ESSENTIAL PROBLEMS:

THE SEARCH FOR MEANING

A. INTRODUCTION
Existential problems refer to the ensemble of feelings and questions we have
to do with the meaning and purpose of our life. And the search for meaning is the
universal human experience of seeking purposes and significance in life. It is the
nature of every human being to want to live a meaningful life. As humans, we all
want to live a life worth living, a meaningful life, one that in itself has value.
Understanding the search for meaning is crucial for gaining insight into the
human condition and our place in the world. If the desire for meaning in life is a
significant psychological motivator, it should also be significant for human
wellbeing. The desire for meaning in life may include literature, art as well as
religious beliefs. Throughout history, literature has played a vital role in exploring
the search for meaning. Works of fiction, poetry, and non-fiction have all tackled
the theme of the human search for purpose and significance in life. Arts have also
explored the search for meaning, expressing it through various styles and mediums.
As for religious beliefs, it is agreed that death is not the end, but many have
different ideas about what happens afterlife.
Not only is “meaning” the central concept in Existentialism but also “death”.
The importance of the meaning of death in Existentialism has affected
fundamental reexamination of “meaning”. The 4 objects mentioned below are
examples of the connection between “meaning” and “death”.
B. BODY
I. The Egyptian Mummy case of Artemidoros
The Egyptian Mummy Case of Artemidoros is a well-preserved funerary
object from the Roman period of Egypt, dating back to the second century AD.
The case is made of painted wood and depicts various scenes and figures from
Egyptian mythology, including Anubis and the goddess Isis. The mummy inside
the case is believed to be Artemidoros, a man who lived during this period and was
likely a member of the upper class. The case is an important artifact for
understanding ancient Egyptian burial practices and the influence of Egyptian
culture on the Roman Empire.
1. Description
The mummified body is enclosed in a red-painted stucco casing. The
Egyptian Mummy Case of Artemidoros is a rectangular-shaped wooden
sarcophagus which measures 1.71 meters in length, 0.52 meters in width, and 0.42
meters in height. The mummy of Artemidoros was placed inside the sarcophagus,
which was then sealed to protect the deceased during the journey to the afterlife. A
portrait panel has been inserted at the head of the case. It is painted on wood in
encaustic, a mixture of pigment and beeswax with a hardening agent such as resin
or egg. This portrait is the face Artemidorus took with him into the afterlife. Below
the portrait is a falcon-collar and a series of traditional Egyptian funerary scenes
applied in gold leaf. The largest of these shows the god Anubis attending the
mummy, which lies on a lion-shaped bier flanked by goddesses (probably Isis and
Nephthys). The god Osiris himself is also depicted on a bier, awakening to new
life. The identity of the dead man is preserved in a short, mis-spelled Greek
inscription across the breast, which reads: 'Farewell, Artemidorus'.
CT scans have been made of Artemidorus' mummy without removing it
from its casing. There is evidence of damage to the bones in the area of the nose,
and cracks to the back of the skull. Interestingly, there are no signs of healing.
While it is possible that the damage is a result of rough treatment when the body
was being mummified, the injuries may have been the result of an assault and may
have even been the cause of death. Artemidorus was probably between 18 and 21
when he died, which is in keeping with the age suggested by the mummy's portrait.
2. Process of building
The process of creating the Egyptian Mummy Case of Artemidoros involved
several steps:
 Selection of wood: The first step in creating a mummy case was to select the
type of wood that would be used. In ancient Egypt, cedar and sycamore were
the most commonly used woods for making coffins.
 Construction of the sarcophagus: Once the wood had been selected, the panels
for the sarcophagus were cut and shaped to the desired dimensions. The
panels were then joined together using dowels or tenons, and the corners were
reinforced with metal brackets.
 Preparation of the surface: Before the decoration could be applied, the surface
of the sarcophagus needed to be prepared. This involved applying a layer of
 white gesso, which was made from a mixture of powdered gypsum and
animal glue. The gesso was applied in several layers to ensure a smooth,
white surface.
 Sketching and composition: Once the gesso had dried, the artist would sketch
the scenes and inscriptions onto the surface of the sarcophagus using red or
black ink. This allowed the artist to plan the composition of the decoration
before applying the paint.
 Application of pigments: The pigments used to paint the decoration were
made from natural materials such as minerals, plant extracts, and animal
products. The pigments were mixed with a binding agent such as egg or glue
to create a paint that could be applied to the surface of the sarcophagus. The
artist would apply the paint using a variety of brushes made from animal hair
or plant fibers.
 Finishing touches: Once the painting was complete, the artist would add any
final touches to the decoration, such as gold leaf or additional details using a
fine brush. The entire surface of the sarcophagus would then be varnished to
protect the paint and add a glossy finish.
 Placement of the mummy: The mummy of Artemidoros would be placed
inside the sarcophagus, which would have been sealed with linen strips and a
layer of resin. The finished mummy case was then ready for burial.
 The creation of the Egyptian Mummy Case of Artemidoros was a highly
skilled and time-consuming process, requiring the expertise of several
artisans, including woodworkers, painters, and gilders.
3. Meaning
The Egyptian Mummy Case of Artemidorus holds significance in several
different aspects. In terms of religious beliefs and funerary practices, the
decoration on the mummy case reflects the religious beliefs of the ancient
Egyptians, who believed in the afterlife and the importance of preserving the body
through mummification. The hieroglyphic inscriptions and painted scenes on the
sarcophagus depict the gods and goddesses who were responsible for guiding the
deceased through the journey to the afterlife. The scenes also depict the various
funerary rites and offerings that were made to ensure the well-being of the
deceased in the afterlife.
In terms of social and economic status, the level of decoration on the
mummy case reflects the social and economic status of the deceased, Artemidorus.
The use of high-quality materials such as wood, gesso, and pigments, as well as the
skill of the artisans involved in its creation, suggest that Artemidorus was a person
of wealth and status in ancient Egyptian society.
In terms of identity and personality, the decoration on the sarcophagus
provides clues about the identity and personality of the deceased. For example, the
inscriptions reveal that Artemidorus was a priest of the god Osiris, while the scenes
depict his favorite gods and goddesses, as well as the activities that he enjoyed in
life, such as hunting and fishing.
In terms of legacy and cultural heritage, the Egyptian Mummy Case of
Artemidorus is an important cultural artifact that represents the rich history and
cultural heritage of ancient Egypt. It is an example of the high level of artistic
achievement and technical skill that was characteristic of ancient Egyptian art, and
it provides valuable insights into the beliefs, customs, and daily life of the people
who lived in this ancient civilization.
Overall, the Egyptian Mummy Case of Artemidorus holds great meaning
and significance in terms of its religious, social, personal, and cultural value, and it
provides a fascinating window into the world of ancient Egypt and the people who
inhabited it.
II. Stonehenge
One of the most famous and well-known Neolithic structures, Stonehenge is
located on the Salisbury Plain in England and receives over a million tourists
annually. People go great distances to see Stonehenge because it is so enormous
and ancient; others go in quest of a link to prehistoric times; or to witness a huge
astrological observatory.
1. Description
Stonehenge is the most architecturally sophisticated prehistoric stone circle
in the world. It is unrivaled in its design and unique engineering, featuring huge
horizontal stone lintels capping the outer circle and the trilithons, locked together
by carefully shaped joints. It is distinguished by the unique use of two different
kinds of stones (Bluestones and Sarsens), their size (the largest weighing over 40
t), and the distance they were transported (up to 240 km).
2. Process of building
2.1 Phase one
 In fact, what we see today is the result of at least three phases of
construction, although there is still a lot of controversy among archaeologists about
exactly how and when these phases occurred. It is generally agreed that the first
phase of construction at Stonehenge occurred around 3100 B.C.E. when a great
circular ditch about six feet deep was dug with a bank of dirt within it about 360
feet in diameter, with a large entrance to the northeast and a smaller one to the
south. This circular ditch and bank together are called a henge. Within the henge
were dug 56 pits, each slightly more than three feet in diameter, called Aubrey
holes, after John Aubrey, the 17th-century English archaeologist who first found
them. These holes, it is thought, were either originally filled with upright
bluestones or upright wooden beams. If it was bluestones that filled the Aubrey
holes, it involved quite a bit of effort as each weighed between 2 and 4 tons and
was mined from the Preseli Hills, about 250 miles away in Wales.
2.2 Phase two
The second phase of work at Stonehenge occurred approximately 100–200
years later and involved the setting up of upright wooden posts (possibly of a
roofed structure) in the center of the henge, as well as more upright posts near the
northeast and southern entrances. Surprisingly, it is also during this second phase
at Stonehenge that it was used for burial. At least 25 of the Aubrey holes were
emptied and reused to hold cremation burials and another 30 cremation burial pits
were dug into the ditch of the henge and in the eastern portion within the henge
enclosure.
2.3 Phase three
The third phase of construction at Stonehenge happened approximately 400–
500 years later and likely lasted a long time. In this phase, the remaining blue
stones or wooden beams which had been placed in the Aubrey holes were pulled
and a circle 108 feet in diameter of 30 huge and very hard sarsen stones were
erected within the henge; these were quarried from nearby Marlborough Downs.
These upright sarsen stones were capped with 30 lintel stones (the horizontal
stones).
Each standing stone was around 13 feet high, almost seven feet wide, and
weighed around 25 tons. This ring of stones enclosed five sarsen trilithons (a
trilithon is a pair of upright stones with a lintel stone spanning their tops) set up in
a horseshoe shape 45 feet across. These huge stones, ten uprights, and five lintels
weigh up to 50 tons each. Bluestones, either reinstalled or freshly quarried, were
erected in a circle, half in the outer sarsen circle and half within the sarsen
horseshoe. At the end of the phase, there is some rearrangement of the bluestones
as well as the construction of a long processional avenue, consisting of parallel
banks with exterior ditches approximately 34 meters across, leading from the
northeast entrance to Stonehenge, dipping to the south and eventually to the banks
of the Avon river.
3. Meaning
When people think of the Neolithic era, they often think of Stonehenge, the
iconic image of this early time. Dating to approximately 3000 B.C.E. and set on
Salisbury Plain in England, it is a structure larger and more complex than anything
built before it in Europe. Stonehenge is an example of the cultural advances
brought about by the Neolithic revolution—the most important development in
human history. The way we live today, settled in homes, close to other people in
towns and cities, protected by laws, eating food grown on farms, and with leisure
time to learn, explore and invent is all a result of the Neolithic revolution, which
occurred approximately 11,500-5,000 years ago. The revolution which led to our
way of life was the development of the technology needed to plant and harvest
crops and domesticate animals.
Perhaps more than any other prehistoric monument, Stonehenge has been the
subject of speculations about how it came to be and what it was used for. A study
carried out by Mike Parker Pearson concluded that Stonehenge was founded as a
high-status burial ground and continued as such for at least half a millennium.
However, nowadays, the most widely-accepted theory is that the structure was an
ancient temple that was oriented toward the sun. It is the most spectacular
illustration of the ceremonial complexes that are already rising in Britain and
Ireland. These were locations to pay respect to the ancestors and commemorate
significant dates in the calendar. The sun served as the focal point of this
worldview, and the monument's construction contained the solstice alignments.
Rather than being "one" monument, Stonehenge was constructed, changed, and
adored over more than 1,500 years, or around 100 generations.
III. Chaco Canyon
Chaco Canyon was a major center of culture for the Ancestral Puebloans.
The canyon is vast and contains an impressive number of structures—both big and
small—testifying to the incredible creativity of that people who lived in the Four
Corners region of the U.S. between the 9th and 12th centuries. Chaco was the
urban center of a broader world, and the ancestral Puebloans who lived here
engineered striking buildings, waterways, and more.
1. Description
Chaco Culture is a network of archaeological sites in northwestern New
Mexico that preserves outstanding elements of a vast pre-Columbian cultural
complex that dominated much of what is now the southwestern United States. It
includes Chaco Culture National Historical Park, the associated sites at Aztec
Ruins National Monument, and five additional protected archaeological areas.
Chaco Canyon National Monument was established in 1907. In the nearly
one hundred years since, the site has been widely excavated, surveyed, and studied.
It became a national historical park in 1980, and was designated a UNESCO World
Heritage Site in 1987, one of a select list of protected areas "whose outstanding
natural and cultural resources form the common inheritance of all mankind.
These sites were a focus for ceremonies, trade, and political activity and they
are remarkable for their monumental public and ceremonial buildings and
distinctive multi-storey “great houses”.
2. Process of building
The highly organized large-scale structures, featuring multi-storey construction and
sophisticated coursed masonry, illustrate the increasing complexity of Chaco social
structure, which distinguished itself within the regional culture of the ancestral
Pueblo and dominated the area for more than four centuries. The high incidence of
storage areas indicate the probability that the Chacoans played a central economic
role, and the great size and unusual features of the ceremonial kivas suggest that
complex religious ceremony may have been significant in their lives.
The Chaco Canyon sites graphically illustrate the architectural and engineering
achievements of the Chacoan people, who overcame the harshness of the
environment of the southwestern United States to found a culture that dominated
the area for more than four centuries.
Early Settlement
The first evidence of long-term human settlement in Chaco Canyon dates to the 3rd
century CE with the construction of partially subterranean homes known as
pithouses, structures which eventually were clustered together to form large
villages. As inhabitants became increasingly integrated, single-story multi-room
buildings began to appear in the 8th century CE among pithouse villages. Then, c.
850 CE, a remarkable change in Chacoan architecture began to take place which
set it apart from that of any other Southwestern area. Whereas most contemporary
buildings in the region, Chacoans began to construct "great houses," colossal
sandstone masonry structures which used thick walls to support multiple stories
and hundreds of rooms.
Great Houses
One of the earliest constructed and most magnificent of great houses found
within the canyon's walls is referred to as Pueblo Bonito, a Spanish name given by
Carravahal, a Mexican guide who accompanied a U.S. Army topographical
engineer making a survey of the region in 1849 CE. Pueblo Bonito was planned
and constructed in phases over the course of three centuries. It grew to include four
or five stories in parts, more than 600 rooms, and an area of more than two acres,
all while maintaining its originally-designed D-shaped layout.
Many interpretations of the role these structures played have arisen. The
likelihood that great houses had predominantly public purposes - accommodating
intermittent influxes of people visiting the canyon to partake in ceremonies and
commerce while serving as public gathering places, administrative centers, burial
grounds, and storage facilities - is now widely accepted. Based on the presence of
habitable rooms, it is likely these complexes also supported a limited number of
year-round, presumably elite, residents.
In addition to their immensity, great houses shared several architectural
characteristics reflective of their public role. Many included a large plaza, enclosed
by a single-story line of rooms to the south and multi-story room blocks to the
north, stepping from a single story at the plaza upward to the highest story at the
back wall. At Chetro Ketl, another monumental great house within the canyon, the
plaza feature is made even more impressive through its artificial elevation more
than 3.5 meters above the canyon floor - a feat requiring the hauling of tons of dirt
and rock without the assistance of draft animals or wheeled vehicles. Incorporated
into the plazas and room blocks of great houses were large, round, usually
subterranean chambers known as "kivas." Based on the use of similar structures by
modern Puebloan peoples, these rooms were likely communal spaces used during
ceremonies and meetings, with a fire pit at the center and access to the room
provided by a ladder extending through a smoke hole in the roof. Oversized kivas,
or "great kivas," were capable of accommodating hundreds of people and when not
incorporated into a great house complex, they stood alone, often forming a central
space for surrounding communities composed of (relatively) small houses.
To support multi-story great house constructions, which contained rooms
with floor areas and ceiling heights much higher than those of preexisting
dwellings, Chacoans created massive walls using a version of the "core-and-
veneer" technique. An inner core of roughly-hewn sandstone held together with
mud mortar formed the core to which thinner facing stones were attached to form a
veneer. These walls were in some cases nearly one meter thick at the base, tapering
as they rose to reduce weight - an indication that builders planned the higher
stories during the construction of the first. Although today these mosaic-style
veneers are visible, contributing to the striking beauty of these buildings, Chacoans
applied plaster to many interior and exterior walls once construction was complete
to protect the mud mortar from water damage.
Planned Landscape
Although Chaco Canyon contained a high density of architecture of a size
never before seen in the region, the canyon was only a small piece located at the
center of a vast interconnected area which formed Chacoan civilization. More than
200 communities with great houses and great kivas using the same distinct
masonry style and design as those located within the canyon, albeit on a smaller
scale, existed beyond the canyon. While these sites were most numerous within the
San Juan Basin, in total they encompassed a portion of the Colorado Plateau larger
than the area of England.
To help link these sites to the canyon and to one another, Chacoans
constructed an elaborate system of roads by excavating and leveling the underlying
ground, in some cases adding earthen or masonry curbs for support. These roads
commonly originated at great houses within the canyon and beyond, radiating
outward in remarkably straight sections. Chacoans maintained the linearity of these
roads even when steep landforms common to the American Southwest (e.g., mesas
and buttes) intersected their path, choosing instead to construct stairways or ramps
onto cliff faces. Given the high inconvenience of such an approach, along with the
fact that many roads did not have apparent destinations and were built wider than
required for transportation by foot (many were 9 meters across), it is possible the
roads served a primarily symbolic or spiritual purpose, an entrance of sorts to great
houses, guiding pilgrims traveling to ceremonies or other gatherings. To enable
more rapid communication, some great houses were placed within line of sight of
one another and of shrines on nearby mesa tops, allowing for the signaling of other
houses and of distant regions using fire or the reflection of sunlight.
Adding further structure and interconnection to the Chacoan world was the
widespread practice of aligning buildings and roads with the cardinal directions
and with the positions of the sun and moon during pivotal times such as solstices,
equinoxes, and lunar standstills. For instance, the front wall and wall dividing the
plaza of the great house Pueblo Bonito are aligned east-west and north-south
respectively, while the site is located precisely west of Chetro Ketl. Casa
Rinconada, a 19-meter diameter great kiva located within the canyon, has two
opposing interior T-shaped doors placed along a north-south axis and two exterior
doors aligned east-west, through which the light of the rising sun passes directly
only on the morning of an equinox.
Other sites appear to have served as observatories, allowing Chacoans to
mark the progression of the sun ahead of each solstice and equinox, information
potentially used in the planning of agricultural and ceremonial activities. Perhaps
the most famous of these are the "Sun Dagger" petroglyphs (rock images created
by carving or the like) located at Fajada Butte, a tall isolated landform at the
eastern entrance of the canyon. At the top, two spiral petroglyphs exist which were
either bisected or framed by shafts of sunlight ("daggers") passing between three
slabs of rock in front of the spirals on the day of each solstice and equinox. Further
evidence of Chacoans' celestial awareness comes in the form of several pictographs
(rock images created by painting or the like) located on a section of the canyon
wall. One pictograph is of a star potentially representing a supernova occurring in
1054 CE, an event which would have been bright enough to be visible during the
day for an extended period. The close location of another pictograph of a crescent
moon lends credibility to this theory as the moon was in its waning crescent phase
and appeared close in the sky to the supernova during its time of peak brightness.
3. Meaning
Chaco Canyon provides a wealth of information about the people who lived
there over a thousand years ago.
Architecture and engineering skills: the Great Houses and other monumental
structures in Chaco Canyon demonstrate the advanced architectural and
engineering skills of the Chacoans. These structures were built using stone
masonry techniques that required a high level of precision and skill.
 Astronomy and cosmology: The alignment of the roads and buildings in
Chaco Canyon with astronomical events suggest that the Chacoans had a deep
understanding of astronomy and a rich cosmological belief system:
Aligned buildings with astronomical events: Some of the buildings in Chaco
Canyon, such as Pueblo Bonito, are aligned with the movements of the sun, moon,
and stars. For example, certain doorways in Pueblo Bonito are positioned in such a
way that the sun illuminates certain rooms at specific times of the year. This
suggests that the Chacoans had a sophisticated understanding of astronomy and
used this knowledge in their architectural design.
Used astronomical markers: The Chacoans used astronomical markers, such
as the position of the sun, moon, and stars, to mark time and track the cycles of the
seasons. For example, they used the sun to mark the solstices, which are the
longest and shortest days of the year, and the moon to track the lunar year, which is
29.5 days.
Built astronomical observatories: Some of the buildings in Chaco Canyon,
such as Pueblo Bonito and Chetro Ketl, have been suggested to have served as
astronomical observatories. These structures had windows and doorways that were
positioned in such a way that they aligned with specific astronomical events, such
as the rising and setting of the sun and the moon.
Incorporated astronomy into their road system: The Chacoans built a
network of roads in the region that were aligned with astronomical events. Some of
these roads were straight and aligned with the rising and setting of the sun and the
moon, suggesting that the Chacoans used astronomy to guide their road-building
activities.
Trade and commerce: The presence of goods from distant regions, such as
pottery from Mexico and shells from the Pacific coast, suggests that the Chacoans
had a well-established trade network. This provides evidence of their economic
and commercial activities and the relationships they had with other cultures.
Long-distance trade: The Chacoans had a wide-ranging trade network that
allowed them to acquire goods from distant regions. This trade network was
facilitated by their well-developed road system, which connected the Great Houses
and smaller villages in the region.
Specialization of production: The Chacoans specialized in the production of
certain goods, such as pottery, textiles, and jewelry, which they traded with other
communities. This allowed them to take advantage of their skills and resources to
produce high-quality goods that were in demand in other regions.
Trade fairs: The Chacoans are believed to have held trade fairs, where they
exchanged goods and information with other cultures. These trade fairs allowed
them to expand their trade network and develop new relationships with other
communities.
Importance of turquoise: Turquoise was a highly valued commodity in the
Chacoan culture, and it played a significant role in their trade network. They
acquired turquoise from mines in the Southwest and used it to make jewelry and
other decorative objects.
Social and political organization: The Great Houses and the road system in
Chaco Canyon suggest a complex and hierarchical social and political
organization. These structures served as religious, administrative, and residential
centers, and the road system linked them together, providing evidence of a
centralized system of governance.
Environmental adaptation: The Chacoans lived in a challenging
environment including water scarcity, extreme temperatures, and limited resources,
and their ability to adapt to the harsh conditions and make the most of the available
resources provides insights into their resourcefulness and resilience.
IV. Oracle bones
Oracle Bones (also known as Dragon's Bones), has a Latin root that is
comparable to the English term “orator”, which means holy messenger or speaker.
Oracle bones were the shoulder blades of oxen or plastrons of turtles (the flat,
underside of the turtle's shell) which were used in the Shang Dynasty of China (c.
1600-1046 BCE) for divination.
The earliest oracle bones found to date related to use are unburned tortoise
shells with signs engraved on them, recovered from 24 graves at the early
Neolithic [6600-6200 cal BC] Jiahu site in Henan province, China nowadays.
These shells are incised with signs which have some similarity to later Chinese
characters. The oracle bones provide a window into the daily life of the royal
family, albeit a strange one, since most of the surviving text doesn’t concern
ordinary communication between people, but rather, between people and gods.
1. Region
These oracle bones date back more than 3,000 years, to the time of the Shang
Dynasty, in the late Bronze Age. The Shang is the earliest dynasty in Chinese
history that can be verified through written and archaeological evidence. It was
centered in north China along the Yellow River valley, the cradle of Chinese
civilization, so to speak. This area was ruled by one centralized government—the
Shang royal family.
The Shang monarchs are believed to have resided at a number of capital cities
sequentially, one of which may have been current Zhengzhou, the site of numerous
important archaeological discoveries. However, in the 14th century BCE, they
settled at Anyang. Chinese writing started to emerge during the Shang period, and
the symbol for "moon" also served as the symbol for "month" till this day. The
writing on oracle bones found shows complexity, indicating that the language had
existed for a long time. However, nowadays, scholars have been able to interpret
these writing since the similarity to modern Chinese.
2. Culture
2.1 The Shang Dynasty – Divination
The Shang people centered their religious belief in an ultimate deity, Di
(Dee), who controlled the known universe. He also ruled over other spirits,
including ancestral spirits and spirits of the natural world. Only the king had the
ability to communicate with Di. He did so by addressing the royal ancestors, who
were believed to serve as the bridge between the monarch and Di. Performing
divinations was one way to communicate. The king used “oracle bones” in
elaborate divination ceremonies. The activity has its own name Pyromancy. In case
an ox scapula was used, Scapulimancy; and Plastromancy if turtle plastrons were
used.
Divination use was one of the core institutions of the Shang elite. It was a
method used to obtain consensus at the royal court and; above all, a way to
communicate with the universe's superhuman forces. Being able to comprehend
the mental presumptions that underlie Shang divination can help us learn a lot
about the Shang worldview and the distinctive mental distinctions that set the
Shang apart from other cultures.
2.2 Pyromancy: A closer look
 Shang plastromancy and scapulimancy, as it was practiced during Wu Ting
(circa 1200-1181 B.C.), and probably in the succeeding reign of Tsu Keng, (circa
1180-1171 B.C.), proceed as follows.
Before the divination could be performed, the bones had to be thoroughly
prepared. First, they were stripped of the flesh of the animal, mostly turtles. Then,
a topic was addressed to shells or bones in the form of a charge, which was
frequently couched in either alternative (A or B) or in positive and negative (A not
A) modes. The charges were thus tentative predictions or statements of in claimed
to the spirits for their approval or disapproval. Single charges such as predictions
and wishes became more popular with the passage of time. A hot bronze poker or
some other heat source was used to apply heat to a series of hollows or pits that
had already been bored and chiseled into the shell or bone as the charge was
directed at it. The heat caused T-shaped stress cracks to form, with up to ten cracks
being made in ten different hollows for each question. Having been numbered and
examined, the cracks, and thus the charges with which they were associated, were
interpreted, if possible, as lucky or unlucky to a greater or lesser degree.
V. The Epic of Gilgamesh: Sex and Death
The Epic of Gilgamesh is an ancient Sumerian and Akkadian epic poem about the
eponymous hero, Gilgamesh. In this epic, Gilgamesh, the king of the city of Uruk,
goes on a quest to find immortality after he and Enkidu, his companion, perform
deeds that anger the gods, resulting in Enkidu's death. Despite going through many
trials, Gilgamesh loses his opportunity for physical immortality; however, he
becomes immortal in the memory of Uruk and its walls
The first versions of the Epic of Gilgamesh were written around 2150 BCE. Much
of what scholars know about the epic comes from archaeological finds in areas that
were the original sites of Mesopotamian (belonging to the area between the Tigris
and Euphrates rivers) cities, including Iran and Iraq
1. Sex
In terms of sex, the epic portrays Gilgamesh as a lustful and powerful figure who
uses his authority to claim sexual rights over his subjects, including brides on their
wedding nights.
In the epic, sex is generally depicted as a natural and normal part of human life, but
it is also seen as something that must be controlled and regulated by society. This
is illustrated by the character of Enkidu, who is created by the gods as a wild man
living in the wilderness. Sexual desire is also portrayed as something that can lead
to negative consequences. In one of the most famous scenes in the epic, Gilgamesh
rejects the advances of the goddess Ishtar, who then sends the Bull of Heaven to
punish him. This episode emphasizes the danger of giving in to sexual desire and
the consequences that can arise when one does not exercise self-control.
2. Death
The theme of death is also central to the Epic of Gilgamesh, as the story
follows Gilgamesh's quest for immortality after the death of Enkidu. Gilgamesh's
fear of death and desire for eternal life are depicted as universal human concerns,
and the epic explores various ways in which humans have tried to overcome death
throughout history. These include building monuments, performing heroic deeds,
and seeking divine favor.
After returning to his city, Uruk, Gilgamesh reflects on his life and comes to
the realization that even though he cannot live forever, he can still leave behind a
legacy that will be remembered by future generations. He understands that his
deeds and accomplishments during his lifetime are what truly matter and that death
is an inevitable part of the natural cycle of life.
The epic concludes with the message that death is an inevitable part of human
existence, and that the best way to confront it is to live a life that is meaningful and
remembered after one's passing.
3. Gilgamesh flood tablet
This is the 11th tablet of the Epic of Gilgamesh. The tablet describes how
the god sent a flood to destroy mankind. Ut-napishtim was warned in secret by the
God Ea to build a boat to ensure the survival of humans and animals. Birds were
released before the boat landed safely on mountain Nitsir northern Assyria.
Versions of this story are known from at least 1000 years before.
3.1 Description
The Flood Tablet is a ceramic tablet (made of clay) written in cuneiform.
The Flood Tablet’s length, breadth, and depth are 15.24 cm, 13.33 cm, and 3.17cm,
respectively. A blunt reed called a stylus is used to impress wedge-shaped writing
onto wet clay and the tablet is allowed to cure either by baking outside in the sun
or being fired in a kiln. Several forms of cuneiform exist; each form is written in a
different language. The Flood Tablet is written in Akkadian, the language of the
Neo-Assyrian empire. Cuneiform has existed for around 5000 years and was about
2500 years old when The Flood Tablet was written. The Flood Tablet was
discovered in the mid-19th century by a Turkish Assyriologist named Hormuzd
Rassam during the excavation of Kuyunjik, a "fallen, ransacked city" 13 miles
wide. It was then shipped to the British Museum with other broken bits of pottery
and similar pieces. In 1872, George Smith discovered this piece of the Epic of
Gilgamesh among the bits of rubble.
3.2 Local historical context
The Flood Tablet comes from the Neo-Assyrian culture of 7th Century BCE
Mesopotamia, modern-day northern Iraq. During this time, Assyrians are
dominating Mesopotamia, with a vast army comprised of over 50,000 mixed
infantry cavalry and chariot divisions. Several uprisings challenge the armies of
King Ashurbanipal. A 34-mile aqueduct was constructed to carry water into
Nineveh, an advance in the technology of this empire. King Ashurbanipal ruled
from 669-631 BCE. He had been trained to be an advisor to his older brothers, who
were in line to rule the Assyrian empire. Because he was trained in the 'scribal
arts,' Ashurbanipal was aware of the importance of vast knowledge. He 'used his
power' to assemble a library containing the accumulated wisdom of Mesopotamia,
which included the Epic of Gilgamesh, from which the Flood Tablet comes.
4. Meaning
Due to the fact that it essentially relates the same account of the Flood and
Noah in the Bible, the Flood Tablet plays a crucial part in global history. To some
historians, the multiple accounts of this world event proved its existence; to others,
it simply meant that one culture 'borrowed' the story from another. It is unclear
which culture wrote down this account first. The discovery of the Flood Tablet has
raised questions beyond Nineveh, in fact, it has raised questions of massive
religious and world-historical importance.
Not all of the Epic of Gilgamesh survived the several thousand years that the
Flood Tablet did, making this particular tablet rare in its own right. Many tablets
were destroyed in the Fire of Nineveh (612 BCE), and others crumbled over time,
but the Flood Tablet was saved during the fire, keeping it intact for hundreds of
generations to follow. While there is not much evidence pointing to the long-range
travel of the actual Flood Tablet, the stories within the Epic of Gilgamesh were
known in places such as Hattusas (capital of the Hittites), Emar (Syria), and
Megiddo (Levant).
C. CONCLUSION
The search for meaning is a common human experience that has existed for
thousands of years.
The Egyptian mummy case of Artemidoros can be seen as a representation
of the desire of people to leave a legacy and be remembered beyond their lifetime.
The decoration on the sarcophagus provides clues about the identity and
personality of the deceased, and the use of high-quality materials and skilled
artisans suggests that Artemidoros was a person of wealth and status who wanted
to be remembered and respected in death. This desire for a lasting legacy is a
fundamental human trait that transcends time and culture.
Stonehenge is the most architecturally sophisticated and only surviving
lintelled stone circle in the world. It was used for observing the Sun and Moon,
working out the farming calendar and dedicated to the world of the ancestors,
separated from the world of the living, or was a healing center.
The Chaco Canyon held deep spiritual meanings for the Puebloan, and may
have played a role in their religious practices and beliefs. It was used for tracking
the movement of celestial bodies, marking important astronomical events.
The Oracle Bone divination ceremony was a way to seek guidance from
deities or ancestors ranging from military strategy, the harvest, childbirth and
hunting. The rituals were intended to build a close bond with both ancestors and
deities, encouraging them to send blessings and guidance to the living. Oracle bone
divination also showcased the status and wealth of the dead and their living
relatives. Oracle bones’ predictions above all, are a way of keeping uncertainty at
bay.