by Eingel Joy Pangilinan

MODULE 2: COMMUNICATION FOR ACADEMIC PURPOSES

A. Academic Writing
Some of the texts that you will read in this module are academic texts. They are so called academic texts
because their contents are formal. Further, they are structured to strictly adhere to conventions including but not
limited to language choice or diction, tone, style, pattern of development, grammar, etc. In a practical sense,
there are texts that a student normally encounters in his or her formal schooling or the texts usually assigned by a
teacher for the students to analyze. Although there are still other forms of academic writing, those examples
illustrate its basic feature.
- It is a systematic study or investigation of something in order to find new
information or validate certain theories or findings obtained in other research
studies.
- It is a process of formulating research questions, testing hypotheses, gathering
Research
relevant information, and analyzing this information to come up with a conclusion.
- It is a systematic method of inquiry and discovery which involves experiments,
survey, interviews, and data analysis for quantitative research and comprehensive
exploratory analysis for qualitative research.
1. Choosing a research topic 4. Quoting, paraphrasing, and summarizing
WHAT ARE THE STEPS IN
2. Narrowing down the topic 5. Making an outline
WRITING A RESEARCH
3. Surveying or gathering resources 6. Writing the first draft
PAPER?
7. Referencing
- The topic is the main subject of your research paper. Therefore, it has to be
properly identified and carefully thought of.
- In searching for or conceptualizing a research topic, consider one that you are
1. Choosing a Topic interested in and which would also be of interest to others. A topic’s relevance and
availability of material related to it are also very important.
- Topics to avoid are those which may arouse controversy and those which cannot
be backed by credible resources.
1. Randomly write down all possible topics you can think of.
2. Brainstorm with your classmates and peers.
3. Conceptualize topics based on socially relevant issues.
4. Be updated on current events by reading the newspaper and watching the
TO FURTHER HELP YOU IN
news.
YOUR TOPIC SEARCH,
5. Ask suggestions from professionals and experts in the fields that are connected to
CONSIDER THE FOLLOWING
your possible topics.
TIPS AND GUIDELINES:
6. List down questions you want to answer.
7. Look for recommendations from research papers that are of interest to you.
8. Observe possible problems present in your community.
9. Look at issues from different perspectives.
- When starting with a really broad topic, you need to narrow down the focus of
such topic. For instance, if you aim to analyze the aspects of technology; you must
2. Narrowing Down a
specify what exactly about technology you will research on since it is a very broad
Research Topic
area. To do this, you can use an inverted pyramid to break down a topic from its
general form to a more specific one.
1. Ask yourself what you think about the topic or what you know and want to say
HERE ARE SOME STEPS THAT about it.
YOU CAN FOLLOW IN 2. Determine your controlling idea or thesis statement.
NARROWING DOWN A 3. Check whether it is suitable for an authentic scholarly inquiry.
RESEARCH TOPIC: 4. After checking the appropriateness or scholarly worth of your narrowed down
topic, you may now formulate your tentative research title and research questions.
- Part of narrowing down your topic is determining the controlling idea of your
research paper.
- Ask yourself: “What is my opinion about the topic? What exactly do I want to
prove in my research? What are the issues I am passionately about? What are my
claims about them?”
Formulating a Thesis
- Your answers to the questions above can be used to formulate the controlling
Statement
idea of your research.
- This idea contains your opinion about the topic which is your thesis. In other words,
a thesis statement is the view or perspective that you make out of your topic.
- When translated to an equation, it would appear as:
Definite Topic + Definite Claim = THESIS STATEMENT
3. Gathering Resources or
Materials
TYPES OF SOURCES
(After specifying the research topic, gathering research materials or sources comes
next.)
A. Primary Sources
- Contain first-hand information about the topic. In other words, you can get first-
hand information and a direct personal view of the topic through this source.
- Examples: interviews, autobiographies, photographs, films, and diaries.
 - Serve as interpretation and analysis of primary sources. They provide elaborations
and clarifications about the main source of information. They offer more unbiased
B. Secondary Sources
views than the main sources.
- Examples: scholarly journals and books, reviews, encyclopedia entries, editorials.
- In writing a research paper, quoting, paraphrasing, and summarizing are
necessary when incorporating your own ideas with ideas from the sources you
4. Quoting, Paraphrasing,
have gathered.
and Summarizing
- Ideas which you have gathered from other sources should be cited properly
according to the citation format required of you to avoid plagiarism.
- It is the act of stealing someone else’s work and presenting it as your own. When
you fail to cite and acknowledge sources, whether directly or indirectly, it is
Plagiarism considered plagiarism.
- This is why quoting, paraphrasing, and summarizing with corresponding citations
are necessary in research writing.
- It is used when you mention the exact words of an author in your research.
- When following the APA citation style, a direct quote must be followed by an in-
A. Direct Quote
text citation containing the author’s surname, year of publication, and the page
number from where the quote is lifted.
- It is the restatement of the author’s ideas in the researcher’s own words without
changing the meaning intended by the author.
B. Paraphrase
- In the APA style, the in-text citation to be followed in paraphrasing includes the
author’s surname and year of publication enclosed in parentheses.
- It is a restatement of the author’s main ideas. It is usually shorter than a
paraphrase as it only focuses on the key concepts of the author.
C. Summary - It provides general overview about the subject matter or topic.
- The in-text citation for summaries following the APA style is also the same with
paraphrases.
- An outline is the general framework of your paper. It can be likened to the
“blueprint” of an architect or an engineer.
- The outline and blueprint can be considered planning tools before the actual
research, building, and artwork are done, respectively.
5. Preparing an Outline
- An outline can be a topic outline or a sentence outline.
- A topic outline lists down all the main topics in phrases.
- In a sentence outline all ideas are expressed in complete statements or
sentences.
6. Writing the Draft
WRITING THE INTRODUCTION
(The first section of the IMRD format is the introduction. It consists of the following:)
- This provides your readers an overview of your topic and contextualizes the
A. Background of the Study
problem at hand.
- It provides a review of previous studies and recent developments and identifies
the gap in the literature presented which your current research seeks to fill.
B. Research Problem/ Aims - This indicates the specific research questions which are expected to be answered
of the study in the results and discussion section of your paper.
- The introduction section also indicates how the study will benefit others and what
C. Significance of the Study
contribution it will make to the current field of study.
- The introduction may indicate the scope and limitation of the study.
- The scope and limitation of the study. The scope pertains to the specific aspect of
your topic and the reason why it was specifically chosen. Over other aspects, it
D. Scope and Limitation includes the coverage of your study.
- The limitation usually pertains to the decision made pertaining to the respondents,
methodology, resources used, and other possible challenges associated with the
conduct of the study.
- When necessary (e.g., If the topic at hand is too technical or if there are many
concepts that might confuse the readers), the introduction provides the
E. Definition of Terms
operational definition of some of the technical terms used in the paper and how
they are used in the context of the study.
WRITING THE METHODOLOGY
(The second section of the IMRD format is the methodology. It consists of the
A. Research Design
following:)
- This part contains how the methods used fit the framework of the research.
- It also specifies the respondents involved in the research. It also includes the
B. Research Locale/ demographics of the participants and all details relevant to the research.
Participants - This part discusses how the participants were chosen, especially in the context of
the quantitative research.
- This part lays down the research instruments used in the research, whether they
are surveys, tests, interviews, and others.
C. Instruments
- This part also specifies how the interviews and survey questions were formulated.
- It also lays down the particulars of every research instrument used.
D. Procedure/Data - The main goal of the methodology is to address questions related to how data
Collection and Data were gathered and analyzed.
Analysis - This part elaborates on the nature of the research and how it handles data.
 WRITING THE RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
(The third section of the IMRD format is the results and discussion. It consists of the
findings, the theories or related studies, and the analysis.)
A. Findings - This part contains the answers that are not only expressed in the text but should
also be illustrated in tabular or graphical form when necessary, especially if you
used survey as a research method.
- This way, your readers can easily interpret and analyze the results of your study.
- The responses should be supported by a theory(ies) or related study(ies) to
B. Theories or Related
substantiate, prove, or disapprove, or validate or invalidate your findings.
Studies
- This will make your work more scholarly and more credible.
- It is not enough that you write about what you found out from your research.
C. Analysis - The inference you made from them is equally important.
- An inference is the conclusion reached which is backed by reasoning.
WRITING THE SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
(The fourth section of the IMRAD format consists of the summary, conclusions and
A. Summary recommendations.)
- This section is a restatement of the introduction, purpose of the study,
methodology and findings obtained from the study.
- This section synthesizes the analysis of information based on the findings. It is
B. Conclusions
parallel with the research questions.
- This section provides possible suggestions or actions to be undertaken by the
stakeholders who will be impacted by the research. So, it will become more useful
C. Recommendations for them.
- It also includes suggestions on how the research work can be done by other
researchers.
7. Referencing
B. Academic Presentation
Some students and professionals do not like the idea of speaking in public, whether in front of small or large groups. Just the
thought that they will be facing people already makes them jittery. However, this is a normal part of life. As students, you
should take seriously any opportunity that comes your way and that requires you to deliver a talk. Once you are done with the
entire research work, you will be required to make presentation of your research findings, conclusions, and recommendations.
Your instructors will assign you to deliver these forms of oral reports during your academic coursework.
THE USE OF ORAL REPORTING AS 1. Enhance oral communication and presentation skills.
A STRATEGY IN THE 2. Develop independent learning strategies and critical thinking through proper
CLASSROOM AIMS TO organization of information.
ACCOMPLISH THE FOLLOWING: 3. Foster unity, teamwork, and leadership among students.
1. Read your assigned topic several times, so you do not cram or rush your report.
2. Do not procrastinate. Start working on your report the moment the teacher assigns your
topic.
3. As you read your assigned topic or your research, take note of the key insights, thesis,
arguments, and the supporting evidence.
4. Organize your notes in the form of an outline.
TO ACE THE ORAL REPORT 5. Go over your outline and use it as a springboard to discuss your report. This is a way to
OR RESEARCH DEFENSE, YOU gauge whether or not you can explain the topic on your own as a measure of your
MAY FOLLOW THESE understanding of the topic.
PRACTICAL GUIDELINES 6. Once the outline is finalized you may draft your PowerPoint presentation. Be sure to
BELOW: follow the format provided by your instructor.
7. Edit and proofread your PowerPoint presentation.
8. Rehearse your oral report. Be mindful of the time allotment. Make necessary adjustments,
if needed.
9. You can rehearse with a peer, a friend, or a classmate. Feel free to get suggestions for
improvement.
10. The key to a successful presentation is preparation.
- A speaker in an academic event can convey his or her ideas in several ways by
using different channels of communication.
- In the past, academic presentations used to be limited to face-to-face setups;
however, with the rise of technology, modes of academic presentations have also
Academic Presentations been modified.
- Today, academic conventions and conferences can even be attended virtually.
- Academic paper presentations provide ways of innovating how ideas are
presented using technology especially when there are options, whether one will be
having an oral, poster, or video presentation.
- This is the most common way to present a scholarly work. In this mode of
presentation, the speaker engages in face-to-face interaction with his or her
audience.
- In most conferences, the speaker is allowed ten (10) to fifteen (15) minutes for the
presentation of the research work and another ten (10) to fifteen (15) minutes to
address questions from the audience.
Oral Presentation
- The key to a successful oral presentation is having your audience engaged with
what you are saying all throughout your session. You want your audience to fully
understand all the ideas you want to convey. Therefore, it is important that you fully
prepare for your presentation. Whether you plan on simply reading your paper or
being more interactive, it is important to be mindful of how you want your work to
be perceived.
 - In case it is not feasible for the speaker to be physically present in the conference,
he or she may present his or her paper via video conferencing or provide a slide
presentation with a voice over narration or a video recording which can be played
during the conference.
- Video presentations may be convenient especially in instances where the
Video Presentation
conferences are held abroad but may also be equally challenging.
- In the case of real time virtual presentation, the presenter should maintain a
certain clarity as if he or she is actually there with the audience. The speaker must
also ensure that his or her connection is secured while doing the video
presentation.
MODULE 3: COMMUNICATION FOR WORK PURPOSES
A. Organizational Communication
- It is defined as the sending and receiving of information either spoken or written
Organizational or Business among individuals or groups within an organization or outside a company to
Communication promote the company's products and services to potential consumers, to improve
organizational practices and reduce errors, and to reach organizational goals
TWO MODELS OF COMMUNICATION
(Communication models are systematic representations that help in understanding
how communication works. While there are many models of communication, here
are two that offer perspectives and lessons for business communicators.)
- It is the exchange of messages between sender and receiver where each take
turns to send or receive messages (“Transactional model of communication,”
2018). Rather than looking at the source sending a message and someone
receiving it as two distinct acts, the communicators play both the roles of sender
1. Transactional Model and receiver simultaneously.

- It is a communication theory that explains individual differences when it comes to

effective communication in any social context.
- Researchers have also examined the idea that we all construct our own
interpretations of the message which indicates, “what I said and what you heard
may be different.”
- The focus is on the negotiated meaning, or common ground, when trying to
describe communication.

2. Constructivist Model

Constructivism focuses on FOUR COMPETENCIES that skilled communicators possess:

A. Linguistic Competence - It refers to the speaker's use of grammar and syntax, and the listener's ability to
understand the speaker's language and message.
- The speaker or the listener understands the social rules in any situation. These
B. Sociolinguistic
communicators are aware of the varied differences in terms of verbal and
Competence
nonverbal communication.
- It is the ability of the communicators to interpret and extract meaning and create
C. Rhetorical Competence messages from others to achieve a specific purpose like informing, and persuading
but at the same time being sensitive to others' needs.
D. Conversational - It is the ability of people to conduct face-to-face communication that may
Management include adjusting and directing communications depending on others' feedback.
EXAMPLES:
1. Two employees decide to ask their boss for a day off. The first one walks into the supervisor’s office and says, “I’d like
to take this Friday off. I know that’s our busiest day, but I’ve been working really hard lately and think I deserve a break.
Jamie can do my work that day since she usually just hangs out by the water cooler anyway.” The boss promptly denies
his request.
The second employee enters the office and says, “I’d like to take this Friday off, but I know it’s our busiest day and I
don’t want to leave the office short-handed. If Friday won’t work, I can take Tuesday off instead. I’ve already talked to
Jaime, and she said she’d be happy to cover my duties while I’m gone on either day.” The boss grants him the desired
day off.
Two people made the same request, but only one had it fulfilled. Why? This is how the Constructivism theory of
communication helps.
2. Imagine that you are visiting Atlanta, Georgia, and going to a restaurant for dinner. When asked if you want a
“Coke,” you may reply, “sure.” The waiter may then ask you again, “what kind?” and you may reply, “Coke is fine.” The
waiter then may ask a third time, “what kind of soft drink would you like?” The misunderstanding in this example is that in
Atlanta, the home of the Coca-Cola Company, most soft drinks are generically referred to as “Coke.” When you order
a soft drink, you need to specify what type, even if you wish to order a beverage that is not a cola or not even made by
the Coca-Cola Company. To someone from other regions of the United States, the words “pop,” “soda pop,” or “soda”
may be the familiar way to refer to a soft drink; not necessarily the brand “Coke.” In this example, both you and the
waiter understand the word “Coke,” but you each understand it to mean something different.
In order to communicate, you must each realize what the term means to the other person, and establish common
ground, in order to fully understand the request and provide an answer.
B. Communication in Work Organizations
Communication - It may be formal or informal, internal or external, downward, upward, or horizontal
Formal Communication - It can be written or spoken
- It flows in any direction. It generally does not follow the organizational structure.
Informal communication can take place between all levels and areas of the
Informal Communication
organization. Usually, informal work relationships create a bond between workers
that help teams become more cohesive.
Internal Communication - It is information and ideas exchanged within the organization itself.
- It means the exchange of information both within the organization itself and
External Communication
outside the organization.
If you look at the organization chart of most organizations, you will see positions arranged in a pyramid-like
hierarchy. While this hierarchy is most commonly thought of as representing the lines of status and authority within
the organization, it also depicts the lines of communication between superiors and subordinates. Formal messages
travel back and forth along these routes between the top levels and the lower levels of the organizations.
- This communication consists of those messages sent from superiors to subordinates
like instructions concerning job performance, information about organizational
procedures and policies, feedback to the supervisee, and information to assist in
the coordination of work tasks.
- The frequency and quality of superior-subordinate communication influence
important organizational outcomes. For example, downward communication from
supervisors can affect new employees’ adjustment to and satisfaction with the
work group.
1. The Downward - While much formal communication in organizations is downward, research
Communication indicates that most organizations still do not have enough of this communication.

1. Superiors may overestimate the amount of information that their subordinates possess and
may underestimate the amount they desire.
2. Part of this problem is related to the fact that supervisors tend to overestimate how
frequently and how clearly they communicate to supervisees.
REASONS FOR INSUFFICIENT
3. It also appears that certain types of downward communication may be particularly
DOWNWARD limited, such as feedback concerning work performance. This is especially true in companies
COMMUNICATION that fail to conduct regular performance appraisals.
4. Also, organizations that neglect to provide workers with job descriptions and adequate
orientation and training may experience a shortage of downward communication involving
proper work procedures and company policies.
- This is the flow of messages from the lower levels of the organization to the upper
levels. It most typically consists of information managers need to perform their jobs,
such as feedback concerning the status of lower-level operations, which could
include reports of production output or information about any problems.
2. The Upward - The upward communication of feedback is critical for managers, who must use
Communication this information to make important work-related decisions. It can also involve
complaints and suggestions for improvement from lower-level workers, and is
significant because it gives subordinates some input into the functioning of the
organization. Finally, an important form of upward feedback concerns
subordinates’ evaluations of the particular supervisor’s effectiveness as a
leader/supervisor.
- Research indicates that the upward flow of suggestions for improvement can be
increased when workers feel highly engaged in their jobs and they have a sense of
self-efficacy, for example, a sense that their suggestions will actually be considered
and implemented (Axtell et al., 2000, as cited by Riggio, 2003).
- Unfortunately, in many organizations, there is simply not enough upward
communication. The upward communication of feedback about problems or
difficulties in operations may be restricted because lower-level workers fear that
the negative information might reflect poorly on their abilities, because managers
neglect to ask for it, or because subordinates believe that management will not
really listen to their suggestions and concerns.
 - This communication flows between people who are at the same level in the
organizational hierarchy. It can also occur between two or more departments
within an organization. This communication flow is particularly important when
coworkers must coordinate their activities in order to accomplish a goal.
- For example, effective lateral communication between the production and
quality control departments in a television manufacturing plant can help the two
departments to coordinate efforts to find and correct assembly errors.
- Lateral communication between departments also allows the sharing of news
3. Horizontal or Lateral and information and helps in the development and maintenance of interpersonal
Communication relationships on the job.
- While it can help coordinate worker activities within or between departments,
thereby leading to increased productivity, “unauthorized’ lateral communication,
such as too much socializing on the job, can detract from effective job
performance.

- The upward, downward, and lateral flow of communication within an

TYPES OF DISTORTION TO organization are subject to various types of information distortion that disrupt
EFFECTIVE FLOW OF communication effectiveness by eliminating or changing key aspects of the
COMMUNICATION IN THE message so that the message that should be sent is not the one that the recipient
WORKPLACE receives. Three types of distortion that often occur in work organizations are
filtering, censoring, and exaggeration
- It is the selective presentation of the content of communication; in other words,
certain pieces of information are left out of the message.
- In downward communication, information is often filtered because it is considered
to be unimportant to lower-level employees. Often, messages are sent telling
workers what to do but not telling them why it is being done.
- Information from upper levels of the organization may also be filtered because
management fears the impact of the complete message on workers.
- For example, management may send a memo to workers about proposed cost-
cutting measures, telling them that these actions are needed to increase efficiency
and productivity. However, the fact that these cost-cutting measures are needed
for the company to stay financially solvent is filtered out, because management is
1. Filtering
afraid that this information might cause workers to anticipate layoffs and thus begin
to look for jobs elsewhere.
- Filtering of content in upward communication can occur if the information is
unfavorable and the communicator fears incurring the wrath of the superior. In
such cases, the negative information might be altered in order to make it appear
less negative.
- Filtering lateral communication can occur when two employees feel that they are
in competition with one another for important organizational rewards, such as
promotions and recognition from superiors. In such cases, workers continue to
communicate but may filter out any important information that is seen as giving
the other person a competitive edge.
- It is the purposeful omission of information presented to a receiver. While filtering
involves the omission of some aspects of the message, in censoring, a choice is
made not to send a message.
- Censoring can occur when a sender believes that the receiver does not need the
information because it is unimportant or would be disruptive to the receiver.
- For instance, in a large manufacturing company, top management presented
middle-level managers with two messages that were to be sent downward. The first
message was important and concerned tentative plans for laying off workers. The
2. Censoring second message was relatively unimportant, dealing with changes in the parking
situation. The results of the study indicated that the middle managers censored the
messages as a function of who was receiving the information. The important layoff
information was passed on to 94 percent of the foremen. The censoring of the
unimportant message about the parking changes was even greater, with only 15
percent of the assistant foremen eventually getting the message. In this case,
censoring took place primarily when the message was believed to be irrelevant to
lower-level workers. One form of censoring frequently occurs when people are
reluctant to transmit bad news. This has been labeled as the “MUM” effect.
- It is the distortion of information by elaborating, overestimating, or minimizing. To
draw attention to a problem, people may exaggerate its magnitude and impact.
- Examples: In downward communication, a supervisor might emphasize that if
performance does not improve, subordinates may lose their jobs.
- In upward communication, workers might present a problem as a crisis in order to
3. Exaggeration
get management to react and make some quick decisions.
- On the other, exaggeration may occur through the minimization of an issue,
which involves making it seem like less of a problem than it actually is.
- This can happen, for example, when a worker wants to give the impression of
competence and thus says that everything is under control when it is not.
 C. Workplace Communication and Written Modes of Professional Communication
- It is best described as the process of transmitting ideas and thoughts through the
years for human survival. In charting one’s journey in this evolution, education,
Evolution of Communication science and technology, business and trade, and media have all contributed to
how an individual copes with the social needs and demands through human
connection.
- It is indispensable whether in the confines of home, school, or the workplace. In
Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, social belonging is crucial to self-
actualization.
- In the 21st century, this is becoming more pronounced as personal success is
Human Connection equated with career growth and advancement which is reliant on one’s level of
social belonging.
- In the professional context or in the workplace, harmonious relations with co-
workers can be consequential and crucial to both the individual and the collective
productivity and efficiency in the workplace.
- As the process of exchanging information, either verbally or non-verbally, is
important in any social environment, including the academic and corporate
environments.
Workplace Communication - In any organizational structure, communication is the force that maintains its
operations from the top up to the middle and bottom level.
- Communication in the workplace is one of the signs of a high-performance
culture. Exchanging information and ideas within an organization is called _______.
1. Communication in the workplace is very important for companies to work
efficiently and be productive. Employees can experience increased morale,
IMPORTANCE OF GOOD productivity and commitment if they can communicate effectively to their
COMMUNICATION AT THE employers.
WORKPLACE 2. On the other hand, poor communication in the workplace will inevitably lead to
non-motivated staff that can begin to question their confidence in their skills and
organizations.
THE IMPORTANCE OF STRONG COMMUNICATION RUNS DEEP WITHIN THE
WORKPLACE. FIVE IMPORTANT REASONS INCLUDE:
- When employees have the opportunity to express their ideas openly, they are
1. Innovation
more likely to present their ideas without fear of ridicule or retaliation. Innovation is
highly dependent on this, and an organization that promotes communication is
more likely to be innovative.
- Communication can be seen internally and externally. By associating yourself
internally and by establishing strong communication lines, you ensure the
2. Growth in
consistency of the externally delivered message. Each growth project is based on
Communication
solid communication and the fact that all internal or external stakeholders are on
the same page.
- When executives are strong communicators, they can better manage their
teams. When you are a strong communicator, it is much simpler to delegate
activities, manage conflicts, motivate and build relationships (all important
3. Effective Communication
responsibilities of an administrator). Effective communication not only talks to
people, but gives them the opportunity to talk to each other. Strong
communication channels are essential.
- Creating effective teams requires communication and mutual cooperation. You
4. Team Building will be effective in building effective teams by implementing effective strategies to
improve communication. This will increase morale and employee satisfaction.
- As mentioned earlier, employees’ satisfaction can be very much dependent on
their having a voice and being listened to, whether it is in regard to an idea they
5. Giving a Voice to All have had or about a complaint they need to make. Consolidated communication
lines should enable everyone to communicate freely with their colleagues, peers
and superiors at any level.
- It is a form of written communication used mainly as correspondence and in the
production of written outputs valuable to an organization. As an act of writing in
Technical Writing
the workplace, it pertains to written communication present in all kinds of
organization, jobs, and professions.
FEATURES OF TECHNICAL WRITING
- A technical written work is accurate when it deals with facts that are completely
1. Accurate
true. An accurate report uses words, sentences, numbers, or figures that exactly
express what a written work intends to convey
- Your written work is clear, if in one reading, your senders are able to easily
2. Clear
understand the main message or point of the whole composition.
- In technical writing, you cannot just write anything you like in any way you want
because some writing standards underlie the structure, pattern, format and
language of this kind of writing. You have to adhere to these agreed upon
3. Formal
technical writing rules because your readers judge the value or credibility of your
output based on how you conform to the conventions governing this kind of
writing.
- Graphs like tables, charts, figures, diagrams, maps, pictures, and other illustrations
4. Graphical
are necessary in technical writing to support the written information provided.
 - Technical writing must avoid inclusion of individual and subjective judgment in
relaying information. Being straightforward and direct forms of technical writing
5. Objective
should avoid including inner thought, sentiments, or feelings in order to adopt an
impartial or impersonal stand or attitude towards what is written.
- Forms of technical writing should be practical in the way that they function
6. Practical
according to their purpose.
- Some forms of technical writing are procedural as they provide sets of instructions
7. Procedural
and sequenced information such as user manuals and laboratory reports.
- Technical writing usually functions within a specific demographics. Language
8. Specialized
used is specialized and easily understood by a specific set of readers.
- Technical writing as on-the-job writing is prone to extensive exposure to
multicultural clients, and co-workers. Cross-cultural or multilingual communication
9. Diverse brought about by globalization through the internet, materialized through
technical writing will lead you to various topics, ideas, people, methodologies,
concerns, purposes, formats, and language.
- A straightforward manner of writing means presenting facts and information
honestly and directly. Unlike other forms of writing like literary and expository writing
10. Straightforward
that permit the writer to hide meanings through figurative language, technical
writing presents ideas in a frank, unequivocal, or clear cut-way.
- To describe technical writing as authoritative is to think of it as a piece of writing
with the ability to command or to enforce something on anyone. Forms of
11. Authoritative
technical writing use an authoritative voice to exude credibility in relaying
information.
- Any technical writing output must be presentable without any grammatical or
12. Presentable typographical errors. A technical writer must ensure that his or her output always
undergoes proofreading.
- They are essential in the workplace, especially in the external operations of an
organization. It is through business letter that an organization can reach out to its
Business Letters clients and vice versa. The different kinds of business letters illustrate the different
communication situations that constantly need to be addressed by the internal
and external functions of an organization.
STANDARD FORMATS OF BUSINESS LETTERS

- It is a written message which serves as a reminder for a particular matter. Memos

Memorandum (Memo) relay information to a large number of readers at the same time.
- It is a document that records events in the workplace for everyone’s information.
TYPES OF MEMO
1. Instruction Memo
- It contains directives that organization members need to follow
2. Request Memo - It contains request for the provision of facilities and services
3. Announcement Memo - It is the notice of important event in the organization
4. Transmittal Memo - It is the notice officially announcing the release of a report
5. Authorization - Granting permission to the undertaking of an operation in the organization
- It is also called accident report, records the occurrence of an unusual event in the
workplace. This report usually follows a template that comes in forms to be filled out
Incident Report
by the witnesses to the incident. The main components of an incident report are
the problem description, action taken, and recommendation.
- A meeting is a gathering of people to discuss, plan, make decisions, and resolve
Minutes of the Meeting issues together. For documentation purposes, a detailed and descriptive report is
prepared.
Introduction
1. Name and address of the organization
2. Type of meeting
3. Call to order
4. Attendance
Body
THE MINUTES OF THE 1. Reading, correction, and approval of minutes of the previous meeting
MEETING HAS THE 2. Business arising from the previous meeting
FOLLOWING COMPONENTS: 3. New business
Conclusion
1. Announcement
2. Other matters
3. Time of adjournment
4. Name and signature of the minutes taker
5. Name and signature of the presiding officer
 IN PREPARING THE MINUTES 1. In chronological order;
OF THE MEETING, THE 2. Factual, brief, and free from editorial comments or slanting of factual statements;
MINUTES-TAKER MUST 3. The gist or a recording of summary of the meeting and not a transcription of the
ENSURE THAT THE MINUTES matter discussed; and
ARE: 4. A verbatim report of parliamentary points, motions, resolutions and points of order.
D. Basic Ethical Principles in Communication
- It refers to a set of rules that describe acceptable conduct in society. It serves as a
Ethics
guide to moral daily living and helps us judge whether our behavior can be justified
For instance, fifteen minutes before Suzi leaves work, she receives an email from a client asking for help on a problem. Suzi
knows if she responds to that email she will likely be held at work for at least an hour more. She decides to ignore the email and
leaves at her normal time. On her way to the employee parking lot, she runs into her boss, who asks if she received the email
from the client and if she was able to help the client out. Suzi responds, no, she hasn't seen the email. Her boss says, 'Oh, well, I
guess I'll see what I can do to help the client out before I leave today.' What do you think of this situation?
Was Suzi's response appropriate? In order to answer that question, we should think about ethical communication.
In our example, Suzi flat-out lied about not receiving the email from the client. She was definitely communicating
unethically. So telling a lie, or misrepresenting the facts, is one type of unethical communication.
Another type of unethical communication is omitting facts. Let's say a CEO was making a presentation to the Board of
Trustees, and in his presentation, he paints a rosy picture of the current status of the company but fails to mention the
company just lost one of its biggest clients and will struggle over the next year to cover their expenses. This is a rather drastic
example, but you can see how not telling stakeholders all of the information they need to make decisions is dishonest.
Also, Stories and jokes are prime examples of communication that have the potential to offend the recipients. Any topic to
which others may be sensitive should be avoided in business communication, including religion and political issues, to avoid
offending others and possibly committing a violation of communication ethics.
The principles and values below would help you communicate ethically to have a better chance of being understood by
your audience, forming relationships, ensuring enterprise workflows, and managing and carrying out short-term and long-term
projects. Any lapse in efficient and ethical communication can result in misunderstandings and conflicts with colleagues,
delays with projects, and the creation of an ineffective working environment
PRINCIPLES OF ETHICAL BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
- Being honest means communicating what is known to be true – no more, no less.
Ethical communication is based on accurate, factual information – in other words, do
1. Be Honest and Truthful not lie whether the message is directed downward to employees, upward to
management, laterally to other peers and departments, or externally. Honesty should
also prevail when communicating goals, expectations, decisions, feedback, or
judgments to employees.
- Whether communicating on a corporate or an individual level, the communication
should make every effort to cause no harm. For instance, tobacco companies are
required to communicate that the practice of consuming their products may lead to
2. Refrain from doing Harm
physical conditions like emphysema, lung cancer and other illnesses. A company who is
aware of a danger and does not communicate it would be breaking this rule of ethical
communication.
- When communicating internally or externally, the organization should attempt to be
fair to its employees, customers, and community. If a manager were to exert
3. Fairness to all Stakeholders inappropriate control over employees, stockholders or customers, this would be a
violation of this standard. Price fixing, bribery, and insider training are examples of
behaviors and communications that are exerting unfairness to stakeholders.
4. Be an Active Listener, Refrain
- The listener must not only listen but think and strive to fully understand what is being
from Speaking Judgmentally,
said before responding. While asking for clarification or confirmation of a point is fine,
and Strive to Understand.
many times questions that listeners pose have already been answered.
Listening and understanding
the message are important for
- Conflicts usually result from unethical, judgmental, accusatory and overly critical
effective communication. comments that become catalysts for communication breakdowns.
- Tone is critical to communication. There are people who are particular to
paralanguage or tone of the voice. Ethical communication assumes that the speaker
5. Avoid Negative Tune
will avoid rudeness, be polite, professional, and tactful. The ethical communicator
knows that it is not only important what you say, but how you say it.
- Allowing others to speak is important for civil, effective working environment.
Interrupting others results in misunderstandings, conflicts and problems that hinder
6. Do not Interrupt Others workforce and corporate progress. Interrupting others is not only disrespectful and
unethical but does not allow listeners to fully understand the message that results in
wrong assumptions and actions.
- Bringing your personal work experience or best work practices into a dialogue
with business listeners is important, providing backup for your arguments with
7. Speak from your own something more tangible that paints a complete picture for your audience and
Experience helps to prove your points for a better understanding of what is being discussed;
however, manage your own personal boundaries: share only what you are
comfortable sharing.
- Characterizing what others have said without checking your understanding, or by
8. Avoid Speaking for Others universalizing your opinions, beliefs, values, and conclusions, assuming everyone
shares them is unethical.
- You risk losing an audience if you use a communication channel that is not
preferred by your intended receiver. To effectively communicate with your listeners,
9. Consider Appropriate use the most preferred communication channel, whether that be face-to-face,
Communication Channel email, conference call, phone call, messenger app, etc. Also, when presenting
data to a business audience, be aware of the preferred method of presentation for
that business, whether it be graphs, slides, PowerPoint presentations, etc.
 - When communicating with another party, truly ethical communication entails
10. Consideration for any
considering any potential factor that may influence how the recipient understands
Potential Roadblocks
the information that is being communicated.
FACTORS OR ROADBLOCKS
- It takes into account the level of fluency as well as language spoken for messages
or information to be fully understood. Use a common language that all involved
A. Language Fluency,
communicators understand. Every field or industry has its own jargon. When
Language Use and Jargons
speaking to a non-specialist, it is ethical to speak with simple, easy-to-understand
words, while avoiding the use of heavy jargon, resulting in portions of the
presentation or communication being incomprehensible to an audience.
- In this information and digital age, some take accessibility to advanced
technology for granted. For instance, while smartphones are readily available, and
B. Accessibility to
translation apps are abundant, not everyone is able to access such applications or
Technology
platforms or has the ability to access certain technology -and know how to use
certain applications.
- Being an effective communicator means knowing your audience in order to
communicate in the way that he/she will understand the best. Know the language,
C. Knowing One’s Audience
profession, and others so that you can adjust your presentation or communication
to audience.
- Speaking about a particular topic in a business often requires choosing the most
D. Choosing the Right pertinent and appropriate time and place in order for the message to be most
Place/Time effective. This requires knowing the recipients along with utilizing strategy and
planning.
- Most businesses have code of ethics defining what is appropriate when it comes
to honoring client and employee confidentiality and privacy. This can have a wide
range of implications, including minimizing workplace gossip and conversations
about the private lives of clients and/or personnel. Moreover, REPUBLIC ACT NO.
10173 also known as the Data Privacy Act of 2012 has been passed to protect the
11. Respect Privacy and
fundamental human right of privacy, of communication while ensuring free flow of
Confidentiality
information to promote innovation and growth. The State recognizes the vital role
of information and communications technology in nation-building and its inherent
obligation to ensure that personal information in information and communications
systems in the government and in the private sector are secured and protected
(Republic of the Philippines, 2012).
- Words do not only build but also destroy a person or an organization. A core
element within the framework of ethical communication is being responsible and
12. Accept Responsibility
accountable to one’s words and actions whether it be good or bad. Owning one’s
and Accountability
words reinforces the importance of being conscientious about ethical
communication.
BEING UNETHICAL ONLINE (The Internet provides all kinds of opportunities that include research and
communication. Like any forms and means of communication, ethics must be observed.)
A. Posting
1. Don’t post non-factual information on the Internet, and if you do, promptly correct errors. When you post
information online on behalf of your business, you owe your co-workers and all your external readers truthful
information. Sharing information that is not trustworthy will not only damage your reputation but the message
itself. Post information online with caution, and always be skeptical about the information you find in the Internet.
2. Don’t post questionable information anonymously. Once you posted an incorrect or untruthful message online,
even if you don’t put your name on it, you have a responsibility to your audience and accountability to the
consequences of your own actions. You damage the level of trust and credibility you have built for yourself as well
as the trust of the readers in the information.
3. Be careful about sharing proprietary information like secret formulas, processes, methods used in production,
etc. - information that violates patient confidentiality or attorney-client privilege (Proprietary Information, n.d.).
Now, that almost every activity or transaction is done online, any information posted in this platform might just end
up being publicly shared. The information obtained from any client or patient if you were a doctor must not be
released or shared without permission from the person concerned. If, for example, a client posts something on his
Facebook or on your Facebook wall about his case or trial which is completely unethical, you, the lawyer, should
not leave it up on the wall. You have to remove it and immediately contact the client.
B. Using Materials from the Internet
1. Check credibility of information you get from the Internet. There are trusted sources that do not usually publish
until the information has been checked and verified. If you doubt the information you obtain, you must research
the data further. It is your duty to your reader or to your company to share or report data correctly.
2. Don’t use and own the information, posted by someone else, you obtain from the Internet. Since the Internet has
become a convenient platform for research, most individuals collect data from online sources. Although, it may
be considered as a public platform, it is only ethical for you to acknowledge the source/s for using written
materials, images, videos and others posted in an appropriate manner. It is acceptable to use these materials for
the purpose of criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching and learning and the like for as long as you observe
copyright law.

Good Luck 