Research Methods between two things when no such

relationship exist
3 Main Types of Psychological Research - Example: Human behavior is affected
 Correlational Research by the phase of the moon.
 Descriptive Research
 Experimental Research Complex Correlational Designs
 Correlational Studies with Factorial
CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH Designs: include only nonmanipulated
Correlation means that there is a relationship independent variables (e.g. mood and
between two or more variables. selfesteem and their willingness to have
unprotected sex)
Correlation Coefficient is a number from -1 to
+1 that indicates the strength and direction of Assessing Relationships Among
the relationship between variables. Multiple Variables
- involves measuring several variables
Number portion: indicates the strength of the (often both categorical and
relationship quantitative) and then assessing the
 The closer the number is to 1, the more statistical relationships among them
strongly related the variables are. - Radcliffe and Klein studied how
 The closer the number is to zero, the middle-aged adults’ optimism levels
weaker the relationship. related to several other variables
 The sign (+ or -) indicates the direction of related to having a heart attack
the relationship - often used to assess the validity of
new psychological measures (Cacioppo
Positive Correlation: variables move in the and Petty’s Need for Cognition Scale)
same direction
Exploring Causal Relationships:
Negative Correlation: a decrease in one - can show patterns of relationships that
variable is associated with an increase in the are consistent with some causal
other interpretations and inconsistent with
others, but they cannot ambiguously
- Correlations have predictive value. establish that one variable causes
- Example: correlating your current another
students’ college GPA with - uses techniques such as multiple
standardized test scores like SAT regression (involves measuring several
would predict relative success independent variables, all of which are
possible causes of a single dependent
 Researchers use correlations to see if a variable
relationship between two or more
variables exist, but the variables
themselves are not under the control of DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
the researchers.
 Research studies that do not test specific
3 Main Characteristics: relationships between variables
 Non-experimental  Studies are used to describe general or
 Backward-looking: used to measure specific behaviors and attributes that are
and spot historical patterns observed and measured
 Dynamic: patterns between variables are
never constant and are always changing Main Types of Descriptive Studies
Case Study
 Correlation is limited because establishing - focuses on one person or just a few
the existence of a relationship tells us little individuals | richness of information |
about cause and effect. very deep understanding of the
 Confounding Variables: cause individuals and the phenomenon being
systematic movement in the variables studied
 Illusory Correlations: occur when - focusing attention on a special group
people believe that relationships exist would make it difficult to generalize
 any observations to a larger Types of Experiments
population as a whole  Lab Experiments: allow experimenters
more control over the variables | can be
easier for other researchers to replicate |
Naturalistic Observation: what takes place in a lab is not always
- people’s behavior is observed in their identical to what takes place in the real
natural environment in which they world
typically exist | a type of a field  Field Experiments: can be a great way
research | unobtrusive so that to see behavior in action in realistic
participants are not aware that they settings | more difficult to control the
are being observed variables and can introduce confounding
- ethical considerations – acceptable if variables that might influence the results
the participants remain anonymous  Quasi-Experiments: natural
and if the study is conducted in a experiments – researchers do not have
public setting (no complete privacy) the control over the independent variable
- greatest benefit – validity or accuracy | treatment level is determined by the
of information collected unobtrusively natural conditions of the situation (i.e.
in a natural setting | ability to personality differences, birth order)
generalize is enhanced | difficult to set - treatment levels cannot be randomly
up and control assigned because the participants
- Structured Observation – people are naturally fall into pre-existing groups |
observed while engaging in set, good choice in situations where
specific tasks | Observer Bias | Inter- researchers cannot ethically
rater reliability manipulate IV
 Experiments: to determine if there is a
Surveys: cause-and-effect relationship between
- lists of questions to be answered by different variables | random assignment,
research respondents | paper-and- operational definition of variables,
pencil questionnaires, administered developing a hypothesis, manipulating IV,
electronically or conducted verbally, measuring DV
completed in a short time, easy to
administer
- a larger sample is better able to reflect Designing an Experiment
the actual diversity of the population  Experimental Group: gets the
thus allowing better generalizability | experimental manipulation (treatment or
not able to collect the same depth of variable being tested)
info on each person, accuracy of  Control Group: does not get the
responses experimental manipulation
 Operational Definition: description of
Advantages how we will measure our variables
 Data Collection: primary data collection  Experiment Bias: the possibility that a
methods which provides a lot of info researcher’s expectations might skew the
 Varied: data collected is qualitative and results of the study
quantitative which gives holistic  Single-blind Study: participants are
understanding of a research topic unaware as to which group they are in (E
 Natural Environment or C) while the researcher knows which
 Quick to perform and inexpensive participants are in each group
 Double-blind Study: both the
researchers and the participants are blind
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH to group experiments
- Involves manipulating one variable to  Placebo Effect: occurs when people’s
determine if changes in one variable expectations or beliefs influence or
cause changes in another variable determine their experience in a given
- Relies on controlled methods, random situation
assignment and manipulation of
variables to test hypothesis
METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION QUESTIONNAIRE
 A self-report data-collection instrument
Six Major Methods of Data Collection that each research participant completes
- Tests as part of a research study
- Questionnaires  Obtain info on thoughts, feelings,
- Interviews attitudes, beliefs, values, perceptions,
- Constructed, Secondary, and Existing personality, and behavioral intentions of
Data research participants
- Focus Groups
- Observation Types of Questionnaires
 Quantitative: close-ended
Mixing Methods of Data Collection  Qualitative: open-ended
 Mixed versions
INTERMETHOD MIXING  In-person
 Two or more of the different methods of  Mail
data collection are used  Internet
 Standardized tests combined with
qualitative interview data
 Structured questionnaire and exploratory INTERVIEWS
focus groups QUANTITATIVE INTERVIEWS
 Both quantitative and qualitative data are  Carefully read the words as they are
obtained through the creative use of a provided in the interview protocol
single method  Interview Protocol: the data collection
 Mixed questionnaire: both open-ended instrument that includes the items,
and standardized closed-ended items response categories, instructions, etc.
 Goal: to standardize what is presented to
TESTS the interviewees
 Commonly used in quantitative research  Standardization has been achieved when
to measure attitudes, personality, self- what is said to all interviewees is the
perceptions, aptitude, and performance of same or as similar as possible.
research participants  Same stimulus = comparable results
 Standardized test: most common type;
include psychometric info on reliability, QUALITATIVE INTERVIEWS
validity, norms  Consist of open-ended questions and
 Although many tests are available for use, provide qualitative data
experimental researchers sometimes need  Depth interviews
to construct their own tests to measure  Allows a researcher to enter into the inner
very specific constructs that are world of another person and to gain an
operationalized in unique ways. understanding of that person’s perspective
 It is possible to construct a qualitative (or (Patton, 1987)
mixed) version of a test (e.g. Rorschach  The interviewer must establish trust and
Test, TAT) rapport, making it easy for the interviewee
to provide information about his or her
Technology and Tests inner world
 Ease of administration
 Ability to program complex sequences of INTERVIEWER
questions  Listen carefully, repository of detailed
 Lack of researcher effects because no information
researcher is present  Should be armed with probes or prompts
 You may not know who is taking the test to use when greater clarity or depth is
and what other activities the participant is needed from the person being interviewed
engaging in that might affect his/her
performance
TYPES OF QUALITATIVE INTERVIEWS  Does not need to take down notes – FGs
Interview Guide Approach are almost always recorded
 Interviewer enters the interview session
with a plan to explore specific topics and
to ask specific open-ended questions Technology and Focus Groups
 Interviewer does not have to follow these  Members can be widely dispersed across a
topics and questions during the interview large geographic region
in any particular order; can change the  Rapport can be developed
wording of any questions  Participants can respond from the
 Relatively unstructured interaction convenience of their computer screens in
between the interviewer and the their homes
interviewee  Instant messaging features

Standardized Open-ended Interview OBSERVATION

 Interviewer enters the interview  The watching of behavioral patterns of
session with a standardized interview people in certain situations to obtain
protocol similar to the interview information about the phenomenon of
protocol used in quantitative interest
interviewing  A maxim in the social and behavioral
 IP in the quantitative interview sciences that attitudes and behavior are
includes primarily close-ended items, not always congruent
but the IP in the standardized open-  Advantage over self-reports:
ended interview includes primarily researcher’s ability to record actual
open-ended items behavior than obtain reports of
 Interviewer does not vary from the IP, preferences or intended behavior
is more structured than the interview  Costs more money than self report
guide approach  Questions are all approaches
written out, interviewer reads the  Laboratory Observation
questions exactly as written and same  Naturalistic Observation
order
Quantitative Observation:
 Structured
FOCUS GROUPS  Involves the standardization of all
 A type of group process in which a observational procedures to obtain reliable
moderator or facilitator leads a discussion research data
with a small group of individuals to  Often involves the standardization of the
examine, IN DETAIL, how the group who is observed, what is observed, when
members think and feel about a topic. the observations are to take place, where
 Used to collect qualitative data that are in the observations are to be carried out,
the words of the group participants and how the observations are to be done
 Sociologist Robert Merton: he and his  Usually results in quantitative data
Columbia University students published  Sometimes uses observational sampling
the earliest works on focus groups techniques (time interval sampling, event
sampling)
Moderator  Time-interval sampling: involves
 Keeps the individuals in the group focused observing participants during the time
on the topic being discussed intervals specified in advance of the actual
 Generates discussion through open-ended data collection
questions  Event sampling: involves making
 Acts as facilitator of group process observations during and directly after a
 Must have good interpersonal skills specific event has occurred
If conflicts or power struggles occur, must  Data collection instruments are
skillfully bring the group back to the task usually close-ended  Used for
 Must know when to probe or ask for more confirmatory purposes
info and when it has been exhausted
 Needs to cover all topics and open-ended
questions included in the FG protocol
Qualitative Observation behavior (what people say and do only
 Involves observing all potentially relevant with their closest friends)
phenomena and taking extensive field
notes without specifying in advance Visual Data Collection
exactly what is to be observed  One of the richest methods of data
 Usually done for exploratory purposes collection is the image
 Complete participant: takes on the role  We see visual data concretely,
of an insider, essentially becoming a  Visual displays can reveal qualitative data
member of the group being studied and (photos, drawings, etc) as well as
spending a great deal of time with the quantitative data (graphs, charts)
group; does not tell members that they  Photo Interviewing: the process of
are being studied eliciting data from a person using a
 Participant-as-observer: attempts to photographic or visual imagery when
take on the role of an insider (a conducting interviews
participant), similar to the complete  Interpret photos (existing) or collect initial
participant (participates, observes); photographic data
explains to the group being studied that CONSTRUCTED, SECONDARY, and
s/he is a researcher and not a bona fide EXISTING DATA
group member
- weakness is that participants might Constructed Data
not behave naturally because they are  Things produced by your research
aware that they are being studied participants during the research study
(disappears when they begin to trust such as drawings, paintings, diaries,
the researcher or adjust to his/her recordings, videos, and newly produced
presence) personal documents
 Observer-as-participant: takes on the  Used in qualitative, quantitative and mixed
role of observer much more than the role research
of participant; participants are fully aware
that they are part of a study; does not Secondary and Existing Data
spend too much time on the field, has  Data that were collected, recorded, or left
limited and briefer interactions with behind at an earlier time usually by a
participants different person and often for an entirely
- disadvantage – obtaining an insider’s different purpose than the current one at
view is more difficult | advantage – hand
maintaining objectivity and neutrality  May be used with other data for
is easier corroboration or may be the primary data
 Complete Observer: fully takes on the to be used in your research study
role of outside observer; does not inform  Personal Documents: anything written,
the group being studied that they are photographed, or recorded for private
being observed and they usually will not purposes
know that they are being observed  Official Documents: anything written,
 P-a-o and o-a-p are generally preferred photographed, or recorded by an
because they allow voluntary consent by organization (e.g. newspapers,
research participants and allow educational journals and magazines,
researchers to take on a mix of both curriculum guides, annual reports,
insider and outsider roles minutes of school board meetings, etc)
 Physical Data: any material thing or
Qualitative Observation (what you would traces created or left by humans that
need to conduct it) might provide information about a
 Good social skills phenomenon of interest to a researcher
 Trust and rapport (e.g. wear on floor tiles in museums, wear
on library books, soil from shoes and
Erving Goffman’s warning clothing, radio dial settings, fingerprints,
 Much social behavior observed is etc)
frontstage behavior (what people want or  Archived Research Data: originally
allow us to see) rather than backstage used for research purposes and then
stored for possible use later | may be in
print form or in computer-usable form
(e.g. census data, social science research
data stored and kept by research-related
orgs)