Ethics: Its Meaning, Nature and - Oftentimes, there are dilemmas that

are difficult to solve; and ethical

Scope decisions must be met.
Etymology - It will enable us to examine our moral
● Ethics – Gk. “ethos” translated as beliefs rationally.
custom in English; which means - It will widen one’s horizon to the
behavior or character. paradigm of justice.
● “mos” or “mores” is the Latin equivalent Valuation of Life
of “ethos.” “The Unexamined life is not worth living” –
● Morality and Ethics are literally Socrates
synonymous; however, there is a
Diff. Between Ethics and Law
distinction.
- Ethical Rules are necessary even if laws
According to Friedrich Nietzsche implemented by civil authorities exist.
Ethics - doing what is right because you know - Legality is diff. from morality.
that it is right; it stems from the person’s Importance:
consciousness and common sense 1. Laws are concerned with the “public.”
Morality - stems from tradition, religion, the 2. Morality goes beyond legality.
law, constitution, and our upbringing. A 3. Theories in ethics are the foundations
person does what is right because someone of law.
taught them. 4. Morality precedes legality.
Ethics and Praxis (Fernandez) Distinction: Ethics and Religion
- Theory and action differs; thus, it does - Ethics solely rely on natural reason,
not mean when one knows one also religion relies on super- natural reason.
acts. - The practice of morality need not be
- Morality actualizes the theory in ethics. motivated by religious considerations.
- We transform one’s ethics, not only by
Ethics: A Definition
knowing the theories but treating it as
- It is a branch of philosophy and a
a “way of life.”
practical science of the morality of
- Ethics makes us human.
human act or conduct and of the good
life.
“Without moral perception, man is only an
- It constitutes the “good life” for human
animal. Without morality, man as a rational
beings; and consequently teaches us
being is a failure.”
to be truly human.
- It is a philosophical discipline which
Importance of Ethics deals with ultimate principles and truth
- We become good or bad persons concerning morality of human
depending on the choices we make.
 conduct through the use of human > Why do we need to know the Norms?
reason alone. - It allows us to pinpoint our valuations;
Objects of Ethics which leads us to do a more critical
Material and meaningful assessment on issues.
- The subject matter of ethics is human
conduct or human act. The experience of morality is part of every
- the deed person’s life. It is found in the various
Formal obligations that arise, the experience of
- In the investigation of ethics flows the actions which should be either performed or
morality or the moral rectitude of avoided. [Moga, 1993, 1]
human act or human conduct.
- the rightness or wrongness of the deed Moral Dimension of Human Existence
Answers the application of morality to
Division of Ethics human existence.
- It is traditionally divided into two Moga’s Three Positions:
general areas: General Ethics and 1. A-Morality
Special (Applied) Ethics - Morality occupies only one area of life;
General Ethics other areas [non-moral] have their
- Basic course in the study of ethics. own meanings (or rules).
- Deals with the morality of human acts. 2. Morality is ever-present and necessary
Special Ethics - To be human is to follow the moral
- Applies the specific and fundamental rules.
norms in the specific areas of human 3. Morality as found in every situation in
life. various ways; and sometimes not.
Norms
- It is the criteria of judgment about the To be human is to balance out all these

sorts of person we ought to be and areas… without neglecting any. Thus avoid

sorts of actions we ought to perform. focusing on one area and fail to justify others.

- Norm of morality – standard of right

and wrong in human actions. Characteristics of Moral Principles
Types of Norms: - Moral principles are an important
● Technical Norm – man’s needs feature of morality since it outlines the
● Societal Norm – keeps community importance of morality itself.
● Aesthetic Norm – considers beauty - However, not all ethical philosophers
● Ethical/Moral Norm – ultimate norm/ agree to all the shortlisted principles.
non-negotiable; subordinates other
norms.
1. Reasonability 7. Practicability
- This means that primarily, moral - Moral standards should be at reach.
judgements must be backed by good Meaning to say, it must be doable by
reasons and not with unguided human beings.
emotions. 8. Universalizability
- If it is not reasonable and appeals to - It must be applied to all regardless of
experience /common sense, then it the context or situation.
has to be viewed with reservation. - If a certain act is wrong [or right] for
2. Impartiality this person, then this act must also be
- This means that an ethical or moral wrong [or right] for any other person.
rule should be neutral regardless of
who the recipients are.
- This is also evident in John Rawls “veil
of ignorance”.
- In other words, moral standards should
be applied to all without special
treatment.
3. Prescriptivity
- Also known as “the commanding
aspect of morality.”
- Moral principles should be in a form of
imperatives for us to know what to do
and not to do.
4. Overridingness
- Moral standards must reign above all
other standards or norms of valuation.
5. Autonomous from Arbitrary Authority
- Moral standards should stand in spite
of the biases of the majority.
6. Publicity
- Moral standards should be made
public for us to have a guideline to our
actions.
- After all, if an act is right, we will not be
ashamed of showing it to the public.
 ETHICS: THE MORALITY OF 3. The act must be done voluntarily
a. It must be performed by an
HUMAN ACTS AND MORAL agent who decides wilfully to
ACCOUNTABILITY perform the act
DEFINITION OF HUMAN ACTS MAJOR DETERMINANTS OF THE MORALITY OF
● “Actions that proceed from insight into HUMAN ACTS
the nature and purpose of one’s doing - The various factors or elements that
and from consent of free will” would allow us to identify concretely
● Specifically, human acts are actions whether the acts is good or bad
done by a person in certain situation 1. The Act Itself of the Object of the Act
which are essentially the result of a. It refers to the action that is
his/her conscious knowledge, done or performed by an agent
freedom, and voluntariness b. It is the natural termination or
PAUL GLENN DEFINES: completion of an act, whether
● It is an acts which proceeds from the the act is good or evil
deliberate free will of man; this c. This is the substance of the
consciousness of an act differentiates moral act
human acts from the acts of man as d. More concretely the object of
well as the acts done by animals the act is “that act effect which
● Acts of man are those that humans action primarily and directly
share with animal whose actions and causes. It is always and
movements emanate from purely necessarily the result of the
sensual nature act, independent of any
BASIC ELEMENTS OF HUMAN ACTS circumstances or the intention
1. The act must be deliberate of the agent”
a. It must be performed by a e. Thus, there are actions that are
conscious agent who is very intrinsically good/bad,
much aware of what he/she is right/wrong, moral/immoral
doing and of its consequences 2. The Motive or Intention
–whether it may be good or evil a. It is the purpose that for the sake
2. The act must be performed in of which something is done
freedom b. Four principles
a. It must be done by an agent i. An indifferent act can
who is acting freely, with his.her become morally good or
own volition and powers morally evil depending
b. The person acting should be upon the intention
free
 ii. An objectively good act d. Principles Governing
becomes morally evil due Circumstances (Agapay):
to a wrong or bad motive i. Circumstances may
iii. An intrinsically either increases or
(objectively) morally decrease the
good act can receive wrongfulness of an evil
added goodness, if done act
with an equally noble ii. Circumstances may
intention either increase or
iv. An intrinsically evil act decrease the merits of a
can never become good act
morally good even if it is iii. Circumstances may
done with a good motive exempt temporarily
3. The Circumstances someone from doing a
a. Refers to the various conditions required act
outside of the act. They are not iv. Circumstances do not
part of the act itself prove the guild of the
b. Four Types of Circumstances person
that Affect the Morality of the MODIFIERS OF HUMAN ACTS
Act - These are factors and conditions that
i. Mitigating or extenuating affect man’s inner disposition
circumstances ● Ignorance
ii. Aggravating ○ It is the absence of necessary
circumstances knowledge which a person in
iii. Justifying circumstances given situation, who is
iv. Specifying circumstances performing certain act, ought to
c. Seven Specific Kinds of have
Circumstances ○ Principles Governing Ignorance
i. Who ■ Invincible ignorance
ii. Where renders an act
iii. By what mean involuntary
iv. Why - A person could not
v. How be held liable if he
vi. When or she is not aware
vii. To whom of the state of his
or her ignorance
 ■ Vincible ignorance does proper knowledge on the
not destroy, but lessens matter
the voluntariness and the ● PASSION OR CONCUPISCENCE
corresponding ○ Source of all our actions
accountability over the ○ Causes voluntary actions
act ○ Understood here as a strong or
- A person who is powerful emotion
aware of the state ○ Refers to more bodily appetites
of ignorance has ○ Also known as an inclination
the moral towards a desirable object,
obligation to which makes it indifferent
correct through ○ Principles Governing Passion
diligence ■ Antecedent
■ Affected or pretended - Those that precede
ignorance does not the act
excuse a person from - Antecedent
his/her bad actions; on passion does not
the contrary it actually destroy voluntari-
increases their malice ness, they diminish
- This happens when accountability for
the person chooses the resultant act
to be ignorant in ■ Consequent
order to escape - Consequent
accountability passion do not
arising from the lessen voluntari-
wrongfulness of the ness, but may even
act later on increase
○ Degree of the Person’s accountability
Responsibility - These are direct
■ The amount of effort results of the will
spent to obtain necessary which the agent
information to dispel fully consents to
ignorance instead of
■ The gravity of the matter controlling them
concerned where there is ● Fear
ignorance ○ It is defined as the disturbance
■ Obligation of the person of the mind of a person who is
involved to acquire the confronted by an impending
 danger or harm to himself or ■ Active resistance should
loved ones always be offered to an
○ May be considered a special unjust aggressor. But if
passion: avoidance to threat resistance is impossible,
○ Principles Governing Fear or there is a serious threat
■ Acts done with fear to one’s life, a person is
- Voluntary confronted by violence
- The agent acting can always offer intrinsic
with fear is acting resistance by with-
in spite of his fear holding consent; that is
and thus in control enough to save one’s
of the conduct; moral integrity
which makes the ■ Absolute Violence
agent responsible excludes voluntariness
for the action from the forced action
■ Acts done because or out ■ Relative Violence does
of fear not impair voluntariness
- Involuntary completely but lessens it
- A person when ● Habit
acting out extreme ○ A constant and easy way of
fear is not morally doing things acquired by the
accountable repetition of the same act
● Violence ○ It is also the readiness, born of
○ It refers to any physical force frequently repeated acts, for
exerted on a person by another action in a certain manner
free agent for the purpose of ○ Principle Governing Habit
compelling the said person to ■ Actions done by force are
act against his will voluntary in cause, unless
○ Any act with brutal force is reasonable effort is made
inflicted to counteract habitual
○ Principles Governing Violence inclination.
■ Any action resulting from ■ A deliberately admitted
violence is involuntary. habit does not lessen
However, even if one is voluntariness and actions
compelled to do resulting therefrom are
something one must not voluntary at least in their
consent it cause.
■ Habits are voluntary in
cause, because they are
the result of previously
willed acts done
repeatedly as a matter of
fact.
■ An opposed habit
weakens voluntariness
and sometimes precludes
it completely.
■ When a person decides to
fight his habit, and as the
effort towards this
purpose continues,
actions resulting from
such habit may be
regarded as
unaccountable.