ASSIGNMENT

ON
(CVE 725)

TOPIC
1. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN LATERITE AND LATERITIC SOIL
2. LIST OF LABORATORY ANALYSIS ON LATERITE

PREPARED BY
ABDULRAUF ISMAIL BUSAYO
MATRIC PD2000019

POST GRADUATE DIPLOMA

YEAR TWO
FIRST SEMESTER (2021/2022 SESSION)

LADOKE AKINTOLA UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY,

OGBOMOSO, OYO STATE.

JANUARY 2023.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 TYPES OF LATERITE

CHAPTER TWO
2.0 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN LATERITE AND LATERITIC SOIL

2.1 ENVIRONMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS

2.2 FORMATION OF LATERITE SOIL

2.3 LATERITE SOIL PROFILE

2.4 DISTRIBUTION OF LATERITE SOILS

CHAPTER THREE
LABORATORY ANALYSIS ON LATERITE
3.0 GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION (GSD)

3.1 SPECIFIC GRAVITY (SG)

3.2 ATTERBERG LIMITS

3.3 PH VALUE

3.4 COMPACTION

3.5 UNCONFINED COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH (UCS)

3.6. UNCONSOLIDATED UNDRAINED (UU)

3.7 MICROSTRUCTURAL AND CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS

4.0 CONCLUSION

REFERENCES
 CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Laterite is a porous, indurated concretionary material which is usually red to reddish brown in

colour. The name ‘Laterite’ was derived from Latin word ‘Later’ which means ‘brick earth’. The

term was used by I.V. Dokuchaev in his first classification of soils in 1883. But now the term laterite

has become so unclear that it has lost practically all significance in science. Now the concept

‘laterite’ has been used to apply it not only to soils but to neo-formations of iron and soil stratum.

These neo-formations may be composed of quartz ferruginous concretions, laterite pans, blocks or

crevasses. Formations of this kind can be both ancient and recent.

1.1 TYPES OF LATERITES

There are three types of laterite

i) Wormhole Laterite.

ii) Pellet Laterite

iii) Soft Doughly Laterite

Wormhole Laterite is concretionary formation with an iron-rich matrix and worm-hole like

appearance.

Pellet Laterite is pellet shaped particles cemented by iron-oxide.

Soft doughly Laterite is formed by alternate melting & drying.

 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN LATERITE AND LATERITIC SOIL

Laterite is often confused with Lateritic soil. Lateritic soils are fine-grained materials than laterite.

An important physical difference between laterite and lateritic soil is that Laterite has a gravel

component but a Lateritic soil does not.

2.1 ENVIRONMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS

i)Climate : A prerequisite for the formation of a laterite or a latertic soil is a climate which is both

annual and monsoonal. The characteristics of climate are –long alternating wet and dry season with

short temperature between 20⁰ to 28⁰c, a rainfall about 200-900 cms. or more.

ii.) Hydrology: The fluctuation of ground water table in laterization process.

iii.) Landforms: Laterite soil is found only in matured terrain which is characterized by moderate to

heavy dissection. Breaks in slope, scarps, interfluves and flat hill tops are favorable for laterite

formation.

iv) Geology: The type of laterite form depends upon the type of rock bedding weathered and amount

of iron available. Laterite is formed from the iron-rich basic rocks and as basalt, granite & gneiss.

v) Soil – The surface soil above a laterite form usually hard uneven, highly leached, red to red brown

and has black glossy iron pillets scattered. The soil is well to moderately well-drained.

2.2 FORMATION OF LATERITE SOIL

The process of soil form take place in alkaline medium. The mineral silicates of the parent materials

are completely broken up and very little of clay is formed. If any clay mineral is formed, it is further

decomposed into silica and sesquioxides. The alkaline soil dissolves the silica and leaches out,

leaving the sesquioxides behind. As the alkaline earth bases are removed from the seat form, the

residual soil is acid in reaction. Vegetation is very profuse yet organic matter does not accumulate.

The decomposition of organic matter is rapid due to microbial activity brought about by high
precipitation and temperature. The organic matter content of this soil is rich. This process of soil

formation is known as laterization. The composition of the mineral part of the soil depends on the

drainage of the particular rock. Well drained rocks yield Gibbsite and in case of iron deposition,

Goethite. Weakly drained rocks yield Kaolinite as well as montmorillonite& mixed layered minerals.

In the upper stratum upto 1-4m, , the content of these minerals decreases and that of Kaolinite and

Goethite increases,, there is no gibbsite. All these testifies to the impot5ant role played by drainage

under tropical conditions of soil form, providing for soils with clay minerals of different

composition.

Dept. of Geography, GGGDC, Kolkata Page 3

2.3 LATERITE SOIL PROFILE

Crusts may usually form from zonal ferrolitic and ferritic soils which show distinct laterite horizons.

Aubert provides a profile of a deep Lateraite Soil in which five divisions are there with reference to

their variations with climate, parent material and site.

Layer (i)- Organic layers are usually thin and usually thicker on fine textured soils (<0.4 cms.) than

on sands (0.1m). Fallen branches and trunks quickly decompose and litter at rate of 1.3% per day.

This layer also have low humus content (1- 1.5%). Humus is moderately rich N, with C/N ratio of

10-16 decreasing to C3 in the mineral soil. Soluble colourless humus is formed by termites, aiding

aggregation, micro-organisms produce darker, less soluble inert humus.

Layer (ii)- The upper mineral horizons are greatly leached and greyish, erected and have some Fe

concretions. Under equatorial conditions or all illdrained plateau and peneplaimns on acid rocks the

upper layers are very light forming palled zones or grey latsoils. The red colour of Tropical Soils

need not indicate a high Iron content nor grey the lack of it . For Fe in hydrated form in yellow or

wet grey soils may the iron content of red soils. The degree of hydration is the cause of the colour

change.
Layer (iii)- It attains 10m. thickness. The BL1-2 horizons are most compact and rich in resistant

hydroxides. Usually red, they be yellow or achrons. The lower part Bl3 is most Kaolin rich, with

traces of clay sized quartz. Large quartz crystals collapse to fine powder on pressure. The Bl3 has

stable nutty structure with some Fe concretions.

Layer (iv)- It is moist, mottled (speckled) clay. If it is ever caused to dry out cellular laterite forms.

It is best developed in moist coastal low land on acid rocks and the mottled clay absent on drier &

poorly developed basic rocks.

Layer (v)- CR is the thickest acid rocks (<5m) It is the true parent material and has large pockets and

is porous. The original regolith stratum is visible, with concentric iron skins and pH is higher than in

other layers.

2.4 DISTRIBUTION OF LATERITE SOILS

Laterite soil occupy considerable tropical areas of Asia, Africa and South America.

True laterite soils cover on 5000 sq. miles in Sn. India. They elsewhere range from heavy loams to

clay. In Burma, laterite soils are also rare. Confined to intratropical to South Arakan 7 Tennaserium

& laterite soil profile is rare above 150m latitude. Other (width 50m clay) countries of Asia having

laterite soil are Malayasia and Indonesia.

In the Congo, recent tropical soils are related to active slopes around eroding in selber and sugar loaf

features. A classification in Ghana has gleys and peat as hydromorphic, mangalitic and podzolized

soils as intra-zonal soils. In the Ivory coast , latitudinal sequence of laterite is developed in Sudan

and Senegal. In Angola, laterite soils are rich in Kaolin and micaceous clays.

Laterite soils also occur in North Borneo and in Amazon lowlands of South Amewrica. Dartk latsols

occur in humid areas or on base rich rocks, red latsols in arid minerals and brown latsols in ash

basaltic terrain. Yellow forms are common in ill-drained areas, while dark clayey talpatele are

mangalitic.
 CHAPTER THREE

LABORATORY ANALYSIS ON LATERITE

3.0 GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION (GSD)

Grain size distribution is one of the main geotechnical parameters that helps practitioners to decide

on designing geotechnical infrastructures given the passing percentage of particles from sieve #200,

the lateritic soil is classified into two classes, including fine-grained and coarse-grained soil.

Previous studies have focused on coarse-grained [25, 35] and fine-grained lateritic soil [14, 30, 32–

34]. The percentage of particles smaller than the #200 sieve (69.6%) in the current research is more

than that used by [30], which was 56.71%. Regarding the passing percentage of particles from sieve

#200, the soil used in this study is classified as fine-grained soils similar to previous studies [30, 54].

The percentage of gravel, sand, silt and clay in a lateritic soil used by [34] has been found 9%, 44%,

32% and 15%, respectively, whereas, in the current study, the percentages of gravel, sand, silt, and

clay are 12.79, 17.5, 61.2, and 8.4, respectively.

The used soil in this study is classified as very high plastic silty sand symbolised as (MV) and (MH),

according to unified soil classification standard and British soil classification standard (BSCS),

respectively. Considering the BSCS standard, the soil used in this study is MV which is similar to the

soil used by [55].

Overall, Table 2 illustrates a comparison of the lateritic soil used in this study with the lateritic soils

investigated in the previous studies in terms of the grain size distribution (GSD) and soil

classification. Similarly, Figure 3 compares the particles size distribution (PSD) of the current study

with the results obtained by previous researchers.

In regard to Figure 3, the soil used in this study is a fine-grained lateritic soil similar to that used by

previous studies [34, 54, 56–60]. Contrary to the results obtained in this study, the results of research

carried out by [32, 61] revealed a coarse-grained lateritic soil, as seen in Figure 3.
Table 2. Comparison of GSD and soil classification of this research with previous studies
Figure 3. Particle size distribution curve

3.1 SPECIFIC GRAVITY (SG)

Specific gravity, a parameter used widely in calculations of geotechnical parameters such as void

ratio, degree of saturation, porosity, unit weight of soil, volumetric water content, and the likes [65],

is defined as the ratio of the density of soil solids to the density of distilled and de-aired water at

20°C [50]. To get a reliable specific gravity value thus, it is of great importance to ensure that there

is no entrapped air in the used sample [66].

For doing so, the procedures suggested by [50] have been followed precisely. The obtained result of

specific gravity (2.74) in this research is close to 2.75 achieved by [33, 36], whereas it is bigger than

2.69 presented by [58, 60, 67]. The relatively higher specific gravity (2.74) obtained is attributed to

low organic content and high per cent of fine particles (see Figure 3) of soil used in the current study

[65]. Overall, the specific gravity value revealed in the current study (2.74) for a particular fine-

grained lateritic soil is in the range of previously obtained results for lateritic soils, as seen in Table

3.
3.2 ATTERBERG LIMITS

The engineering behaviour of cohesive fine-grained soil is mainly dependent on the water content.

Considering the gravimetric water content, shrinkage limit (SL), plastic limit (PL), and liquid limit

(LL) are three thresholds representing the condition of the soil. The threshold between solid and

semisolid, semisolid and plastic, and plastic and liquid are specified by SL, PL, and LL, respectively

[72]. Of these parameters, PL and LL used commonly in civil engineering applications are of great

importance [73]. According to previous studies, the lateritic soils possess a liquid limit ranging from

16 to 82 and a plasticity index ranging from 10 to 49. Thus, this study's obtained LL, PL, and

Plasticity index (LL-PL) are 70.3%, 42%, and 28.3%, respectively, indicating that the results
achieved are within the range. The obtained results are relatively close to the results obtained by

[36], [67] for a fine-grained lateritic soil in Malaysia. Given the high LL and PI, similar to the results

present by [33], the soil used in this study is classified as high plasticity soil. Pore structure, soil

mineralogy, pore fluid chemistry, particle size distribution, and many more factors affect these limits

[74]. Therefore, the high plasticity condition of soil used in this study can be attributed to the high

fine content (passing content from #200seive=69.6%), as seen in Figure 3 and Table 3.

This fact is also consistent for the results obtained by [55] in which the LL, PL, PI are 79%, 30%,

and 49%, respectively, whereas the passing particles from the #200 sieve are 58%; indicating the

relationship of Atterberg limits with high fine content.

A general comparison of the current result with Atterberg limits of lateritic soils obtained by

previous studies is tabulated in Table 4. In regard to Table 4, the obtained results of Atterberg limits

are in the ranges determined by previous researchers. Figure 4 depicts the type of soil based on the

Casagrande plasticity chart. In regard to Figure 4, it is seen that lateritic soils are classified into MH,

CH, ML, and CL. However, the percentage of lateritic soil in the CL region is lower than in other

regions. Based on the twenty previous studies plotted in Figure 4, the percentage of soil in the MH

zone is 55% of the total percentage. Therefore, similar to previous major studies, the soil used in the

current study is also classified as MH soil, as shown with a red circle on the Casagrande plasticity

chart. Therefore, the soil used in the current study is not liquefiable.
Figure 4. Casagrande plasticity chart for lateritic soils 232

3.3 PH VALUE

To differentiate between acidity and alkalinity of a soil, understanding the soil's pH is necessary. The

soil is acidic, neutral, and alkaline when the pH value is smaller than 7, equal to 7, and greater than

7, respectively [75]. The initial consumption of lime (ICL) is found based on a pH value greater than

12.4, indicating the importance of pH in geotechnical engineering [76]. Moreover, the obtained

results by [77] revealed that the cemented soil deteriorates readily under acidic conditions (pH<7)

while the effect of an alkaline environment (pH>7) has not been considerable, indicating the

importance of pH value. Similar to the soil used by [60], the obtained pH result (pH=5.59) indicate

that the soil used in this study is acidic. Comparing the current pH result with previously obtained

results as tabulated in Table 5 shows that the lateritic soils are primarily acidic. Thus, the pH value of

lateritic soil should be increased to around 12.4 when the soil is stabilised with calcium-based

stabilisers such as cement and lime because the high pH value provides a desirable condition for

forming hydration products (CSH and CAH) [78].

Table 5. Comparison of pH value of lateritic soil in the current study with previous research

3.4 COMPACTION

The soil can be improved by using varying methods such as mechanical, biological, electroosmotic,

additives, and hydraulic techniques [80]. Understanding the compaction curve achieved from the lab

test is essential to check and control the desired compactness of stabilised soil in the field [81].

Further, to investigate the engineering behaviour of soil in the lab, the first necessary parameters to

be known are dry density and moisture content. Thus, standard compaction has been conducted in

the current study to obtain the optimum moisture content (OMC) and maximum dry density (MDD).

Based on the standard compaction test results, 28% and 1.39 g/cm3 were obtained for OMC and

MDD, respectively. Although the obtained result in this study is in the range of previous studies'

results, the OMC value in this research is lower, and the MDD value is higher than that acquired by

[33] in which the OMC and MDD were 34% and 1.33 g/cm3, respectively. The higher MDD in this

research is attributed to the lower water content because the water content along the compaction

energy affects the MDD [81]. Generally speaking, the obtained MDD and OMC for the lateritic soil

used in this research is in the range of previous results, as seen in Table 6. Furthermore, the MDD

and OMC results of the soil used in the current study are close to the results obtained by Rashid et al.

(2019) [60], as seen in Figure 5. In addition, considering Figure 5, generally, it can be concluded that

the MDD of a natural lateritic soil decreases with increasing moisture content [82].
Table 6. Comparison of compaction result with the results of previous studies Standard
Figure 5. Compaction result 267

3.5 UNCONFINED COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH (UCS)

The unconfined compressive strength was achieved equal to 200.75 kPa, which is less than the

results obtained by [33, 36, 67], and more than the results obtained by [34, 60]. Generally, the UCS

value of lateritic soil obtained in the current investigation is in the range of results of previous studies

as tabulated in Table 7. As seen in Figure 6, the UCS result of this study is close to the results of

research carried out by Rashid et al. (2021) [60]. In regard to Figure 6, the obtained UCS result

(1279.14kPa) for lateritic gravel by [61] is more than six times higher than that obtained in this

research (200.75kPa), indicating the higher UCS value of lateritic gravel over fined-grained lateritic

soil. The UCS value is directly related to compaction results such that the higher MDD and lower

OMC result in higher UCS. For instance, in the current study, the 200.7 kPa UCS has been achieved
with 1.39 g/cm3 MDD and 28% OMC, whereas the 1279.1 kPa UCS has been obtained with 2.21

g/cm3 MDD and 6.6% OMC. The lateritic soil possesses the colour of liver brown to rusty red [1]. In

light of this, the lateritic soil investigated in this study is reddish. Based on the low UCS value,

various methods need to improve the lateritic soil used for transportation infrastructures [83].
Table 7. Comparison of UCS with the results of previous studies
3.6. UNCONSOLIDATED UNDRAINED (UU)

In order to consider the effect of confining pressure on the mechanical soil properties, the

unconsolidated undrained evaluated according to the procedure suggested by [53]. Figure 7 presents

the stress-strain curve ((𝜎 − 𝜎 ) − 𝜀 ) 12𝑎 obtained for the natural lateritic soil. Given Figure 7, the

deviator stress increases with confining pressure owing to unsaturated conditions [85]. Given Figure

7, the deviator stress is 449.4 kPa, 529.3 kPa, and 674 kPa for 50, 100, and 200 kPa confining stress,

respectively, as stated by [86] that the soil strength increases with confining pressure. The (UU) test

can be conducted [84]. Therefore, soil shear strength in consolidated and undrained conditions has

been in Figure 6 and UU results in Figure 7, it is seen that the deviator stress (𝜎 − 𝜎 ) in UU triaxial

test is more than that 12 of in UCS test. The higher deviator stress in the UU condition is related to

the confining pressure and membrane, which are not used in UCS [85]. For instance, similar to the

results achieved by Liu et al. (2020) [87] for a lean clay (CL) sampled from a heavy railway

shoulder, the deviator stress increases with increasing confining pressure, as seen in Figure 8. Figure

9 depicts Mohr circles based on UU triaxial for 50 kPa, 100 kPa, and kPa deviator stress.

Concerning Figure 8, the total shear strength is found by using Equation 1 or 2.

𝜏 = 0.481𝜎 + 115.82 (1)

𝜏 = 𝜎 tan 25.69 + 115.82 (2)

Where 𝜏 and 𝜎 denote the total shear and normal stresses, respectively. The total shear strength

parameters, or total friction angle (∅) and undrained cohesion (Cu), are 25.69° and 115.82 kPa,

respectively, according to Equation 2.

According to UU triaxial experiment, [88] found the friction angle and cohesion of a lateritic soil

32.5° and 80 kPa, respectively; thus, indicating that the obtained friction angle in the current research

is greater, whereas the cohesion is smaller than that obtained by [88].

In regard to Figure 9, the shear strength envelope is not horizontal due to the unsaturated condition of

the specimens, i.e., the specimens were prepared using optimum water content leading to the 79%

degree of saturation. The results are supported by the previous investigations in which the shear

strength based on the UU test increased with the increase in suction [89, 90]. Moreover, the results

are consistent with previous results in which the deviator stress increased with increasing confining

pressure [91].

3.7 MICROSTRUCTURAL AND CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS

The microstructure and mineralogical composition of lateritic soils govern their geotechnical

properties. Thus, the FESEM and EDX experiments were carried out to explore the microstructure

and chemical elements of the soil [1].

The microstructure of the used lateritic soil at four magnifications is exhibited in Figure 10a-d. The

overall microstructure is seen in Figure 10a, whereas the particles' connection and the pores' shape

are seen in Figure 10b-d.

Regarding Figure 10, it is seen that the soil is packed in wedge-like inter-aggregate pores shape. The

soil particles are connected face to face, edge to edge, and face to edge shapes with each other, as

seen in Figure 10b-d. Thus, the obtained microstructure is termed matrix microstructure, in which the

particles are connected irregularly to each other [46].

Although the percentage of particles passed through the #200 sieve is 69.6% (see Figure 3), the fine

particles cannot be seen in Figure 10 because the aggregation of clay is formed in lateritic soil due to

the presence of sesquioxide and goethite minerals [92]. The aggregation of the soil particles forms a

rough surface, resulting in a well interlocking condition between soil aggregates. The obtained

microstructure results in the current research are consistent with previously researched papers [57,

68, 76, 92, 93].

Figure 10. FESEM results of natural lateritic soil a) 5k magnification b) 10k magnification c) 30k

magnification d)

50k magnification

The obtained result of the EDX experiment is illustrated in Figure 11. As seen in Figure 11, the

percentage of O, Al, Si, and Fe, K are 61.4%, 16.9%, 16.1%, 5.2%, and 0.4%, respectively. This
result is similar to the results obtained by [86]. Besides, the output of another study on lateritic gravel

exhibited the existence of other chemical elements (O, Al, Si, and Fe) found in the current study as

well, except K [94]. Unlike the results obtained by [29] in which the Fe was the most significant

chemical element, the Fe is the fourth highest concentrated chemical element in the current study.
4.0 CONCLUSION

The lateritic soil is widespread in tropical countries such as Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, Brazil,

Cameroon, Nigeria, and many more countries located close to the equator. The properties of lateritic

soil depend on the degree of laterization, the feature of parent rocks, weathering conditions, and the

like. Overall, the following conclusions can be

Drawn according to the results obtained in this study:

1. Generally, the lateritic soil is divided into coarse-grained and fine-grained based on particles size

distribution. The soil used in this study possesses 69.6% particles passed through the #200 sieve,

indicating the fine-grained soil. Moreover, the soil was classified as MH, MV, and A-7-5 according

to USCS, BSCS, and ASSHTO standards.

2. The specific gravity of lateritic soil used in this study has been 2.74. Although generally, this

value is in the range of previous research, the relatively high specific gravity in this study is

attributed to low organic content and high fine contents.

3. According to liquid limit (70.3%) and plasticity index (28.3%), the soil is classified as high

plasticity soil (Viz., non-liquefiable soil).

4. The pH value of the soil is equal to 5.59, indicating that the soil is acidic.

5. The MDD and OMC were determined equal to 1.39 g/cm3 and 28%, respectively. The relatively

higher MDD in the current research compared to the previous research is related to low OMC.
6. The UCS of the soil in this study is 200.75 kPa, indicating that it is in the range of studies in the

extant literature.

7. The unconsolidated undrained triaxial test results indicate increased deviator stress with the

increase in confining pressure. Moreover, the increased confining pressure results in increased

ductility. The total friction angle and the undrained cohesion have been obtained equal to 25.69° and

115.82 kPa, respectively.

8. The micrograph results indicated that the soil has a matrix microstructure in which the soil

particles are irregularly connected to each other.

9. The EDX result indicated that O, Al, Si and Fe are the primary chemical elements of the used

lateritic soil.

Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank UTM University for providing the lab

environment for testing.

Funding: This study received no external funding.

Declarations

Conflict of interest:The authors declare that they have no financial and non-financial conflict of

interests.
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GEOGRAPHY HONS. (1+1+1 SYSTEM) Module :6 ; UNIT : 1 ; TOPIC : 1.3 Prepared By Dr.

Rajashree Dasgupta Asst. Professor, Dept. of Geography Government Girls’ General Degree

College, Kolkata -23 Dept. of Geography, GGGDC, Kolkata Page 2