounded, nor shall they be, not
despised by discerning recluses and brāhmin-s [as translated by F.L. Woodward, The Book of the
Gradual Sayings, Vol. II: 30-32].
For the Buddha’s explanation on these four lineages, see A II: 27-29.
576
In PTS, tadā (then, at that time). In CS, SHB (634) and Thai (94), tathā, (so, thus, in this way,
likewise, in such manner). In this context, both fit.
577
Namely, faith (saddhā), health (appābādha), sincerity (asaṭha), firm-effort (āraddha-viriya) and
wisdom (paññā). The Buddha explains that when a bhikkhu possesses these five factors, he does
well in realizing his goal. See M II: 95-96, 128-129; A III: 65.
578
The first jhāna, second jhāna, third jhāna, fourth jhāna and the review sign. The Buddha states that
when a bhikkhu cultivates this fivefold right (proper) equipoise, he is able to realize whatever
higher knowledge his mind directs to realize. See A III: 25-27.
579
The faculty of faith (saddhindriyaṃ), the faculty of effort (viriyindriyaṃ), the faculty of
mindfulness (satindriyaṃ), the faculty of equipoise (samādhindriyaṃ) and the faculty of wisdom
(paññindriyaṃ). S V: 193.
According to the Buddha, one who has completed and perfected the five spiritual faculties he
becomes an arahat, while one who has done half becomes a follower. S V: 201; see also A III: 277.
580
Faith, effort, mindfulness, equipoise and wisdom. See A II: 141f.
Nyanatiloka states that the particular aspect of these five powers, distinct from the five spiritual
faculties, is that they are unshakeable by their opposites: the power of faith is unshakable by

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overcoming, 581 five spheres of liberation, 582 five perfect-accomplished wisdom of

liberation,583 six principles of cordiality,584 the six places of contemplation, 585 six

esteems of reverence,586 six elements of deliverance,587 six continual abodes,588 six

faithlessness; energy, by laziness; mindfulness, by forgetfulness; concentration, by distractedness;

and wisdom, by ignorance. See BDN.
581
Also translated as ‘escape’. The five are namely, escape from lusts (kāmānaṃ nissaraṇaṃ), escape
from thought (vyāpādassa nissaraṇaṃ), escape from one’s bundle of life (vihesāya nissaraṇaṃ),
escape from forms (rūpānaṃ nissaraṇaṃ) and escape from personality (sakkāyassa nissaraṇaṃ).
See D III: 239-241; A III: 245-246.
The Itivuttaka (It: 61) mentions only three, among which, the first two are escape from lust and
escape from form. The third one in the Itivuttaka list ‘the escape from whatever has come to be,
from whatever is conditioned and dependently arisen’ (yaṃ kho pana kiñci bhūtaṃ saṅkhataṃ
paṭiccasamuppannaṃ nirodho tassa nissaraṇaṃ) is not in the above mentioned list.
Nissaraṇa is one of the five pahāna-s: overcoming by repression (vikkhambhana-pahāna),
overcoming by the opposite (tadaṅga-pahāna), overcoming by destruction (samuccheda-pahāna),
overcoming by tranquilization (patipassaddhi-pahāna), and overcoming by escape (nissaraṇa-
pahāna). See nissaraṇa-pahāna in BDN. See also n587 in this thesis.
582
T.W. Rhys Davids and Maurice Walshe translate ‘five occasions of emancipation’ and ‘five bases
of deliverance’ respectively. See DLB III: 229 and LDB: 497.
For the five vimutta āyatana-s, see D III: 241-243.
583
The five are anicca-saññā, anicce dukkha-saññā, dukkhe anatta-saññā, pahāna-saññā, virago-
saññā. D III: 243.
See also ItA I: 15. Cf. pañca vimutti-pari-pācaniyā dhammā in CarA: 7; pañca vimutti-pari-
pācaniyā saññā in ItA: 7; MṬ [Mūlapariyāyasuttavaṇṇanā]; SṬ [Oghataraṇasuttavaṇṇanā].
584
In the sutta-s, it is ‘dhammā sāraṇīyā’. E.M. Hare (1973: 208) and Bhikkhu Bodhi (2012: 865-867)
render it as ‘ways of being considerate’ and ‘principles of cordiality’ respectively. The six are:
maintaining bodily acts with loving-kindness; maintaining verbal acts with loving-kindness;
maintaining mental acts with loving-kindness; sharing without any reservation what one has gained
righteously; dwelling openly or privately with other sentient-beings (monks) with unbroken
virtuous behavior, that is flawless, unblemished, un-blotched, freeing, praised by the wise, un-
grasped, leading to concentration; and dwelling openly or privately with other sentient-being
(monks) with a noble and emancipating view, upon acts, which leads to the destruction of dukkha.
According to the Buddha, these six principles of cordiality create love and respect, and conduce to
cohesion, to non-dispute, to concord, and to unity (cha sāraṇīyā dhammā piyakaraṇā garukaraṇā
saṅgahāya avivādāya sāmaggiyā ekībhāvāya saṃvattanti). See M II: 250-251; A III: 288-290.
585
Buddhānussati, dhammānussati, saṅghānussati, sīlānussati, cāgānussati and devatānussati. See D
III: 280; A III: 284.
586
The teacher (Buddha), the Dhamma, the saṅgha, training, diligence and goodwill. See Vin V: 92; D
III: 244.
587
They are mettā, karuṇā, muditā, upekkhā, animittā and asmīti. For detailed analysis, see D III: 280;
A III: 290-292. See also D III: 239-241 and A III: 245-246, for five properties (pañca nissāraṇīyā
dhātuyo) that lead to escape (deliverance). See also n581 in this thesis.
588
‘Satta’ in ‘satta-vihāre’ must be a typo in the PTS edition. The correct one should be ‘satata’ as in
the editions of CS, SHB (634) and Thai (94), and which occurs in D II: 250 & 281; A II: 198; AṬ.

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excellences (unsurpassable-s), 589 six types of wisdom pertaining to penetration,590 six

higher knowledge-s,591 six unique (unshared/uncommon) knowledge-s,592 seven un-

diminishable factors,593 seven noble treasures,594 seven factors of enlightenment,595

III: 176; CarA: 7; ItA: 7; UdA: 335, MṬ [Mūlapariyāyasuttavaṇṇanā], AṬ

[Dutiyaariyāvāsasuttavaṇṇanā in Dasakanipāta and Vappasuttavaṇṇanā in Catukkanipāta] and SṬ
[Oghataraṇasuttavaṇṇanā]. The CS edition mentions it as ‘satatavihāre’. AṬ [III: 176] explains
‘satata-vihāre’ as ‘endless and unbroken abodes’ (satatavihārā ti niccavihārā nibaddhavihārā).
T.W. Rhys Davids, Maurice Walshe, F.L. Woodward and Bhikkhu Bodhi render it as ‘six chronic
states’, ‘six stable states’, ‘six constant abiding-states’ and ‘six constant dwellings’ respectively.
See DLB III: 234; LDB: 501; BGS II: 210; NDB: 574.
The six are: a monk is neither delighted nor pleased, but remains equable, mindful and deliberate
on occasion of any of the five kinds of sensation and on any impression or idea. See D II: 250 &
281.
The Buddha explains that one whose heart is perfectly released also attains the six-constant
abiding-states (evaṃ sammāvimuttacittassa kho vappa bhikkhuno cha satatavihārā adhigatā honti).
See A II: 198.
589
The six ānuttariya-s are: dassanānuttariyaṃ, savanānuttariyaṃ lābhānuttariyaṃ, sikkhānuttariyaṃ,
pāricariyānuttariyaṃ, anussatānuttariyaṃ. See D III: 250.
590
The Saṅgīti-sutta (D III: 251) mentions six types of perceptions (saññā) pertaining to penetration:
anicca-saññā, anicce dukkha-saññā, dukkhe anatta-saññā, pahāna-saññā, virāga-saññā and
nirodha-saññā.
Dharmapala, in his NettA: 237 (Nett: 237), also includes these six (anicca-saññā, dukkha-saññā,
anatta-saññā, pahāna-saññā, virāga-saññā and nirodha-saññā), with slight difference, to make the
thirty-seven bodhi-pakkiya-dhamma-s to forty-three. According to Rupert Gethin (2003: 273),
these six saññā-s in fact could also be called the six types of wisdom pertaining to penetration.
The term used for ‘pertaining to penetration’ in the PTS edition is ‘nibbedha-bhāginiyā’ and in the
CS, SHB (634) and Thai (94), ‘nibbedhabhāgiyā’ is used.
591
The six are: psychic powers (iddhi-vidha), divine ear (dibba-sota), the knowledge of penetration of
the minds of others (ceto-pariya-ñāṇa), the knowledge of the remembrance of former existences
(pubbe-nivāsānussati-ñāṇa), divine eye (dibba-cakkhu) and the knowledge of the extinction of all
cankers (āsavakkhaya-ñāṇa). In the sutta-s, these are mentions as the three higher knowledge-s
(tisso vijjā) and the six higher knowledge-s (cha abhiññā). See D III: 220, 275 & 281; M I: 22-23,
34-36; S V: 254-293; A V: 211.
For a detailed account of the higher knowledge-s explained in sutta-s in different numbers, see
Bradley S. Clough (2010/2011): 409-433.
592
The Pṭs [I: 133] mentions fourteen knowledge-s of the Buddha, among which the last six are said to
be the unshared knowledge of the Buddha.
593
E.M. Hare (1965: 10-11) and Bhikkhu Bodhi (2012: 1009-1010) render as ‘things that cause not
decline’ and ‘seven principles of non-decline’ respectively. These seven factors, according to the
Buddha help for the growth of both spiritual and social advancement.
For the seven, see A IV: 16-17.
594
The treasure of faith (saddhādhanaṃ), the treasure of morality (sīladhanaṃ), the treasure of shame
[to commit evil] (hiridhanaṃ), the treasure of fear [to do evil] (ottappadhanaṃ) the treasure of

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seven teachings of great being,596 seven things causing to decay (/decline),597 seven

wisdom, 598 seven individuals deserving gifts, 599 sevenfold freedom from mental

obsessions,600 eight causes of the attainment of wisdom,601 eight rightness,602 eight

worldly factors of transgression, 603 eight objects of effort, 604 eight untimely

teachings, 605 eight thoughts of great being, 606 eight stages of mastery, 607 eight

learning (sutadhanaṃ), the treasure of liberality (cāgadhanaṃ) and the treasure of wisdom
(paññādhanaṃ). D III: 251.
595
Rupert Gethin (The Buddhist Path to Awakening, 2003) has done an extensive study on the factors
of enlightenment. His study covers the Pāli canon, the Pāli commentaries and other post-canonical
texts. Steven Collins (1995: 157) comments Gethin’s work to be “a careful (at times plodding),
conscientious (at times repetitive) and exhaustive (at times exhausting) survey of the thirty-seven
items of Buddhist psychological and philosophical analysis.”
596
Knowing the Dhamma (dhammaññū), knowing the meaning [of what is good] (atthaññū), knowing
oneself (attaññū), knowing the limit (being moderate) (mattaññū), knowing the proper time
(kālaññū), knowing the groups (parisaññū) and knowing the individuals (puggalaññū). D III: 252
& 283.
597
For the ten, see D III: 291 & A V: 215-216.
598
Bhikkhu Ñāṇamoli (1982: 363ff) renders ‘paññā’ as ‘understanding’. The seven, which lead to
perfect wisdom, are: the contemplation of impermanence, suffering, non-self, aversion, dispassion,
cessation and relinquishment. For the seven, see Pṭs II: 185-188.
599
The seven are: the both ways liberated (ubhatobhāgavimutto), the wisdom liberated
(paññāvimutto), the body witness (kāyasakkhī), the vision attainer (diṭṭhippatto), the faith liberated
(saddhāvimutto), the Dhamma devotee (dhammānusārī), the faith devotee (saddhānusārī). D III:
253-254.
600
These seven, the Buddha explains, are to be realized, which lead to the abandonment of the mental
defilements. For the seven, see D III: 282-283.
601
See D III: 284-285.
602
Or ‘right personalities’. T.W. Rhys Davids (1921: 238) and Maurice Walshe (1995: 503) render
‘sammattā’ as ‘right factors of character and conduct’ and ‘right factors’ respectively.
The eight sammattā-s are the eight components of the noble eightfold path: right understanding
(sammā-diṭṭhi), right thought (sammā-saṃkappa), right speech (sammā-vācā), right action
(sammā-kammanta), right livelihood (sammā-ājīva), right effort (sammā-vāyāma) and right
concentration (sammā-sati) and right equipoise (sammā-samādhi). D III: 255.
603
The eight are: greed (lābho), non-greed (alābho), disrepute (ayaso), fame (yaso), blame (nindā),
praise (pasaṃsā), happiness (sukhaṃ) and suffering (dukkhaṃ). D III: 260 & 286; A IV: 156-160;
Nett: 162.
604
The eight pertains to the making effort of accomplishing what has not been accomplished. See D
III: 256-258, 287; A IV: 334-335.
605
For a detailed account of the eight, see A IV: 225-228.
606
See A IV: 228-235.
607
See D II: 110-111; M II: 13-14; A IV: 305-306.
In another instance, six different masteries are mentioned. See S IV: 76-77.

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deliverances, 608 nine factors of the roots of proper mental application, 609 nine

elements of effort of purification,610 the teaching on the nine abodes of beings,611 the

nine removal resentments,612 the nine perceptions,613 nine varieties,614 nine successive

abodes,615 ten qualities of a refuge,616 ten objects of kasiṇa exercise, 617 ten factors of

wholesome action,618 ten powers of Tathāgata,619 ten rightness,620 ten noble states,621

ten qualities of a learned,622 eleven benefits of loving-kindness,623 twelve appearances

of the wheel of the Dhamma, 624 thirteen qualities of ascetic practices, 625

608
See A IV: 306.
609
See D III: 288.
610
See D III: 288.
611
See D III: 263; A IV: 401.
612
See D III: 262-263; A IV: 408-409. T.W Rhys Davids (see PED) renders ‘āghāta-paṭivinaya’ as
‘repression of ill-will’.
613
For the nine, see D III: 289-290; A IV: 465. In other instances, the list is given with different
numbers; for a detailed explanation for these nine, see the list with ten in A V: 108-112.
614
See D III: 289.
615
See D III: 265-266; A IV: 410.
616
See A V: 23-29.
617
See D III: 268; A V: 46. Bhikkhu Ñāṇamoli (1995: 1365) renders ‘kasiṇa’ as ‘meditation device.
618
The ten are: refraining from killing (pāṇātipātā veramaṇī), refraining from stealing (adinnādānā
veramaṇī), refraining from sensual misconduct (kāmesu micchācārā veramaṇī), refraining from
false speech (musāvādā veramaṇī), refraining from malicious speech (pisuṇāya vācāya veramaṇī),
refraining from harsh speech (pharusāya vācāya veramaṇī), idle speech (sampappalāpā veramaṇī),
freedom from covetousness (anabhijjhā), non-ill-will (abyāpādo) and right view (sammā-diṭṭhi). D
III: 269; A V: 268.
619
M I: 69-71; A V: 31-38. For a detailed account of the ten powers of the Tathāgata, see T. Endo
(2002): 79-84.
620
The ten are the eight components of the noble eightfold path and right knowledge (sammā-ñāṇa)
and right deliverance (sammā-vimutti).
621
See D III: 269, 291; A V: 29-30.
622
According to Sāriputta, these ten qualities are to be realized. For the ten, D III: 271.
623
For the eleven, see A V: 342. In another instance, only eight are mentioned. See A IV: 150-151.
624
According to the DṬ [III: 67], the realization of the four truths in three phases and twelve aspects
are the two appearances of the wheel of the Dhamma. For the eight, see S V: 421-424.
625
According to Nyanatiloka Mahathera (see BDN), the term ‘dhutaṅga’ occurs only in the
commentary. With regard to the thirteen ascetic exercises, he states that the thirteen are found
scattered in various places of the Pāli canon. Buddhaghosa, in his Visuddhimagga, has dedicated a
complete chapter on the thirteen exercises. See Vism: 59-83; VismE: 55-70.

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[875] fourteen knowledge-s of the Buddha,626 fifteen factors leading to liberation,627

sixteen kinds of breath, 628 eighteen qualities of the Buddha, 629 the twenty-one
630 631 632
retrospective knowledge-s, forty-four factors of knowledge, fifty-five

wholesome factors, 633 seventy-seven factors of knowledge, 634 the great diamond

knowledge that passes through twenty-four hundred thousand koṭi-s635 of meditative

attainments.636 At the same spot of spending the day, they will conclude: “moreover,

Venerable Sir, that is excellent,” on account of that he started to recall the other

sixteen penetrative Dhamma-s.

626
By means of these fourteen knowledge-s, the Buddha is said to be an ‘all-seer’. Furthermore, the
first eight of the fourteen are shared by the enlightened disciples (i.e., the expounding of the eight
knowledge-s with regard to the four paths and the four fruits [see DṬ III: 67]), the remaining six
are only possessed by the Buddha. For the fourteen, see Pṭs I: 133.
627
They are: the five spiritual faculties (S III: 232-239: A III: 277), the five penetrative insights (D III:
243) and the five things taught to Meghiya (Ud: 36-37). Cf. DṬ III: 67; M III: 277ff; Ñāṇamoli
(1995): 1354 n1324.
628
In CS, SHB (635) and Thai (95), ānāpānassatiṃ. In PTS, ānāpāna-satiṃ. For a detailed
explanation of the sixteen kinds of breath, see M III: 78-88.
629
For a detailed analysis of the eighteen and their references in both the Pāli canon and the
commentaries, see T. Endo (2002): 113-133. See also DṬ III: 67-68.
630
In CS, SHB (635) and Thai (95), ‘paccavekkhaṇa...’; note the cerebral ‘ṇ’. In PTS,
paccavekkhana….
631
Cf. D III: 277-278; DA III: 1059; SA III: 142.
632
See DṬ III: 68.
633
ibid.
634
Cf. DṬ III: 68-69.
635
A proper English rendering of catu-vīsati koṭi-sata-sahassa has not been provided due to the
difficulty in understanding the exact meaning of the whole number. Scholars have often avoided
rendering koṭi into English and rather used the Pāli term. Koṭi is found in the Indian counting
system, and generally a koṭi is said to be equal to ten million.
636
See UdA:336; ItA: 7, 145; DṬ III: 69-70. This term (catu-vīsati koṭi-sata-sahassa samāpatti-
sañcāra-mahāvajira-ñāṇaṃ) occurs only in the post-canonical texts, such as the commentaries.
Detailed explanation on the term is scarce even in the commentaries, except the ItA provides a very
short definition. See ItAE: 365-366.
This rendering is adopted from Peter Masefield’s translation of ItA. See ItAE: 19, 365-366. See
also T. Endo (2002): 56-57. Cf. U. Ko Lay’s “Comments on Salient Points in the Sampasādanīya
Sutta”.

129
My teacher is unsurpassable with regard to making known the wholesome factors;637

unsurpassable with regard to making known the sense-bases; unsurpassable with

regard to the modes of conception; unsurpassable with regard to the modes of mind-

reading; unsurpassable with regard to the attainment of vision; unsurpassable with

regard to the designation of individual; unsurpassable with regard to effort;

unsurpassable with regard to the ways progress; unsurpassable with regard to the

proper mode of speech; unsurpassable with regard to a person’s moral conduct;

unsurpassable with regard to the modes of instructing; unsurpassable with regard to

the knowledge of liberating others; unsurpassable with regard to the eternalist

teachings; unsurpassable with regard to the knowledge of the recollection of past

lives; unsurpassable with regard to the knowledge of divine-eye; unsurpassable with

regard to psychic power; and, this and this is unsurpassable – thus, remembering the

virtues of the one with the ten powers, he saw neither the end nor the limit of the

virtues of the Blessed One.

So long the Elder could not see the end and the limit of his own virtues, how will he

see the virtues of the Blessed One? Whose wisdom is extensive and knowledge is

distinct, he has faith in the virtues of the Buddha to greater extant. A mundane person

among the people, having cleared the throat638 and also having sneezed, having

established himself on reliance, he remembers 639 the virtues of the Buddhas as

homage to the Buddhas. A stream-entrant of all the mundane people has faith in the

637
The DṬ explains kusalapaññattiyaṃ as kusaladhammānaṃ paññāpaṇe. DṬ III: 71.
638
This is a common practice found in the Pāli canon, where people seeking to meet the Buddha clear
their throats to draw the attention of the teacher. E.g., see Vin II: 160; Vin IV: 16; D I: 89; A V: 65.
639
In PTS, sarati. In CS, SHB (635) and Thai (96), anussarati. Both imply similar meanings in this
context.

130
qualities of the Buddha to greater extent. Of hundreds and thousands of stream-

entrants, only one once-returner; of the hundreds and thousands of once-returners,

only one non-returner; of hundreds and thousands of non-returners,640 an arahat has

faith with regard to the qualities of the Buddha to greater extent. From the remaining

arahat-s, only the eighty great Elders have faith with regard to the qualities of the

Buddha to greater extent.641 From the eighty great Elders, there are four great Elders.

From the four great Elders, there are the two foremost disciples. Among them, there

is the Elder Sāriputta; [apart] from the Elder Sāriputta, a Pacceka-Buddha has faith in

the qualities of the Buddha to greater extent. If the Pacceka-Buddhas, [876] striking

the corner of the upper robe with [another] corner of the upper robe and sitting in the

entire world-system,642 remember the virtues of the Buddha, from all of them, an all-

knowing Buddha has faith with regard to the virtues of the Buddha to the greater

extent. Likewise, a person may roll the strings for the sake of knowing the great sea,

which is deep and shallow. Then, someone may roll a string for the measurement of a

fathom643, someone for two fathoms, someone for nine fathoms,644 someone for ten

fathoms, someone for twenty fathoms, someone for thirty fathoms, someone for forty

fathoms, someone for fifty fathoms, someone for hundred fathoms, someone for

thousand fathoms, someone for eighty-four thousand fathoms. Or, having mounted a

boat in the middle of the sea or having stood on a high mountain, etc., they may roll

640
This part of the sentence ‘eko anāgāmī, anāgāmīnaṃ satato pi sahassato pi’ is omitted in SHB
(635).
641
This sentence is omitted in SHB (635).
642
In PTS, SHB (635) and Thai (97), paharamānā. In CS, pahariyamānā.
This must be referring to how the robe is worn. When wearing the robes, monks and nuns hold two
corners of the robes and put on their left shoulders striking one corner with the other.
643
In PTS and SHB (635), vyāmappamānaṃ. In CS and Thai (97), byāmappamāṇaṃ.
644
koci nava vyāmaṃ is omitted in SHB (635) and Thai (97).

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down each one’s string. Among them, whose string [knows] the measurement of the

fathom, on account of the very measurement of the fathom that he knows the

[measurement of] water. … also … whose [string is] eighty-four thousand fathoms,

on account of the very measurement of the eighty-four thousand fathoms he knows

the [measurement of] water. He does not know the water beyond this much, neither

the water is that much in the great sea. Therefore, it is infinite and immeasurable. The

great sea is eighty-four thousands of yojana-s deep.645 Indeed, the visible virtues of

the Buddhas should be understood thus by a mundane person just like the water

known with the string of the nine fathoms beginning with the string of one fathom.

The visible virtues of the Buddhas [should be understood] by a stream-entrant just

like the water known with the string of the ten fathoms on account of the very ten

fathoms. The visible virtues of the Buddhas [should be understood] by a once-

returner just like the water known with the string of twenty fathoms on account of the

very twenty fathoms. The visible virtues of the Buddhas [should be understood] by a

non-returner just like the water known with the string of thirty fathoms on account of

the very thirty fathoms. The visible virtues of the Buddhas [should be understood] by

an arahat just like the water known with the string of forty fathoms on account of the

very forty fathoms. The visible virtues of the Buddhas [should be understood] by the

great Elders just like the water is known with the string of fifty fathoms on account of

the very fifty fathoms. The visible virtues of the Buddhas [should be understood] by

the four great Elders just like the water known with the string of hundred fathoms on

account of the very hundred fathoms. The visible virtues of the Buddhas [should be

understood] by Elder Moggallāna just like the water known with the string of
645
A yojana is said to be equivalent to seven miles.

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thousand fathoms on account of the very thousand fathoms. The visible virtues of the

Buddhas [should be understood] by the General of the Dhamma, Elder Sāriputta, just

like the water is known with the eighty-four thousand fathoms on account of the very

eighty-four thousand fathoms. Therein, just as, that person perceives the water in the

great sea not this much, but limitless and immeasurable. Likewise, remembering the

virtues of the one with the ten powers, having established [himself] in the sāvaka-

pāramī-ñāṇa (the knowledge of the perfection of a disciple) in accordance with the

conformity of the Dhamma, in accordance with the conformity of enlightenment, by

inference and by logical reasoning, venerable Sāriputta believes646 the virtues of the

Buddha as limitless and immeasurable.

[877] Indeed, the virtues of the Buddha should be considered [to be] more by the

Elder in accordance with the conformity of the Dhamma and with the visible virtues

of the Buddha. As how?647 Just as, if a person, by journeying to the great river Canda-

bhāga 648 covering 649 eighteen yojana-s, nine from here and [another] nine from

here,650 takes water with the spear of a needle651 the water not taken is more652 than

the water taken by the spear of the needle. Or, just as, if a person takes earth/soil with

646
In PTS, saddahati. In CS, SHB (636) and Thai (98), saddahi.
647
T.W. Rhys Davids (DLB II: 351) renders yathā kathaṃ viya as ‘as how’; Maurice Walshe (LDB:
352) as ‘how is that’ and Piya Tan (2012: 68) as ‘like how [Like what]’. Here, the rendering by
T.W. Rhys Davids is adopted as it is more literal than the other two.
648
See DPPN.
649
Or, having covered.
650
The explanation in DṬ implies ‘from the middle [of the river] as far as the southern shore and from
the middle [of the river] as far as the northern shore’. Ito nava ito navāti ito majjhaṭṭhānato yāva
dakkhiṇatīrā nava, ito majjhaṭṭhānato yāva uttaratīrā nava. DṬ III: 73
651
In PTS, suci-pāsena. In CS, SHB (636) and Thai (99), sūcipāsena. Suci (pure, white, clean) in PTS
is not fitting in the context and seems to be a typo. Therefore, sūcipāsena is appropriate as it is
accepted by the other three editions and as the meaning fits the context.
652
In PTS and SHB (636), bahuṃ. In CS and Thai (99), bahu.

133
a finger from the great earth, the remaining earth is more than the earth taken with a

finger. Or, just as, if a person points a finger towards the great ocean, the remaining

water653 is indeed more than the water pointed by the finger. And, just as, if a person

points a finger towards the sky (/space), the remaining sky is more than the sky

pointed by the finger. Thus, the unseen virtues should be known by the Elder as

more654 than the visible virtues of the Buddha. And, this has been said:

A Buddha also should praise the quality655 of [another] Buddha,

And not speaking for another aeon;

An aeon may waste away while lasting long

The quality656 of the Tathāgata does not waste away.657

653
In PTS, sesa-udakaṃ. In CS, SHB (636) and Thai (99), avasesaṃ udakaṃ.
654
In PTS, CS and SHB (636), bahū (without sandhi: bahu). In Thai (99), bahutara.
655
There are several renderings of vaṇṇa; some of the most common are: color, caste, appearance,
quality, etc. Both I.B. Horner and Peter Masefield (see n657 of this thesis) have preferred ‘praise’.
However, since this stanza is in praise of the Buddha’s qualities, not his complexion or appearance,
‘quality’ is appropriate in this context. Cf. Peter Masefield (1997): 21.
656
In PTS, vaṇṇena. In CS, SHB (637) and Thai (99), and other texts (see the next note), vaṇṇo na.
The latter is the correct form as it is accepted by other editions and texts. See the next note.
For vaṇṇo, cf. D I: 1ff; DA I: 37-38; Bhikkhu Bodhi (2007): 51ff, 92f.
657
This verse is also found in DA I: 288; MA III: 423; UdA: 336; BvA: 135; CarA: 8; ApA: 388; DṬ I:
11 & 65; MṬ (Mūlapaṇṇāsa-ṭīkā, Ganthārambhakathāvaṇṇanā); SṬ (Sagāthāvaggaṭīkā,
Ganthārambhakathāvaṇṇanā); AṬ (Ekakanipāta-ṭīkā, Ganthārambhakathāvaṇṇanā); NettṬ
(Ganthārambhakathāvaṇṇanā) Vinayavinicchayaṭīkā (Ganthārambhakathāvaṇṇanā);
Vajirabuddhi-ṭīkā (Ganthārambhakathāvaṇṇanā); Sāratthadīpanī-ṭīkā (Paṭhama-bhāgo,
Ganthārambhakathāvaṇṇanā).
Translation by I.B. Horner (1978: 193-194):
Even a Buddha should speak praise of a Buddha
Even if he is not speaking of another aeon.
In a long intermediate period an aeon might waste away.
Praise of a Tathāgata should not waste away.
Translation by Peter Masefield (1995: 871):
Even if a Buddha were to recite the praise of a Buddha, proclaiming nothing else for
a kalpa, it would be the kalpa that would, in the long length of time, become
exhausted, not the praise of a Tathāgata that would become exhausted.

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Likewise, the joy and delight658 of remembering the virtues of the Elder’s own and

the teacher’s filled the entire body like the water rising to the great lake having burst

upwards, like the wind pervading, like the flood in between two great rivers. Thence,

the Elder reflected: “indeed, my aspiration has been fulfilled, my ordination has been

well received, I ordained in the vicinity of a teacher of such kind.”659 To him,660

stronger joy and delight arose. Then the Elder, thinking “whom shall I declare

(/express) this joy and delight”: any samaṇa or brāhmaṇa or a deity or an evil one

will not be able to acknowledge having befitted this firm conviction661 of mine; I will

indeed express this delight to the teacher; and the teacher will be able to acknowledge

me. Leave alone my joy and delight, he is able to acknowledge accepting the mind of

all the hundred samaṇa-s or of thousand samaṇa-s or of hundred thousand samaṇa-s

expressing delight like me. [878] Just as, a small pond662 or a cave is not able to

receive the great river Candabhāga, moving 663 and covering eighteen yojana-s;

certainly, a great sea receives that. Leave alone Candabhāga, a great sea receives

hundreds, thousands and also hundred-thousands of such river; it is not evident

whether it is empty or full by that664 to that.665 Likewise, my teacher is able to accept

658
The renderings of pīti and somanassa provided by Pāli–English Dictionaries are synonymous; very
often both are translated as ‘joy’ and ‘delight’ without any distinction leading to confusion. Thus,
in this translation, ‘joy’ has been used for pīti and ‘delight’ for somanassa to show their distinction
at least in Pāli.
659
The CS, SHB (637) and Thai (99) combine the present sentence with the next sentence: …
satthu santikepabbajito’ti āvajjantassa balavataraṃ …. However, PTS takes them as two separate
sentences: … satthu santikepabbajito ti, āvajji. Tassa balavataraṃ ….
660
Or ‘in him’.
661
Cf. K.L. Dhammajoti (2018): 306.
662
In PTS and SHB (637), kussubbho. In CS and Thai (100), kusumbhā.
663
Or ‘flowing/gushing’.
664
Referring to the rivers.
665
In PTS and SHB (637), tassa. In CS and Thai (100), assa.
Referring to the great sea.

135
considering a little of all the delight,666 being expressed, of hundred, thousand and

hundred thousand of samaṇa like me. The rest of the samaṇa-s and brāhmaṇa-s, etc.

are not able to accept667 my joy like a small pond or a cave [does not receive]

Candabhāga. Good, if I inform the teacher of my joy and delight. Having risen up

from his cross-legged seated position, having shaken the leather seat,668 having taken

it, having plucked669 the stem of the flowers in the evening, having approached the

teacher when [the juice of the flowers] were dripping,670 expressing (informing) his

own joy, he has said evaṃ pasanno ahaṃ bhante (Venerable Sir, I am pleased indeed)

etc.

Therein, indeed pleasing671 (evaṃ pasanno): “the faith which has arisen; thus, I have

faith” is the meaning.

Higher and wiser (bhiyyo ‘bhiññataro): “exceedingly higher and distinguished or

exceedingly higher and possessed of higher knowledge, is knowledge beyond others”

is the meaning.

With regard to the perfect enlightenment (sambodhiyaṃ) means with regard to the

knowledge of all-knowing or with regard to the knowledge of the path of/to arahat-

hood. Indeed, the qualities of the Buddha, which is all-embracing, has been gained

666
In PTS and SHB (637), somanassaṃ. In CS and Thai (100), pītisomanassaṃ.
667
In PTS, paṭicchituṃ. In CS, SHB (637) and Thai (100), saṃpaṭicchituṃ.
668
Or, ‘the leather cushion’. Shaken probably to clean off any dust.
669
In PTS and SHB (637), chinditvā. In CS and Thai (100), chijjitvā.
670
Cf. DṬ III: 73. Possibly the liquid dripping down drop by drop from the broken stem.
671
Piya Tan (2005: 112 n26) renders this phrase as ‘it is clear to me’.

136
through the path of arahat-hood.672 The two chief disciples also attained the sāvaka-

pāramī-ñāṇa (the knowledge of the perfection of a disciple) through the path of

arahat-hood. The Pacceka-Buddhas [attained] the knowledge of the solitary

enlightenment. The Buddhas [attained] the knowledge of all-knowing and the entire

qualities673 of a Buddha. Indeed, all of them674 prosper by the path of/to arahat-hood.

Therefore, the knowledge of the path of/to arahat-hood is [a name for] the perfect

enlightenment. On account of that, there is none higher than the Blessed Ones.

Therefore, he said: “the Blessed One is higher and wiser, such as with regard to the

perfect enlightenment” (bhagavatā bhiyyo ‘bhiññataro yadidaṃ sambodhiyan).

Lofty (uḷārā) is excellent.675 This indeed is the expression of excellence: “they eat the

excellent solid food,” in such contexts, it is understood in the sense of sweet thing;

“Vacchāyana,676 due to being lofty, praises Samaṇa Gotama out of commendation,”

in such contexts, it is in the sense of excellence. “The limitless and excellent

radiance,” in such contexts, it is in the sense of greatness. Here, it has been

understood in the sense of excellence. Therefore, “lofty” (uḷārā) is spoken as

excellent.

Bold (āsabhī) is unmovable and unshakable like the words of a noble person.

672
Nyanatiloka renders arahatta-magga as ‘path of holiness’. See BDN.
673
In PTS, Thai (101) and CS, buddha-gune. In SHB (638), buddhañāṇe.
674
In PTS, tesaṃ. In CS, SHB (638) and Thai (101), nesaṃ.
675
See also DA II: 639. Cf. DA II: 433; DA III: 962; AA III: 313; UdA: 245; VvA: 10-11.
See also Peter Masefield (1997): 15-16.
676
Vacchāyana is a wandering ascetic (paribbājaka), also known as Pilotika. See M I: 175ff; MA II:
194. Cf. DPPN.

137
Certainly grasped677 (ek’ aṃso gahito): by knowledge from hear-say or by knowledge

from teacher-lineage. [879] “The concluding statement ‘certainly grasped’ (ek’ aṃso

gahito), has been explained like having penetrated by knowledge from somebody

saying so or having not spoken by hear-say678 or by knowledge from sacred text or by

knowledge from suitability or by knowledge from alikeness to own view or by

knowledge from logic or by knowledge from theory or by the knowledge from

personal experience” is the meaning.

The lion’s roar (sīha-nādo) means a excellent voice (roar). The greatest voice679 has

been uttered680 like by a lion that is neither sluggish nor bellowing is the meaning.

How is that, Sāriputta681 (kin nu682 Sāriputtā): why did this discourse start? For the

inducement to give an inquiry.683 Having roared the lion’s roar, a certain person is not

able to give an inquiry with regard to his own lion’s roar, he does not accept the

677
‘Ekaṃso’ literally means either ‘definitely/surely/certainly/absolutely’ or ‘one shoulder’ which also
gives the meaning as ‘one aspect’. Therefore, in the context of the Sampasādanīya-sutta, ‘ekaṃso
gahito’ could also be rendered as ‘having considered/grasped one aspect’ – for, the Buddha
questions Sāriputta’s declaration made, having considered one aspect of the context. The DA’s
brief explanation (DA III: 878-879) in fact suggests this. Unfortunately, the DṬ does not provide
any particular explanation with regard to the term alone. The translators of the Sampasādanīya-
sutta, except T.W. Rhys Davids, however, have rendered ‘ekaṃso’ as ‘certainty’ and ‘absolutely’
respectively – see LDB: 417 and DISF: 112. T.W. Rhys Davids (DLB III: 95) does not provide a
direct rendering of the term as he translates considering the whole statement.
678
In PTS and SHB (638), iti kirā. In CS and Thai (102), itikirāya.
679
Literally, ‘a noble roar’ or ‘a noble sound’. However, ‘a noble voice’ suits better in this context as it
refers to the subject of the discussion.
680
Literally, ‘has been roared’. Cf. previous note.
681
Translators have differed in translating this phrase: ‘how is this?’ – LDB: 415; ‘of course …’ –
DLB III: 95; ‘well now …’ – DISF: 112.
682
In CS and Thai (102), te. PTS and SHB (638) has the same form as nu.
683
The DṬ explains anuyogadāpan’ atthaṃ as ‘to clarify the inquiry’ (anuyogaṃ sodhāpetuṃ). See
DṬ III: 75.

138
contradiction;684 it is like a fallen monkey on the plaster.685 Just as, an unclean

burning copper, having been kindled, becomes charcoal;686 thus it is like the charred

charcoal. Causing to give, one is able to give an inquiry with regard to the lion’s roar;

he accepts the contradiction; he shines much exceedingly like the burning undefiled

gold and silver. Such is the Elder. On account of that, the Blessed One, having known

that “this is one who is able to inquire,” started this discourse for the inducement of

giving an inquiry with regard to the lion’s roar.

Therein, all of them (sabbe te) means all of them687 by you. “Such morality” (evaṃ

sīlā), in such contexts, he asks about morality and etc. by mundane and

supramundane means. Their detailed explanations are explained in the Mahāpadāna[-

sutta].688

Sāriputta, what will they be (kim pana sāriputta ye te bhavissanti): and, the past ones

as far as the dissolved, having been extinguished like the flame of a lamp gone to the

state of non-existent; when dissolved thus, when gone to the state of non-existent, he

said thus, asking: how will you know ‘what’ (kiṃ) are the qualities of the past

Buddhas, which have been known having defined with your own mind?

684
According to DṬ (III: 75), nighaṃsanaṃ means vimaddanaṃ (crushing/ destroying).
685
The Nālandāsuttavaṇṇanā, in the last clause of this sentence, has silese (on the riddle/puzzle)
instead of lepe. See SA III: 209.
686
In CS and Thai (102), jhāmāṅgāro. In PTS and SHB (638), aṅgāro.
687
Referring to the Fully Enlightened Ones (sammāsambuddha-s) of the past. See DṬ III: 75
688
See D II: 41-45.

139
However, Sāriputta, [do] you [know] that I now (kim pana sāriputta ahan te etarahi):

how do you know them, the future Buddhas, who are unborn, non-existent689 and not

arisen? Knowing their traces and space is like vision of the path. At present, you live

with me at same monastery; wander together for alms-food; sit [at my] right side

during Dhamma discourse. While exerting, he said thus: “how have been my qualities

known by you with your own mind?” When asked, the Elder denied: “this indeed is

not, Venerable Sir” (no h’ etaṃ bhante). And, there is known as well as not known to

the Elder. Why does he deny in his own state of knowing and in the state of not

knowing? He does not do in the state of knowing; he does only in the state of not

knowing.

When started to inquire, the Elder understood: “this inquiry 690 is with regard to the

sāvaka-pāramī-ñāṇa (the knowledge of perfection of a disciple), this inducement is

with regard to the knowledge of all-knowing.” Having not denied with regard to his

own sāvaka-pāramī-ñāṇa (the knowledge of perfection of a disciple), he denies [880]

with regard to the knowledge of all-knowing in the state of not knowing. Therefore,

he explains this: “Blessed One, I do not have the morality, equipoise, wisdom,

liberation, cognizance and reason, skill and all-knowing knowledge of the past, future

and present Buddhas.”

In this case (ettha): among these past, etc. divisions691 of the Buddhas.

689
Also rendered as ‘not [yet] reborn’. Cf. André Bareau (1957): 357.
690
In CS, SHB (639) and (103), na ayaṃ anuyogo. In PTS, ayaṃ anuyogo.
691
i.e., the division of the three time periods.

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Then, now for what (atha kiñ carahi) means then he says: “why has such been spoken

by you with regard to such non-existent knowledge?”

In conformity of the Dhamma (dhamm’ anvayo): having followed the inquiry of the

knowledge from the realization of the Dhamma, the logical reasoning has been

understood as inference knowledge which has arisen. Or, he says: “Blessed One,

having abided in the sāvaka-pāramī-ñāṇa (the knowledge of perfection of a disciple),

I know the knowledge of all-knowing692 by this manner.” Indeed, the inference

knowledge of the Elder is infinite and limitless. Just as, there is no finite or limit of

the all-knowing knowledge, thus is the inference knowledge of the General of the

Dhamma. Therefore, he knows that he693 is of such kind by this and unsurpassable by

this. Indeed, the inference knowledge of the Elder is like having (/possessing) the all-

knowing knowledge. Now, he said “just as, Venerable Sir” (seyyathā pi bhante) etc.

pointing out the simile to expound that inference knowledge.

Therein, because of which the bastion etc. in the Majjhimapadesa694 may not be solid

or weak or may not be altogether, a robbery is not uncertain; therefore, having

considered that, he said “frontier the city” (paccantimaṃ nagaraṃ).

692
In Thai (104), sabbaññutañāṇaṃ is omitted.
693
Referring to the Buddha. In CS, SHB (639) and Thai (104), the statement is as follors:
tena so iminā evaṃ vidho iminā anuttaro satthā’ti jānāti. However, the PTS omits satthā, and
mentions sati instead.
694
In CS and Thai (104), … majjhimapadese nagarassa uddhāpapākārādīni …. In PTS and SHB, …
majjhimapadese nagarassa uddāpapākārādīni ….
Majjima-padesa is the country of Central India, which was the birthplace of Buddhism and the
region of its early activities. For details, see DPPN.

141
Mighty bastion (daḷh’ uddāpaṃ)695 is a base with solid encircling wall.

A gateway with solid encircling wall (daḷha-pākāra-toraṇaṃ): a solid encircling wall

and a solid doorpost.

Why did he say “single gate (eka-dvāraṃ)?” It should be understood that there are

many gates in the city with many strong696 gatekeepers. Only one697 fits at one gate.

And, another similar was not in the Elder’s thought. Therefore, to show only a single

gate for the sake of a simile of his own skilled understanding, he said “one door”

(eka-dvāraṃ).

Wise (paṇḍito): endowed with erudition.698

Accomplished699 (vyatto)700: the pure knowledge endowed with accomplishment.701

Intelligent (medhāvi): endowed with intelligence with regard to the so-called wisdom

to be arisen at that time.

695
In CS and Thai (104), daḷhuddhāpaṃ. In PTS and SHB (639), daḷh’ uddāpaṃ.
696
Or, ‘wise’.
697
In CS, SHB (639) and Thai (105), ekova. In PTS, eko.
698
Or, ‘endowed with wisdom’.
699
Or ‘learned’.
700
In CS and Thai (105), byatto. In PTS, vyatto.
701
The explanation of vyatto is omitted in SHB (639). Instead, the text mentions the exposition of
paṇḍito as: paṇḍiccena samannāgato, visadañāṇo. However, in the PTS, CS, and Thai (105),
visadañāṇo is part of the explanation of vyatto, not paṇḍito.

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The path around the city702 (anupariyāya-pathaṃ) means the path with an encircling

wall by the name anupariyāya.

The joint of the wall (pākāra-sandhiṃ): the disjoined place of two bricks.

The hole of the wall (pākāra-vivaraṃ): the destroyed place of the wall.

Defilements of the mind703 (cetaso upakkilese): the five mental hindrances are the

defilements; [881] which torment, cause pain and oppress704. Therefore, they are

called mental defilements.

Weakening with wisdom (paññāya dubbalī-karaṇe):705 the hindrances, which are

arising, are not allowed to arise with the arising of wisdom,706 they are not allowed to

grow with the arising of wisdom. Therefore, they are called weakening with wisdom.

702
Cf. Joseph Marino (2015): 90.
703
Or, ‘mental defilements’.
704
In CS and Thai (105), vibhādenti. In SHB (639), vihiṭhenti. In PTS, viheṭhenti.
705
In the Sampasādanīya-sutta, this part of the sentence is ‘cetaso upakkilese paññāya dubbalī-
karaṇe’, which Maurice Walshe translates as ‘defilements of mind which weaken understanding’
(see LDB: 418). Piya Tan’s rendering ‘mental impurities sapping the strength of wisdom’ also
connotes similar meaning (see DISF: 113). Their renderings are not agreeable. The rendering by
T.W. Rhys Davids and C.A.F. Rhys Davids as “suppressing the corruptions of mind by wisdom” is
more appropriate (see DLB III: 96). Or to be more literal: weakening the defilements of the mind
with wisdom. The context at this stage of the discourse clearly points out that the author is stating
that the five mental hindrances have been abandoned on account of weakening [them] with wisdom.
Furthermore, that the mental defilements are suppressed with wisdom is also supported by this
commentarial explanation.
706
In other words, the hindrances are not allowed to arise by wisdom which has already arisen.
In SHB (640), this part of the sentence (uppannāya paññāya vaḍḍhitum na denti) is omitted.

143
Mind firmly established (supatiṭṭhita-cittā): having well-established the mind in the

four foundations of mindfulness.

The seven factors of enlightenment as they really are (satta bojjhaṅge yathā-bhūtaṃ):

having cultivated the seven factors of enlightenment in accordance with [their]

intrinsic nature.

Incomparable perfect enlightenment (anuttaraṃ sammā-sambodhiṃ): he points out

that they penetrated the arahatship and the all-knowing knowledge.707 Or, here,708 the

foundations of mindfulness are insight, the path to the factors of enlightenment,

incomparable perfect enlightenment, arahatship. Or, foundations or the path are

combined with the factors of enlightenment, as well as the perfect enlightenment and

arahatship. Indeed, the expounder of the Dīgha Nikāya and its commentaries, Elder

Mahasīva709 said: “having considered ‘the insight as the foundations of mindfulness

and the all-knowing knowledge as the path with regard to the factors of

enlightenment’, there may be a beautiful question. Such is not acceptable.” Thus, the

Elder points out the difference in the cultivation of the foundation of mindfulness and

in perfect enlightenment, like in the middle of broken gold and silver, with regard to

the abandoning of the hindrances of all the Buddhas. Having abided here, the simile

should be fitted. Indeed, venerable Sāriputta pointed out a frontier city, pointed out an

707
In CS and Thai (105), arahattaṃ sabbaññutaññāṇaṃ vā. In PTS and SHB (640), vā is not
mentioned.
708
Or, ‘in this context’.
709
G.P. Malalasekera, in his DPPN, records eight Mahāsīva-s. Among them, one was a king of Sri
Lanka and others were Buddhist monks of different time periods. According to Malalasekera, the
Mahāsīva in question here was a famous commentator, also known as Dīghabhāṇaka.

144
encircling wall, pointed out the path of penetration,710 pointed out a gate, pointed out

a wise711 gatekeeper, pointed out many living-beings at the entrance and exit712 of

the city, and pointed out the well-known condition of those living beings of the wise

gatekeeper. Therein, “like what and by whom” means nibbana is like the city;

morality is like the encircling wall; concentration713 is like the path of penetration; the

noble path is like the door; the General of the Dhamma is like the wise gatekeeper;

the Buddhas of the past, future and present are like many living-beings at the entrance

and exit of the city. Venerable Sāriputta’s well-known condition of the morality and

concentration etc. of the past, future and present Buddhas is like the well-known

condition of those living-beings of the gate-keeper. To that extent, an inquiry of his

own lion’s roar is given by the Elder: “Blessed One, having abided in the knowledge

of perfection of a disciple (sāvaka-pāramī-ñāṇa), I know in accordance with the

logical reasoning and in accordance with the conformity of the Dhamma.”

Here, Venerable Sir, I, where the Blessed One (idhāhaṃ bhante yena bhagavā):714

why did this discourse start? [882] For the purpose of pointing out the achievement of

the knowledge of perfection of a disciple (sāvaka-pāramī-ñāṇa). This is the meaning

here: “Blessed One, obtaining the knowledge of perfection of a disciple (sāvaka-

710
In PTS, pariyāya-paṭhaṃ, which is incorrect. Note the cerebral ṭh (th with a dot underneath). The
correct form should be pariyāya-pathaṃ, as in CS, SHB (640) and Thai (106). See also pariyāya-
patho in the next sentence.
711
Or, ‘strong’.
712
In CS, SHB (640) and Thai (106), pavesanaka. In PTS, pavisanake.
713
In CS, hirī (modesty).
714
The sutta sentence is idhāhaṃ bhante yena bhagavā ten’ upasaṃkamiṃ dhamma-savanāya (see D
III: 101-102), which has been translated as “It happened one day, lord, that I had come to the
Exalted One to listen to the exposition of the norm” by T.W. Rhys Davids and C.A.F. Rhys Davids
(see DLB III: 97).

145
pāramī-ñāṇa) with regard to the ninety-five heresies,715 having approached not other

samaṇa or brāhmaṇa I gained,716 it is only having approached you and attending you,

I gained.”

Therein ‘here’ (idhā) is an indeclinable. I approached for hearing the Dhamma

(upasaṅkamiṃ dhamma-savanāyā): and also,717 approaching you, not approaching for

taking robes etc., but approaching for the purpose of hearing the Dhamma, having

approached thus, I gained the knowledge of perfection of a disciple (sāvaka-pāramī-

ñāṇa).

When is the Elder approaching for the purpose of hearing the Dhamma? He is

approaching on the day of teaching the Vedanā-pariggāhaka[-sutta]718 to the nephew,

mendicant Dīghanaka,719 at Sūkara-khata-leṇa (the cave dug by pig720). Then indeed

he gained the sāvaka-pāramī-ñāṇa (the knowledge of perfection of a disciple). On

that day, the Elder, having taken the palm-leaf-fan,721 standing [aside] and fanning

715
See DṬ III: 79. Cf. W.H. Skyes (1941): 21.
716
Here, the Thai edition (107) mentions sāvakapāramīñāṇaṃ. … upasaṅkamitvā
sāvakapāramīñāṇaṃ paṭilabhiṃ.
717
In CS, pana. In PTS, SHB (641) and Thai (107), pi ca.
718
The discourse is also known as Dīghanaka-sutta (see DPPN) named after the mendicant Dīghanaka.
Naming sutta-s after the person/people to whom the discourses were taught is a common feature in
the Pāli canon. For the complete sutta, see M I: 497-501. See the following note also.
719
Dīghanaka is said to be Sāriputta’s nephew (sister’s son). See DPPN.
It is stated, during the conversation between the Buddha and Dīghanaka, the Elder was listening to
the conversation while fanning the Buddha (see M I: 500-501). See Rhys Davids’ explanation in
DLB III: 96 n1. It is on that day it is referred to herein. The Dīghanaka-sutta states that, at the end
of the Buddha’s teaching, Dīghanaka embraced Buddhism. See also n718 of this thesis.
720
Both Bhikkhu Ñāṇamoli (MLDB: 603) and I.B. Horner (MLS II: 176) render as Boar’s Cave. The
cave is said to be on the side of Gijjhakūta mountain in Rājagaha.
721
i.e., fan made of Palmyra tree leaf (tāla-vaṇṭaṃ). Carrying such a fan by Buddhist monks is still a
common practice in present Sri Lanka.

146
the Blessed One,722 having listened to that discourse, indeed came to possess the

knowledge of perfection of a disciple (sāvaka-pāramī-ñāṇa) there.

Highest of the highest and excellent of the excellent 723 (uttar’ uttariṃ paṇīta-

paṇītaṃ): he taught the highest of [all] the highest.724

Countering the evil and the good725 (kaṇha-sukka-sappaṭibhāgaṃ) means the evil as

well as the good; having countered and contrasted that,726 the good has warded off the

evil, the evil has warded off the good; having countered thus, he taught about the evil

and the good. While teaching about the evil, he taught about his own endeavor and

his own fruition. While teaching about the good, he taught about his own endeavor

and his own fruition.727

The direct knowledge with regard to that Dhamma; here I have realized 728 one

particular Dhamma729 among the Dhamma-s (tasmiṃ dhamme abhiññā idh’ ekaccaṃ

dhammaṃ dhammesu niṭṭham agamaṃ): herein, among that Dhamma which has been

taught, having known730 the knowledge of the perfection of a disciple (sāvaka-

In Thai (107), tālapaṇṇaṃ. In PTS, CS and SHB (641), tāla-vantaṃ.

722
See also M I: 500-501.
723
Cf. T.W. Rhys Davids (1921): 97; Maurice Walshe (1995): 418; Piya Tan (2005): 113.
724
This means: higher than the previous higher, excellent than the previous excellent.
725
Literally, ‘countering the dark and the light’. Cf. renderings by Maurice Walshe (LDB: 418) and
Piya Tan (DISF: 113). T.W. Rhys Davids (DLB III: 97) renders kaṇha-sukk-asappaṭibhāgaṃ as
‘with comparison of the things of light and the things of darkness’.
726
With their opposites and with their results respectively. Cf. kaṇha-sukka in Critical Pāli Dictionary.
727
See also DṬ III: 79.
728
Or ‘arrive conclusively’ as Piya Tan (2005: 113) renders.
729
i.e., faith in the teacher. See D III: 102.
730
In CS and Thai (108), sañjānitvā. In PTS and SHB (641), jānitvā.

147
pāramī-ñāṇa), I have realized one certain Dhamma among the Dhamma-s. Among

which Dhamma-s? Among the Dhamma-s of the four Truths. Here, this is

conversation of the Elders: to the extent the Elder Summa,731 a resident of Kāḷhāla,732

says: “now there is no realization regarding the Dhamma-s of the four truths.” He733

realized regarding the Dhamma-s of the four truths by the first path on the very day of

seeing Assaji, 734 the great disciple. Afterwards, he has realized regarding the

Dhamma-s of the four truths by the higher threefold path at the entrance of Sūkara-

khaṭa-lena. In this [883] instance, ‘in relation to the Dhamma-s’ [it means] he realized

in relation to the qualities of the Buddha. Elder Cūlasīva,735 a resident of Lokuttara,736

having said all in this manner, saying: “in this instance, ‘in relation to the Dhamma-s’

means the realization of arahatship.” Indeed, the expounder of the Dīgha Nikāya and

its commentaries of the Tipiṭaka, Elder Mahāsīva,737 saying the previous statement in

that manner, saying “in this instance, ‘in relation to the Dhamma-s’ means the

realization with regard to the knowledge of the perfection of a disciple (sāvaka-

pāramī-ñāṇa),” and said: “indeed, the qualities of the Buddha have been realized with

inference knowledge.”

731
In PTS and SHB (641), summatthera. In CS, sumatthera. In Thai (108), sumanatthera.
G.P. Malalasekera, in his DPPN, mentions two monks by the names Sumā Thera and Summa
Thera. The latter is said to be an eminent commentator quoted by Buddhaghosa.
732
In CS and Thai (108), kāḷavallavāsī. In SHB (641), kāḷavallivāsī. In PTS, Kaḷhālavāsī.
733
Referring to Sāriputta.
734
Assaji was one of the first five disciples of the Buddha. For a short biography, see Lakshmi R.
Goonesekere (1966): 216-217.
735
For a brief detail about this Elder, see DPPN.
736
In CS and Thai (108), lokantaravāsī. In SHB (641), tilokanagaravāsī. In PTS, lok’uttara-vāsī.
737
See n709 of this thesis. See also n848 of this thesis

148
Faith738 in the teacher (satthari pasīdiṃ) means having concluded739 thus with regard

to the Dhamma-s of the knowledge of the perfection of a disciple (sāvaka-pāramī-

ñāṇa), [I am] pleased in the teacher exceedingly that “the Blessed One is the Perfect

and Complete Enlightened One”740 (sammā-sambuddho vata bhagavā).

The Dhamma of the Blessed One is well-spoken (sv’ ākkhāto bhagavatā dhammo)

means it is well-spoken, well-established, leading to emancipation, leads towards the

path and fruit, is for the purpose of subduing greed, hatred and ignorance.

The community of monks is well-practiced (suppaṭipanno saṅgho): [saying] “I am

pleased741 in the Blessed One,” he points out that the community of the disciples of

the Buddha, the Blessed One, devoid of dishonesty, and such faults, are coursed in

the proper path and are well practiced.

738
Pasīdim (pasāda or pasanna) literally means ‘pleased’ (pleasant or pleasing). However, in this
context, ‘pleased’ is not appropriate.
739
In CS, SHB (641) and Thai (109), niṭṭhaṃ gantvā. In PTS, nitthaṃgantvā.
Or, ‘having reached the end (conclusion)’.
740
In CS, SHB (641) and Thai (109), sammāsambuddho vata so bhagavā. In PTS, sammāsambuddho
vata bhagavā. Note, so is omitted in PTS edition.
741
In CS and Thai (109), pasannomhi. In PTS and SHB (641), pasanno ’smi.

149
4.2. The Exegetical Exposition on the Wholesome Factors

Now, having sat during the day, to point out the sixteen successive Dhamma-s which

have been realized, he started the discourse: “moreover, Venerable Sir, this indeed is

unsurpassable” (aparam pana bhante etad ānuttariyan).

Therein, unsurpassable (anuttariyan) means the state of unsurpassable.

Just as,742 the Blessed One teaches the Dhamma (yathā bhagavā dhammaṃ deseti):

just as, by whichever way and of whatever discourse the Blessed One teaches, he says:

“that discourse of yours is unsurpassable.”

With regard to the wholesome factors (kusala-dhammesu): by that discourse, he

explains: “the Blessed One is unsurpassable with regard to discoursing the

wholesome factors.” Or, whatever that discourse, pointing out the stage of that, he

said, “with regard to the wholesome factors.”

Therein, these wholesome factors (tatr’ ime kusalā dhammā): there, with regard to

the wholesome factors (kusalesu dhammesu) should be understood as these

wholesome factors in the said text.

742
Or, ‘in the manner’. Cf. T.W. Rhys Davids and C.A.F. Rhys Davids in DLB III: 97.

150
Therein, wholesome should be understood in five ways: by means of health, by

means of blamelessness, by means of cleverness which has already arisen, by means

of freedom from pain, by means of retribution of happiness. Among them, having

accomplished the method of preaching the Jātaka-s,743 wholesomeness prospers744 by

means of health. Having accomplished the method of preaching the discourses,

[wholesomeness prospers] by means of blamelessness. Having accomplished the

method of preaching the Abhidhamma, [wholesomeness prospers] by means of

cleverness which has already arisen, and cleverness which has already arisen, by

means of freedom from pain, by means of retribution of happiness. In this case,

wholesomeness should be explained by way of the method of preaching the Bāhiya-

sutta745 and by means of blamelessness.

The four foundations of mindfulness (cattāro satipaṭṭhānā) are the foundation of

mindfulness on the contemplation of the body with fourteen kinds, the foundation of

mindfulness on the contemplation of feeling with nine kinds, [884] the foundation of

mindfulness on the contemplation of the thought with sixteen kinds, the foundation of

mindfulness on the contemplation of the Dhamma with five kinds––thus, having

classified with various methods, the four foundations of mindfulness, together with

mundane and supra-mundane in terms of the path of concentration and insight, have

been discoursed. Here, the foundation of mindfulness of the fruit is not meant.

743
See L.S. Cousins (2006): 10ff.
744
In CS and Thai (110), vaṭṭati; in SHB (642), vuccati. In PTS, vaḍḍhati.
745
In CS and Thai (110), bāhitikasuttanta. In PTS and SHB (642), Bāhiya-suttanta.
For the discourse, see Ud: 6-9.

151
The four right efforts (cattāro sammappadhānā) means a characteristic in terms of

endeavour, various duties with reference to duties: here, in such case, as a monk

without giving rise to evil and unwholesome Dhamma-s which have not arisen, and in

terms of concentration and insight (samatha-vipassanā) and the path, it is the

combination of mundane and supramundane, so the four right efforts have been

discourse.

The four psychic powers (cattāro iddhipādā) means one of classifications in terms of

success, various intrinsic nature with reference to zeal etc: here, in such manner, as a

monk develops the psychic power possessed of zeal, equipoise, efforts and

conditionings, and in terms of concentration and insight (samatha-vipassanā) and the

path, it is the combination of mundane and supramundane, so the four psychic powers

have been discoursed.

The five faculties (paṇc’ indriyāni) means characteristics of one in terms of

domination, various intrinsic natures with reference to firm resolve, etc. and intrinsic

nature. And, in terms of concentration and insight (samatha-vipassanā) and the path,

it is the combination of mundane and supramundane, so faith, etc. and the five

faculties have been discoursed.

The five powers (pañca balāni) means classifications of one in terms of support or in

terms of firmness, various intrinsic natures with reference to own characteristics. And,

in terms of concentration and insight (samatha-vipassanā) and the path, it is the

152
combination of mundane and supramundane, so faith, etc. and the five powers have

been discoursed.

The seven factors of enlightenment (satta bojjhaṅgā) means one classification in

terms of release, various intrinsic natures with reference to understanding, etc. and

with own characteristic. And, in terms of concentration and insight (samatha-

vipassanā) and the path, it is the combination of mundane and supramundane, so the

seven factors of enlightenment have been discoursed.

The noble eightfold path (ariyo aṭṭhangiko maggo) means one classification746 in

terms of a cause, various intrinsic nature with reference to vision, etc. and own

characteristic. And, in terms of concentration and insight (samatha-vipassanā) and

the path, it is the combination of mundane and supramundane, so the noble eightfold

path has been discoursed is the meaning.

Here, Venerable Sir, a monk, by the destruction of cankers (idha bhante bhikkhu

āsavānaṃ khaya): for what purpose747 has this been started? For the purpose of

insight of the perfection of the dispensation of the Buddha. The perfection of the

dispensation of the Buddha is not with the path only; indeed, it is with the fruit of

arahatship. Therefore, it should be understood, to point out that, this was started.

746
The PTS edition’s eka-saṅgeho should be eka-saṅgaho. See also CS, SHB (643) and Thai (111),
where it is mentioned as eka-saṅgaho.
747
Or ‘why has this started?’

153
This, Venerable Sir, is unsurpassable with regard to the wholesome factors (etad

ānuttariyaṃ bhante kusalesu dhammesu): Venerable Sir, whatever this discourse with

regard to the wholesome factors (kusalesu dhammesu), this is unsurpassable.

[885] That, Blessed One (taṃ bhagavā): the Blessed One directly knows that

discourse fully and entirely.

That, to the Blessed One (taṃ bhagavato): that discourse is directly known to the

Blessed One fully and entirely.

There is nothing more to be realized (uttariṃ748 abhiññeyyaṃ n’ atthi): there is

nothing that should be well known further. With reference to this, there is not another

Dhamma or another person, which the Blessed One doesn’t know. That which

another recluse fully knows, is not fully known by you, a certain recluse or brahmin

full knowing that [means] there is someone who knows better the Blessed One, his

wisdom may be superior.749

Whatever this with regard to the wholesome factors (yad idaṃ kusalesu dhammesu):

here ‘whatever this’ (yad idan) is a conjunction. Here, this is the meaning: “there is

none higher than the Blessed One with regard to the wholesome factors.” Or pointing

748
In CS, SHB (643) and Thai (112), uttari.
749
This definition of uttariṃ abhiññeyyaṃ n’ atthi is again mentioned later in p. 176 of this thesis with
no major difference. See n932. See also DA III: 895-896.

154
out “the Blessed One is unsurpassable with regard to the wholesome factors,” by this

expression750 he explains, “I am indeed pleased in the Blessed One, Venerable Sir.”

Hereafter, ‘moreover’ (aparaṃ pana), in such contexts, we will explain751 only the

special cases. The previous similar occurrence should be understood according the

said manner.

4.3. The Exegetical Exposition on the Sense-Bases

With regard to the sense-bases (āyatana-paññattīsu752) means with regard to further

insight into the sense-bases. Now, pointing out those sense-bases,753 he said: “these

six, Venerable Sir” (cha imāni bhante754), etc. This indeed is the explanation on the

sense[-bases]. They have been explained in detail in The Path of Purification

(Visuddhi-magge),755 therefore, we do not explain756 in detail. On account of that, the

detail should be understood by the said manner therein. This indeed is unsurpassable,

Venerable Sir, ‘with regard to the sense-bases’ (āyatana-paññattīsu757) means this

discourse which is unsurpassable with regard to the sense-bases by means of defining

[its] inwardness, outward-ness, etc. The remaining is in accordance with the said

manner.

750
Literally, action. However, in this context, his action referred here is his expression.
751
Cf. Bhikkhu Ñāṇamoli (2010): 400.
752
In CS, SHB (643) and Thai (113), āyatanapaṇṇattīsu. In PTS, āyatana-paññattīsu.
753
In CS, SHB (643) and Thai (113), āyatanapaññattiyo. The PTS edition’s āyatama- must be a typo.
754
In CS, SHB (643) and Thai (113), chayimāni bhante. In PTS, cha imāni bhante.
755
See VismE: 492-496.
756
In CS and Thai (113), vitthārayissāma. In PTS and SHB (643), vitthārayāma.
757
In CS, SHB (643) and Thai (113), āyatanapaṇṇattīsu. In PTS, āyatana-paññattīsu.

155
4.4. The Exegetical Exposition on the Modes of Conception

With regard to the modes of conception (gabbāvakkantīsu) means with regard to the

entry into the womb. Pointing out those modes of conception, he said: “these are of

four, Venerable Sir” (catasso imā bhante), etc.

Therein, ‘not fully aware’ (asampajāno) means having been infatuated not knowing.

Enters the mother’s womb (mātu-kucchim okkamati): enters by means of reunion.

Abiding (thāṭi) means lives.

Comes out (nikkhamati): [one] comes out, while coming out also not being fully

aware or confused.

This is the first (ayaṃ paṭhamā): this is the first mode of conception of the human

beings of the natural world.758

Indeed, fully aware (sampajāno hi kho)759: while entering, [one enters] having been

fully aware or not confused.

758
In SHB (643), pakati-lokiya-manussānaṃ paṭhamā gabbāvakkanti is omitted.
759
In CS and SHB (644), sampajāno mātukucchiṃ okkamati (enters the mother’s womb being aware).
The main text ‘sampajāno hi kho’ from the sutta being explained here is omitted.

156
[886] This is the second (ayaṃ dutiya): this is the second760 mode of conception of

the eighty great Elders.761 Indeed, they know while entering, and they do not know

while abiding762 and descending.

This is the third (ayaṃ tatiya): this is the third mode of conception of the two chief

disciples and the solitary Bodhisatta-s. [It is said] they gain endless pain coming out

through the entrance of the female organ with difficulty,763 like an elephant [passing]

through a keyhole, casted away along the entrance of female organ, like when falling

from several hundred height, the head downward and the feet upward, by the winds

born of action.764 Therefore, to them,765 “we came out” means there is no awareness.

Even for those sentient beings who have fulfilled the perfections, great suffering

arises in such condition; indeed, it is fit to get wearied of and to detach when abiding

in the womb.

This is the fourth (ayaṃ catuttha): this is the fourth mode of conception by means of

all-knowing Bodhisatta-s. The all-knowing Bodhisatta-s indeed know that they are

taking conception in the wombs of mothers. Abiding therein, they know. And, at the

time of coming out, they, having made head-downward and feet-upward due to the

wind born of action, are unable to cast away. Having spread the two hands, having

760
Here, in between dutiyā gabbāvakkanti, SHB (644) mentions pakatilokiyamanussānaṃ paṭhamā.
761
In Thai (113), sāvakānaṃ is mentioned instead of therānaṃ. In PTS, CS and SHB (644), asīti-
mahā-therānaṃ.
762
Literally, ‘living’.
763
Or, ‘with pressure’.
764
i.e., the labor pain during childbirth. Cf. P. Gnanarama (1998): 58.
See VismE: 512 (Vism: 500), where Buddhaghosa provides a brief account of the pain during
childbirth.
765
In CS and SHB (644), nesaṃ. In PTS and Thai (114), tesaṃ.

157
opened the eyes, they come out as if standing. Starting from the highest existence

down to Avīci,766 there is not another who is fully knowing in the three time-periods,

except the all-knowing Bodhisatta-s. On account of that, the ten thousand-world

system trembles during their767 entry [into]768 and coming out [from] the mother’s

womb. The remaining should be understood in accordance with the said manner here.

4.5. The Exegetical Exposition on the Modes of Mind-Reading

With regard to the modes of mind-reading (ādesana-vidhāsu) means with regard to

the portions not spoken. Now, pointing out those modes of mind-reading, he said:

“these are of four” (cattaso imā), etc.

Points out with a sign (nimittena ādisati): he explains: “this will be by the sign of

coming or by the sign of going or by the sign of standing.”

There, this is the story: a king, having taken three pearls, asked the advisor: “teacher,

what is in my hand?” He looked here and he looked there. And, by that time, a lizard

jumped on [thinking] “I will catch a fly.” The fly escaped during the time of being

caught. He said “release and release, o great king” about the release of the fly.

766
Literary, starting from the highest existence and in-between Avīci.
767
In CS and SHB (644), nesaṃ. In PTS and Thai (114), tesaṃ.
i.e., during birth.
768
i.e., during conception.

158
“To you, may release be; how many release?” He looked at the sign again. Then, not

far, a cock made the sound769 thrice. The Brāhmin said: “of three, great king.” Thus,

one explains with a sign of coming. “They explain770 with the signs of going and

abiding,”771 should be understood by this means.

Of the non-human beings (amanussānaṃ): of the demons, goblins, etc.

[887] Of the deities (devatānaṃ): of the four great kings,772 etc.

Having heard the sound (saddaṃ sutvā) means having known the thought of another,

having heard773 of the speaking.

The sound of thought-vibration774 (vitakka-vipphāra-saddaṃ) means the sound of

lamenting, of dormant and indolent, etc. arisen by means of thought vibration.

Having heard (sutvā) means having heard that. That sound of him is arising from

thought. By means of that, he points out “thus is their mind” (evampi te mano).

769
i.e., sound of a cock.
770
In CS, SHB (644) and Thai (115), kathanaṃ. In PTS, kathenti.
771
In CS and SHB (644), gataṭhita. In PTS and Thai (115), gatiṭhiti.
772
The four are: Dhataraṭṭa (D II: 257-258; D III: 197), Virūḷha (D II: 207, 220; D III: 198),
Virūpakkha (D II: 207, 221; D III: 199) and Vessavaṇa (D II: 207; D III: 194). For a detailed
account of the four great kings, see DPPN.
773
In CS, SHB (644) and Thai (115), saddaṃ sutvā. The PTS omits ‘saddaṃ’ before ‘sutvā’.
774
Cf. K.N. Jayatilleke (2008): 25; Piya Tan (2005): 79 n23.

159
Mental formations have been inclined775 (mano-saṅkhārā paṇihitā): the formations of

thought have been well established.

Will reflect (vitakkessati): he clearly knows that he will reflect (vitakkayissati) and

expound. He knows knowing by approaching; 776 he knows previously; 777 and

examining closely778 the thought in the inner meditative attainment. He knows ‘by

approaching’ means he knows that at the very moment of preparing kasiṇa,779 he

knows, starting kasiṇa-meditation,780 in what way to realize the first absorption …

or … the fourth absorption or the eighth meditative attainment. He knows previously

means that he indeed knows [what] he started with concentration and insight. He

knows that he will attain the path to stream-entrant … also … he will attain the path

to arahatship by which manner he has started this insight. He knows having examined

closely the thought in the inner meditative attainment means in what way the mental

formations of this are placed. Of this means immediately after the thought, it means

[one] will reflect on the reflection. From here, he knows that partaking of diminution

or partaking of stagnation or partaking of distinction or partaking of penetration or

the higher knowledge-s will be produced to the one that has emerged. Therein, the

ordinary person knows who has the knowledge of reading others’ mind is the thought

775
Mahāsi Sayadaw (2016: 520) renders ‘paṇihitā’ as ‘craving’. Cf. Piya Tan (2005): 116; Peter
Harvey (1994): 91; Maurice Walshe (1995): 419 and T.W. Rhys Davids (1921): 99-100. In the
translation of the Sampasādanīya-sutta, T.W. Rhys Davids renders ‘mano-saṅkhārā’ separately,
while Maurice Walshe and Piya Tan renders as ‘mind-force’ and ‘mental formations’ respectively.
776
See DṬ III: 86.
777
ibid.
778
In CS, SHB (645) and Thai (116), oloketvā. In PTS, apaloketvā.
779
Cf. A.P. Buddhadatta in Concise Pali–English Dictionary. See also BDN.
780
For the thirteen and their detailed analysis, see VismE: 55-77. Besides these thirteen, Buddhaghosa
also continues to explain several more kasiṇa-s – see chapters iv, v and vi in Vism. See also BDN.

160
of very ordinary person, not of the noble ones. He does not know the thought of the

lower and lowest and higher and highest with regard to the noble ones. The highest

one knows of the lowest. And, among them, the stream-entrant attains the meditative

attainment of the fruit of the stream-entrance; the once-returner … the non-

returner … the arahat attains the meditative attainment of the fruit of arahatship. The

highest one does not attain the lowest. Among them,781 the lowest of the lowest

meditative attainment becomes rebirth there.782

Therein that is783 (tath’ eva taṃ hoti): this is the truth in all probability. What is

known by means of the knowledge of the penetration of the minds of others is not

something different. The remaining should be applied according to the previous

manner.

4.6. The Exegetical Exposition on the Attainment of Vision

By means of exertion 784 (ātappam anvāya), etc is explained in detail 785 in the

Brahmajāla [commentary].786 Here, this [888] is in abstract form. Exertion (ātappaṃ)

781
Literally, ‘of them’.
782
See also DṬ III: 87.
783
Cf. DLB III: 100.
784
i.e., by experiencing (attaining) exertion.
785
In CS, SHB (645) and Thai (117) vitthāritam eva. In PTS, vitthāritaṃ.
786
DA I: 104 – ātappam anvāyāti ādīsu vīriyaṃ kilesānaṃ ātāpana-vāsena (in CS, ātāpanabhāvena)
ātappan ti vuttaṃ. Tad eva padahana-vasena padhānaṃ, punappuna payutta-vasena (in CS,
punappunaṃ yuttavasena) anuyogo (in CS, anuyogoti). Iti etaṃ (in CS, evaṃ) ti-ppabhedaṃ
vīriyaṃ anvāya āgamma paṭiccāti attho.
Bhikkhu Bodhi (2007: 129-130), in his translation of the Brahmajāla-sutta and its commentaries,
has omitted the translation of this part.

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is effort. Indeed, that exertion is which should be striven for. The inquest is which

should be applied.787

Vigilance (appamādaṃ) means the presence of mindfulness.788

Proper mental application (sammā-manasikāraṃ) means the mental application

(mindful-approach) resulting (arisen/produced) by means of [seeing] impermanence

in impermanence, etc.789

Mental equipoise (ceto-samādhiṃ) means the equipoise of the first jhāna.790

This is the first meditative attainment of vision (ayaṃ paṭhamā dassana-samāpatti):

having reflected on this thirty-two 791 aspects of the body 792 on account of

repulsiveness, the meditative attainment of the first jhāna, which has the first

attainment of vision by means of the vision of repulsiveness, is named the first

787
Or, ‘put into practice’.
788
See also S I: 86-89; A V: 21-22.
789
The Brahmajāla-sutta-vaṇṇanā (DA I: 104) provides a different definition of ‘sammā-manasikāro’:
sammā manasikāro ti upāyamanasikāro pathana-manasikāro (in CS, pathamanasikāro), atthato
ñāṇan ti vuttaṃ hoti. Yasmiṃ hi manasikāre ṭhitassa pubbe nivāsa-ñāṇaṃ (in CS,
pubbenivāsānussati ñāṇaṃ) ijjhati, ayaṃ imasmiṃ ṭhāne manasikāro ti adhippeto. Tasmā vīriyañ
ca satiñ ca ñāṇañ ca āgammāti ayam ettha saṅkhepattho.
Bhikkhu Bodhi (2007: 129-130), in his translation of the Brahmajāla-sutta and its commentaries,
has omitted the translation of this part too.
790
The Mahākammavibhaṅga-sutta-vaṇṇanā defines ceto-samādhiṃ as ‘the equipoise of the divine
eye’ (cetosamādhin ti dibbacakkhusamādhiṃ). MA V: 18.
791
In CS, SHB (645) and Thai (117), dvattiṃ sākāraṃ. In PTS, dvattiṃsa-sākāraṃ.
792
As translated by Bhikkhu Ñāṇamoli (2010): 237, 244f, 771, 777. For the list of the thirty-two, see
M III: 90; VismE: 237. For their detailed analysis, see VismE: 244-257.

162
attainment of vision. If he is an stream-enterer, having that jhāna the basis, this

indeed is the first meditative attainment of vision without distinction.

And, surpassing (atikkamma ca): and having surpassed.

Outer skin, flesh and sinew (chavi-maṃsa-lohitaṃ) means the outer skin, the flesh

and the sinew.

[He] contemplates on the bone (aṭṭhiṃ paccavekkhati) means he contemplates on the

bone as bone; having contemplated on the bone as bone, the meditative attainment of

the jhāna, which has arisen basing793 on the divine vision of the object of bone, is

named the second meditative attainment of vision (dutiyā dassana-samāpatti). If he

attains the path to once-returner, having made that jhāna the basis, this is the second

meditative attainment of vision without distinction. The Elder Summa,794 a resident

of Kāḷhālaka,795 said: “it proceeds up to the third path.”

Consciousness-stream (viññāṇa-sotaṃ) means consciousness only.

Unbroken from both (ubhayato abbochinnaṃ): uncut by two parts.

And, established in this world (idha-loke patiṭṭhitaṃ ca) means established in this

world by means of desire and greed. In the second text too, this is the method.

793
CS does not mention pādaka.
794
See n731 of this thesis.
795
In SHB (646), kāḷahākavāsī. In CS and Thai (118), kāḷavallavāsī. In PTS, kāḷhāka-vāsī.

163
Approaching the kamma or from the kamma means established in this world.

Drawing towards the kamma-existence means established in another world. What is

explained by this? The knowledge of penetrating the minds of others of the trainees

and the worldlings796 has been explained. Indeed, the knowledge of penetrating the

minds of others of the trainees and the worldlings is the third meditative attainment of

vision (tatiyā dassana-samāpatti).

And, not established in this world (idha-loke appatiṭṭhitaṃ ca) means not established

in this world on account of non-desire and non-greed. In the second place also, this is

the method. Or, not approaching the kamma or from kamma means not established in

this world. Not drawing towards the of kamma-existence means not established in

another world. What is explained by this? The knowledge of the penetration of the

minds of others of the one freed from cankers has been explained. Indeed, the

knowledge of the penetration of the minds of others of the ones freed from cankers is

the fourth meditative attainment of vision (catutthā dassana-samāpatti). And, the

insight meditation started with regard to the thirty-two797 parts of the body is also

[889] the first meditative attainment of vision. The insight meditation started with

regard to the object of bone is the second meditative attainment of vision. The

knowledge of the penetration of the minds of others of the trainees and the ordinary

beings and the knowledge of the penetration of the minds of others of the ones freed

from cankers, these both are indeed steady here. Another method. The first jhāna is

the first meditative attainment of vision. The second jhāna is the second …, the third

796
See DṬ III: 88-89.
797
In CS, SHB (646) and Thai (119), dvattiṃsākāre. In PTS, dvattiṃsa sākāre.

164
jhāna is the third …, and the fourth jhāna is the fourth. The first path is the first

meditative attainment of vision. The second path …, the third path …, and the fourth

path is the fourth meditative attainment of vision. Here, the remaining should be

understood according to the previous method.

4.7. The Exegetical Exposition on the Designations of Individuals

With regard to the designations of individuals (puggala-paññattīsu798) means when it

should be proclaimed thus “a sentient being, an individual, a man, a person” with

regard to the concepts of the world by means of an ordinary expression. Indeed, two

[types of] talk of the Buddhas have been explained in detail in Poṭṭhapāda799: the

conventional talk and the ultimate talk. Therein, that ‘with regard to the designations

of individuals’ is this conventional talk. Here, the Blessed One is unsurpassable with

regard to the designations of individuals, which persons he is proclaiming. Pointing

them, he800 said: “Venerable Sir, these seven persons are liberated by both ways”

(satt’ ime bhante puggalā ubhato-bhāga-vimutto), etc.

Therein, liberated by both ways (ubhato-bhāga-vimutto)801 means liberated by two

kinds: liberated from the body-group (rūpa-kāya) by the formless meditative

798
In CS & Thai (119), SHB (646) and Thai (119), puggalapaṇṇattīsu. In PTS, puggala-paññattīsu.
The DṬ of the PTS edition also mentions puggalapaṇṇattīsu. See DṬ III: 91.
799
Although the CS and the SHB (646) editions mentions ‘Poṭṭhapāda-sutte’ (in the Poṭṭhapāda-
sutta), the discourse however does not mention the two kinds of talks. But, it is found in the
commentary of the discourse. See DA II: 382. See also Minayeff (1889): 34-35 (=KvA in JPTS III:
1-199).
800
i.e., Sāriputta.
801
See also M I: 477.

165
attainment (arūpa-samāpatti) and from the mind-group (nāma-kāya) by the path.

Having emerged from one or another of the four formless meditative attainments,

having grasped802 the conditionings, having emerged from the four cessations of the

ones who attained arahatship, that is fivefold by means of reaching the state of non-

return and arahatship.803 Here is the text804: and how is a person liberated by both

ways? Here, a certain person lives having attained the eight kinds of liberations by

body and having seen this with wisdom, the cankers are exhausted;805 thus, he has

realized by means of the attainment of the eight kinds of liberation.806

Liberated with wisdom (paññā-vimutto)807 means liberated with wisdom.808 He, who

is a dry-insight meditator (sukkha-vipassako), and who has reached arahathood,

having emerged from the four jhāna-s, is fivefold by means of these four. Here the

text has been used by means of refutation of the eight liberations.809 Just as he said: it

is not the case that he lives having physically attained the eight liberations, and

802
Or, ‘having comprehended’.
803
For an alternative translation of this sentence, see Henepola Gunaratana (1980): 210-211.
804
In CS, SHB (647) and Thai (120), Pāḷi.
805
After this and before evaṃ aṭṭhavimokkhalābhino … the Thai edition (120) mentions ‘ayaṃ vuccati
puggalo ubhatobhāgavimuttoti’.
806
This passage is also found in the MA III: 188; AA. IV: 2-3.
For detailed explanation, see G.A. Somaratne (2013): 125; Steven Collins (2014): 260. For a
detailed account on ubhato-bhāga-vimutti as explained in the sutta-s, see the former.
807
See also M I: 477-478.
808
In CS, the statement is in reverse: paññāya vimuttoti paññāvimutto, which is also found in AA IV: 5
along with this whole passage.
809
For the eight liberations, see D II: 70-71, 111-112. Cf. DA II: 563 For commentarial explanation of
the eight, see DA II: 512-515, 563; the [Mahānidāna-sutta] commentary and sub-commentary on
this section have been translated by Bhikkhu Bodhi (1995: 104-108). See also DṬ III: 92.

166
cankers are exhausted, having understood of this with wisdom, this person is called

one who has been liberated with wisdom (paññā-vimutto).810

“He experiences that for himself, which has been reached” is a bodily witness811

(kāya-sakkhi). 812 He who attains the first contact of the jhāna in the body, 813

afterwards, he experiences the cessation and nibbāna for himself. It should be

understood that, having made to the fruit of stream-entrant, etc. as far as the path to

arahatship, he is six-fold. [890] Therefore, he said: “here a certain person lives having

attained the eight liberations physically, and certain cankers are exhausted having

understood of this with wisdom. This persona is called bodily-witnessed one (kāya-

sakkhī).814

“He has reached that which has been seen” is one attained through vision (diṭṭhi-

patto). 815 There, this is the characteristic in brief: “sufferings, conditionings,

happiness and cessation is knowledge.” Visioning, understanding, experiencing for

himself and seeing with wisdom is attainment of vision. This in detail is six-fold like

the bodily witnessed (kāya-sakkhi). Therefore, he said: “here, a certain person knows

this is suffering as it is … also … he knows that this is the path leading to the

810
This passage is also found in MA III: 188; AA IV: 3.
811
T.W. Rhys Davids and C.A.F. Rhys Davids render kāya-sakkhi as ‘bodily testimony’. See DLB III:
101.
812
See also M I: 478.
813
In CS and Thai (120), so jhānaphassaṃ paṭhamaṃ phusati. In PTS and SHB (647), yo kāye jhāna-
phassaṃ paṭhamaṃ phusati.
814
This passage is also found in MA III: 189; AA IV: 3.
815
See also M I: 478.

167
cessation of suffering as it is; and the Dhamma-s declared by the Thus Gone One816 is

fully understood with wisdom and penetrated with wisdom.”817 This person is called

one attained through vision (diṭṭhi-patto).818

“One liberated by faith” is one liberated by faith (saddhā-vimutto).819 He is also six-

fold according to the said manner. Therefore, he said: “here, a certain person knows

this is suffering … also … this is the path leading to the cessation of suffering as it is

(as they are). And, the Dhamma-s expounded by the Thus Gone One820 is fully

understood with wisdom and penetrated with wisdom.”821 This person is called one

liberated by faith (saddhā-vimutto). It is not as of the view attainer. Among them, the

destruction of defilements of the one liberated by faith is like of the one believing in

faith in the early moment of the path, like of one fixing his mind and like of one

being released. The knowledge of the cutting off of defilement of the view-attainer,

during the early moment of the path, flows quickly, sharply and firmly. Therefore,

just as, the place of the cut of cutting the plantain-tree with a not over-sharpened

sword is not smooth. The sword does not pass in (cut through) quickly; sound is

heard;822 powerful effort should be made. Such is the cultivation of the early stage of

816
Here, the translation assa (of this/his) in tathāgata-ppaveditā c’ assa dhammā is omitted since it is
referring to the Tathāgata to avoid repeated reference.
817
The CS includes cassa disvā ekacce āsavā parikkhīṇā honti (having been aware of this, certain
cankers are exhausted) after this sentence.
818
This passage is also found in MA III: 189; AA IV: 3.
819
See also M I: 478-479.
820
See n755.
821
CS and Thai (121) have no ca kho yathā diṭṭhippattassa after this sentence, which, in PTS and SHB
(647) editions, is the starting sentence after ayaṃ vuccati puggalo saddhā-vimutto ti.
822
In CS & Thai (122), suyyati. In PTS, sūyati.

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the path of the faith liberated one.823 Just as, the place of the cut of cutting the

plantain tree with an over sharpened sword is smooth. The sword passes quickly.

Sound is not heard. It is not the effort of a powerful one. The cultivation of the early

stage of the path of the wisdom liberated one should be understood as such.

He recollects the Dhamma (dhammaṃ anussarati):824 a Dhamma-striver.825 Dhamma

(dhammo) is wisdom (paññā). “He cultivates the path preceded by wisdom”826 is the

meaning. This is the manner with regard to faith-striver. Both of these are indeed for

the purpose of the path to stream-entrant. And, this is said: “the faculty of wisdom of

the person who is practicing for the realization of the fruit of stream-entrant is

exceeding; wisdom-carried827 and preceded by wisdom, he cultivates the noble path.”

This person is called “a Dhamma-striver” (dhammānusāri).”828

[891] Therein, the faculty of faith of the person who is practicing for the realization

of the fruit of stream-entrant is exceeding, faith-carried829 and preceded by faith, he

develops the noble path. This person is called “a faith-striver” (saddhānusāri). Here,

this is in brief. This talk, one who has been liberated by both ways, etc. has been

explained in detail in the chapter of Paññābhāvanā (Cultivation of Wisdom), etc. in

823
This passage is also found in MA III: 189-190; AA IV: 4.
824
See also M I: 479.
825
The PTS edition’s dhammānussārī (with double s) is incorrect. The correct form should be
dhammānusārī (with single s) as in CS, SHB (648) and Thai (122). See also D III: 105.
826
Here, paññā and pubbaṅgamaṃ should be considered as one word (paññā-pubbaṅgamaṃ) as in
CS, SHB (648) and Thai (122).
827
Richard F. Gombrich renders paññavāhī as ‘brings insight’. Richard F. Gombrich (2006): 102 n8.
In CS, SHB (648) and Thai (122), paññāvāhiṃ. In PTS, paññāvāhi.
828
Translation adapted from Kheminda Thera’s (1992: no page number) ‘Path, Fruit and Nibbāna’.
This passage is also found in the MA III: 190-191; AA IV: 4-5.
829
The PTS edition’s saddhāvā hi should be saddhāvāhiṃ as in CS, SHB (648) and Thai (122).

169
The Path of Purification (Visuddhimagga). 830 Therefore, therein, it should be

understood according to the spoken manner.831 Here, the remaining also should be

applied according to the previous method.832

4.8. The Exegetical Exposition on the Efforts

With regard to the efforts833 (padhānesu). Here, the seven factors of enlightenment

are spoken as efforts by means of striving. Their detailed explanation should be

understood according to the manner explained in the Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna[-sutta].834

Here, the remaining should be applied according to the previous methods.

4. 9. The Exegetical Exposition on the Ways of Progress

With regard to difficult ways of progress, etc. (dukkhā paṭipad’ ādīsu): this835 is the

detailed method. Therein, what is the wisdom of “difficult progress and slow higher

830
See Vism: 698-710, and for English translation, see VismE: 730-744.
831
This passage is also found in AA IV: 5, however, it begins with yassa, not tatthā.
832
This passage, combined with the previous, is also found in MA III: 191; AA IV: 5. In AA, it begins
without ‘tattha’, not ‘tathā’.
833
The four efforts, as mentioned by Nyanatiloka in BDN, are: the effort to avoid (saṃvara-padhāna),
to overcome (pahāna-padhāna), to develop (bhāvanā-padhāna), to maintain (anurakkhaṇa-
padhāna).
In other words, the effort to avoid unwholesome states, such as evil thoughts, etc.; to overcome
unwholesome states; to develop wholesome states, such as the seven elements of enlightenment; to
maintain the wholesome states. See also D III: 221, 225-226 and A II: 15-16, 74; Sn: 74-78.
834
i.e., the explanation of proper effort (sammā vāyāma). See D IV: 312-313. In brief, one arouses the
will to exert the intent for the non-arising of evil . . . one arouses the will to abandon whatever evil
that has arisen . . . one arouses the will to arise wholesome qualities that have not yet arisen . . . one
arouses the will to uphold the wholesome qualities that has arisen. See the preceding note also.
835
i.e., the following.

170
knowledge” (dukkhā paṭipadā dandhābhiññā)? Causing equipoise to arise with

hardship and difficulty and knowing that condition slowly, that which is wisdom is

comprehension … non-delusion, investigation of the Dhamma and right view. This is

called wisdom of “difficult progress and slow higher knowledge” (dukkhā paṭipadā

dandhābhiññā). Therein, what is the wisdom that is “difficult progress and quick

higher knowledge” (dukkhā paṭipadā khippābhiññā)? Causing equipoise to arise with

hardship and difficulty and knowing that condition quickly, that which is wisdom is

comprehension … non-delusion, investigation of the Dhamma and right view. This is

called wisdom that is “difficult progress and quick higher knowledge” (dukkhā

paṭipadā khippābhiññā). Therein, what is the wisdom that is “easy progress and slow

higher knowledge” (sukhā paṭipadā dandhābhiññā)? Causing equipoise to arise with

without hardship836 and without difficulty and knowing that condition slowly, that

which is wisdom is comprehension … right view. This is called wisdom that is “easy

progress and slow higher knowledge” (sukhā paṭipadā dandhābhiññā). Therein, what

is the wisdom that is “easy progress and quick higher knowledge” (sukhā paṭipadā

khippābhiññā)? Causing equipoise837 to arise with without hardship838 and without

difficulty and knowing that condition quickly, that which is wisdom is

comprehension … right view. This is called wisdom that is “easy progress and slow

higher knowledge” (sukhā paṭipadā khippābhiññā).839 This is the explanation in brief.

836
The PTS edition’s akiccena should be akicchena as in CS, SHB (648) and Thai (124).
837
The PTS edition’s samadhiṃ should be samādhiṃ as in CS, SHB (648) and Thai (124).
838
The PTS edition’s akiccena should be akicchena as in CS, SHB (648) and Thai (124).
839
A similar passage (beginning at tattha katamā dukkhapaṭipadā dandhābhiññā paññā? . . . up to
ayaṃ vuccati sukhapaṭipadā khippābhiññā paññā) is found in the AṬ [Catukkanipāta,
Saṃkhittasuttavaṇṇanā] and Vibh: 331-332. Cf. Paṭhamakyaw Ashin Thiṭṭila (2010): 435.

171
The detail has been spoken in The Path of Purification (Visuddhimagga).840 Here, the

remaining should be applied according to the spoken manner.

4.10. The Exegetical Exposition on the Proper Conduct in Speech

And not even speech associated with lying (na c’ eva musāvādūpasaṃhitaṃ841):

abiding in the proper conduct in speech, having put an end to narrative,842 here a

certain (idh’ ekacco) bhikkhu speaks speech not associated with lying’ (na c’ eva

musāvādūpasaṃhitaṃ bhāsati). Having abandoned the eight ignoble expressions,843

he speaks [speech] associated with the eight noble expressions.844

[892] And, not divisive [speech] (na ca vebhūtiyaṃ): abiding in proper conduct in

speech, he does not speak speech making division.845

840
See Vism: 639-671 (for English, VismE: 666-700).
See also Dhammasaṅgaṇī (Dhs: 36-37, 43, 47-48), where three lists of four paths are mentioned.
841
In CS, SHB (648) and Thai (124), musāvādūpasañhitaṃ.
842
i.e., a discussion on a certain subject.
843
Adiṭṭhe diṭṭhavāditā (the not seen is expressed as the seen), asute sutavāditā (the not heard is
expressed as the heard), amute mutavāditā (the not experienced is expressed as the experienced),
aviññāte viññātavāditā (the not cognized is expressed as the cognized), diṭṭhe adiṭṭhavāditā (the
seen is expressed as the not seen), sute asutavāditā (the heard is expressed as the not heard), mute
amutavāditā (the experienced is expressed as the not experienced), and viññāte aviññātavāditā (the
cognized is expressed as the not cognized). A IV: 307. See also Bhikkhu Bodhi (2012): 1211.
844
The PTS edition mentions this sentence as ‘aṭṭha anariya-vohāre vajjetvā aṭṭha-anariya-vohāra-
yuttam eva bhāsati’. The second aṭṭha-anariya-vohāra-yuttam is incorrect, and the correct form
should be aṭṭha-ariya-vohāra-yuttam, the opposite of the first one as mentioned in CS, SHB (648)
and Thai (124) editions. Thus, the correct sentence should be: aṭṭha anariya-vohāre vajjetvā aṭṭha-
ariya-vohāra-yuttam eva bhāsati.
The eight are the positively opposite of the ones mentioned above. See ibid.
See also DA I: 72-72; DṬ I: 151-151 (for English, see Bhikkhu Bodhi (2012): 1211; Bhikkhu
Bodhi (2007): 118-119).
845
See also D III: 172. Cf. DA I: 72-73.

172
Not slanderous (na pesuniyaṃ846): this is an epithet of that. Divisive speech, being

devoid of amiability,847 is called slanderous (pesuṇiyaṃ). The Elder Mahāsīva848 said:

“this is a synonym of this.”

And, not born out of anger (na ca sārambhajaṃ) means speech which is born out of

anger, and he does not speak that. When saying “you are immoral,” [he does not say,]

“you are immoral or your teacher is immoral,” when saying, “you have an

offence,”849 [he does not say,] “having wandered for alms, I have gone to Pāṭaliputta,”

by such manner, making distracting speech or he does not speak speech beyond [his]

action.850

Expecting victory (jayāpekkho): making victory the priority.851 Just as, Hatthaka,852 a

son of the Sakya clan, speaks whatever truth and false [thinking] the sectarians853

846
In CS, SHB (648) and Thai (124), pesuṇiyan. In PTS, pesuniyaṃ (n without a dot underneath).
847
Or, ‘on account of making devoid of being amiable’.
848
G.P. Malalasekere, in his DPPN, mentions seven monks by the name Mahāsīva who lived in Sri
Lanka in different time-periods. Among them, one Mahāsīva is referred to as a dīghabhānaka, who
is also said to be a famous commentator. Probably, the Mahāsīva mentioned here could be the same
one.
Mahāsi Sayadaw and Sodo Mori also provide brief accounts about monks by the same name. See
Mahāsi Sayadaw (2016): 201-204; Sodo Mori (1989): 176-177. See also n737 of this thesis.
849
In CS and SHB (649), atthī is omitted.
850
In CS, SHB (649) and Thai (125), karaṇuttariyavācaṃ. In PTS, kāraṇ’ uttaraṃ vācaṃ.
851
In CS, SHB (649) and Thai (125), jayapurekkharo hutvā (having made victory the priority). In PTS,
jaya-purekkhāro.
The sub-commentary (where jayapurekkharo hutvā, not just jayapurekkharo, is explained) explains
that he does not speak whatever making one’s own victory the priority. See DṬ III: 95.
852
According to the Dhammapada commentary (DhpA III: 390-391), Hatthaka was a monk who held
debates with heretics. Once defeated, he resorted to falsehood. When this was reported to the
Buddha, Hatthaka was rebuked by the teacher for his misconduct. See also DPN.
853
Literally, the followers of other religions.

173
should be subdued righteously and un-righteously, he (=the Buddha) does not speak

thus expecting victory and having made victory the priority is the meaning.

And, he speaks words wisely (mantāmantā ca vācaṃ bhāsati): here, mantā (wisdom)

is called paññā (wisdom). With mantā (with wisdom) means with paññā (with

wisdom). Moreover, mantā (wisdom) means having examined854 (upaparikkhitvā).

This has been said: “abiding in proper conduct in speech, even speaking half a day,

he speaks proper speech having examined with wisdom.”

Worth treasuring (nidhānavatiṃ) means [things] that should be kept in the heart.855

On time/at the proper time (kālenā) means by the proper time.856 Spoken thus, such

speech is non-lying, not harsh, not fraudulent and not idle chatter. And in this way,

this speech is said to be based on the four truths, based on the three trainings, based

on thirteen kinds of purification,857 based on the ten subjects of discussion,858 based

854
Or, ‘having investigated’.
855
In CS, Thai (125) and SHB (649), hadayepi nidahitabbayuttaṃ (properly rooted in the heart). In
PTS, hadaye ṭhapetabba-yuttaṃ.
856
In CS, SHB (649) and Thai (125), yuttapattakālena (by the proper and right time). In PTS, yutta-
kālena.
857
The thirteen, as Nyanatiloka mentions in BDN, are: wearing patched-up robes (pamsukūlik’aṅga);
wearing only three robes (tecīvarik’aṅga); going for alms (pinḍapātik’aṅga); not omitting any
house whilst going for alms (sapadānikaṅga); eating at one sitting (ekāsanik’aṅga); eating only
from the alms-bowl (pattapinḍik’aṅga); refusing all further food (khalu-pacchā-bhattik’aṅga);
living in the forest (āraññik’aṅga); living under a tree (rukkha-mūlik’aṅga); living in the open air
(abbhokāsik’aṅga); living in a cemetery (susānik’aṅga); being satisfied with whatever dwelling
(yathā-santhatik’aṅga); sleeping in the sitting position (and never lying down) (nesajjik’aṅga). See
also: Bhikkhu Khantipalo (2007, Wheel No. 83/84) discusses these practices in the present Thai
monastic context and relating them to the early Buddhist discourses. For a further detail account of
the thirteen by Buddhaghosa, see Vism: 59-83 for Pāli, and VismE: 55-77 for English translation.

174
on the thirty-seven factors of enlightenment and leading to the path. Therefore, it is

said: “Venerable Sir, this too is unsurpassable with regard to the modes of proper

conduct in speech” (etad ānuttariyaṃ bhante bhassa-samācāre). That should be

understood according to the earlier manner.

4.11. The Exegetical Exposition on the Proper Moral Conduct

[One] is truthful and faithful (sacco c’ assa saddho ca):859 abiding in moral conduct,

a bhikkhu may be truthful, speaker of truth, faithful and is endowed with faith. And,

isn’t the truth as certainly spoken below? Here, why has it been said again? The truth

regarding speech is spoken below. This is said to point out that a bhikkhu, abiding in

the moral conduct, does not commit falsehood even with useless talk and with playful

talk.860 Now, for the purpose of pointing out that he leads life righteously and

impartially, “not even cheating” (na ca kuhako), etc. has been said.

Therein, cheating 861 (kuhako), etc. are explained in detail in the Brahmajāla

[-sutta].862

858
In CS, terasadhutaṅganissitātipi is mentioned after dasakathāvatthunissitātipi.
The ten are: appicchakathā (talk about wanting little), santuṭṭhikathā (talk about satisfaction),
pavivekakathā (talk about seclusion), asaṃsaggakathā (talk about withdrawing from the company),
viriyārambhakathā (talk about arousing effort), sīlakathā (talk about virtues), samādhikathā (talk
about concentration), paññākathā (talk about wisdom), vimuttikathā (talk about release) and
vimuttiñāṇadassanakathā (talk about knowledge and vision of release). A V: 129.
859
Cf. DA I: 73.
860
CS and Thai (126) mention only hasanakathāya (talk of laughter), instead of bhassa-kathāya and
dava-kathāya, as in PTS and SHB (649).
861
Or, ‘one who is cheating’ (= a cheater).
862
The Brahmajāla-sutta explains that the Buddha has given up conducts such as living as cheaters,
mutterers, soothsayers, jugglers while living on food provided by faithful ones. See D I: 8; DLB I:

175
Guarded with regard to the senses [and] moderate in [taking] food (indriyesu gutta-

dvāro bhojane mattaññu): guarded with regard to the six senses and moderate in

[taking] food.863

[893] Upright in deeds (sama-kāri) means upright in conduct. Having abandoned the

crookedness of action, etc. bodily, mentally and verbally, he practices uprightly is the

meaning.

Engaged in practice of wakefulness (jāgariyānuyogaṃ anuyutto): having made864 the

night and day into six sessions, by walking back and forth and by sitting down in the

day, thus, according to the spoken manner, he lives applying well the practice of

wakefulness. 865

Unfaltering (atandito) means devoid of weariness and physical sloth.866

15-16. The commentary to the sutta explains: kuhakā ti ādīsu tividhena kuhana-vatthunā lokaṃ
kuhayanti vimhāpayantīti kuhakā (DA I: 91). Here again Bhikkhu Bodhi has omitted the translation
of this section in his translation of the commentary. See also DṬ I: 166.
In the Aṅguttara-nikāya, cheating is explained as one of the five qualities possessing which a
bhikkhu is “displeasing and disagreeable to his fellow monks and is neither respected nor esteemed
by them” (NDB: 717). The other four are: flattering, hintering, belittling and seeking gain with gain.
Possessing the positively opposite five of these leads a bhikkhu to be pleasing, agreeable, respected
and esteemed. See A III: 111-112. The Sampasādanīya-sutta mentions the five as part of proper
moral conduct. See D III: 106-107.
863
In the Mahāassapura-sutta, the Buddha explains that moderation in taking food is one of the factors
leading to becoming a true recluse. M I: 273. See also M III: 293-297; S II: 228-229.
864
i.e., divide.
865
Cf. M I: 273-274; MLDB: 365.
866
In CS, SHB (649) and Thai (126), nittandī kāyālasiyavirahito. In PTS, nittandiya-kāyālasiya
virahato.
See also MA V: 3; DhpA III: 472.

176
Strenuous 867 (āraddha-viriyo) 868 : with physical effort he is strenuous. Having

dispelled the association to a sect, he is a lone-dweller by means of the eight efforts869

with regard to the four deportments.870 With the effort of mental thoughts he is

strenuous. Having dispelled the association with defilements, he is a lone-dweller by

means of the eight meditative attainments. And also, just as the arising of defilements

is obstructed, he is strenuous by means of the effort of the mental thoughts.871

Thoughtful (jhāyī) 872 : thoughtful by means of contemplating on object and

characteristic.873

Mindful (satimā): endowed with mindfulness for the long lasting remembrance,

etc.874

867
Or, ‘full of effort (energy/ positive strength)’, ‘energetic’.
868
In CS, SHB (649) and Thai (126), Āraddhavīriyo; long ‘ī’ in viriyo. In PTS, āraddha-viriyo.
869
In CS, SHB (649) and Thai (126), aṭṭhaārabbhavatthuvasena. In PTS, aṭṭha-ārambha-vatthu-
vasena.
Literally, they are the eight efforts that one has to apply in different actions/contexts. See D III:
256-258 (287). Cf. A IV: 334-335. However, the term used, in both instances, is ‘ārabbhavatthu’,
not ‘ārambhavatthu’. See BGS IV: 217 n3, for E.M. Hare’s explanation on this.
870
The four deportments are the four postures of a person: walking, standing, sitting and lying down.
871
Cf. the explanation of āraddha-vīriyena in p. 178 and n941 of this thesis.
See also DA III: 896. Cf. DA II: 530 [for English, see Yang-Gyu An (2005): 36]; SA II: 235; AA III:
222 & 377; AA IV: 120; UdA: 234; MnA I & II: 453.
872
Or ‘concentration’. In the sutta: ñāyī. See D III: 107.
The Jhāna-saṃyutta mentions various lists of concentration (jhāyī), each list consisting of four. See
S III: 263-279.
873
See also DA III: 700; ItA: 106.
According to the sub-commentary, contemplation on object by means of samatha and
contemplation on characteristic by means of vipassanā. See DṬ III: 97.
874
See also DA III:758; ItA: 106. Cf. Alexander Wynne (2007): 71-73; Eviatar Shulman (2014): 125,
132.

177
skilled in understanding 875 (kalyāṇa-paṭibhāno) means [he is] endowed with

conversation as well as endowed with understanding. He is one with knowledge of

fitness, not one with loose knowledge.876 A bhikkhu abiding in the proper moral

conduct is not one with loose knowledge, he is indeed one with knowledge of fitness,

like the Elder Vaṅgīsa.877

One who is steady going 878 (gatimā): endowed with wisdom for the ability to

striving.879

One with firmness880 (dhitimā): endowed with wisdom for the ability to sustaining.881

875
T.W. Rhys Davids renders as ‘of seemly conversation’, see DLB III: 102; Piya Tan as ‘skilled in
the good’, see DISF: 120; and Maurice Walshe as ‘of fitting conversation’, see LDB: 421. The
commentary to the Mahāniddesa explains kalyāṇa-paṭibhāno as ‘pleasing person with wisdom’
(sundarapañño); literally, a wise person. MnA I & II: 273. Cf. DṬ III: 97; CarA: 186. For
sundarapañño, see MṬ (Mūlapaṇṇāsa-ṭīkā, Vammikasuttavaṇṇanā).
See also Bhikkhu Bodhi’s (NDB: 515) rendering of paṭibhāna as ‘discernment’.
876
This is the first of the four kinds of person with regard to discernment explained in the Aṅguttara-
nikāya. For the remaining three, see A II: 135.
Bhikkhu Bodhi translates this sentence as: one whose discernment is incisive, but not free-flowing
(NDB: 515; 1702 n830). F.L. Woodward renders the sentence as: he who replies to the point, not
diffusely. GSB II: 138.
877
Elder Vaṅgīsa was a monk during the time of the Buddha. The Buddha is said to have declared him
as the foremost among those preeminent in ready expression (extemporizer). See DPPN. See also S
I: 185-196 (CDB I: 280-293): John D. Ireland (2011): 3-22.
878
As translated by Maurice Walshe, see LDB: 421. See also T.W. Rhys Davids’ and Piya Tan’s
renderings as ‘valiant to go’ and ‘of good conduct’ in DLB III: 102 and DISF: 120 respectively.
879
The sub-commentary explains gamana-samatthāya as: for the ability to understand the unheard
Dhamma (asutaṃ dhammaṃ gametuṃ samatthāya). DṬ III: 98.
For samatthāya, cf. NDB: 1722 n977.
880
Also ‘courageous’. For the renderings by Maurice Walshe, T.W. Rhys Davids and Piya Tan –
‘resolute,’ ‘to endure’ and ‘resolute’ respectively, see ibid.
881
See also DṬ III: 98.

178
Sensible882 (mutimā)883: herein, sensible884 is a term for wisdom. Therefore, “wise” is

the meaning. Hence, wisdom has been explained with these three statements. Therein,

the effort to fulfil the duties of a monk has been explained below. Herein, the effort of

grasping the words of the Buddha. Then, the wisdom of insight885 has been explained

below. Herein, the wisdom of grasping the words of the Buddha.

And, one who is not greedy with regard to sensual pleasures886 (na ca kāmesu giddho)

means one who is not greedy with regard to object-based sensuality and pleasure in

mental defilement.887

Attentive and prudent (sato ca nipako care 888 ): he conducts endowed with

mindfulness and knowledge in the seven bases889 when when going forward and

backward,890 etc. is the meaning. Prudence is wisdom. On account of that, the fact of

endowed with prudence 891 has been said. Here, the remaining also should be

understood in accordance with the earlier manner.

882
As rendered by Maurice Walshe and Piya Tan, see ibid. T.W. Rhys Davids renders as ‘to think’, see
ibid.
883
In CS, SHB (650), and Thai (127), matimā. See also DṬ III: 98. In PTS, mutimā.
884
In CS, SHB (650) and Thai (127), matī. In PTS, matī.
885
In CS, SHB (650) and Thai (127), vipassanā-, vipasanā- in the PTS edition is incorrect.
886
Or ‘and, not greedy for sensual pleasures’. Maurice Walshe, T.W. Rhys Davids and Piya Tan render
as ‘not hankering after sense-pleasures,’ ‘not greedy, besides, for worldly pleasures’ and ‘not
greedy for sense-pleasures’ respectively. See LDB: 421; DLB III: 102; DISF: 120.
887
For a detailed commentarial explanation on ‘sensual pleasures’, see DṬ I: 150-151 (for English, see
Bhikkhu Bodhi 2007: 116-118). See also BDN for vatthu-kāma and kilesa-kāma.
888
In CS and SHB (650), care is omitted. See also D III: 107.
889
For the seven bases, see Sattaṭṭhāna-sutta in S III: 61-65.
890
In Thai (127), paṭikkanta is omitted.
891
In CS, samannāgatattā nipakoti.

179
4.12. The Exegetical Exposition on the Modes of Instructing

Through his own proper mental application892 (paccataṃ yoniso manasikāro) means

by his own right mental application.893

Practicing as instructed (yathānusiṭṭhaṃ tathā paṭipajjamāno894) means in the manner

instructed and instruction given by me, practicing in that manner.

[894] ‘For the examination of the three fetters’ (tiṇṇaṃ saṃyojanānaṃ

parikkhāya):895 it is indeed the meaning as have been said. Here, the remaining

should be understood in accordance with the earlier manner.

4.13. The Exegetical Exposition on the Knowledge of Liberation of

Others

Concerning the knowledge of the liberation of others (para-puggala-vimutti-ñāṇe):

concerning the knowledge of the liberation from cankers of others who are stream

entrants, etc. with that very path. Here, the remaining should be understood in

accordance with the earlier manner.

892
Renderings by T.W. Rhys Davids, Maurice Walshe and Piya Tan: ‘Through his own [method of]
systematic thought’; ‘by his own skilled observation’; ‘for himself, . . ., through wise attention’
respectively. See DLB III: 102; LDB: 421; DISF: 120.
893
Bhikkhu Bodhi renders upāya-manasikāra as ‘right means’. See CDB I: 413 n270.
894
Practicing (paṭipajjamāno) means practicing the path of purity (visuddhapaṭipadaṃ paṭijjamāno).
See DṬ III: 98.
895
The three are: personality view (sakkāya-diṭṭhi), doubt (vicikicchā), attachment to rules and rites
(sīlabbata-parāmāsa). See BDN.

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4. 14. The Exegetical Exposition on the Eternalist Doctrines

Such and such a name896 (amutrāsiṃ evaṃ nāmo): one proceeds remembering one’s

former state of existence and exhausting the name and clan. One remembers the pure

aggregates.897 One is indeed able and one is indeed unable. Therein, one who is able,

not grasping because of that, [and] it has been grasped because of being unable. What

does one who is unable do? Having proceeded to remembering the pure aggregates,

having gone through to the extent of hundreds and thousands of many births, he

descends exhausting the name and clan. Pointing out that, he said: “such name”

(evaṃ nāmo), etc.

He said thus (so evam āha):898 he, one who is adhering to views, said thus. Therein,

having said whatever is “eternal” (sassato), the words of the statement “and those

sentient beings move about continuously” (te ca sattā saṃsaranti) is contradiction to

what precedes and what follows. Indeed, the nature of adhering to views does not

consider899 this. There is neither condition nor certainty for the one who is adhering

to views. Having taken this, he gets rid of this; having gotten rid of this, he takes this.

This explanation [is found] in the Brahmajāla[-suttavaṇṇanā].900

896
Cf. DLB III: 105.
897
For the list of the pure aggregates, see Yamaka I: 14-51.
898
See also DA I: 105: he, having been endowed with the realization of a jhāna, speaks thus adhering
to views (so evaṃ jhānānubhāva-sampanno hutvā diṭṭhi-gatiko evaṃ vadati). Cf. Bhikkhu Bodhi
(2007): 130.
899
In CS and Thai (128), sallakkhesi. In PTS and SHB (650), sallakkheti.
900
See DA I: 105ff.

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This is the third eternalist doctrine (ayaṃ tatiyo sassata-vādo): the Elder said with

regard to the threefold eternalist doctrines in terms of gain. Having considered the

logical theory, 901 four has been spoken about in the Brahmajāla[-sutta] by the

Blessed One. 902 The detailed explanation of these three doctrines should be

understood according to the manner spoken in the Brahmajāla[-sutta].903 Here, the

remaining should be explained in detailed according to the previous manner.

4.15. The Exegetical Exposition on the Knowledge of the Recollection

of Past Lives

Or by counting (gaṇanāya vā): by counting of the lump.904

By calculating (saṅkhyānena)905: by mentally counting906 without fault907. In both

ways, he points out the counting of the lump. This is spoken: it is not possible to

calculate the years in terms of hundred, in terms of thousand, in terms of hundred

thousand, in terms of ten million, having made lump, or many hundred years or many

ten millions of years. Indeed, because of fulfilling the own ten perfections, because of

thorough understanding of the all-knowing knowledge, from which your knowledge

of the obstacle-freed flows valiantly, from there, having put front the skilfulness of

901
In CS, SHB (651) and Thai (129), takkīvādam. In PTS, takkika-vādaṃ.
902
See D I: 13-16.
903
See D I: 15-16. For commentarial explanation, see DA I: 105-106.
904
Cf. DṬ III: 99.
905
In CS, SHB (651) and Thai (129), saṅkhānena. In PTS, saṅkhyānena.
906
Cf. DṬ III: 99.
[Mano-]gaṇanā is one of the five forms of mental application (/attention). See Vism: 278.
907
In CS and SHB (651), acchiddaka. In Thai (129), acchindaka. In PTS, acchidda.

182
the knowledge of teaching, having ended908 by number of years, having cut off by

number of kappa-s, you exhibit this much, [895] he explains. Here, the meaning of

the text is the manner as spoken. Here also, the remaining should be understood in

accordance with the previous manner.

4.16. The Exegetical Exposition on the Knowledge of the Passing

Away and Rebirth of Beings

Venerable Sir, this is unsurpassable with regard to the knowledge of passing away

and rebirth of the sentient beings909 (etad ānuttariyaṃ bhante sattānaṃ cutūpapāta

ñāṇe): Venerable Sir, this which is the discourse about the knowledge of the passing

away and relinking910 of the sentient beings, that [discourse] of yours is indeed

unsurpassable. Indeed, the past Buddhas have pointed out911 thus, the future [Buddhas]

also will discourse thus. You discoursed having compared with knowledge of those

past and future Buddhas. He explains: “on account of this reason, Venerable Sir, I am

pleased in the Blessed One.” Indeed, the meaning of the text is explained in detail

here.

908
In CS and SHB (651), pariyantikaṃ; in Thai (128), sapariyantiṃ. In PTS, pariyantaṃ.
909
For cutūpapāta-ñāṇa, see Bradley S. Clough (2010/2011): 427-428; H.R. Perera (1979): 274-275.
910
In CS, SHB (651) and Thai (129), cutipaṭisandhivasena ñāṇadesanā. In PTS, cuti-paṭisandhi-ñāṇa-
desanā.
911
In PTS, dassesuṃ. However, in CS, SHB (651) and Thai (130), desesuṃ – the past tense of deseti,
whose future tense form (desessanti) is used in the next part of this sentence.

183
4.17. The Exegetical Exposition with regard to the Psychic Powers

With defilements [and] with attachment912 (sāsavā sa-upadhikā) means with hatred

[and] with reproach913.

Is called ignoble914 (no ariyā ti vuccati): is not called the psychic power of the noble

[one/s].

Without cankers [and] without attachment (anāsavā anupadhikā) means undefiled

[and] without reproach.

Is called noble (ariyā ti vuccati): is called the psychic power of the noble [one/s].

He lives there being aware of non-repulsiveness (appaṭikkūla-saññī tattha viharati):

how does he live being aware of non-repulsive?915 He pervades loving-kindness with

regard the repulsive916 sentient being; he focuses on the perception of elements with

regard to the conditionings. As it is said: “how does he live with regard to repulsive,

912
Or ‘accompanied by acquisitions [attachments]’ as Piya Tan (2005: 124) renders. Cf. Bruce
Mathews (1983): 103.
913
K.N. Jayatilleke (2010: 223, 517) renders ‘upārambha’ as ‘attack’ and ‘upālambha’ as ‘criticism
(of the opponent’s theory)’. Cf. Joël André-Michel Dubois (2013): 233. See also DṬ III: 99-100.
914
Literally ‘not noble’. Both T.W. Rhys Davids (2002: 106) and Piya Tan (2005: 124) render it as
‘ignoble’, but the latter also mentions ‘unarya’, which is also used by Maurice Walshe (1995: 423).
915
In CS, SHB (651) and Thai (130), appaṭikūlasaññī. In PTS, appaṭikkūla-saññī (note the double k).
916
In CS, SHB (651) and Thai (130), paṭikūle. In PTS, paṭikkūle. See also the next paṭikkūle.

184
being aware of non-repulsive?917 He pervades on account of loving-kindness with

regard to the unpleasant object; or focuses on account of the element.”918

He lives there being aware of repulsive (paṭikkūla-saññī919 tattha viharati) means he

spreads unpleasant ideas920 among the repulsive sentient beings, he focuses on the

perception of impermanence with regard to conditionings. Just as, he said: “how does

he live with regard to the non-repulsive,921 being aware of repulsive? He pervades on

account of unpleasantness with regard to pleasant object or focuses on account of

impermanence. The meaning should be understood thus with regard to the remaining

terms (/texts).922

He lives there being equanimous923 (upekhako924 tattha viharati) means not finding

pleasure in pleasure, not being offended in displeasure. Just as, [they] give rise to

delusion by being looked up as unequal among others, he, not giving rise thus, lives

being equanimous with the six-fold equanimity925 [and] with regard to the six sense-

objects.926

917
Cf. sāsavā sa-upadhikā in p. 174 of this thesis.
918
See also DṬ III: 100.
919
In CS, SHB (651) and Thai (130), paṭikūlasaññī. In PTS, paṭikkūla-saññī.
920
Or, ‘perception’.
921
In CS, SHB (651) and Thai (130), appaṭikūla. In PTS, appaṭikkūla.
922
See also DṬ III: 100.
923
See also Bhikkhu Bodhi in CDB II: 1762-1764. Cf. PṭsA: 676.
924
In CS, SHB (651) and Thai (130) upekkhako. Cf. PṭsA II & III: 676.
925
The Saḷāyatanavibhaṅga-sutta (M III: 219f) mentions two lists of six-fold equanimity. Cf. M I:
186-187.
926
The six are: visible object, sound, odor, taste, body-impression, and mind-object. See BDN.

185
This is unsurpassable,927 Venerable Sir, with regard to the psychic powers (etad

ānuttariyaṃ bhante iddhi-vidhāsu): Venerable Sir, this which is the discourse with

regard to the two psychic powers928 that is unsurpassable.929

The Blessed One that930 (taṃ bhagavā): the Blessed One knows that discourse fully

and entirely.

That to the Blessed One (taṃ bhagavato): that discourse is fully and entirely known

to the Blessed One.

There is nothing beyond which should be fully understood931 (uttariṃ abhiññeyyaṃ

na’ atthi):932 there is nothing that should be well known further. With reference to

this, there is not another Dhamma or another person, which the Blessed One doesn’t

know. That which another recluse or brahmin fully knows933 (yad abhijāṇaṃ añño

samaṇo vā brāhmaṇo vā), is not fully known by you, a certain recluse [896] or

brahmin full knowing that [means] there is someone who knows better the Blessed

One, his wisdom may be superior.

927
L.S. Cousins (1996: 146) renders ‘ānuttariya’ as ‘incomparable quality’.
928
See D III: 112-113.
929
For iddhividhā, see Bradley S. Clough (2010/2011): 415-418; T. Endo (2002): 85-88.
930
Here ‘that’ (taṃ) refers to each of the teachings on all the sixteen ānuttariya-s. See also Rhys
Davids in D III: 113, n3.
931
[by the Blessed One].
932
This definition of uttariṃ abhiññeyyaṃ n’ atthi has been mentioned earlier within the
Sampasādanīyavaṇṇanā (see p. 143 and n749 of this thesis). See also DA III: 885.
933
For the full statement, see D III: 113.

186
This which is with regard to the psychic powers (yad idaṃ iddhi-vidhāsu): herein,

“this which” (yad idan) is an indeclinable. With regard to the psychic powers, there

is none higher than the Blessed One. Indeed, the past Buddhas also discoursed about

these two psychic powers, the future ones also will discourse about these. Having

compared with their knowledge,934 you935 discoursed about these. Pointing out that

the Blessed One is unsurpassable with regard to the psychic powers, he explains: “on

account of this reason, Venerable Sir, I am pleased in the Blessed One.”

To that extent, having sat at a place during the day, the General of the Dhamma936

knew thoroughly the sixteen ever-following Dhamma-s. Those have been pointed out

by this.937 Here, pointing out the virtues of the Blessed One by another manner, he

said ”whatever, Venerable Sir” (yan taṃ bhante), etc.

4.18. The Exegetical Exposition on the Qualities of the Teacher in

Different Manners

Therein, by the son of the good family938 (kulaputtena939): the faithful sons of the

good family is a term [for] the bodhisatta-s of the past, future and present. Therefore,

934
In PTS, CS and Thai (131), ñāṇena. In SHB (652), ñāṇehi.
935
Tumhehi as mentioned at the beginning of this sentence in the PTS is an error. The correct form
should be tumhe as mentioned in the editions of CS, SHB (652) and Thai (131). See also the
exegetical explanation of etad ānuttariyaṃ bhante sattānaṃ cutūpapāta ñāṇe in DA III 895.
936
See Bhikkhu Ñāṇamoli (2010): 75, 349, 379, 386, 444, 696, 759. The term is also translated as ‘the
Marshal of the Dhamma’. See Dennis Candy (2008): 140. And also, ‘Marshal of the Law’. See
Nyanaponika Thera and Hellmuth Hecker (2008): 15ff.
937
In CS, teva dassitā honti. In SHB (652) and Thai (131), sammasi teva dassitā honti. In PTS, te
‘nena dassitā honti.
938
Adapted from the rendering of Sanskrit ‘kula-putraḥ’ by K.L. Dhammajoti (2015: 21, 392).

187
whatever ‘should be attained’ (pattabbaṃ) by a all-knowing bodhisatta is spoken.

What should be attained by him? The nine supra-mundane Dhamma-s.940

“Begun with effort” (āraddha-viriyena),941 in such contexts, “effort, strength,” etc.,

all are synonyms of effort. Therein, “begun with effort” (āraddha-viriyena) means

stretched forth with effort.942

With strength (thāmavatā): by succeeding with strength [and] by firm-effort.

With manly strength (purisa-tthāmena): 943 that which should be gained by that

strength, is spoken as with manly strength. This is the meaning with regard to the

immediate two words.

With manly endurance (purisa-dhorayhena): whatever responsibility should be

carried out by the Buddhas who are unique and responsible, that responsibility is by

the great person who is skill in carrying out. “That has been attained by the Blessed

One” points out that all that should have been attained by the past Buddhas, indeed all

Also, translated as ‘youth of a family’, ‘clansman’, ‘noble youth’. Cf. Piya Tan (2006): 61 n2.
‘Kula-putta’ has been used in the Pāli canon in various contexts giving different meanings, in most
cases to mean persons who are on the path to liberation or already liberated ones. See Narendra
Wagle (1995): 143. See also Akira Hirakawa (2005:189-191) for ‘kula-putra’ and ‘kula-duhitṛ’ as
the supporters of Mahāyāna Buddhism.
939
In CS, SHB (652) and Thai (132), saddhena kulaputtena. In PTS, kulaputtena.
940
i.e., the four paths, the four fruits and nibbāna.
941
See also the explanation of āraddha-vīriyo in p. 167 of this thesis. See n871 (or, DA III: 893).
Cf. DA II: 530 (for English, see Yang-Gyu An (2005): 36); SA II: 235; AA III: 222 & 377; AA IV:
120; MnA I & II: 453.
942
See also DṬ III: 101-102.
943
See also MnA I & II: 196.

188
have been attained [by the Blessed One], there is not a single less virtue of the

Blessed One.

Pursuing pleasure in sensual pleasures (kāmesu kāma-sukhallikānuyogaṃ)944 means

pursuing sensual pleasure in object-based sensual pleasures. Just as, other samaṇa-s

and brāhmaṇa-s, the matted-hair ascetic Keṇiya,945 etc. [think] who knows the other

world? Contacted with the tender body and with the arm covered with hair of this

female wandering ascetic is pleasurable. Pursuing pleasure in sensuality, they are

surrounded 946 with the knotted haired 947 female ascetics, while enjoying the

appeared948 object such as visual object, etc. He points out that it is not pursued thus.

Inferior (hīnaṃ) means low.949

Vulgar (gammaṃ) means the norm950 of the villagers.951

944
See also DṬ III: 102. Cf. SA III: 297.
945
For a brief detail about this ascetic see DPPN.
946
In CS and Thai (132), paricārenti. In PTS and SHB (652), parivārenti.
947
In CS, SHB (652) and Thai (132), moḷibandhāhi. In PTS, moli-baddhāhi.
948
Sampatta-sattaṃ in PTS is rather difficult to fit the meaning in the context. The editions of CS,
SHB (652) and Thai (133) mention sampattaṃ sampattaṃ, which fits more appropriately in the
context; literally, pointing to the objects which have approached/appeared.
949
Dictionaries provide similar meanings for both hīna and lāmaka; such as inferior, low and sinful.
Peter Masefield renders lāmaka as despicable. See Peter Masefield (1995): 570.
According to DṬ, lāmakaṃ is patikiṭṭhaṃ (inferior), which has the same meaning as low. See DṬ
III: 102. The VibhA also provides the same explanation for hīnaṃ, see VibhA: 9.
The Udāna commentary explains sinful (pāpakā) as low (lāmakā). See UdA: 220.
For hīnaṃ, see also AA III: 360.
950
For various connotations of the term ‘dhamma’, see John Ross Carter (1976): 329-337; BDN.
951
The Aṅguttara-nikāya commentary also provides a similar explanation of gammaṃ (gamman ti
gāmavāsikānaṃ dhassanaṃ). AA III: 360.

189
Belonging to an ordinary person (pothujjanikaṃ): 952 should be associated with

ordinary persons.953

Ignoble (anariyaṃ): not undefiled and954 should not be associated with the noble

ones.955

Possessed of evil (anattha-saṃhitaṃ956): connected957 with evil.958

[897] The practice of fatigue of the soul959 (atta-kilamathānuyogaṃ): the practice of

torture and affliction to oneself.960

Suffering (dukkhaṃ): associated with suffering or with difficulty.961 Just as, some

samaṇa-s and brāhmaṇa-s have shunned962 the practice of sensual pleasures, they

pursue fatigue of the body, freed963 from there, they pursue happiness in sensual

952
Cf. SA III: 297; AA III: 360.
953
See also DṬ III: 102.
954
In CS and Thai (133), vā. In PTS and SHB (652), ca.
955
See also the Aṅguttara-nikāya commentary’s explanation of anariyā as puthujjanaparisā. AA II:
145. In another instance, it explains anariya as na ariyaṃ na uttamaṃ na parisuddhaṃ. See AA
III: 360.
956
In CS, SHB (653) and Thai (133), anattha-sañhitam.
957
In CS and SHB (653), anatthasaṃyuttaṃ. In PTS and Thai (133), anattha-yuttaṃ.
958
Anattha-saṃhitaṃ (sometimes, anattha-saṃhito) is explained in various ways in other
commentaries. See VinA VII: 1360; DA III: 914; MA II: 332; SA III: 297; AA III: 27; AA III: 360.
959
This is popularly known as the practice of self-mortification in Buddhism.
960
The Saṃyutta-nikāya commentary also provides a similar explanation of atta-kilamathānuyoga:
atta-kilamathānuyogo ti attano kilamathānuyogo: sarīra-dukkhan ti attho (pain to the body is self-
mortification is the meaning). SA III: 108. See also SA III: 297; DṬ III: 102.
961
For further commentarial explanations on dukkhaṃ, see SA I: 194; SA II: 213; AA IV: 192; SnA II:
586; TheraA III: 155.
962
In CS, SHB (653) and Thai (133), parivajjessāma. In PTS, pariccajissāma.
963
In CS, SHB (653) and Thai (133), muñcissāma. In PTS, muccissāma.

190
pleasures, [but] the Blessed One is not thus. Having renounced these both extremes,

the Blessed One [said]: “monks, there is this middle path which is fully realized by

the Tathāgata is producing insight.” Proper practice is said to be thus, indeed

following that, therefore, he said: “and, not the practice of self-mortification” (na ca

attakilamathānuyogan), etc.

Of the higher mental states (abhicetasikānaṃ964): “of abiding, having overcome the

sense-sphere consciousness, of the higher mental states” is the meaning.965

Of ones living happily having realized the final truth (diṭṭha-dhamma-sukha-

vihārānaṃ)966 means of ones living happily with regard to this very existence.967 In

the Poṭṭhapāda-sutta,968 the meditative attainment of fruit has been explained by one

who has attained the second jhāna with joy. In the Pāsādika-sutta,969 the jhāna based

on insight together with the path. In the Dasuttara-sutta,970 the meditative attainment

of the fruit by one who has attained the fourth jhāna. The jhāna-s of the one living

happily having realized the final truth have been spoken in this Sampsādanīya[-

sutta].971

964
In CS, SHB (653) and Thai (133), ābhicetasikānaṃ; note the first long ā.
965
Cf. MA III: 31; SA II: 236; AA III: 29 & 304. See also DṬ III: 103.
966
Cf. MA III: 31; SA II: 171-173 & 211; AA II: 119; AA III: 29 & 304; AA IV: 168.
967
Literally, personality. See also MA III: 30.
968
See D I: 178-203.
969
See D III: 131-132.
970
See D III: 290ff.
971
See also DṬ III: 103.

191
Gained as desired (nikāma-lābhi) means gained just as desired.972

One gained without trouble (akiccha-lābhi) means one gained without suffering.973

One gained without pain (akasira-lābhi) means one gained abundantly.974

4.19. The Exegetical Exposition on the Preparation for Giving

In one and the same world system975 (ekissā loka-dhātuyā)976 means the threefold

world-realms (world-fields)977 in the ten thousand world systems:978 the realm of

birth (jāti-khettaṃ), the realm of order (āṇā-khettaṃ) and the realm of objectivity

(visaya-khettaṃ). There are ten thousand world systems by the name the realm of

birth (jāti-kkhettaṃ). They tremble during the time of the Tathāgata’s entering and

departing979 into/out of the mother’s womb, during the time of perfect enlightenment,

during the turning of the wheel of the Dhamma, during the release from the length of

life and during parinibbāna. One billion-hundred-thousand of world-circles is called

972
See also MA III: 30; MA IV-V: 158; SA II: 236; AA II: 293; AA III: 29; UdA: 234; DṬ III: 103.
Cf. AA III: 276.
973
See also MA III: 30; MA IV-V: 158; SA II: 236; AA II: 293; AA III: 29; UdA: 234; DṬ III: 103.
974
See also MA III: 30; MA IV-V: 158; SA II: 236; AA II: 293; AA III: 29-30; UdA: 234; DṬ III:
103-104.
975
As translated by T.W. Rhys Davids, Maurice Walshe and Piya Tan, see DLB III: 108; LDB: 425;
DISF: 126 respectively.
976
Cf. AA II: 14; VibhA: 430-431; 436-437.
977
In CS, SHB (653) and Thai (134) only tiṇi hi khettāni. In PTS, tīni hi loka-khettāni.
978
See DṬ III: 104.
979
i.e., being born.

192
realm of order (āṇā-kkhettaṃ).980 Here, the order of the protective chanting (paritta)

of Āṭānāṭiya, Mora, Dhajagga, Ratana, etc.981 operates982. The realm of objectivity

(visaya-kkhettaṃ) has no calculation. Indeed, to the extent it is known to the Buddhas,

to that extent it should be understood; to the extent it should be understood, to that

extent it should be known. There is no non-objectivity from the saying:

“understanding is limited by knowledge, knowledge is limited by understanding.”

“Having established this world-circle in these three fields, the Buddhas arises in

another world-circle,” it is not in the sutta-s; “they do not arise” is there. The three

baskets [are]: the basket of discipline, the basket of sutta-s and the basket of

Abhidhamma. [898] The three councils are: the council of Elder Mahākassapa, the

council of Elder Yasa and the council of Elder Moggaliputta Tissa.983 In the threefold

baskets of the Buddha’s words collected in these three councils, there is no discourse

(sutta) [that says] “having released in this world-circle, the Buddhas arise somewhere

else”; [but] there is the discourse (sutta) [that says] “do not arise”.984

980
This and the proceeding sentence, which are given as one sentence in the PTS edition, appear as
two sentences in CS and Thai (134). In SHB (653), they appear as one sentence in two parts.
981
See D III: 194-206; Jataka II: 33ff.
982
In CS and Thai (134), pavattati. In PTS and SHB (653), vattati.
983
The three elders presided over the first three Buddhist councils: Mahākassapa in the first council,
Yasa in the second council and Moggaliputta Tissa in the third council. The three councils are also
known as the council of Rājagaha, the council of Vesālī (see Vin II: vii, 284-308) and the council
of Pātaliputtā respectively. For detailed account of the three councils, see B.C. Law’s A Manual of
Buddhist Historical Traditions (Saddhamma-saṅgaha) (1941).
984
From this passage onward until “sukathito bhante Nāgasena pañho opammehi kāraṇehī ti” (in DA
III: 903) are found in MA IV & V: 113-121; AA II: 9-14. The same passages, with slight
differences, are also found in VibhA: 430-436.
The Majjhima-nikāya, Aṅguttara-nikāya and Vibhaṅga commentaries also provide further
exegetical explanations on ekissā lokadhatuyā. See MA IV & V: 121-122; AA II: 14; VibhA: 436.

193
Simultaneously (apubbaṃ acarimaṃ):985 they do not arise together neither before nor

afterwards, [they] arise either before or later, is spoken. Therein, ‘before’ should not

be understood as starting from the time of the sitting at the seat of enlightenment

[thinking] “I will not arise having not attained 986 enlightenment” as far as the

conception in the mother’s womb. The taking hold of the field is made by the tremble

of the ten thousands world-circle during the conception of the bodhisatta. [At that

time], the arising of another Buddha is obstructed. Afterwards should not be

understood as starting from the [time of the] complete nibbāna as far as the relics [of

the Buddha] remain until the size of mustard seeds. When the relics are remaining,

the Buddhas also remain. Therefore, in between this, the arising of another Buddha is

obstructed. During the complete extinction of the relics, the arising of another

Buddha is not obstructed.987

4.20. The Talk on the Disappearance of the Tipiṭaka

[There are] three disappearances988: the disappearance of learning the Dhamma, the

disappearance of the penetrating the Dhamma and the disappearance of practicing the

Dhamma. Therein, learning is the three baskets. Penetration is the penetration of

truth. The practice is the path. Therefore, penetration [of the Dhamma] and the

practice [of the Dhamma] is and also is not. At one time, monks who were penetrator

985
See the preceding note. The Aṅguttara-nikāya and Vibhaṅga commentaries also provide further
exegetical explanations on this. See AA II: 14-15; VibhA: 436.
986
In CS and SHB (653), apatvā. In PTS and Thai (135), appatvā.
987
This passage is also found in AA II: 10.
988
For further explanation on ‘antaradhāna’, see The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism (2014): 50.
For a detailed study on the disappearance of the Dhamma, see Toshiichi Endo (2004): 235-255.

194
[of the Dhamma] are (were) many. Having pointed the finger, he should be shown989

as “this monk is an ordinary person.” Indeed, in this island, once there is (was)990 no

monk as ordinary person. Sometimes, practitioners are more, and sometimes less.

Thus, the penetration and the practice is and is not. Penetrating the Dhamma is the

authority (pamānaṃ) for the lasting of the dispensation of the Buddha. The wise one,

having heard the three baskets, attains only two. Just as, having attained the five

psychic powers991 and the seven meditative attainments, near Aḷāra,992 our bodhisatta

asked about the preparation for the meditative attainment of neither perception nor

non-perception. He said: “I do not know.” From there, having gone near Udaka,993

having compared the attainment especially, he asked about the preparation for the

sphere of neither perception nor non-perception (nevasaññā-nāsaññ’ āyatana). He

replied: after the immediate saying of that, the great being (i.e., the bodhisatta)

accomplished that [jhāna994]. Thus, a wise bhikkhu attains the two, having heard the

wording995 of the Dhamma. Therefore, the dispensation of the Buddha exists on

account of abiding in the learning of the Dhamma. When that disappears, then the

Abhidhamma Piṭaka perishes first. Then, the Paṭṭhana disappears first of all. In due

989
Previously, in this work, dasseti has been translated as ‘points out’. However, here ‘shown’ is
considered as pasāretvā has been rendered as ‘having pointed out’.
990
In CS, SHB (654) and Thai (136), hosi. In PTS, hoti.
991
Also translated as ‘five direct knowledge-s’. Cf. Henepola Gunaratana (1980): 143.
The five are: power of performing miracles, clairaudience, clairvoyance, knowing other’s thoughts
and recollecting one’s previous births.
992
See DPPN, for a brief account of Aḷāra.
993
Also written as Uddaka, one of the two former teachers of the Buddha before his enlightenment.
The other teacher is Āḷāra (full name: Āḷāra Kālāma) mentioned earlier. For a brief account of
Uddaka, see Uddaka Rāmaputta in DPPN.
994
In CS, SHB (654) and Thai (136), tam jhānaṃ sampādesi. PTS omits jhānaṃ.
995
At the beginning of this paragraph, pariyatti has been translated as ‘learning the Dhamma’.
However, this rendering doesn’t fit in this context; hence, ‘wording of the Dhamma’, as also
rendered by Nyanatiloka in BDN.

195
course, the Dhamma-saṅgaha afterwards. [899] During that disappearance, the

dispensation of the Buddha exists [based] on the other two baskets. Then, when the

Sutta-piṭaka is disappearing, first the Aṅguttara Nikāya, starting from the eleventh up

to the first Nipāta, disappears. Immediately after that, the Saṃyutta Nikāya, starting

from the seven successions (Cakka-peyyāla) up to the Ogha-taraṇa, disappears.

Immediately after that, the Majjhima Nikāya, starting from the Indriya-bhāvanā[-

sutta] up to the Mūla-pariyāya[-sutta] disappears. Immediately after that, the Dīgha

Nikāya, starting from the Dasuttara-sutta up to the Brahmajāla[-sutta] disappears.

The question of the verses of one and two goes on for a long time. The dispensation

of the Buddha is not able carry on like the questions of Sabhiya and Āḷavaka.996

Once, during the time of the Kassapa-Buddha, they were unable to carry on the

dispensation of the Buddha midway. During the disappearance of the two baskets, the

dispensation of the Buddha exists [based] on the Vinaya-piṭaka. During the

disappearance of the Parivāra-kkhandha, it exists abiding on the both Vibhaṅga-s.997

During the disappearance of both Vibhaṅga-s, it exists based on the Mātika. During

the disappearance of the Mātika, the dispensation of the Buddha exists [based] on the

Pātikmokka and the higher ordination.998 The sign goes on for a long time. The

lineage of the white-robed ascetics was unable to carry on the dispensation of the

Buddha starting from the time of Kassapa-Buddha. It existed for thousands of years

with the attainments of the analytical knowledge, for thousands of years with the six

996
This description of the disappearance of the three baskets is also given by G.P. Malalsekera in
DPPN citing the VibhA: 432.
For Sabhiya’s questions, see S IV: 401-403. For Āḷavaka’s questions, see S I: 213-215.
997
i.e., the Bhikkhu-vibhaṅga (Vin III) and Bhikkhunī-vibhaṅga (Vin IV: 211-351).
998
In CS, SHB (655) and Thai (137), pātimokkhapabbajjāupasampadāsu ṭhitāsu tiṭṭhati. In PTS,
pātimokkha-pabbajjā-upasampadāsu sāsanaṃ tiṭṭhati.

196
higher knowledge-s, for thousands of years with the three higher knowledge-s, for

thousands of years with the dry-insight practitioners,999 for thousands of years with

the Pātimokkha. The dispensation of the Buddha is drawn back from the penetration

of the truth to the lowest beginning from the breaching of morality (discipline) to the

lowest. From there, the arising of another Buddha is not obstructed.

4.21. The Exegetical Exposition on the Disappearance of the

[Buddha’s] Dispensation

[There are] three complete extinctions (parinibbānāni): the complete extinction of

defilements, the complete extinction of the aggregates and the complete extinction of

the relics. There,1000 the complete extinction of defilements occurred at the seat of

enlightenment; the complete extinction of the [five] aggregates in Kusinārā; the

complete extinction of the relics will be in the future. During the drawing back of the

dispensation of the Buddha, after having assembled in this island of Thambapaṇṇi,1001

the relics will go to the great shrine.1002 From the great shrine to the shrine of

Rājāyatana in Nāgadīpa. 1003 From there, they will go the seat of the great

enlightenment. Also, from the regions of the Nāgas, from the worlds of the gods,

from the world of the Brahma-s, indeed the relics will go to the seat of the great

999
For a comprehensive study on sukkah-vipassaka, see Tzungkuen Wen’s A Study of
Sukkhavipassaka in Pāli Buddhism, a thesis submitted to The University of Queensland (2009) for
the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. See also BDN.
1000
Or, ‘among them’.
1001
i.e., present Sri Lanka.
1002
G.P. Malalasekera states this to be the Mahā Thūpa (also known as Ruwanwelisaya) build by King
Duṭṭhāgāminī in Anuradhapura. See DPPN.
1003
A small island in the present Jaffna peninsula of Sri Lanka.

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enlightenment. The relics, [of] the size of mustard seeds, will not disappear

midway.1004 All the relics, having gathered together, like a golden bulk being a heap

in the seat of the great enlightenment, will emit the six rays. They will pervade the ten

thousand world-system. [900] From there, the gods of ten thousand world circle,

having assembled, will perform great deeds of compassion from the day of the

complete extinction of the one with the ten powers [thinking]: “today, the teacher

attains complete extinction; today, the dispensation of the Buddha draws back; now,

this is our last sight [of the teacher].” Part from the non-returners and the ones who

have destroyed all the cankers, the remaining will be unable to bear1005 with the

intrinsic nature1006. Having given rise to the element of heat among the relics, they

will go up to as far as the Brahma-world. When the relic becomes the size of a

mustard seed, it will become one flame1007. During the disappearing of the relics, it

(the dispensation) will be exhausted. Having pointed out such a great splendor1008

during the disappearances of the relics, the dispensation of the Buddha becomes

disappeared. As long as it does not disappear, so long it is the latest. Thus, “it would

arise simultaneously, this condition is not found” (apubbaṃ acarimaṃ uppajjeyyuṃ,

netaṃ ṭhānaṃ vijjati).

1004
In CS and SHB (655), antarā nassissati. In Thai (138), antaradhāyissati. In PTS, antarāyaṃ
nassissati.
1005
In CS, sandhāretuṃ. In PTS, SHB (655), and Thai (138), saṇṭhātuṃ.
1006
In CS, SHB (655) and Thai (138), sakabhāvena. In PTS, sabhāvena.
1007
See E.M. Hare’s rendering of ‘ekajālā’ as ‘a single sheet of flame’ in BGS IV: 67.
1008
Anubhāvam in the PTS edition should be ānubhāvaṃ (the first a is ā) as in the CS, SHB (655) and
Thai (139), which is the correct one.

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✼”Why would they1009 not arise simultaneously?” Not a surprising fact.1010 Indeed

the Buddhas are wonderful human beings.1011 Just as, it is said: “a single person,

monks, arises being born in the world is a wonderful human being. Which single

person? The Tathāgata, the Worthy One, the Fully and Perfectly Awakened One.”

And, if two or four or eight or sixteen would arise together,1012 it would not be

wonderful. The gain and honor1013 of two shrines in one monastery is not great.

Monks born1014 with many are not wonderful; the Buddhas would also be thus.

Therefore, they do not arise. And, because of the distinction of the discourse. One

teaches the Dhamma which is the division of the foundation of mindfulness, etc.,

having given rise by another, he should also have taught; therefore, it would not have

been wonderful. When discoursing the Dhamma once, the discourse is also

wonderful. And, it is subject to dispute. And, it is like when many Buddhas have

arisen, there are many disciples of many teachers; they would dispute: “our Buddha is

one who is pleasing, our Buddha is one with a sweet voice, one who gained merits.”

Therefore, they do not arise thus.

✼ From here onwards (kasmā pana apubbaṃ acariyamaṃ . . . [DA III: 900]), until “The question has
been well explained, Venerable Nāgasena, with similes and reasons (sukathito bhante Nāgasena
pañho opammehi kāraṇehi. [DA III: 903])” is found in AA II: 10-14. See the next ✼ in p. 196 of
this thesis.
1009
Two Worthy Ones, Fully Perfectly Awakened Ones.
1010
Cf. Bhikkhu Bodhi’s note on ‘anacchariyā’ in CDB: 431 n365.
1011
The Buddha explains that along with the arising of the Tathāgata, various wonderful and
marvelous factors also arise. See A II: 130-133.
In the Acchariya-abbhāta-dhamma-sutta, instructed by the Buddha, Venerable Ānanda explains
several wonderful and marvelous factors the Tathāgata is endowed with. See M III: 118-124.
Cf. Piya Tan (2005): 133-143 & (2011): 159-171.
1012
Or ‘at one time’, see DṬ III: 105.
1013
Gain means the four necessities/supports for living (catu-paccaya-lābhā). And, honor means the
gains of these good deeds and of those well-done. See SA II: 206. See also S II: 239ff; CDB: 682.
1014
Ordained?

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And, this reason has been explained by Elder Nagasena with the question of King

Milinda. It has been spoken therein:

❆Venerable Nāgasena, this has also been spoken by the Blessed One: ‘it is

impossible, monks, [there is] no chance that two Worthy Ones, Fully and

Perfectly Awakened Ones, would arise simultaneously in the same world

system, this condition does not exist” (aṭṭhānam etaṃ bhikkhave anavakāso

yaṃ ekissā loka-dhātuyā dve arahanto sammā-sambuddhā apubbaṃ acarimaṃ

uppajjeyyuṃ, n’ etaṃ ṭhānaṃ vijjati). Or Venerable Nāgasena, when

teaching, 1015 [901] all the Tathāgata-s teach the thirty-seven factors of

enlightenment; and while explaining they explain the four noble truths; and

when training, they train in the three trainings;1016 and when instructing, they

instruct the practice of diligence.1017 Venerable Nāgasena, if [the teaching] of

all the Tathāgata-s is one exposition (recitation), 1018 one explanation, one

training, 1019 and one admonition,1020 for what reason1021 do two Tathāgata-s

❆ From here onwards (Bhante Nāgasena, bhāsitam ... [DA III: 900]), until “The question has been
well explained Venerable Nāgasena ... (sukathito bhante Nāgasena pañho opammehi kāraṇehi.
[DA III: 903])” is also found in Miln: 236-239. See the next ❆ in p. 196 of this thesis.
The Milinda-pañhā has been translated into English by T.W. Rhys Davids (1994), I.B. Horner
(1999) and Bhikkhu Pesala (2001). However, Pesala’s is a summarized translation. Cf. T.W. Rhys
Davids (1994): 47-51; I.B. Horner (1999): 40-44.
1015
In CS and Thai (140), desayantā ca. In SHB (656), desentā ca. In PTS, desentā vā.
1016
The three trainings are: higher morality (adhisīla-sikkhā), higher thought (adhicitta-sikkhā) and
higher learning (adhipaññā-sikkhā). See Mv: 63, 67, 70-71, 80-81,190; D III: 219; A I: 229-236,
240.
1017
In CS, SHB (656) and and Miln (Miln: 237), appamādappaṭipattiyaṃ (with regard to the practice
of diligence). In PTS and Thai (140), appamāda-paṭipattiṃ.
1018
In CS and Miln (Miln: 237), desanā. In PTS, SHB (656) and Thai (140), uddeso.
1019
In CS and Miln (Miln: 237), eka-sikkhā. In PTS, SHB (656) and Thai (140), eka-sikkhāpadaṃ.

200
 arise at the same time? Indeed, this world is illumined with the arising of one

Buddha already.1022 If there would be a second Buddha, this world would be

illumined exceedingly by the radiance of the two [Buddhas]; and the two
1023
Tathāgata-s, while instructing, would easily instruct; and while

admonishing, would admonish easily.1024 Therefore, show me a reason, I would

be doubt-less accordingly.

Great king, this ten thousand world system is the sustenance of one Buddha; it

sustains the virtue of one Tathāgata only. If a second Buddha would arise, this

ten thousand world system would not sustain [him], it would move, would

tremble, would incline, would bow down, would bend down, would scatter,

would be ruined, would be destroyed; [this] condition would not approach.

Great king, just as a boat would bear a person;1025 when a person mounts, that

boat would be balance with the water. However, if a second person would

approach with such age, figure, strength, size, slimness and fat, all major and

minor limbs; if he would mount that boat, great king, would that boat hold the

two [persons]?

1020
In CS and SHB (656), ekānusāsanī. In PTS and Miln (Miln: 237), anusatthi. In Thai (141),
anusandhi.
1021
Or, ‘with what reason’.
1022
Cf. T.W. Rhys Davids (1894): 47; I.B. Horner (1999): 40.
1023
In CS, SHB (656) and Miln (Miln: 237), ovadamānā. In PTS and SHB (141), ovadantā.
1024
Cf. T.W. Rhys Davids (1894): 47; I.B. Horner (1999): 40.
1025
In CS and Thai (141), ekapurisasandhāraṇī. In PTS, Miln (Miln: 237) and SHB (656),
ekapurisasantāraṇī.

201
 Indeed not, venerable sir; it would move, would tremble, would incline, would

bow down, would bend down, would scatter, would be ruined, would be

destroyed; [this] condition would not approach; it would sink in the water.

Just so, great king, this ten thousand world system is the sustenance of one

Buddha, it sustains the virtue of one Tathāgata only. If a second Buddha would

arise, this ten thousand world system would not sustain [him], . . . also . . . [this]

condition would not approach. Or, just as, great king, a person would eat food

as much as he likes, while filling up [himself], having filled up to the neck; he,

who has been nourished, who has been pleased, who is filled, who is compact,

who is weary, who cannot bend and inflexible like a stick, if he would again eat

food so much; great king, would that person be comfortable?

Indeed not, venerable sir, eaten once more, he would die.

Just so, great king, this ten thousand world system is [902] the sustenance of

one Buddha, . . . also . . . [this] condition would not approach.

However, venerable Nāgasena, does the earth tremble due to the excessive

weight of the Dhamma?

202
 Here, great king, if two carts are to be filled with precious things up to the

entrances;1026 having taken the precious thing of one cart,1027 if he strew into

another cart; would that cart, great king, hold the precious things of the two

carts?

Indeed not, venerable sir, the nave of that [cart] would spilt, its spoke would

break, the rim of the wheel of that [cart] would fall apart, and the axle of the

wheel of that [cart] would break.

Great king, does the cart break due to the excessive weight of the precious

things?

Yes, venerable sir.

Just so, great king, the earth trembles due to the excessive weight of the

Dhamma.1028 And also, great king, this reason is illustrated for the elucidation

of the powers of the Buddha. Moreover, listen to another appropriate1029 reason,

due to which reason, two Fully Perfectly Awakened Ones do not arise at the

same time. If two Fully Perfectly Awakened Ones would arise at the same time,

1026
In CS and SHB (657), mukhasamā. In PTS, Miln (Miln: 238) and Thai (142), mukhasmā.
1027
In CS, Miln (Miln: 238) and SHB (657), ekasmā sakaṭato. In PTS and Thai (142), ekassa sakaṭato.
1028
See DṬ III: 108, for atidhamma-bhārena.
1029
In CS and SHB (657), atirūpaṃ. In Thai (143), paṭirūpaṃ. In PTS and Miln (Miln: 238),
abhirūpaṃ.

203
 dispute would arise in [their]1030 assembly1031––your Buddha, our Buddha––two

factions would be created. Just as, great king, dispute arises in the assembly of

two powerful councilors: “your councilor, our councilor”; two factions are

created. Just so, great king, if two Fully Perfectly Awakened Ones would arise

at the same time, dispute would arise in the assembly1032: “your Buddha, our

Buddha”; two factions would be created. This is the first reason you listen, due

to which reason, two Fully Perfectly Awakened Ones do not arise at the same

time.1033

Moreover, listen to a further reason, due to which reason, two Fully Perfectly

Awakened Ones do not arise at the same time. If, great king, two Fully

Perfectly Awakened Ones would arise at the same time, that statement1034 “the

Buddha is the foremost” which would be false; the statement/s “the Buddha is

the most senior,” “the Buddha is the excellent,” “the Buddha is the most

superior,” “the Buddha is the highest,” “the Buddha is the best,” “the Buddha is

unequal,” “the Buddha is unique,”1035 “the Buddha is incomparable,”1036 “the

Buddha is one without a counterpart,” and “the Buddha is one without a rival”

1030
In CS, SHB (657) and Miln (Miln: 238), tesaṃ parisāya (in their assembly(/ies)). However, the
PTS and Thai (143) editions omit tesaṃ and employ only parisāya.
1031
The fourfold saṅgha?
1032
In CS, SHB (657) and Miln (Miln: 238), tesaṃ parisāya (in their assembly(/ies)). However, the
PTS and Thai (143) editions omit tesaṃ and employ only parisāya.
1033
The beginning part of this last sentence of this passage differs slightly in CS, Miln (Miln: 239) and
SHB (657). Accordingly, the sentence begins as follows: idaṃ tāva mahārāja ekaṃ kāraṇaṃ yena
kāraṇena … (great king, this is already one reason due to which reason …). The complete sentence
in editions of PTS and Thai (143) is: idaṃ paṭhamaṃ kāraṇaṃ suṇohi yena kāraṇena dve sammā-
sambuddhā eka-khaṇe na uppajjanti.
1034
Literally, ‘word’.
1035
See also I.B. Horner (1999): 43 n4.
1036
In CS, Miln (Miln: 239) and SHB (657), appaṭimo. In PTS and Thai (144), appaṭisamo.

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 which would be false. [903] Great king, you accept this1037 reason accordingly,

due to which reason, two Fully Perfectly Awakened Ones do not arise at the

same time.

And also, great king, this is the intrinsic nature of the Buddhas1038 for which

only one Buddha arises in the world at one time. Why?1039 Because of the

greatness of the virtues of the All-knowing Buddhas. That which is the greatest,

great king, is only one.1040 The earth, great king, is the greatest, that is indeed

only one; the ocean is the greatest, that is indeed only one; Sineru, the king of

mountains, is the greatest,1041 the space is the greatest; it is indeed only one;

Sakka is the greatest, he is indeed only one;1042 the Brahmā1043 is the greatest,

he is indeed only one; the Tathāgata, the Worthy One, the Fully Perfectly

Awakened One is the greatest, he is indeed only one. Wherever they arise, there

1037
In Miln: 239, idam. In PTS, CS, SHB (657) and Thai (144), imaṃ.
1038
In CS, Miln (Miln: 239) and SHB (657), buddhānaṃ bhagavantānaṃ. In PTS and Thai (144),
buddhānaṃ.
1039
Kamsā in PTS edition is an error, the correct form should be kasmā as in CS, Miln (Miln: 239),
SHB (657) and Thai (144).
Moreover, in the other editions (CS, Miln (Miln: 239), SHB (657) and Thai (144)), it is kasmā
kāraṇā. In PTS, however, kāraṇā is attached to the proceeding sentence (the answer to kasmā).
1040
This sentence appears differently in different editions:
In CS: yaṃ aññampi, mahārāja, mahantaṃ hoti, taṃ ekaṃyeva hoti.
In Miln (Miln: 239): aññam ‘pi mahārāja yaṃ loke mahantaṃ hoti taṃ ekaṃ yeva hoti.
In PTS and SHB (657); yaṃ hi mahārāja mahantaṃ hoti, ekaṃ yeva hoti. In PTS, however, yāṃ
(not the long ā), which is also a typo.
In Thai (144): yaṃ aññampi mahārāja mahantaṃ hoti varaṃ taṃ ekaṃ yeva hoti.
1041
In PTS, SHB (658) and Thai (144), this part of the sentence is: sineru giri-rājā seṭṭho mahanto so
eko yeva. In CS and Miln (Miln: 239), seṭṭho is omitted.
1042
In CS and Miln: 239, after this part of the sentence is ‘māro mahanto, so ekoyeva’ (the evil one is
the greatest, he is indeed only one).
1043
In CS, instead of brahmā, māro is mentioned.

205
 is no place for others. Therefore, the Tathāgata, the Worthy One, the Fully

Perfectly Awakened One indeed arises alone in the world.1044

❆The question has been well-explained, Venerable Nāgasena, with similes

and reasons.

And in conformity with the law of the Dhamma (dhammassa ca anudhammaṃ): the

path of the previous fraction in conformity with the law of the nine-fold supra-

mundane Dhamma-s. 1045

A fellow-follower1046 (saha-dhammiko):1047 one with the [same] cause.1048

Rebuke and criticism1049 (vādānuvādo): the very argument.1050

✼ Up to this point is found in AA II: 10-14. See the previous ✼ in p. 189 of this thesis.
❆ Up to this point found in Miln: 236-239. See the previous ❆ in p. 190 of this thesis.
1044
In CS, lokasmiṃ is omitted.
1045
The four paths, the four fruits and nibbāna. See BDN.
1046
Here, Maurice Walshe’s translation (LDB: 425) of saha-dhammiko is adopted, as among the three
other translators of the Sampasādanīya-sutta, his is very literal and clear in accordance with the
original text. Literary, a follower of the same religion. See also Bhikkhu Bodhi in CDB I: 747 n72.
1047
Cf. DA I: 263; DA III: 707; MA IV & V: 4, 32; SA II: 358; SA III: 100; AA II: 257, 268;
Sāratthadīpanī-ṭīkā (Saṅghādisesakaṇḍaṃ, Sañcarittasikkhāpadavaṇṇanā); Vimativinodanī-ṭīkā
(Saṅghādisesakaṇḍo, Sañcarittasikkhāpadavaṇṇanā); Viniyavinicchaya-ṭīkā
(Samuṭṭhānasīsakathāvaṇṇanā, Paṭhamapārājikasamuṭṭhānavaṇṇanā). See also the following note.
1048
See PED: 210. The same exegetical explanation is also found in SA II: 358; SA III: 100; AA II:
268.
1049
See also Bhikkhu Bodhi (2000): 747 n72.
1050
See DṬ III: 109.

206
4.22. The Exegetical Exposition on the Marvelous and Wonderful

Venerable Udāyi1051 (āyasmā udāyi): there are three Elders by the name Udāyi:

“Lāḷudāyi, Kāḷudāyi and Māhā-Udāyi.” Here, Mahā-Udāyi is meant. The five-fold

delight of hearing this discourse, from the beginning as far as the conclusion, having

arisen within, goes from the bottom of the feet up to the top of the head; from the top

of the head it comes down to the bottom of the feet; beginning from both, it descends

to the waist; beginning from the waist it goes to both. Having been1052 continuously

over-flown with delight, explaining the virtue of the one with ten powers with

strength and joy, he said “wonderful, Venerable Sir” (acchariyaṃ bhante), etc.

Less wishes1053 (appicchatā) means free from craving.1054

Contentment (santuṭṭhitā) means contented with three ways1055 with regard to the

four conditions.1056

1051
G.P. Malalasekere, in his DPPN, mentions of three persons (/monks) by the name Udāyī. The
Udāyī, mentioned in the Sampasādanīya-sutta, is the first of the three. Although the text
(commentary: DA III: 903) mentions that there were three monks by the name Udāyī, and confirms
Mahā-Udāyī to be the one present during the expounding of this discourse, Malalasekera mentions
Lāḷudāyi and Mahā-Udāyī to be the same. However, this is contradictory to the statement given in
the former, as it does not state that Lāḷudāyi to be Mahā-Udāyī. The sub-commentary (DṬ III: 109)
also confirms that Mahā-Udāyī, with a great body, is the one mentioned in this discourse, and goes
on to state that because of him, a boundary of the seat in the Vinaya was allowed. For more detail
about the three, see DPPN.
1052
CS, SHB (658) and Thai (145) editions omit hutvā.
1053
Or ‘less desires’.
1054
In another instance, appicchatā is explained as ‘one who is not greedy’ (alobho). AA I: 75.
See also DṬ III: 109.
1055
The three are: contentment with what we gain (yathā-lābha), contentment with strength (yathā-
bala) and contentment with what is appropriate (yathā-sāruppappa). DṬ III: 109; AA I: 78.
1056
The four are: clothing, food, shelter and medicine. Cf. M I: 24-32.

207
Austerity1057 (sallekhatā): the cutting off of all the defilements.

Of such name (yatra hi nāma) means whoever.

He will not reveal1058 his own (na attānaṃ pātukarissati) means he will not reveal his

own virtues.

They would carry out a banner1059 (paṭākaṃ parihareyyuṃ): saying “who is there like

us?” having raised a banner, they would wander in Nāḷandā.

[904] Udāyi, you observe the Tathāgata with less wishes (passa kho tvaṃ udāyi

tathāgatassa appicchatā): acknowledging1060 the words of the Elder, he said: “Udāyi,

observe whatever ‘less wishes of the Tathāgata’” (tathāgatassa apicchatā). Does not

the Tathāgata reveal as well as talk about his own virtue? [It is not that] he does not

talk. He does not talk for robes, etc.,1061 [which] should be spoken by one with sinful

wishes, etc. 1062 Therefore, he said: “Udāyi, you observe the Tathāgata with less

wishes” (passa kho tvaṃ udāyi tathāgatassa appicchatā), etc. He speaks on account

of disciplining the prudent sentient being. Accordingly, he said:

1057
Literally, it means aspiring for higher life in the spiritual sense. T.W. Rhys Davids, Maurice
Walshe and Piya Tan have differed in their translation of ‘sallekhatā’: serene and resigned (DLB
III: 109), restrained (LDB: 425) and austerity (DISF: 127) respectively. Maurice Walshe (1995:
607 n897), as an alternative rendering, also translates as ‘austerity’ as rendered by Piya Tan. Cf.
Charles R. Lanman (1913): 168.
1058
Or, ‘display’.
1059
i.e., they would proclaim such and such a quality by displaying a banner.
1060
In CS, SHB (658) and Thai (146), sampaṭicchanto. In PTS, paṭicchanto.
1061
In CS and SHB (658), cīvarādihetuṃ. In TPS and Thai (146), cīvar’ ādi-hetu.
1062
In CS, SHB (658) and Thai (146), appicchatādīhi. In PTS, pāpicchat’ ādīhi.

208
 Neither have I a teacher, nor there is one like me,

In the world, including of the gods, there is none equal to me.1063

Thus, the discourses should also be explained in detail with many verses1064 depicting

the virtue of the Tathāgata.

You should often speak (abhikkhaṇaṃ bhāseyyāsi) means you should speak again

and again. You do not speak [saying]: [it] has been spoken by me in the forenoon,1065

and not during the mid-day1066 and so on. You do not speak [saying]: [it] has been

spoken by me today, and not on the following day and so on –– This is the meaning.

He proclaimed (pavedesi) means he told.

Of this analysis (imassa veyyākaraṇassa): it is said analysis as this discourse is

without verse.1067

1063
This verse is also found in the Mahāvaggapāli of the Vinaya (Vin I: 8); M I: 171; Kathavatthu (Kv
I: 289); SA I: 204; AA III: 26; TherīA: 220.
Cf. I.B. Horner (1971): 11 (= BD IV) & (1954): 215 (= MLS I); Bhikkhu Ñāṇamoli & Bhkkhu
Bodhi (1995): 263 (= MLDB); Shwe Zan Aung & CF Rhys Davids (1915): 169 (= Points of
Controversy). See also VinA V: 964.
1064
In CS, SHB (658) and Thai (146), … bahū gāthāpi suttantāpi vitthāretabbā …. In PTS, … bahu-
gāthāhi suttantā pi …. Note gāthāhi in ablative case and suttantā in nominative case in the PTS
edition, both of which appear in nominative case in the other three editions.
1065
In CS and SHB (658), pubbaṇhasamaye. The PTS and Thai (146) editions omit samaye.
1066
In CS and SHB (658), majjhanhika. In PTS and Thai (146), majjhantika.
1067
Cf. imasmiñ ca veyyakaraṇasmiṃ in DA I: 130. Bhikkhu Bodhi, in his translation of the
Brahmajālasutta-vaṇṇanā, skipped translating the commentarial explanation of this.

209
Designation (adhivacanam) means a name. Here, the word beginning with ‘indeed

this’ (iti h’ idaṃ) is placed by the participants of the council.

All of the remaining is indeed spoken.1068

The exegetical exposition of the Sampasādanīya-sutta is concluded.1069

1068
In CS, SHB (658) and Thai (146), uttānatthamevāti. In PTS, uttānam eva.
1069
Before this concluding statement, CS includes sumaṅgalavilāsiniyā dīghanikāyaṭṭhakathāya (in/of
the Sumaṅgalavilāsini, the commentary on the Dīgha Nikāya).

210
 1070

1071

1070 This number and the numbers appearing at the side of the headings in the
proceedings pages are of the PTS edition.
1071 Of the Pali Text Society edition, London.
211
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K.L. Dhammajoti (2015). Hong Kong: Buddha-Dharma Centre of Hong
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