THE EFFECT OF BRAIN DRAIN

ON THE MANIFESTATION OF
INTERNATIONAL IDENTITY
LUKAS BENUS
4755 WORDS

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction ................................................................................................................ 3

Problem statement ..................................................................................................... 3

Methodology .............................................................................................................. 4

Critical Review ........................................................................................................... 5

Theoretical Background ............................................................................................. 6

Cultural Theories .................................................................................................... 6

International Identity ............................................................................................... 8

Research ................................................................................................................. 10

National Overview ................................................................................................ 10

Personal Experience ............................................................................................ 11

Results ..................................................................................................................... 13

Global Implications ............................................................................................... 13

Domestic Implications ........................................................................................... 14

Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 16

Bibliography ............................................................................................................. 17

Books ................................................................................................................... 18

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 INTRODUCTION

To have cultural background means being a part of a collective persona, which has
similarities across behavioural patterns among individuals living in a specific geographical or
historical context. Culture determines our view of the world throughout our upbringing, and it
shapes our perception of various aspects of life, such as religion, manners, or equality. It
shapes one’s personality through stories and rituals shared across family and friends and
determines one’s understanding of reality. But the barriers standing between various cultures
are smaller than ever before, which creates a higher level of cultural overlay and mixture. By
direct exploration of different cultures through tourism, foreign working or travelling, an
individual starts to develop a unique identity, from which a mixed culture is born, known as
international culture. International identity represents a set of life experiences surviving day
by day in a foreign country. This plethora of information is similar to the experience of others
who share the international identity. To understand what creates an international individual,
we must look to their roots and identify patterns which could determine the origin of this
unique cultural phenomenon.

PROBLEM STATEMENT

The main topic of this report is international culture and its formation. The modern
world is interconnected and people from various cultures are colliding in workplaces, schools,
and even stores or gyms. Migration of populations has increased in the last 2 decades and
both Europe and North America are as multicultural as ever before. Having an international
persona and international mindset is a crucial aspect of personality in the modern world. But
what exactly is an international identity and how can one create it. One of the major
contributors to this phenomenon is brain drain. As young students are still shaping their
overview and understanding of the world, the process of internationalization can be beneficial
for them. Thus, the question of this report is:

What are the cultural aspects of countries with high levels of brain drain which
contribute to the formation of international identity?

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 To help the reader understand the topic of the report and to achieve smoother flow of
the report I have decided to pose additional questions, which will help shape the framework
of my work. These questions are:

What can be understood as culture?

What can be defined as international culture?

What are the benefits and drawbacks of developing an international persona?

Are there any benefits of brain drain for the country of its origin?

METHODOLOGY

This report will consist of three parts – initial theoretical analysis focused on traditional
cultural studies, the research part describing connections between the brain drain and the
internationalization, and the final part discussing the major findings of the report in depth.

Initial analysis will include descriptions of traditional cultural theories of Hofstede,

Trompenaars and Lewis. These theories will function as initial framework of the analysis part
and will give the reader the basic understanding of culture and its impacts on human
personality. Following the theories will be the theoretical understanding of international
identity presented through the research of Madeline Willett in South Africa. This part is to
give the reader basic understanding of topics the later parts of the report will touch upon and
drain from.

The research part will include the description of my findings and the methodology
behind it. The major cultural theory from the analysis part will be used to determine the
cultural connections between countries with high brain drain. Those will be later presented
in the discussion part. There will also be a small part dedicated to my own experience with
internationalization and aspects of international personality.

To sum up the report, the major findings will be presented. Last part will function as
summary of findings in the report and its empirical and theoretical relevance. The results of
the research will be presented and collaborated on, as what are the outcomes of the report.

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 CRITICAL REVIEW

The theories used throughout the report include well acclaimed theories of cultural
scholars (Hofstede, Lewis, Trompenaars) as well as some smaller theories specific to the
topic of international identity. As with any academical literature, there are some critical points
that have to be mentioned to set a realistic view on the theories used. I would like to focus
primarily on Hofstede’s study, as it is the major cultural study used throughout this report. I
would also like to mention self-criticism of Madeline Willett, who herself brought some critical
points in her research as to why her research was not as transparent as it was supposed to
be.

Hofstede’s research was criticized by several cultural scholars. Dr. Brendan

McSweeney’s critique is the most well-known, as he was one of the first who put an objective
view on in time respectable study. McSweeney claims, that Hofstede’s research subjects,
the IBM managers, and employees, present an unreliable representation of the population
in culture and that they have a small connection to the culture they come from. Their position
at IBM functioned as some sort of programing and thus their answers to the survey might
not be as reliable. Another scholar, Moira E. Hanna, have brought out the points of
Hofstede’s personal stereotyping and incorrect assumptions set before the research was
conducted. Hanna derives from McSweeney’s criticism and claims that Hofstede’s own
criticism in his book Culture’s Consequences was not valid enough and that Hofstede himself
might have become the prey to his own doubts.

To the second study used heavily in the following report, Willett’s research on cultural
adaptation among American students in South Africa. The author herself states some of the
disclamations and flaws not considered before the research was conducted. The study
included a group of exchange students, who were all female. Such choice of research
subjects can create biases and is not objective in nature. The short length of the study also
indicates its unreliability to create valid conclusions which would be academically approved.
Lastly, the study cultures shared language, thus creating positive environment for the
subjects to integrate into the new culture with relative ease. The difficulty of overcoming

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language barriers would create much more challenging and thus more reliable environment
for the study.

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

CULTURAL THEORIES

Cultural understanding has been a topic of many scholars in last 50 years. With higher
level of cultural overlapping, the differences are much more visible and create chaos and
misunderstandings more often than before. Scholars and researchers have been collecting
data about various cultures and comparing them together to create a framework through
which the cultures and countries can be compared. By seeing similarities and differences, it
gives us a tool to become more respectable and understanding. Those tools and frameworks
are core theories of cultural background and are important to present cultural awareness. In
following paragraphs, I will touch upon some of the most renowned theories and their
frameworks to describe the academical understanding of cultures as we have now.

Defined by Hofstede as “software of the mind”, the earliest extensive research of

cultures has been conducted by Geert Hofstede in mid-20th century and was published in his
book Culture’s Consequences in 1980. The basis of the study was drawn from the extensive
database of IBM and its records from workplaces across the globe. Hofstede utilized this
data to identify similarities across individuals and managers according to their origin and
compare them with others. This led to creation of Hofstede’s 5-dimensional cultural
framework, which describes 5 core dimensions to which cultures are compared to. This
framework was later extended to 6 dimensions, by involving an aspect known as subjective
well-being, which is connected to eastern cultures and religions. Despite many critiques and
doubts surrounding Hofstede’s research (namely Brendan McSweeney and Sean McMinn)
Hofstede’s framework has been used by researchers, managers, and other individuals
across the world. This framework is the basic tool for anyone who wants to understand the
basic intricacies and differences of national cultures.

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 After identification of core differences across cultures, scholars have turned slightly to
finding the cultural aspects in practical world. Cultural difference has been having the highest
impact on international business, which in process of their growth entered new countries and
were in demand of regional workforce. Unaware of challenges involved, many companies
have been having issues with social transparency and fairness throughout the years. (Press,
2019) Ability to utilize regional human resources is the key to companies’ success. The
scholar and cultural researcher Fons Trompenaars has presented a new model to help
companies and their managers to have better understanding of their employees and team
members. His 7D model, presented in his book Riding the Waves of Cultures, focuses on
overcoming cultural biases engraved in an individual by comparing ones’ culture on 7
dimensions. These dimensions are in some sense similar to Hofstede’s framework, but their
presentation is different. Trompenaars presents cultural differences through examples of
how these differences affect corporate life. There are tips and recommendations for
managers to motivate their employees according to which dimension they lean to. This
practical utilization of cultural knowledge is what is required by managers in modern
corporate world and Trompenaars theory is the right tool to access such knowledge.

While previous two frameworks involved dimensions upon which various cultures,
countries, or individuals are place on, the last theory introduces a new model, on which
various countries are placed on a presented in comparison with others. Richard Lewis’s
theory presented in his book When Cultures Collide can be described as delicate take on
cultural differences through eyes of an individual who has explored majority of them. The
book describes differences among cultures through in-debt analysis of over 60 countries. It
presents these differences through 3-dimensional model, a sort of a triangle on which
different countries are located on. Unique connections and cultural similarities can be seen
through the model, and it gives the reader the feeling of familiarity with their own culture as
well as some of the cliches known about other countries. Lewis’ model is a refined tool of
extended and detailed worldwide knowledge, which can give the reader a feeling of home
which has been unknown for a long time. It is a great tool for anyone deeply involved in

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working in international circles, helping them communicate with others in more respectable
way.

INTERNATIONAL IDENTITY

The definition of word international by Cambridge Dictionary is – involving more than

one country. Being an international individual means having an identity which is not
connected to a specific country or culture. Many individuals who identify themselves as
international are more open-minded, adventurous, empathic, and respectful. The topic of
international identity has not been thoroughly studied by scholars, as the topic has been
introduced only in later 20th century. In this part of the report, I would like to introduce 3
aspects of human identity which have close connection to international identity and its
formation. Later on, I would like to present findings of Madeline Willett and her study on
exchange students. This study brings some interesting insights on international personality
and its early formation.

An international identity can be defined as having those aspects of a person’s sense

of self that transcend national boundaries. (Arrow, H. and Sundberg, N.D., 2004) This sense
can be formed through one of three major ways, which are based upon theory of Henry A.
Murray and Clyde Kluckhohn, who claim that each man is in some senses like all other, some
other, or no other. The first aspect forming ones’ international identity is based on aspect
known as global identity. This personal identification draws from our shared origin of being
a human, what connects us together as the dominant species on the planet. With higher
level of compassion and exposure to differences across equality, one can develop this global
identity becoming more respectful and empathetic to other human beings. The second form
of identity which crosses national boundaries is created through social identification
connected to specific group or region. All people across the globe identify with some social
circle according to their beliefs, culture, or background. In Europe for example, many
individuals identify as being European even though their origin is in cold Nordish mountains
or warm Italian coasts. The connection to a social identity gives one the perception of
understanding this social identity and connect with it on personal level. It can also manifest

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from negative perception of different social group – the formation of Ku Klux Klan stands
upon shared hatred of Afro-American minority in the USA. Social identification can be a major
determinator of international identity. Lastly, the final aspect forming international identity
forms from personal connections to individuals or places from different geographical
locations. Our social connections can be the key to unlocking international identity as our
perception and experience is wider than the others’. Finding the familiarity and connection
with a place abroad can have similar effect on us. These are the three major ways of
developing international identity.

To delve even deeper into understanding of international identity, I have decided to

present findings of Madeline Willett and her short observation and research on group of
American exchange students in South Africa. According to Willett’s research, the integration
process of students followed the theories described in previous paragraph. Through
quickened friendship formation and high initiative to forming social bonds, students have
quickly integrated into local culture and became familiar with people and places. This
expanded their emotional connection with the host country and evoked sense of familiarity
and even love. Consequently, the observation of local rituals gave students opportunity to
reflect on their own culture. Some students experienced deeper national integrity with their
domestic culture while others became much more critical and humbler of it. Equal distribution
of outcome suggests that individual personality has an impact on whether a person forms
higher national pride. Lastly, all the participants reported increased global identity and higher
feeling of belonging. This suggests spending time abroad awakens our natural sense of
being of a human species. Despite the facts presented in the research it has some limitations
to it. The subjects of the research were inclusively female, the research was short, and the
host country shared the language with the origin country. Nevertheless, this study gives basic
introduction to formation of international identity and to some of its benefits.

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 RESEARCH

NATIONAL OVERVIEW

Analysis provided the basis of cultural theories upon which the following part will be
based on. I have decided to find the correlation between cultural dimensions described by
Hofstede and countries with the highest levels of brain drain. Brain drain is a national trend
of young and educated people leaving their home country to find the better opportunities in
foreign countries. I would like to see whether there is a cultural predisposition to becoming
an international individual and whether it does have any connection to the formation of
international identity mentioned in previous part (increased national integrity, higher feeling
of belongingness, increased social activity). The countries were chosen from 4 major sectors
– Europe, Asia, Africa, and America – one country for each sector to create a diversity across
the sample. I used the data provided by the Global Economy website, specifically the Human
flight and brain drain index to choose 4 countries by each sector. Criteria of choice was
primarily country’s political stability, its overall population, and the measure itself (picking
countries with similar results. The choice was also restricted to Hofstede’s database of
countries, as some of the smaller countries are not present in the database. After evaluating
all the criteria and restrictions I have decided for Malawi, Honduras, Serbia, and Sri Lanka
to be my 4 countries to compare. The indicators for choice of these countries can be seen in
Appendices 1-3. When comparing these four countries by Hofstede’s 6-dimensional tool
(Appendix 4) we can see similarities in two of them – Power Distance and Individualism. In
all four countries, Power Distance is high (around 80 out of 100) while Individualism is low
(around 30 out of 100). This indicates that countries with hierarchical distribution of power
and high collectivism are more likely to develop young individuals who will leave the country
to look for better opportunities and thus develop international identity quicker. To further
prove the findings of this hypothesis, I have decided to choose 4 countries on the other side
of the Human flight and brain drain index (Canada, Australia, Sweden, and Singapore) and
compare them on Hofstede’s 6-dimensional cultural tool. The results can be seen in

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Appendix 5. As seen in the appendix, 3 out of four countries have low Power Distance and
high Individualism.

PERSONAL EXPERIENCE

As an international student who has spent his last 3 years studying in foreign country
on an international university, I do consider myself an international individual. Throughout
the years I have been seeing a recuring patterns, not only on myself but also among my
friends and classmates. At the beginning, there was a high level of socialization from all the
students in my class. We were trying to create bonds and form friendships, which could help
us get through the studies in shared effort. This initial period was mostly filled with positive
experiences, but as the time progressed, the social activity has declined, and the period of
realization has begun. Many people have established their circles of friends and started to
integrate into host culture. The social period was slowly changing into assimilation period,
during which I and my classmates were trying to establish our role in the new country. This
was abruptly disrupted by Covid-19 pandemic, which has stopped my international presence
and forced me to return back home. As I continued my studies, I have returned to Denmark
together with some of my previous classmates and I can see patterns I have spoken about
before, which seemed to be recurring throughout the years and classes. I will discuss some
of them:

New perception of national integrity – as Slovakia did not provide necessary

benefits and requirements for my future standards, I have decided to look for a better option.
Low life standard, high distrust and jealousy among people, high corruption and old
educational system were some of the decision factors for my departure. I did not like my
home country and wanted to leave it to explore better opportunities elsewhere, a share
motivation among young students studying abroad. Surprisingly enough, this perception has
changed somewhat to the opposite, as with longer time abroad I realized some of the
national treasures of Slovakia and its people. This change in perception was a recurring
factor in my friend cycles with difference in intensity. International experience evokes national
understanding, either positive or negative, which creates a sense of national belonginess

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and gives the chance to see what was overlooked before. As for someone who was doomed
to spend a week on deserted island to find the importance of basic human necessities as a
treasure, similar behavioural pattern forms in an international individual who leaves the
country to seek better opportunities.

Increased compassion towards different people – I have always had a natural

sense of connection to human species, but my years abroad have deepened this aspect
even more. As you become surrounded by individuals of different cultures, who are in the
similar position as you, there is higher level of positive interactions and experiences.
International students are often undergoing similar problems and are keen to help with the
ones they have overcome. Such environment is positively influencing ones’ behaviour of
other humans around them and it gives the feeling that humanity is not as lost as it seemed
to be back at home. This transformative nature of international interactions has huge effect
on ones’ perception of human species, and it creates natural compassion and sense of pride
to be one of these compassionate individuals. Many of my friends, including me, have
expressed interest in humanitarian or voluntary work.

Grouping with individuals from the same culture – this might be an aspect of
collectivist origin, but many of the students have eventually surrounded themselves with the
people of the same or similar culture. Majority of my friends are either Slovak, Czech or
Polish, with few exceptions of individuals from countries with high Individualism dimension.
This is an interesting example of how some of the aspects of domestic culture manifest does
the environment allow it.

Shared connection with other international individuals – identifying as an

international and being present in international circles create large social connection. When
I returned back home, there was a sense of hostility unless I met with someone who had
experienced similar exposure to international situations. As the struggles and tragedies of
international students are often similar across different countries, it is quite easy to strike the
conversation or find an understanding with someone who has the sense of such experience.
This connection is a unique treat, and it is diminishing in time, as I am surrounding myself
with more international individuals than people with no foreign experience.

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 RESULTS

GLOBAL IMPLICATIONS

The observation of cultural similarities between countries with high level of brain drain
showcased two major findings – these countries are according to the Hofstede’s 6-
dimensions high on Power Distance and low on Individualism. Essentially, this indicates, that
this combination awakens drive for exploration outside of the domestic culture to seek
different opportunities in different cultures. As brain drain is specifically involving young
individuals who in many cases have higher education, it showcases country’s inability to
keep those individuals inside their country. The combination of high power distance and low
individualism can be an explanation of this phenomenon. Power distance is an indicator of
hierarchical culture, in which individuals are distributed across social and corporate level
according to their power and position in the society. Thus, young people have difficulties to
climb the corporate ladder if they are against the hierarchy, as there are not many options
for them to assert their abilities. This is even more enforced by low Individualism, as cultures
scoring low on this matric tent to have collective mindset and strong sense of communal
cooperation. For individuals who are inertly seeking success, such an environment can stand
in the way of their personal growth. Young and ambitious students, who might have slightly
higher IQ than average, need independence and opportunity to fully utilize their talents. In
hierarchical and collectivist culture this is hard to achieve without outside help of an element
of being born into position of power. But how does it connect to the formation of international
identity?

As discussed in the part of international identity and how does it form, there are three
main aspects which stand behind this manifestation – global identity, social grouping, and
material affection. While anyone can form international identity by meeting with one of those
aspects, they are especially effective in case of individuals coming from cultures described
above. An individual growing up in a culture with high power distance and high collectivism
develops close connection to their social surroundings. By leaving country through the
process of brain drain, this individual comes into contact with one or all of the aspects and
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his cultural predispositions give him natural connection to them. If you have been taught from
childhood to give to the community, help your neighbor and trust your family, the aspect of
global identity develops much quicker and more naturally. Therefore, the impact of your
domestic culture not only affects the intensity to which your international identity manifests
when you leave it, it is also a predisposition to how quickly and effectively you can develop
it.

In summary, brain drain is considered a negative effect for country, as it leads into
decreased nationwide innovation, natality, and political change. But this effect forms
naturally outside of country’s culture. Power distance and individuality are two major
indicators which correspondent to higher level of brain drain and thus are cultural
predispositions to such effect. While it is negative in nationwide sense, it is positive for the
individuals themselves. For those who decide to leave the country for better opportunities,
their cultural heritage will function as a bridge to international environment, and it will
accelerate the process of international transformation. Globally, with higher level of brain
drain from countries with high power distance and low individualism indicators will essentially
create population of international individuals, who identify as members of wider social
organizations, have network of personal connections across the globe, and are more
compassionate to other members of human species.

DOMESTIC IMPLICATIONS

Willett’s study on group of exchange students in a foreign country showed some of

the most basic implications of such an experience. The study uncovers and proves some of
the personality traits that can be formed when exploring a new culture for the first time.
Connecting it to my own personal experience, the aspect of higher compassion, national
integrity to either domestic or foreign culture, and the sense of belonginess to a human race
are in fact processes that you go through when living in a foreign culture. Me and my friends
have experienced and developed this skills and attributes in span of almost 4 years and it is
one of the shared aspects of international students that are discussed in various gatherings.
What interests me are not the similarities, but the differences. While me and my friends,

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similarly, to exchange students from Willett’s study, have all become more compassionate
about people from different cultures, our view on our domestic culture differs in many senses.
Some international students have developed home sickness and during studies returned
back to their homes. Others have integrated into new culture and created their own social
groups, becoming part of the new culture. For me personally, my opinion about both cultures,
my original and the one I study at, have not changed much, they effect on me have just
become clearer. This differences indicate that sense of national integrity does not become
stronger through process of internationalization, it only manifests in different ways according
to individual’s personality. Those who start missing their domestic community or feel
threatened by the lack of hierarchy often return to their domestic culture, while those who
enforce their individualism and aspiration for higher social position stay or explore further.
Despite the outcome, this internationalization has positive effect on original culture of the
individual, specifically in long-term.

If the individual decides to return back to his home, he brings new insights and views
with him. This return is sometimes called the opposite of brain drain, as it brings the
intelligence back to the country from whence it once left. Such process can be compared to
pillaging of Vikings in ancient times, who returned with treasure back to Scandinavia and
nurtured the lands and their offspring with better opportunities. This long-term effect of brain
drain is obviously positive for the original culture, as the individuals become much more
engraved into it, and they will value the collective nature of it while trying to establish their
own position in socio-political hierarchy. As for those who stay abroad, they will still keep
their domestic connections, as they did not forget to give back to their family as it once helped
them grow. These individuals often visit the original culture with touristic goals, as to show
their home to the international community of friends they have created. They also function
as gateways for other young individuals who are seeking opportunities abroad, who will
eventually fall on one of the two sides of the spectrum and continue with the cycle.
Essentially, whatever is the outcome of internationalization, it brings benefits to both cultures
who interact with it, either directly through taxes and innovation, or indirectly through financial
support and networking.

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 CONCLUSION

International identity is a unique personality aspect which can be formed through

interaction with other cultures. As one of the major reasons for internationalization, brain
drain has a huge impact on manifestation of international identity across individuals all over
the world. The benefits of such identity can be expressed in both short-term and long-term
settings and are advantageous for all parties involved. Cultures with high level of power
distance and low level of individualism are affected by the brain drain the most and thus are
also the highest contributors to international society. The findings of the report suggest that
some combinations of cultural dimensions can lead into unique cultural paradoxes. To
understand those paradoxes, we must look into historical data and personal experiences of
the individuals, who are part of these unique cultural groups. Communication, compassion,
and respect can lay the bricks of better future, filled with understanding of our differences,
especially for international individuals, who share these qualities naturally.

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 BOOKS

HOFSTEDE, G. (2001). Culture's consequences: comparing values, behaviors,

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HOFSTEDE, G., & HOFSTEDE, G. J. (2005). Cultures and organizations: software of

the mind. New York, McGraw-Hill.

TROMPENAARS, A., & HAMPDEN-TURNER, C. (1998). Riding the waves of culture:

understanding cultural diversity in global business. New York, McGraw Hill.

LEWIS, R. D. (1996). When cultures collide: managing successfully across cultures.

London, N. Brealey Pub.

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